Aircraft Basic Science PDF
Aircraft Basic Science PDF
Basic Science
About the Authors
Michael J. Kroes has been an aviation practitioner and educator for over
35 years. He has held various FAA certifications, including Airframe and
Powerplant Mechanic, Inspection Authorization, Designated Mechanic
Examiner, and Designated Engineering Representative, and he holds a
commercial pilot license. Mr. Kroes has worked for some of the leading
aviation companies, including Raytheon and Allied Signal, and has also
spent 25 years as a professor and department head at Purdue University.
Recognized as a leading expert on FAA technician certification, he
authored a comprehensive study funded by the FAA. This study was
used to develop new FAA technician certification content and guidelines.
Mr. Kroes resides in Pinehurst, North Carolina.
Eighth Edition
Michael J. Kroes
Michael S. Nolan
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TERMS OF USE
1. Fundamentals of Mathematics
Arithmetic
Algebra
Geometry
Trigonometry
Alternative Number Systems
Charts and Graphs
Review Questions
2. Science Fundamentals
Measurements
Gravity, Weight, and Mass
Force and Motion
Centrifugal and Centripetal Force
Composition and Resolution of Forces
Work, Energy, and Power
Machines
Heat
Heat Transfer
Fluids
The Nature and Laws of Gases
Sound
Review Questions
3. Basic Aerodynamics
Airfoil Profiles
Performance of Airfoils
Shapes and Dimensions of Airfoils
Stalls and Their Effects
Review Questions
5. Aircraft in Flight
6. Aircraft Drawings
Types of Drawings
Drafting Techniques
Review Questions
Fundamental Principles
Weight-and-Balance Terminology
Determination of the EWCG Location
Aircraft Modifications
Loading the Airplane
Extreme Weight-and-Balance Conditions
Loading Conditions
Simplified Loading Methods
Calculating Weight and Balance for Large Aircraft
Weight and Balance for a Helicopter
Light Sport Aircraft
Weight-Shift-Control Aircraft
Review Questions
8. Aircraft Materials
Aircraft Materials
Properties of Materials
General Properties of Metals
Alloys
Corrosion
Fatigue
Aircraft Metals
Plastics
Composite Materials
Aircraft Wood
Aircraft Fabrics
Review Questions
Mill Products
Fabrication of Metal Components
Heat Treatment of Metals
Hardness Testing
Nondestructive Inspection
Corrosion Control
Finish and Surface-Roughness Symbols
Metal Surface Treatments
Review Questions
10. Standard Aircraft Hardware
Standards
Specifications
Threaded Fasteners
Nonthreaded Fasteners
Panel and Cowling Fasteners
Cable Fittings
Turnbuckles
Safety Belts
Keep Current
Review Questions
Advisory Circulars
Service-Difficulty Reporting Program
Airworthiness Directives
Type Certificate Data Sheets
Supplemental Type Certificates
Manufacturers’ Publications
Technical Manuals
Manufacturers’ Operating Publications
Review Questions
Glossary
Index
Preface to the Eighth
Edition
Michael J. Kroes
James R. Rardon
1
Fundamentals of
Mathematics
INTRODUCTION
The science of mathematics, so important to the modern age of technology, had its
beginnings in the dim ages of the past. It is probable that prehistoric people
recognized the differences in quantities at an early age and therefore devised
methods for keeping track of numbers and quantities. In the earliest efforts at trade it
was necessary for the traders to figure quantities. For example, someone might have
traded ten sheep for two cows. To do this, the trader had to understand the numbers
involved.
As time progressed, the ancient Babylonians and Egyptians developed the use of
mathematics to the extent that they could perform marvelous engineering feats. Later
the Greeks developed some of the fundamental laws which are still in use today. One
of the great Greek mathematicians was a philosopher named Euclid, who prepared a
work called Elements of Geometry. This text was used by students of mathematics for
almost 2000 years. Another Greek mathematician was Archimedes, who is
considered one of the greatest mathematicians of all time. One of his most important
discoveries was the value of π (pi), which is obtained by dividing the circumference of
a circle by its diameter. Archimedes discovered many other important mathematical
relationships and also developed the early study of calculus. Modern differential and
integral calculus were discovered by Sir Isaac Newton in the seventeenth century.
These discoveries are considered some of the most important in the history of
mathematics.
Today’s modern technology, including aircraft maintenance, is greatly dependent
upon mathematics. Computing the weight and balance of an aircraft, designing a
structural repair, or determining the serviceability of an engine part are but a few
examples of an aviation maintenance technician’s need for mathematics. Electronic
calculators and computers have made mathematical calculations more rapid and
usually more accurate. However, these devices are only as good as the information
put into them and do not excuse the technician from learning the fundamentals of
mathematics.
It is expected that you, the aviation technician/student, have taken or are taking
mathematics courses that go beyond the material in this chapter. The purpose of this
chapter is to refresh your understanding of fundamental mathematical processes.
Emphasis is placed on those mathematical terms or problems that you will encounter
in portions of your technical studies or employment.
ARITHMETIC
Numbers
The 10 single-number characters, or numerals—1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
and 0—are called digits. Any number may be expressed by using various
combinations of these digits. The arrangement of the digits and the
number of digits used determine the value of the number being expressed.
Our number system is called a decimal system, the name being derived
from the Latin word decem, meaning “ten.” In the decimal system the
digits are arranged in columns, which are powers of 10. The column in
which a certain digit is placed determines its expressed value. When we
examine the number 3 235 467, we indicate the column positions as
follows:
Addition
Practice is one of the surest ways to learn to add accurately and rapidly. If
you want to attain proficiency, you should take time to make up problems
or find problems already prepared and then practice solving the problems
until you feel comfortable.
It is recommended that you practice adding by sight. It is quite easy to
learn to add by sight when the numbers to be added contain only one digit.
With a little practice, the sight of any two digits will immediately bring the
sum to mind. Thus when seeing the digits 6 and 5, for example, you
should immediately think 11, or upon seeing 9 and 7, you should instantly
think 16.
When we want to add two-digit numbers by sight, it is merely necessary
to add the units and then the tens. Suppose that the numbers 45 and 23 are
presented for addition. The units are 5 and 3, so we immediately think 8
units. The tens are 4 and 2, so we think 6 tens. The sum of 6 tens and 8
units is 68. If the units in an addition add to a sum greater than 9, we must
remember to add the ten or tens to the sum of the tens. If we wish to add
36 and 57, for example, we see that the units add to 13, or 1 ten and 3
units. We record the 3 units and carry the ten, adding it to the 3 tens and 5
tens. The result is 9 tens and 3 units, or 93.
Subtraction
Subtraction is the reverse of addition. The sign for subtraction is the minus
sign (−). In ordinary arithmetic a smaller number is always subtracted
from a larger number.
In subtraction the number from which another is to be subtracted is
called the minuend, the number being subtracted from the other is called
the subtrahend, and the result is called the difference.
In the first column we find the 3 smaller than the 5, and therefore we must
borrow 1 ten from the next column. We then subtract 5 from 13 to obtain
8. We must remember that there are only 4 tens left in the second column,
and we have to borrow 1 hundred from the next column to make 140. We
subtract 70 from 140 and obtain 70, and so we place a 7 in the tens column
of the answer. Since we have borrowed 1 hundred from the 8 hundreds of
the third column, only 7 hundreds are left. We subtract 6 hundreds from 7
hundreds, thus leaving 1 hundred. We therefore place a 1 in the hundreds
column of the answer.
