INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEM MODULE

WEEK 5

Republic of the Philippines

POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE OF BOTOLAN
(Formerly Botolan Community College)
Botolan, Zambales
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.pcb2009.net

CHAPTER 5
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF DAOIC RELIGIONS: CONFUCIANISM, SHINTOISM, AND TAOISM
Prepared by Rodrick S. Ramos, LPT

ESSENTIAL UNDERSTANDING
To understand that Confucianism, Daoism, and Shintoism are Daoic religions that have similarities in viewing nature, ancestors,
and the importance of self-cultivation to achieve a harmonious society.
ESSENTIAL QUESTION
1. Why are Confucianism, Daoism, and Shintoism regarded as Daoic religions?

T he three Daoic religions—Confucianism, Daoism, and Shintoism—all originated from East Asia, thus
they are also called East Asian religions.
Confucianism and Daoism both came from China during the Warring States Period (Zhou dynasty) while
Shintoism, which is also regarded as an “indigenous religion,” thus it is hard to trace its origins, came from
Japan. Let us now take a look at the similarities and differences among the three religions in terms of origin,
morality, purpose, destiny, and views on women.
The character below shows the Chinese symbol for Dao, which literally means “The Way.” It is impossible
to describe the Dao with words; they can only give us clues that will help us get a glimpse of what the Dao
is. It is often described as the life force, the essence, the energy, the flow of the universe. In this lesson, we
will compare the three Daoic religions—Confucianism, Doaism, and Shintoism—by emphasizing their
uniqueness and similarities, and by showing that despite the differences in certain beliefs and practices, they
share common traits, especially with regard to how they view nature and humanity’s relationship with it.

ORIGIN
Confucianism may have started during the time of Kung Fuzi, but his ideas became popular only after his death, with the initiatives
of Mengzi, and later of Xunzi, who were among those who contributed their own ideas to Confucianism on concepts such as
human nature, morality, politics and government. It initially started as a philosophy that would provide a solution to China’s chaotic
society during the Zhou dynasty, but later it became a religion as well, although its main contribution to China lies in its ethical and
moral dimensions.
However, it was not until the reign of the Han dynasty during the 3rd century B.C.E. that Confucianism secured a very significant
place in Chinese society. With the initiative of Dong Zhongshu, Confucianism was adopted by the Han dynasty as an instrument for
its political legitimacy. Confucian thought became mandatory for it served as the basis for civil service examinations, hence those
who wanted to serve in the government should be wellversed with Confucianism, and in effect Confucianism became the official
religion/philosophy of the state. “Without Kongzi, there would be no Confucianism; but without Dong, there would be no
Confucianism as it has been known for the past 2,000 years.” Thus, when Confucianism was adopted by the Han dynasty, it
served as the basis not only of China’s political and ethical system; but also of China’s social system as well.
Just like Confucianism, Daoism also started in China at almost the same period when Confucianism developed. Like Confucianism,
it was also meant to offer solutions to China’s social upheavals during the time. Laozi, who is considered as Daoism’s prominent
philosopher, authored Daoism’s sacred scripture, the Dao De Jing (believed by some as a reaction to Confucianism). While
Confucianism accepted the importance of rituals and ancestor worship for the achievement of harmony between heaven and earth,
Daoism believed that nature should be allowed to take its natural course for the attainment of social order. Confucianism and
Daoism may have flourished at the same period and may have faced the same obstacles in society, but their solutions for the

RAMOS, LPT 2020 POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE OF BOTOLAN

(PCB) SY 2019-2020
INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEM MODULE
WEEK 5