Multiplication
The act of multiplication may be considered multiple addition. If we add
2 + 2 to obtain 4, we have multiplied 2 by 2, because we have taken 2 two
times. Likewise, if we add 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 to obtain 8, we have multiplied 2
by 4, because we have taken 2 four times.
In multiplication the number to be multiplied is called the
multiplicand, and the number of times the multiplicand is to be taken is
called the multiplier. The answer obtained from a multiplication is the
product. The following example illustrates these terms:
Note that the terms multiplicand and multiplier may be interchanged. For
example, 2 × 4 is the same as 4 × 2.
When we use multiplication to solve a specific problem, the names of
the terms have more significance. For example, if we wish to find the total
weight of 12 bags of apples and each bag weighs 25 pounds (lb), then the
multiplicand is 25 and the multiplier is 12. We then say 12 times 25 lb is
300 lb, or 12 × 25 = 300.
We can understand the multiplication process by analyzing a typical but
simple problem, such as multiplying 328 by 6.
Add the 4 to obtain 16. Record the 6 (tens) and carry the 1 (hundreds).
Then multiply 3 by 6.
6 × 3 = 18
Zeros were placed at the end of the second and third multiplications in the
first example to show that we were multiplying by 40 and 200,
respectively. In actual practice the zeros are not usually recorded. In the
preceding multiplication we multiplied 328 first by 6, then by 40, and
finally by 200. When we added these products, we obtained the answer, 80
688.
Accurate multiplication requires great care. First, it is important to
know the multiplication tables. Second, care must be taken to record
products in the correct column. Third, the addition must be made carefully
and accurately. In order to acquire proficiency in multiplication, practice is
essential.
In any mathematical problem it is smart to check the answer for
accuracy. There are a number of methods for checking multiplication, and
the most obvious is to divide the product by either the multiplicand or the
multiplier. If the product is divided by the multiplicand, the quotient
(answer) should be the multiplier.
Another method for checking multiplication is to repeat the problem,
reversing the multiplicand and multiplier. If the product is the same in
each case, the answer is probably correct.
Division
The act of division may be considered the reverse of multiplication; that
is, division is the separating or dividing of a number into a certain number
of equal parts. The symbol for division is the division sign (÷), and it is
read “divided by.” For example, 98 ÷ 4 is read “98 divided by 4.” In
arithmetic there are two commonly used methods for the division of whole
numbers. These are short division and long division. The terms used to
describe the elements of a division problem are dividend, which is the
number to be divided; divisor, the number of times the dividend is to be
divided; and quotient, the number of times the divisor goes into the
dividend. In the problem 235 ÷ 5 = 47, the number 235 is the dividend, 5
is the divisor, and 47 is the quotient.
The process of short division is often used to divide a number by a
divisor having only one digit. This is accomplished as follows:
The first step in solving the problem is to divide 181 by 28, because 181
is the smallest part of the dividend into which 28 can go. It is found that
28 will go into 181 six times, with a remainder of 13. The number 168 (6
× 28) is placed under the digits 181 and is subtracted. The number 13,
which is the difference between 168 and 181, is placed directly below the
6 and 8 as shown, and then the number 1 is brought down from the
dividend to make the number 131. The divisor 28 will go into 131 four
times, with a remainder of 19. The final digit 6 of the dividend is brought
down to make the number 196. The divisor 28 will go into 196 exactly
seven times. The quotient of the entire division is thus 647.
If we study the division shown in the foregoing example, we will find
that the dividend is composed of 28 × 600 = 16 800, 28 × 40 = 1120, and
28 × 7 = 196. Then by adding 16 800 + 1120 + 196, we find the sum,
which is 18 116, the original dividend. We could divide each part of the
dividend by 28 separately to obtain 600, 40, and 7 and then add these
quotients together; however, it is usually quicker and simpler to perform
the divisions as shown.
If a divisor does not go into a dividend an even number of times, there
will be a remainder. This remainder may be expressed as a whole number,
a fraction, or a decimal. Fractions and decimals are discussed later in this
chapter.
In the following example the divisor will not go into the dividend an
even number of times, so it is necessary to indicate a remainder:
Fractions
A fraction may be defined as a part of a quantity, unit, or object. For
example, if a number is divided into four equal parts, each part is one-
fourth ( ) of the whole number. The parts of a fraction are the numerator
and the denominator, separated by a line indicating division.
In Fig. 1-1 a rectangular block is cut into four equal parts; each single
part is of the total. Two of the parts make the total, and three of the
parts make the fraction of the total.
Thus we see that a large fraction may be simplified in some cases. This
process is called reducing the fraction. To reduce a fraction to its lowest
terms, we divide both the numerator and the denominator by the largest
number that will go into each without leaving a remainder. This is
accomplished as follows:
We can see that this addition makes sense because 5 + 6 = 11. Since both
the 5 and the 6 denote a specific number of fifteenths, we add them to
obtain the total number of fifteenths.
The foregoing principle may be understood more easily if we apply it to
a practical problem. Suppose we wish to add 3 gal and 5 qt and 1 pint (pt)
of gasoline. The most logical method is to convert all quantities to pints.
In 3 gal of gasoline there are 3 × 8 or 24 pt; in 5 qt there are 5 × 2 or 10 pt.
Then we add 24 pt + 10 pt + 1 pt. The answer is 35 pt. If we wish to
convert this quantity to gallons, we must divide the 35 by 8. We find that
we have 4 gal and 3 pt, or 4 gal.
To prepare fractions for adding or subtracting we proceed as follows:
The LCD is 24. Divide the LCD by the first denominator, and then
multiply the fraction by this quotient:
When adding and subtracting mixed numbers, we must consider both the
whole numbers and the fractions. To add , we should first add 5 and
7 to obtain 12, and then we must add the fractions. We find that
, and thus , or 1 . Then , the total sum
of the mixed numbers.
Subtraction of mixed numbers is accomplished by subtracting the whole
numbers and then the fractions. For example, subtract 8 from 12 .
If the fraction of the subtrahend is greater than the fraction of the minuend,
it is necessary to borrow 1 from the whole number in the minuend to
increase the fraction of the minuend. If we wish to subtract 5 from 9 ,
we must increase the to a value greater than . The LCD of the fractions
is 24, and so 5 becomes 5 and 9 becomes 9 . We must then borrow
1 from 9 and add the 1 to . The minuend then becomes 8 . The final
form of the problem is then
Multiplication of Fractions
In the preceding problem we have canceled all values except the 3 in the
numerator and the 10 in the denominator. First we canceled the 5s, and
next we divided the 8 in the denominator by the 2 in the numerator. The 4
that was left in the denominator was then canceled by the 4 in the
numerator. The 9 in the numerator was divided by the 3 in the
denominator to leave a 3 in the numerator. The product, , contains the
product of the numerators and the product of the denominators reduced to
their lowest terms. This may be proved by multiplying the numerators and
denominators without canceling any values, as follows:
5 × 2 × 9 × 4 = 360
8 × 3 × 10 × 5 = 1200
Then,
The reduction of the fraction was accomplished by dividing both the
numerator and the denominator by 120.
A problem involving a few more operations than that given previously
is
In this problem note that the 25 in the numerator and the 20 in the
denominator were both divided by 5 to obtain a 5 in the numerator and a 4
in the denominator.
Dividing Fractions
The procedures explained in the preceding sections are not the only
possible methods. Other methods will provide the same results, but those
given here are commonly used.
Decimals
Decimal fractions, or decimals, provide a means of performing
mathematical operations without using the time-consuming and complex
methods of common fractions. A decimal fraction is a common fraction
converted to tenths, hundredths, thousandths, or other power of ten. For
example, if we convert the common fraction to a decimal, we find that it
becomes 0.75. This is accomplished by dividing the numerator by the
denominator:
The decimal 0.80 is the same as 0.8 and may be read “eighty hundredths”
or “eight tenths.”
If we want to convert a fraction to a decimal when the denominator will
not go evenly into the numerator, the decimal will be carried to the nearest
tenth, hundredth, thousandth, or ten-thousandth according to the degree of
accuracy required for the problem. For example, we may wish to convert
the fraction to a decimal carried to the nearest ten-thousandth. We
proceed as follows:
Addition of Decimals
In the foregoing problem observe that the digits in the first column to
the right of the decimal points add up to more than 10. When this occurs,
we carry the 1 over into the units column. If the column should add up to
20, we would carry the 2 over to the units column.
Subtraction of Decimals
Observe in the foregoing problems that where there are fewer decimal
places in the minuend than in the subtrahend, we add zeros to fill the
spaces. This aids in avoiding mistakes which could otherwise occur. The
addition of the zeros does not affect the value of the decimals.
Division of Decimals
The division of decimals requires much more care than the addition,
subtraction, or multiplication of these numbers. This is because it is easy
to misplace the decimal point in the quotient. The principal rule to
remember in dividing decimals is to place the decimal point of the
quotient directly above the decimal point of the dividend. This is
illustrated in the following problems:
In the third problem just illustrated the division does not come out evenly,
and so the answer is rounded off with an 8 to provide an accuracy to the
nearest ten-millionth.
When the divisor contains decimals, we move the decimal point to the
right until the divisor is a whole number. We then move the decimal in the
dividend the same number of points to the right. This is equivalent to
multiplying both the dividend and the divisor by the same number, and so
the quotient remains the same.
To illustrate this point, let’s divide 34.026 by 4.538.
To further illustrate, let’s divide 20.583 by 3.06.
The small + and − signs placed after the quotients in the preceding
examples indicate that a small amount is to be added or subtracted if the
number is to be made exact; that is, the exact answer is a little more or a
little less than the answer shown.
Converting Decimals to Common Fractions
It has been stated that a decimal is a fraction, and of course this is true. A
decimal fraction is a fraction that has 10, 100, 1000, or another power of
ten, for the denominator. The decimal 0.34 is read “34 hundredths” and
may be shown as . Also, the decimal fraction 0.005 may be written as
. To convert a decimal fraction to a common fraction, we merely write
it in the fraction form and then reduce it to its lowest terms by dividing the
numerator and denominator by the same number. To convert 0.325 to a
common fraction, we write and then divide the numerator and
denominator by 25:
Percentage
The term percentage is used to indicate a certain number of hundredths of
a whole. The expression 5% means , or 0.05. To find a certain
percentage of a number, we multiply the number by the number of the
percentage and then move the decimal point two places to the left. For
example, to find 6% of 325, we multiply 325 by 6 to obtain 1950, and then
we move the decimal two places to the left and find the answer 19.50, or
19.5. We could just as easily multiply by 0.06 to obtain the same answer.
Certain percentages are equal to commonly used fractions, and it is well
to be familiar with these: 25% = , 50% = , 75% = , 12 % = , and 33%
= . Familiarity with these fractions and their equivalent percentages is
helpful in many computations.
If we wish to find what percentage one number is of another, we divide
the first number by the second. For example, 26 is what percentage of 65?
Then,
3. Multiply the root 3 by 20 and place the product to the left of the new
dividend. The product 60 is the trial divisor. Determine how many times the
trial divisor will go into the dividend 149. In this case 60 will go into 149 two
times. Add 2 to the trial divisor to make 62, which is the complete divisor.
Place 2 above the second period and then multiply the complete divisor by 2.
Place the product 124 under the dividend 149 and subtract. Bring down the
next period to make the new dividend.
4. Multiply the partial answer 32 by 20 to obtain the new trial divisor 640.
Determine how many times 640 will go into 2576. Inspection indicates that it
will go into 640 four times. Add the 4 to 640 to obtain 644, which is the
complete divisor. Place the 4 above the third period. Then multiply the
complete divisor 644 by 4 to obtain 2576. This product is equal to the
dividend; hence the computation is complete.
Scientific Notation
Scientific notation is the process of using powers of 10 to simplify
mathematical expressions and computations. Figure 1-3 shows the values
of 10 for various powers. By using powers of 10 to express very large
numbers or very long decimals, the amount of computation necessary for
multiplication, division, and extracting roots is reduced. Many calculators
and computer programs use scientific notation to display large numbers or
long decimals.
Thus,
2 600 000 = 2.6 × 1 000 000
or
7 + 5 = 12
4. Answer.
12
2.076 × 10 or 2 076 000 000 000
7 − 5 = 2
4. Answer.
ALGEBRA
Introduction
We may define algebra as the branch of mathematics which uses positive
and negative quantities, letters, and other symbols to express and analyze
relationships among units of quantitative data. The process of algebra
enables us to make calculations and arrive at solutions which would be
difficult or impossible through normal arithmetic methods. All
mathematical systems beyond arithmetic employ the methods of algebra
for computation.
Aviation maintenance technicians use many algebraic formulas and
expressions on a daily basis. In many cases these operations have become
so routine that many do not realize that algebra is being used. The formula
for the area of a rectangle, A = l x w, or A = lw, is an algebraic expression
(A = area, l = length, and w = width). The formula for finding the force on
a hydraulic piston may be expressed F = P/A, where F is force in pounds,
A is area of the piston in square inches, and P is the pressure of the fluid in
pounds per square inch (psi). In computing the weight and balance of an
aircraft, the technician works not only with algebraic formulas but with
positive and negative quantities. Most computations involving these
operations have been simplified to where the problem can be solved by
placing the proper numbers into the formula. However, a knowledge of
algebra is essential for the technician to understand what is happening in
the procedure or system.
Equations
An equation is a mathematical expression of equality. For example, 2 + 6
= 8 is a simple equation. In the general terms of algebra this equation
would be a + b = c. If the value of any two of the symbols is known, the
other one can be determined. If a = 2 and b = 6 in the equation, then we
know that c = 8 because 2 + 6 = 8.
If we ask the question “What number added to 6 will produce 10?” we
can express the question in algebraic terms thus: 6 + x = 10. To find the
value of x, we must subtract 6 from 10, and so we rearrange the equation
to x = 10 − 6. Note that we changed the sign of the 6 when we transposed
it (moved it to the opposite side of the equals sign). We complete the
solution and state the simplified equation as x = 4.
Algebraic Addition
Algebraic addition is the process of combining terms to find the actual
value of the terms. The sum 5 + 6 + 8 = 19 is algebraic addition as well as
arithmetic addition. The sum − 5 − 6 + 4 = −7 is also algebraic addition,
but we do not use this method in arithmetic. To add the terms in an
algebraic expression when there are both negative and positive quantities,
we combine the terms with the same sign, subtract the smaller value from
the larger, and then give the answer the sign of the larger. To add 8 − 9 −
4 + 6 + 7 − 3, we combine the 8, 6, and 7 to obtain +21 and then combine
−9, −4, and −3 to obtain −16. We then subtract the 16 from 21 to obtain
+5. If the negative quantity were greater than the positive quantity, the
answer would be negative.
When we are combining numbers or terms containing letters or other
symbols, we cannot add those terms having different letters or symbols.
For example, we cannot add 3b and 5c. The indicated addition of these
terms would merely be 3b + 5c. We can add 3a and 5a to obtain 8a, in
which case we would show the expression as 3a + 5a = 8a.