achievement of harmony between heaven and earth differ, with Confucianism emphasizing the need for a strict ethical control and
with Daoism advocating the “go with the flow” attitude.
While Confucianism became extremely relevant in Chinese society when it was adopted by the Han dynasty, Daoism’s importance
began upon the collection of writings of unknown origin during the 3rd or 4th centuries B.C.E. This collection of writings became
known as the Dao De Jing, a compilation of several hundred years of writings about the Dao (the way) and De (virtue). Later it was
attributed to Laozi, who was among those, together with Kung Fuzi and other scholars, who participated in the “hundred schools”
debates during the Warring States period. Zhuangzi was another major contributor to Daoism by writing a book which also tackled
the Dao. Despite the existence of these sacred scriptures in the said period, it took many centuries before Daoism would secure its
rightful place in China’s religious and philosophical life.
Shintoism, which originated from Japan, is considered an animistic folk religion and its origin is hard to trace, but what is clear is
that it started as an indigenous religion with utmost importance given to spirits (or kami) in nature. Later it was used by the imperial
family to legitimize their rule and it was even declared as a state religion for a long time. It emphasized the core values of family,
tradition, nature, ancestors, purity, and ritual practices. With the spread of Buddhism in Japan, it became linked with the new
religion; thus, it is very common for many Shintoists to identify themselves as Buddhists as well. Shintoism is believed to have
provided the people with their daily needs while Buddhism takes care of the afterlife.
MORALITY
In Confucianism, the concept of morality is based on loyalty to one’s superiors and elders, parents, and respect for others. Proper
ritual observance, including rituals performed for the ancestors, is also considered moral action, as well as self-cultivation through
wisdom and trustworthiness. Doing the right thing at all times is also considered meritorious.
Loyalty is also translated as “regard for others” (zhong), specifically loyalty to one’s superior but also includes respect to one’s
equals and subordinates. The importance of self-reflection is also emphasized, with the Golden Rule as the guiding principle, “Do
not do unto others what you do not want others do unto you.” From this self-reflection comes the need to express concern for
others, and eventually the attainment of social order. From self-reflection comes self-cultivation, or the need to cultivate oneself
through wisdom. Maximizing ren (concern for others) by performing the necessary rituals (li) would lead to de (virtue) and would
produce the ideal person according to Confucianism. The cultivation of oneself would eventually lead not only to personal
cultivation but to social and even cosmic cultivation as well.
While Confucianism had very few moral guidelines, Daoism initially advocated the idea that society should not be regulated with
morality, but should be allowed to exist according to the natural laws. Doing so would lead to virtuous behavior. Later on, Daoist
masters advocated the idea that one should perform good deeds that would be known only to the gods. Gradually, they started to
regulate morality by confessing one’s sins and ask for forgiveness from the gods. Austerity and self-discipline were also
emphasized, until in the 4th century C.E., the text containing 180 moral guidelines appeared, which listed moral guidelines
attributed to Laozi and were clearly influenced by Buddhism. Included in the guidelines were the prohibition on stealing, adultery,
abortion, murder, intoxication, and overindulgence. More developed moral guidelines appeared in the 5th century with the
introduction of the Lingbao scriptures, which was heavily influenced by Buddhism. Some of its important guidelines were the
prohibitions against killing, lying, stealing, intoxication, immoral deeds and actions, as well as maintaining good relationship with
one’s family members (even with the dead ancestors), committing good deeds, helping the less fortunate, and avoiding thoughts of
revenge.
GUIDE QUESTION
How similar and different is the concept of morality for the three Daoic religions?
Unlike other religions, Shinto morality is not based on definite standards of right and wrong. Since Shintoism is focused on
following the will of the kami or spirits, anything that is not in accordance with the will of the kami is considered bad. Shintoism has
provided the Japanese with a way of life that revolves around the worship of the kami, while Confucianism from China provided
them with ethics. Hence, Shinto morality is based on having purity not only in the physical sense but also in a spiritual and moral
sense. Human nature is basically good according to Shintoism, hence evil comes from external forces. And when people let evil
guide their actions, they bring upon themselves impurities and sin which need to be cleansed through rituals. Impurities also disrupt
the flow of life and the blessings from the kami that is why purification rituals are needed to be able to return to the natural state of
cleanliness not only of the people but of the universe as a whole. In general, things which are considered bad in Shintoism involve
disrupting the social order, the natural world, the harmony of the world.

RAMOS, LPT 2020 POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE OF BOTOLAN

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INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEM MODULE
WEEK 5