In the term 3a the figure 3 is called the coefficient of a. Thus we see
that a coefficient is a multiplier. Remember also that a number placed
above and to the right of another number or symbol to show a power is
called an exponent. For example, in the term x2 the figure 2 is the
exponent of x, and the term is read “x square.”
In algebra the letters used in place of numbers are called literal
numbers. Thus the equation x + y = z contains all literal numbers. When
we wish to add terms containing different literal numbers, we combine
those terms having the same letter or symbol. To solve or simplify the
expression 4a + 5b − 2a − 6c + 9b − 3a + 8c − 3c − 4b + 3c, we may
proceed as follows:
Then,
4a + 5b − 2a − 6c + 9b − 3a + 8c − 3c − 4b + 3c = −a + 10b + 2c
Algebraic Subtraction
The rule for subtraction in algebra is the following: change the sign of the
subtrahend and add. If we wish to subtract 4 from 10, we change the sign
of the 4 to minus and add. We then have 10 − 4 = 6. If we want to subtract
−2x + 3y + 4z from 6x + 5y − 8z, we proceed as shown here:
Use of Parentheses
Parentheses are used in algebra to indicate that two or more terms are to be
considered as a single term. For example, 3 × (5 + 2) means that the 5 and
the 2 are both to be multiplied by 3. Alternately, the 5 and 2 can be added
and then multiplied by 3, and the answer will be the same.
3 × (5 + 2) = 3 × 5 + 3 × 2 = 21
3 × (5 + 2) = 3 × 7 = 21
If the parentheses were not used in the preceding example, the solution
would be
3 × 5 + 2 = 15 + 2 = 17
Multiplication
In order to explain multiplication clearly, certain arrangements of
algebraic terms not previously defined must be discussed. These are
monomials, binomials, and polynomials. A monomial is an expression
containing only one term, such as x, ab, 2z, xy2m, 2x3y, and a2b3y. A
binomial is an expression containing two terms connected by a minus (−)
2
or plus (+) sign, such as a + b, 2x + 3y, abc + xyz, and 4y2 − 3z. A
polynomial is any expression in general containing two or more algebraic
terms.
In the multiplication of algebraic terms, monomials, binomials, and
other polynomials can be multiplied by any other expression regardless of
whether it is a monomial, binomial, or other polynomial. Fractional terms
and expressions can be multiplied by any other term or expression.
In the algebraic multiplication of terms and expressions, the signs of
each term or expression must be carefully noted and properly handled. The
following rules apply:
To multiply purely literal terms which are unlike, the terms are merely
gathered together as a unit.
a × b = ab ab × cd = abcd aby × cdx = dbcdxy
To multiply literal terms by like terms, the power of the term is raised.
Division
In algebra, division may be considered the reverse of multiplication, just
as in arithmetic. The division sign (÷) is not usually employed, and
division is indicated by making the dividend the numerator of a fraction
while the divisor becomes the denominator of the fraction. For example,
a ÷ b is usually written a/b
and
Order of Operations
In solving an algebraic expression or equation, certain operations must be
performed in proper sequence. Indicated multiplications and divisions
must be completed before additions are made. This is demonstrated in the
following equation:
To solve for x, all x terms are transposed to the left side of the equation.
Note that when a term is moved from one side of the equation to the other,
the sign must be changed to maintain the equality.
7x + 3x − 4x − 2x = 10 − 2 − 3y + 3y
Solution of Problems
When an algebraic expression contains only one unknown quantity,
expressed by a letter, it is comparatively simple to find the value of the
unknown quantity. In the equation 5x + 2 − 3x = 14 − 4x, we can easily
find the value of x by transposing and combining. A rule to be
remembered at this point is that when a term or quantity is moved from
one side of an equation to the opposite side, the sign of the term or
quantity must be changed. The solution of the equation just mentioned is
as follows:
Note that in this operation the sign of −4x was changed and the sign of
the +2 was changed. This was done because the −4x and the +2 were
transposed, or moved from one side of the equation to the other. When the
quantities were combined, 6x was found equal to 12. It is quite apparent
then that x is equal to 2. This is also shown by dividing both sides of the
equation by 6.
Algebra is particularly useful in solving certain problems which are
more difficult to solve by arithmetic or which may not be solved by
arithmetic. The following examples show how some of the less difficult
types may be solved by algebraic methods.
In the first example, let’s say that one number is three times another
number. The sum of the numbers is 48. If this is true, what are the
numbers?
In the final example, a man has five times as many dimes as he has
quarters. The total value of his dimes and quarters is $5.25. What number
of each does he have?
Note that x must be multiplied by 25 to find the total number of cents
represented by the quarters. Since x = 7, we find that the money
represented by quarters is 175 cents, or $1.75. Also, we find that 5x × 10 =
35 × 10, or 350 cents. Then $1.75 + $3.50 = $5.25.
There are many types of problems which may be solved with methods
similar to those shown for the foregoing problems. You can gain skill in
solving such problems through practice. The ability to interpret word
problems and reduce them to equation form is the most important
requirement.
GEOMETRY
The word geometry is derived from geo, a Greek word meaning “earth,”
and metria, meaning “measurement.” Geometry can be said to literally
mean the measurement of earth or land. In actuality, geometry deals with
the measurement of areas, volumes, and distances.
The proof of geometrical propositions by means of axioms, postulates,
or corollaries constitutes the major portion of most geometry courses. It is
expected that you have previously had or are taking additional math
courses, including geometry. In this section, definitions and applications of
geometry will be emphasized. Theory will be introduced only to the extent
necessary to support application.
Definitions
The following terms are essential to the understanding of the application
of geometrical principles. Figure 1-7 provides graphic examples of the
terms.
FIGURE 1-7 Geometric terms.
Point. A point has no length, breadth, or thickness but has only position.
Solid. A solid, in the geometric sense, has three dimensions, that is, length,
breadth, and thickness.
Lines
The following terms describe different types of lines:
Straight line. A line having the same direction throughout its length. If a portion
of a straight line is placed so that both ends fall within the ends of the other
part, the portion must lie wholly within the line.
Equal lines. Two lines are equal if, when placed one upon the other, their ends
can be made to coincide.
Parallel lines. Lines in the same plane which can never intersect no matter how
far they are extended.
Angles
The following terms are used to define and describe angles. Figure 1-8
provides illustrations to assist with understanding the definitions.
Angle. An angle is the opening between two straight lines drawn in different
directions from the same point.
Straight angle. An angle whose sides form a straight line, that is, an angle of
180°.
Bisector. A bisector is a point, line, or surface which divides an angle into two
equal parts.
Vertex of an angle. The common point from which the two sides of an angle
proceed.
Adjacent angles. Two angles having a common side and the same vertex.
Vertical angles. Two angles with the same vertex and with sides that are
prolongations of the sides of each other.
Perpendicular line. A straight line which makes a 90° angle with another straight
line.
Shapes
Circles
A circle is a closed curve, all portions of which are in the same plane and
equidistant from the same point (see Figure 1-9). The diameter of the
circle is the length of a straight line passing through the center of a circle
and limited at each end by the circle. The radius of the circle is a straight
line from the center of the circle to the circle perimeter. The radius is equal
to one-half the diameter. An arc is any portion of the circle. A major arc is
one of more than 180°, while a minor arc is less than 180°. A semicircle is
an arc of 180°. A sector is the area within a circle bounded by two radii
and the arc connecting the two radii. A quadrant is a sector with an arc of
90°. A chord is any straight line connecting two points on a circle. A
secant is a straight line which intersects a circle. A tangent is a straight
line of unlimited length which only has one point in common with a circle.
An inscribed angle in a circle is an angle whose vertex is on the circle. A
central angle is an angle whose vertex is at the center of the angle.
Polygons
If the sides of any polygon, such as the pentagon in Figure 1-10b, are
extended consecutively in the same direction, an angle will be formed that
will be the supplement of the internal angle. The sum of the
supplementary angles will always equal 360°.
The aviation maintenance technician can expect to encounter a number
of different polygon shapes in his or her work. The majority of the shapes
encountered will be in the categories of triangles, quadrilaterals, and
hexagons.
Triangles. A triangle is a plane bounded by three sides, or a three-sided
polygon with a total included angle of 180°. A number of various types of
triangles exist within this definition. Variations include the sizes of the
angles and the length of the legs.
An acute triangle is one in which all angles are less than 90° (see
Figure 1-11). An obtuse triangle has one angle greater than 90°. A right
triangle has one 90°, or right, angle. Remember that the sum of the three
angles must be 180°.
FIGURE 1-11 Types of triangles.
Hexagon
Formulas
The aviation maintenance technician needs to be able to calculate the
amount of area in a plane, the volume of a solid, and the surface area of a
solid. The need for this ability will be found when working in such areas
as sheet metal layout and repair, power plants, hydraulic systems, and fuel
systems. While rote memorization of formulas may suffice for this task, it
is recommended that you learn how the formula is derived. This will
enable better retention of the information and a wider use of its
application.
Area
All three formulas give the same answer. The one to use will depend on
the data available and personal preference.
To find the area of a sector, first find the area of a full circle and divide
the answer by N/360. N is the number of degrees included in the sector. To
demonstrate, find the area of a 60° sector with a radius of 2 in (see Figure
1-16).
Area of circle with 2 in radius = 12.56 in2.
The area of any regular polygon can be found by using the formula A
= ap, with a being the perpendicular distance from a side to the center
(apotherm) and p being the perimeter, or sum of the sides. The similarity
should be noted between this formula and one of the formulas for the area
of a circle (A = rC). To demonstrate, find the area of the hexagon shown
in Figure 1-15.
The polygon formula will work with any regular polygon. However, in
the case of squares and equilateral triangles, other formulas, are usually
more convenient. In Figure 1-17 is a square that is 4 in on each side. To
use the polygon formula we determine that a = 2 and p = 16. Using the
formula A = ap gives an area of × 2 × 16, or 16 in2. The same result
can be found by simply multiplying the length by the height (4 × 4 = 16).
Since all four sides are equal in length, the area of a square may be stated
as A = l2. To find the area of a rectangle with two different lengths of
sides, the formula will be A = lh, with l equal to length and h equal to
height.
1.
2.
Care should be taken that the height is measured with a line that is
perpendicular to the base and not by the length of an end.
Figure 1-21 illustrates a method for calculating the area of a trapezoid.
Trapezoid ABCD has height h, base 1 equals line AB, and base 2 equals
line CD. From point B extend line AB a length equal to line CD to point B
′. From point D extend line CD a length equal to line AB to point D′.
Connect point B′ and point D’. Line AB′ = AB + CD. Line CD′ = CD + AB.
Thus line AB′ = CD′. A parallelogram has been created. Further visual
inspection of the figure will show that ABCD and BB′CC′ are equal in
area. The area of ABCD would then be half of the area encompassed by
AB′CD′. The formula for the area of a trapezoid is one-half of the sum of
base 1 plus base 2 times the height. This can be expressed in a formula as
A = (b1 + b2)h.
Volume requires that an object have length, breadth, and depth. Volume is
expressed in units of cubic inches (in3) or cubic centimeters (cm3). The
volume of a rectangular solid is equal to the product of the height, length,
and width: V = hwl (see Figure 1-22). A solid cube has equal edge
dimensions; thus the volume of a cube will equal the cube of one
dimension, or V = l3.
Surface Area
Geometric Constructions
During the maintenance of aircraft it is often necessary to layout or
transfer geometric shapes to new material. It is possible with a compass, a
ruler, and a protractor to construct many geometrical figures which
accurately fulfill their definitions or descriptions. In most cases the
protractor is not needed. A compass and a protractor are shown in Figure
1-24. The following list describes how to make some common geometric
constructions.
FIGURE 1-24 Compass and protractor.
Trigonometric Functions
Trigonometric functions are based on the ratios of the sides of a right
triangle to one another. In the diagram of Figure 1-26, the right triangle AB
′C′ is superimposed on right triangle ABC with the angles at A coinciding.
The lines B′C′ and BC are parallel; hence the triangles are similar. In
similar triangles the ratios of corresponding sides are equal, and so AB/AC
= AB′/AC′. In like manner, the ratios of the other sides are also equal.
Furthermore, any right triangle which has an acute angle equal to A will
have the same ratios as those for the triangles shown in Figure 1-26.
In the triangle ABC, side c is the hypotenuse, side b is the side adjacent
to angle A, and side a is the side opposite angle A. The functions of angle
A are then as follows:
The sine of angle A, called sin A, is
Since the sum of the angles of a triangle is 180°, the other acute angle of
the triangle is 55°.
The sides of the triangle are 4.2012, 6, and 7.32. We can verify these
answers by the formula a2 + b2 = c2, which shows that the square of the
hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the
other two sides.
If the sides of a right triangle are known, the angles can also be
determined. This is shown in the problem of Figure 1-29. In the triangle
ABC, side a = 8, b = 15, and c = 17. Thus,
The tangent in Figure 1-30 becomes larger as the angle increases. The
side opposite becomes longer and the side adjacent becomes shorter. At 0°
the value of AB would be 0, making the value of the tangent 0.0. As the
angle approaches 90°, the value of the side adjacent approaches 0. As a
result the tangent value becomes very large and at 90° is said to be infinite
(∞). Figure 1-30 can also be used to show the following ranges of values:
The cotangent will have an infinite value at 0° and a value of 0.0 at 90°.
The secant will have values from 1.0 to infinity in the 0° to 90° range. The
value of the cosecant will vary from infinity to 1.0 over the same range.
The values, as the angle changes from 0° to 90°, can be summarized as
follows:
sin a, 0 to 1
cos a, 1 to 0
tan a, 0 to ∞
cot a, ∞ to 0
sec a, 1 to ∞
csc a, ∞ to 1
It should also be noted that in a right triangle, such as Figure 1-30, the
sine of one angle will equal the cosine of the second. For example,
The 45° triangle in Figure 1-32b has two equal sides, each assigned a
value of 1. The hypotenuse has a value of the square root of 2, or 1.414.
You should also remember the Pythagorean theorem (a2 + b2 = c2, where
c is the hypotenuse of a right triangle). If any two sides of a right triangle
are known, the third side can be calculated.
ALTERNATIVE NUMBER SYSTEMS
All of the mathematics in this chapter have used a system with a base of
10. This system, using 10 digits and known as the decimal system, was
discussed in the first part of the chapter. The development of digital
electronics introduced the need for other systems.
Every number system has three concepts in common: (1) a base, (2)
digit value, and (3) positional notation. The base is the number of digits
used in the system. Each digit of a specified system has a distinct value.