PURPOSE
The three Daoic religions basically share the same view regarding the purpose of existence. Confucianism and Daoism both
espouse the importance of selfcultivation for the benefit of all while Shintoism emphasizes the need to return to the original state of
nature by observing purity in everyday life.
Confucianism advocates the idea that the ultimate goal of everyone should be to reach one’s highest potential as a person, and
this can be achieved through self-cultivation. To become virtuous, one should be mindful of all the senses (sight, hearing, speech,
and action) and make sure that every action, thought, and feeling should be in accordance with li (ritual). For Kung Fuzi, the ideal
person is called a junzi, a person who exemplifies the quality of ren or concern for fellow human beings and manifests the quality of
yi or righteousness. Mengzi shares the same belief: that human nature is basically good but still needs cultivation through the
proper observance of li (ritual) and meditative practices to ensure the smooth flow of the qi (vital energy). He also believed that
what makes us human is our feeling of sympathy for others’ suffering, but what makes us virtuous is our cultivation of this inner
potential. While Xunzi believed otherwise—that human nature is essentially bad—he also believed that this can be reformed
through self-cultivation and also through the proper observance of li or rituals, an idea also espoused by Kung Fuzi and Mengzi.
As for Daoism, the purpose of existence is to ensure that order and harmony are maintained by being aligned with nature. Thus,
like in Confucianism, selfcultivation is also needed because it is the only way to return to the natural state of existence. The goal of
every person is to make the body capable of reacting in a natural and spontaneous way. Doing physical exercises may help the
body achieve that goal. Since spontaneity is meant only for the immortals, common people should instead aim for a long and
healthy life. Activities such as gymnastics, breathing exercises, dietary restrictions, drinking talisman water, and certain sexual
practices can help achieve longevity and body wellness. It is also important to make sure that there is proper alignment or balance
within the body, otherwise illness will occur. That is why acupuncture is very important among the Chinese, for it helps adjust the
flow of qi and tends to balance yin and yang. They also believe that the body is inhabited by the gods, and that organs are
governed by the gods, that is why it is necessary to perform the necessary rituals that are meant to welcome the gods to enter the
body. Daoists also believe that one way to become a mortal is by merging the yin and yang within, leading to the creation of an
embryo even among males (Daoists believe that Laozi was able to achieve this). Thus, in Daoism, to ensure that the body
functions well is very important since what happens to the body is reflected outside, so that the purpose of existence is to cultivate
the self in the physical, mental, spiritual, and emotional aspects so that harmony and order will prevail.
Shinto shares with Daoism the belief that the natural state of existence should be maintained. While Daoism and Confucianism
both emphasized the importance of self-cultivation to achieve this goal, Shintoism emphasized the importance of purification rituals
to maintain the natural state of existence. Hence, avoidance of pollution or anything that they consider impure (death, blood, or
disease) is seen as a way to maintain purity. Pollution is inevitable but can be washed away by misogi or purification rituals. In
Shintoism, maintaining the pure and natural state of existence is the purpose of life, and one should start with oneself.
DESTINY
For Confucianism, reality has two spheres: the inner sphere and the outer sphere. Destiny (or ming) is considered the outer reality
which is outside the control and concern of people. Self-cultivation should be the goal of everyone, thus the focus should be on the
inner sphere—the cultivation of oneself— for what happens inside reflects what happens outside. A descriptive interpretation of
ming sees destiny as a distant force beyond human control. Meanwhile, a normative interpretation of ming sees destiny as
basically the same with the concept of yi (duty): everything is being willed by heaven and people should follow the will of heaven
not out of fate but as a way of performing the duties assigned to them as individuals (Slingerland 1996).
Among all Daoic religions, Daoism is often criticized for espousing a fatalistic attitude in life, with emphasis on wu wei, often
translated as “non-doing” or “non-action.” This is interpreted by critics as a proof that Daoism encourages people to live by leaving
everything to the universe and not taking action at all. An analysis of the Daoist concept of destiny, however, would reveal that just
like in Confucianism, “non-action” does not mean not taking any action at all. Instead, self-cultivation is also needed so that one
may develop oneself to the extent that one’s actions are naturally in accordance with the flow of the universe. Thus, destiny or fate
can only be achieved when one has cultivated oneself to the highest potential that one’s actions go effortlessly with the way of the
universe.
Shintoism advocates the idea that every person has a destiny to follow, a mission to fulfill which will make one’s life worthwhile.
However, not everyone is able to realize his or her destiny or mission, for it is impossible to discover destiny when one has lost
natural purity. Thus, misogi or purification is important to regain the natural purity one once had. Only when one is truly purified can
one discover his or her mission in life. Shintoism believes that humanity’s natural greatness can only be achieved by returning
RAMOS, LPT 2020 POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE OF BOTOLAN
(PCB) SY 2019-2020
INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEM MODULE
WEEK 5