Each number position carries a specific weight, depending upon the base
of the system. For example, we can express the decimal number 546 as
follows:
The octal system uses a base of 8 and digits from 0 through 7. The
hexadecimal system uses 16 digits. These include the 10 digits from 0 to
9 and the first six letters of the alphabet, A through F. The hexadecimal
positional value is based on powers of 16. Table 1-2 shows the relationship
for some numbers in the four systems. An examination of Table 1-2
reveals that large quantities expressed in the binary system require a large
number of positions and can become awkward to handle. The octal and
hexadecimal systems can express large quantities in numbers with three or
four positions. These two systems are easily converted to binary
information.
Graphs
Graphs are charts which provide numerical or mathematical information in
graphical form, that is with lines, scales, bars, sectors, and so forth. The
graph usually shows the changes in the value of one or more variables as
another variable changes.
A broken-line graph or a bar graph is used to show comparative
quantitative data. The broken-line graph is useful to show trends in
quantitative data over a period of time. This use is illustrated in Figure 1-
33. In the illustration, the broken-line graph and bar graph provide the
same information.
Continuous-Line Graphs
Graphs may be used to show limits. In Figure 1-37 the altitude and
airspeed combinations that are safe for auto-rotation of a helicopter have
been plotted. The portions of the graph which represent unsafe
combinations have been shaded. The safe combinations can be readily
determined. For example, 30 knots (kt) airspeed is safe only above 350
feet. Figure 1-38 shows two graphs used for aircraft loading. The first
graph converts weights at specific locations (i.e., front seats) into index
units. The total index units are then plotted against the weight of the
aircraft on the second chart. If the plotted point is within the limits shown
on the chart, the aircraft is properly loaded.
FIGURE 1-37 Continuous-line graph showing operating limits.
FIGURE 1-38 Using a graph for calculations.
Figure 1-39 shows a graph of three variables: distance, time, and speed.
If any two of the three variables are known, the approximate value of the
other can be quickly determined. The dotted line is an example of a known
time and speed giving a distance. In the example, a speed of 375 kt for 2.5
hours would result in a distance of approximately 940 miles. A
nomograph, also called an alignment chart, is a chart used for
calculations. It has scales showing the values of three or more variables.
The distances between the scales and the values on each scale are placed
in such a manner that the user may use a straightedge to line up two
known values and obtain a third value.
Equation 1:
2x + 3y = 12
Equation 2:
x − 2y = −6
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What do we mean by decimal system?
2. What is a whole number?
3. Explain even and odd numbers.
4. What term is used to designate the answer for an addition problem?
5. What is the term used to identify a number being subtracted from another?
6. Which is listed first, the multiplier or the multiplicand?
7. A number to be divided is called the __________.
8. What is a proper fraction?
9. What is meant by reducing a fraction to its lowest terms?
10. How are two fractions multiplied?
11. Explain how one fraction may be divided by another.
12. When rounding off a number, what determines if the last digit stays the same or
is increased by 1?
13. What is meant by the extremes and means of a proportion?
14. Define a power of a number.
15. Define the root of a number.
16. How does scientific notation simplify the expression of large numbers?
17. How are two numbers expressed in scientific notation multiplied?
18. How are positive and negative quantities added?
19. Define right angle, straight angle, acute angle, and obtuse angle.
20. Define diameter, radius, arc, chord, and sector.
21. What is meant by pi, π?
22. What is the Pythagorean theorem?
23. Give formulas for the following items:
Area of a rectangle
Area of a triangle
Area of a trapezoid
Area of a circle
Volume of a rectangular solid
Surface area of a sphere
Volume of a sphere
Lateral area of a cone
Volume of a cone
Today, the person concerned with the operation, maintenance, or design of any of
the thousands of mechanical and electronic devices is constantly faced with the
application of scientific law. A technician must have an understanding of the common
laws of physics in such areas as motion, heat, light, and sound if he or she is to
acquire the basic technical knowledge necessary to maintain and repair today’s
advanced aircraft and space vehicles.
MEASUREMENTS
In order to arrive at values of distance, weight, speed, volume, pressure,
and so on, it is necessary to become familiar with the accepted methods
for measuring these values and the units used to express them. Through
the ages, human beings have devised many methods for measuring. In this
text the English system and the metric system, both of which are used
extensively throughout the world, will be examined.
In the metric system all the measurements of length are either multiples
or subdivisions of the meter, based on multiples of 10. The following table
shows how the units of length are related:
One meter (m) is equal to 39.37 in, which is a little longer than the U.S.
yard. Thus 1 decimeter (dm) is equal to 3.937 in. One centimeter (cm) is
equal to 0.3937 in, and 1 millimeter (mm) equals 0.039 37 in. In practice,
the units of length most commonly used are the millimeter, the centimeter,
the meter, and the kilometer.
Since today’s aircraft are used all over the world, many manufacturers
will provide both systems of measurement in their technical manuals. An
example of this is illustrated in Figure 2-3.
FIGURE 2-3 Turning radii for the L-1011 given in both English
and metric measurements. (Lockheed Corp.)
Area
Measurements of area are usually indicated in units that are the squares of
the units of length. In the English system the units of area are the square
inch (in2), the square foot (ft2), the square yard (yd2), and the square
mile (mi2).
Area in the metric system is indicated in square metric units. These are
the square centimeter (cm2), the square meter (m2), and the square
kilometer (km2).
Other units of volume and capacity are the pint, quart, and gallon. In
general, when speaking of volume, cubed units are used, and when
speaking of capacity, the pint, quart, or gallon measurements are used.
The metric system employs the cubed metric units as units of volume.
The most commonly expressed units are the cubic centimeter (cm3) and
the cubic meter (m3). For capacity, the liter is generally employed. The
liter (L) is equal to 1000 cm3. It is also equal to 1.056 U.S. liquid quarts.
One cubic meter equals 1000 L.
Weight
Units of weight in the English system are no more standardized than other
units of measure used in the English system. Among the units of weight in
common use are the grain, troy ounce, avoirdupois ounce, troy pound,
avoirdupois (avdp) pound, and ton (short ton). The following table
shows the relationship among the units of weight just mentioned:
The grain is the smallest unit of weight in the English system and was
derived from the weight of a grain of wheat. It is used principally for the
measurement of medicinal components or drugs. The troy ounce and
pound are used for weighing precious metals such as platinum, gold, and
silver. Avoirdupois weights are used for almost all materials and objects
in the English-speaking countries. These are the common ounce (oz),
pound (lb), hundredweight (cwt), and ton.
The most uniform system of weights is the metric system. The
following shows the relationship among the metric units of weight:
Density
An important physical property of a substance is its density (d), which is
its mass per unit volume. Table 2-2 is a list of the densities of various
common substances. In metric units, density is properly expressed in
kilograms per cubic meter. The density of water is 1000 kg/m3, since 1 m3
of water has a mass of 1000 kg.
In the English system, density should be expressed in slugs per cubic
foot, since the slug is the unit of mass used in this system. In these units
the density of water is 1.94 slugs/ft3.
Because weights rather than masses are usually specified in the English
system, a quantity called weight density is commonly used. As the name
suggests, weight density is weight per unit volume, and its units are
pounds per cubic foot.
Changes in temperature will not change the mass of a substance but will
change the volume of the substance by expansion or contraction, thus
changing its density. To find the density of a substance, its mass and
volume must be known. Its mass is then divided by its volume to find the
mass per unit volume.
Specific Gravity
The Specific gravity of a substance is the ratio of the density of the
substance to the density of water. To determine the Specific gravity of a
substance when the density is known, divide the weight of a given volume
of the substance by the weight of an equal volume of water. For example,
if the specific gravity of lead is unknown and the density in pounds per
cubic foot is 708.21 lb, divide 708.21 by 62.4 (the density per cubic foot
of water) and 11.34 is obtained, which is the Specific gravity of lead.
Table 2-2 lists the Specific gravity for various substances.
A device called a hydrometer is used for measuring the specific gravity
of liquids. This device consists of a tubular-shaped glass float contained in
a larger glass tube (see Figure 2-5). The float is weighted and has a
vertically graduated scale. To determine Specific gravity, the scale is read
at the surface of the liquid in which the float is immersed. A Specific
gravity of 1000 is read when the float is immersed in pure water. When
immersed in a liquid of greater density, the float rises, indicating a greater
Specific gravity. For liquids of lesser density the float sinks, indicating a
lower Specific gravity.
FIGURE 2-5 Hydrometer measuring the electrolyte in an
aircraft battery.
Speed
An object’s speed is a measure of how fast it is moving. Speed tells us
how fast the object has moved during a certain time without respect to
direction. Speed involves only the length of the path traveled by a body
and the time required to travel the path. For example, the average speed of
the aircraft in Figure 2-6 would be 350 mph because it required 1 hour to
travel a distance of 350 mi.
Velocity
The words velocity and speed are often used in the same sense, that is, to
indicate how fast something is moving. The two words are similar in some
respects, but there is an important difference. Velocity refers to both the
speed and direction of the object. The velocity of an object is the rate at
which its position changes over time and the direction of the change.
If an aircraft travels from point A to point B (in Figure 2-6) in 1 hour
following the irregular path, the velocity of the aircraft is 200 mph east-
northeast.
Units of Force
Force may be defined as a push or a pull upon an object. In the English
system the pound (lb) is used to express the value of a force. For example,
we say that a force of 30 lb is acting upon a hydraulic piston.
A unit of force in the metric system is the newton (N). The newton is
the force required to accelerate a mass of 1 kilogram (kg) 1 meter per
second per second (m/s2).
The dyne (dyn or dy) is also employed in the metric system as a unit of
force. One dyne is the force required to accelerate a mass of 1 g 1
centimeter per second per second (cm/s2). One newton is equal to 100 000
dynes [0.225 lb].
If the friction of air acting on a freely falling body is ignored, the rate of
acceleration will be 32.2 ft/s2 [9.82 m/s2]. This is called the acceleration
of gravity and is indicated by the letter symbol g. From this it is known
that when a force equal to the weight or mass of a body is applied to the
body, the body will accelerate at 32.2 ft/s2 [9.82 m/s2] if there is no friction
or other force opposing the applied force. Terminal velocity is the highest
velocity reached by a falling object. The object keeps falling at a constant
velocity and no longer accelerates. Knowledge of these concepts is useful
in developing an equation based upon Newton’s second law.
where F = force, lb [N]
M = mass, lb [N]
a = acceleration, ft/s2 [m/s2]
g = 32.2 ft/s2 [9.82 m/s2]
Friction
The force that opposes motion between two surfaces that are touching is
called friction. The amount of friction depends on the types of surfaces
and the force pressing them together. It does not depend on how fast the
objects are moving or on how large an area is in contact.
Thrust
The thrust of a propeller, rocket, or gas-turbine engine depends upon the
acceleration of a mass (weight) in accordance with Newton’s second law.
Thrust is defined as being a reaction force which is measured in pounds.
A propeller accelerates a mass of air, a rocket accelerates the gases
resulting from the burning of fuel, and a turbine engine accelerates both
air and fuel gases. The quantity (mass) of air and gases accelerated and the
amount of acceleration determine the thrust produced.
The basic formula for the thrust of a gas-turbine engine is
where F = force, lb
w = flow rate of air and fuel gases
2 2
g = acceleration of gravity (32.2 ft/s2) [9.82 m/s2]
V2 = final velocity of gases
V1 = initial velocity of gases
Momentum
Another quantity that often must be taken into account in situations that
involve moving bodies is momentum. There are two kinds of momentum:
linear and angular.
Linear momentum is a measure of the tendency of a moving body to
continue in motion along a straight line. It is defined as the product of the
mass of a body times its velocity:
momentum = mass × velocity
The result in dynes if divided by 100 000 will give the force in
newtons.
To find the force in pounds, use the following formula:
Vectors
A vector quantity is any quantity involving both magnitude and direction.
A vector is represented by a straight arrow pointing in the direction in
which the quantity is acting, and the length of the arrow represents the
magnitude of the quantity. For example, the arrow OY in Figure 2-11
represents a force of 40 lb [18.1 kg] acting upward.
If the sine or tangent of the angle OAX in Figure 2-12 is located on a table
of trigonometric functions, it is found that the angle is about 63°27′. The
tangent of the angle is , which is the tangent of the angle 63°27′, as
shown in the tangent table. Therefore, the direction of OA is 63°27′
counterclockwise from OX.
The determination of the resultant force is particularly useful in
calculating the effects of lift and drag forces that are imposed on airplanes.
It must be noted that the combination of vector forces, that is, forces
having both magnitude and direction, requires something more than the
mere addition of quantities. Vectorial addition is accomplished by means
of parallelograms or triangles, as demonstrated in the foregoing
paragraphs.
Work
In the scientific or technical sense, work refers to the application of force
to a body and the displacement of the body in the direction of the force.
Work is the product of the force applied to an object and the distance the
object moves in the direction of the force.
work (W) = force (F) × distance (D)
If the distance is zero, no work is done by the force no matter how great it
is. Also, even if something moves through a distance, work is not done on
it unless a force is acting on the object.
In the English system of units, the unit in which work is measured is
called the foot-pound (ft-lb). One foot-pound is the amount of work done
by a force of 1 lb that acts through a distance of 1 ft.
In the metric system, work is measured in joules (J), where 1 joule is
the amount of work done by a force of 1 N that acts through a distance of
1 m. Therefore,
1 J = 1 N ⋅ m
Thus it is shown that the work applied to the lever is equal to the work
done by the lever, or output = input. This is true for any machine that is
100% efficient. In reality, however, there is always some loss in a machine
because of friction, so the output cannot be quite as great as the input.
Energy
The term energy may be defined as the capacity for doing work. There are
two forms of energy: potential energy and kinetic energy. Potential
energy is the form of energy possessed by a body because of its position
or configuration. For example, if a 10-lb weight was raised against the pull
of gravity 2 ft higher than it was before, it is now capable of exerting a
force of 10 lb (its weight) through a distance of 2 ft in returning to its
original position. As long as the weight is elevated, the 20 ft-lb of work
done on it is stored, ready to be released whenever the weight is lowered.
It has, in other words, the potentiality of doing this amount of work, which
is called its potential energy.
The notion of potential energy is not necessarily associated only with
the force of gravity. A tightly wound spring or a gas compressed in a metal
cylinder is also able to produce mechanical work that can be measured in
the same units. Potential energy in chemical, rather than mechanical, form
is stored in an automobile fuel tank that is filled with gasoline or in a
charge of high explosive in an artillery shell. Potential energy in still
another form lies in the nuclear energy of the fissionable fuel rods in a
nuclear reactor.
Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a body because of its motion.
The amount of kinetic energy a moving object has depends on the velocity
and mass of the object. The greater the velocity and the mass, the greater
the kinetic energy.
When a hammer is used to drive a nail, the kinetic energy of the
hammer does the work of driving the nail. In the case of a water-driven
turbine, when the water is stored, it possesses potential energy; when it is
released through the turbine, it has kinetic energy, and this energy is
imparted to the turbine.