oneself to the state of natural purity. Just like in Confucianism and Daoism, what happens in heaven should reflect the affairs of
human beings, hence in Shintoism, humans are affected by the pattern of the universe, specifically under the guidance of the sun,
moon, and stars. Thus, performing the necessary rituals at the shrines will help people purify themselves and unfold the destiny
they are meant to fulfill.
VIEWS ON WOMEN
Among the three Daoic religions, Daoism can be considered as having the most positive view of women, with its emphasis on the
significance of balancing the masculine and feminine qualities in every individual to achieve harmony not only of the body but the
world as well. Confucianism emphasized hierarchy, and in that hierarchy women are expected to become subservient to men.
Similarly, in Shinto men are placed at a more advantageous position in society than women.
Confucianism places women at the bottom of the hierarchy both in family and society. They are expected to exhibit proper behavior
and utmost obedience. More privileges were accorded to men, like having many wives and concubines while women were allowed
to have only one husband and see only their closest male relatives. A woman’s life revolves around obeying men— her father, her
husband, and grown-up son. Women are expected to be loyal to their husbands even when widowed. In fact, widows are expected
not to remarry, for it is considered a disgrace for widows to remarry after the death of their husbands. To encourage this, there
were times when the government offered tax exemptions and memorial monuments to the families of women who were widowed
before the age of 30 but did not remarry until the age of 50. Confucianism advocates the belief that widows who remarry after the
death of their husbands lose their virtue.
Daoism espouses a positive view of women, or qualities associated with women. In fact, the Dao is considered as the “mother of all
things” and playing the feminine part is a constant theme in Daoism. Since balancing the yin and yang is important in Daoism, men
are encouraged to perform female roles and vice-versa. Androgyny, or the combination of masculine and feminine characteristics,
can be achieved by developing a divine embryo (even among males), ritual sexual intercourse, and internal alchemy. The high
status accorded to women is manifested by the fact that women are allowed to become priests in Daoism, and by the existence of
numerous female deities.
Shintoism initially started with a high regard for women especially in the religious aspect. Historical developments, however, have
brought considerable changes to the role of women in Japanese religion and society. We can see how the status of women in
religion and in society have changed in the three periods of the development of Shintoism in Japan.
During the “Primitive Shinto” period (from early history to the end of the 2nd to 7th century C.E.), women had a significant role in
religion as the medium between the gods and the people, with the message of the gods being revealed to them, while the
implementation of this will was entrusted to men. Thus, religion was the domain of both women and men, usually brothers and
sisters. Upon the rising importance of religion in the lives of the people, women gained power as proven by the rising number of
female shamans (or miko) who were deified, and the numerous female rulers mentioned in the ancient chronicles. Upon the
subsequent centralization of the empire, religion gradually came under the control of the imperial government and as a result,
women’s role in religion was relegated to becoming the emperor’s representative in the religious domain instead. The status of
women in Japanese society continued to change during the time of “Organized Shinto” (from Taika Reform to the Meiji Restoration
645-1867), when religion became the government’s responsibility, when rites had to be performed by provincial governors and
priests, usually males. During that time, only the shrine at Ise was led by a priestess. From the Meiji Restoration in 1868 up to the
present day, the role of women in society continued to decline. Pure Shinto as the national religion was established, abolishing the
mystical elements of Shintoism often associated with women, thus deterring women from participating in official priesthood. Since
World War II, women were again accepted in the priesthood but only as substitutes for male priests. Since then, two issues
continued to pose a threat to the low status of women in Japanese religion and society: one, the limited role given to women in high
ranking shrines such as Ise, which was previously led by a priestess; and two, the emphasis given by Shintoism to blood being one
of the causes of impurity, hence limiting women’s role in priesthood. The miko or female shamans remained active as fortune
tellers, founders of new sects, and as healers. (Haruko 1993) However, in general women are still not on equal status with men in
society, where men are allowed to commit adultery while women are expected to be loyal to their husbands. Women were also
allowed the right to divorce their husbands only in the last century.
CONCLUSION
By comparing the three Daoic religions, we have seen that they share more similarities than differences. One important aspect that
needs to be stressed is their belief that the state of nature should be maintained for it is the only way to promote harmony and
order in society. Another important aspect is the emphasis on rituals and ancestor worship, which need to be performed to help
RAMOS, LPT 2020 POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE OF BOTOLAN
(PCB) SY 2019-2020
INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEM MODULE
WEEK 5

achieve self-cultivation at its highest form. On the other hand, Shintoism states the importance of returning to the natural state of
purity to become a better person and fathom one’s destiny, thereby promoting order in society.
Despite the uniqueness of each of these religions, Confucianism, Daoism, and Shintoism clearly share common threads that make
them classified as Daoic religions.
SUMMARY
 All three Daoic religions originated in East Asia—with Confucianism and Daoism originating in China during the Warring
States period while Shinto started as an indigenous religion of Japan. Confucianism and Daoism started as attempts by
philosophers Kung Fuzi and Laozi to bring order to the chaos happening during the Warring States period in China, while
Shinto started as a religion focusing on the worship of kami or spirits that were seen as the source of prosperity, especially in
the sphere of agriculture.
 Unlike other religions, the three Daoic religions discussed in this chapter have no strict set of moral guidelines to follow. In
Confucianism, morality is based on loyalty, ritual observance, and self-cultivation; in Daoism, imposition of ethics was initially
discouraged for it would hinder humanity from being in harmony with nature, but later Buddhism had influenced Daoism with
its moral dimension. In Shinto, anything that goes against the observance of purity is considered evil.
 All three Daoic religions consider the harmony between heaven and earth as the ultimate goal, since they all believe that what
happens in heaven should be reflected on earth. Thus, self-cultivation, for Confucianism and Daoism, is important for one can
reach one’s highest potential only by cultivating oneself for the common good. Shintoism emphasizes purity of oneself to
maintain the natural state which can bring harmony and order in society.
 Destiny, according to Confucianism and Daoism, lies in one’s cultivation of the self in order to achieve a harmonious society.
In Shintoism, everyone has a destiny to fulfill, but only purity would make one capable of realizing his or her mission in life.
 Among the three Daoic religions, Daoism is considered as having the most positive view of women, with the idea of balancing
the feminine and masculine qualities in everyone to balance the yin and yang and allow the smooth flow of qi. Confucianism,
with its emphasis on hierarchy, prioritizes men over women in all aspects. Shintoism initially had a high regard for women, but
historical developments led to the diminishing status of women in religion and society.

ASSESSMENT
A. MODIFIED TRUE OR FALSE. Write the word TRUE if the statement is true. If false, write the word FALSE and change the
underlined word to make the statement correct.
1. Confucianism started as a philosophy that would provide a solution to China’s chaotic society during the Shang
dynasty.
2. Confucianism was adopted by the Han dynasty as an instrument for its political legitimacy.
3. Daoism believes that nature should be allowed to take its natural course for the attainment of social order.
4. Shintoism emphasized the core values of family, tradition, nature, ancestors, purity, and ritual practices.
5. Laozi believed that what makes us human is our feeling of sympathy for other’s suffering, but what makes us virtuous
is our cultivation of this inner potential.
6. In Shinto, pollution is inevitable but can be washed away by proper meditation.
7. In Confucianism, destiny can only be achieved when one has cultivated oneself to the highest potential that one’s
actions go effortlessly with the way of the universe.
8. The Dao is considered as the “mother of all things” and playing the feminine part is a constant theme in Daoism.
9. A normative interpretation of ming sees destiny as a distant force beyond human control.
10. In Confucianism, a woman’s life revolves around obeying men---her father, her husband, and her brother.

B. MATCHING TYPE. Write the letter of the correct answer.

1. zhong a. destiny
2. li b. ritual
3. ren c. concern for others
4. junzi d. perfect gentleman

RAMOS, LPT 2020 POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE OF BOTOLAN

(PCB) SY 2019-2020
INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEM MODULE
WEEK 5

5. ming e. female shamans

6. miko f. purification rituals
7. misogi g. non-action
8. wu wei h. vital energy
9. qi i. righteousness
10. yi j. regard for others

C. Complete the table below by writing the correct words or phrases that describe the following categories.
RELIGION Origin Morality Purpose Destiny Views on Women

CONFUCIANISM

DAOISM

SHINTO

D. Complete the table by filling up the given facts and information about the Daoic Religions. (Note: Use the previous modules for
your reference to this activity. That will be your key to the answers on different facts and information.)
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF DAOIC RELIGIONS: CONFUCIANISM, SHINTOISM, AND TAOISM

RELIGION CONFUCIANISM SHINTOISM TAOISM

Description
Founder/Primary Prophet
Name of God/s
Followers
Number of Followers
Historical Background
Clergy called
House of Worship
Day of Worship
RAMOS, LPT 2020 POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE OF BOTOLAN
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INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEM MODULE
WEEK 5

Holy Places
Original Language
Sacred Scriptures
Beliefs and Doctrines
Worship and Observances
Subdivisions
Selected Issues
Major Locations Today
Symbols

RAMOS, LPT 2020 POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE OF BOTOLAN

(PCB) SY 2019-2020