There are many different types of energy, but they are all in reality
different forms of potential or kinetic energy. Each kind of energy can be
used to exert a force to do work. Chemical energy is the energy stored
within matter. Chemical energy stored in a battery can be used to produce
the electrical energy needed to start an aircraft. When a match is lit, the
chemical energy in the match is changed to light and thermal energy. One
form of energy can be changed to another form.
The law of conservation of energy states that energy can be neither
destroyed nor created; it can be changed only in form. The total amount of
energy in the universe always remains constant. This means, of course,
that the amount of energy imparted to a body is equal to the energy
released by the body when the body is returned to its former state; that is,
the condition of position, temperature, or configuration the body was in
before energy was imparted to it.
One of the principal facts to remember concerning energy is that any
change in the state of a body requires either that energy be given to the
body or that energy be given up by the body. If an aircraft is flying straight
and level at a constant speed and it is to be accelerated, the engine must be
given more fuel energy, which in turn is transmitted to the propeller as
mechanical energy. When landing, if the aircraft speed is to be decreased,
the aircraft must give up energy to the air (air friction) and to the runway
in the form of friction. For a more rapid decrease in speed, the brakes must
be applied, thus converting the kinetic energy of the aircraft to heat energy
at the brake discs.
Energy is expressed in the same units as those used for work. If a
weight of 20 lb [9 kg] is raised 10 ft [3 m], the potential energy it acquires
is 200 ft-lb [271 J] because
E = Fs or E = 20 × 10 = 200
where E = energy
F = force
s = distance
Power
The rate of doing work is called power, and it is defined as the work done
in unit time. As a formula, this would be
power = work done/time taken to do the work
Power is expressed in several different units, such as the watt, ergs per
second, and foot-pounds per second. The most common unit of power in
general use in the United States is the horsepower (hp). One horsepower
is equal to 550 ft-lb/s or 33 000 ft-lb/min. In the metric system the unit of
power is the watt (W) or the kilowatt (kW). One watt is equal to hp;
that is, 746 watts = 1 hp and 1 kW = 1.34 hp.
To compute the power necessary to raise an elevator containing 10
persons a distance of 100 ft in 5 s (assuming the loaded elevator weighs
2500 lb), proceed as follows:
MACHINES
Nearly any mechanical device which aids in doing work can be called a
machine. A machine can make a job easier by changing the size or
direction of an applied force. Machines are devices which make use of the
law of conservation of energy to change either the direction or the
magnitude of a force.
No machine is capable of doing more work than the driving agent does
on the machine. If more work could be done by the machine than was
done upon the machine to make it run, the machine would be creating the
ability to do work within itself. This, of course, it cannot do. Moreover,
since any practical machine will have some friction, energy will be lost
due to friction work within the machine. Therefore, more work has to be
done on the machine than is required to do the work without the machine.
Some machines make a job easier because they increase the amount of
force that is available. The force applied to a machine is the effort force.
The resistance force is the force produced by the machine. For example,
using a screwdriver to open a can of paint allows a force to be exerted at
the tip which is greater than the force exerted by your hand. This greater
force is gained by moving your hand a greater distance than the
screwdriver tip moves. The number of times a machine increases the effort
force is called the mechanical advantage (MA).
The mechanical advantage of a machine is not always greater than 1.
Machines are sometimes used to increase the distance an object is moved
or its speed, in which case the MA will be less than 1. Some machines
only change the direction of the effort force, in which case the MA will be
equal to 1.
An understanding of the principles of simple machines provides a
necessary foundation for the study of compound machines, which are
combinations of two or more simple machines. There are six types of
simple machines. They are the lever, pulley, wheel and axle, inclined
plane, screw, and wedge.
Lever
The lever is one of the simplest machines which enables a person to exert
greater force than the person’s direct effort can produce. The point at
which a lever pivots is called the fulcrum. When an effort force is
applied to a lever, a resistance can be overcome. Figure 2-15 shows a lever
being used to raise one end of a heavy box. The distance from the fulcrum,
f, to point A is three times the distance from f to B. Under these conditions
a 100-lb force applied at A will lift a 300-lb weight at B.
Every lever has a fulcrum, an effort arm, and a resistance arm. The
length of the effort arm is the distance from the fulcrum to the point where
the effort force is applied. The length of the resistance arm is the distance
from the fulcrum to the place where the resistance force acts. The
resistance is the weight of the object or the frictional force to be overcome
by using the lever. There are three classes, or different types, of levers, as
shown in Figure 2-16. These classes are based on the location of the
fulcrum, the resistance force, and the effort force. In a first-class lever, the
fulcrum is between the effort and resistance forces. In a second-class lever,
the resistance is between the effort and the fulcrum. In a third-class lever,
the effort is between the fulcrum and the resistance.
F1D1 = F2D2
In the illustration, 50 × 40 = 200 × 10. The product of the force times the
distance is called a moment. The distance from the reference point (in this
case f) is called the arm. In an aircraft weight-and-balance problem, the
force is usually a weight, and so the moment is equal to the weight times
the arm. This principle is used in determining the weight-and-balance
conditions of an airplane.
Pulleys
Several pulleys are often used to provide a mechanical advantage. In
Figure 2-18a, a single pulley is shown with a rope to support a weight of
50 lb [22.7 kg]. In order to raise the weight, at least 50 lb must be applied
downward on the end of the rope. This gives an MA of one. In Figure 2-
18b, two pulleys with a rope provide a 2:1 advantage.
FIGURE 2-18 Mechanical advantage of pulleys.
Observe here that the weight is being supported by two sections of rope;
therefore one section of rope only must support one-half the total weight.
It is therefore possible to apply 50 lb at the end of the rope and raise 100
lb [45.4 kg] with the pulley (the weight of the lifting pulley is not being
considered). In any arrangement of pulleys (block and tackle), the number
of ropes actually supporting the weight determines the mechanical
advantage of pulley combination.
In Figure 2-19 a set of double pulleys is shown. It will be noted that
there are four sections of rope supporting the weight of 80 lb [36.3 kg].
This means that each rope is required to support only 20 lb [9 kg],
disregarding the weight of the pulleys. It is necessary to apply only
slightly over 20 lb to the traction rope to raise the 80-lb weight. The
mechanical advantage is therefore 4:1, since the weight is four times as
great as the effort required to raise it.
FIGURE 2-19 Multiplication of forces by means of pulleys.
Inclined Plane
The inclined plane offers a simple example of mechanical advantage that
is used in many devices. Figure 2-22 illustrates the principle of the
inclined plane. Assume that B is a 120-lb barrel of four that must be raised
2 ft. The work to be done is 240 ft-lb. If the barrel is moved a distance of 6
ft to do the work, then the force need be only 40 lb, because 6 × 40 = 240.
Therefore, the ratio of the length of the inclined plane to the vertical
distance is the mechanical advantage, disregarding friction.
Screw
The screw is actually an adaptation of the inclined plane principle. A
screw jack can be used to raise buildings through human power by
providing a large multiplication of the human effort. There is considerable
friction in a screw arrangement, but even with the friction, the screw
makes possible a great multiplication of force.
Compound Machines
A compound machine is made by combining two or more simple
machines. Most machines are actually compound machines. For example,
a combination of a screw and a gear, called a worm-gear arrangement, is
often used in machines to provide a large mechanical advantage. A worm-
gear drive is shown in Figure 2-23. One revolution of the drive shaft will
move the rim of the driven gear the distance of one tooth. The mechanical
advantage is therefore equal to the number of teeth on the driven gear. If
the gear has 20 teeth, the mechanical advantage is 20:1.
HEAT
Another form of energy, heat, is manifested in matter by the motion of the
matter molecules. As heat is increased, the motion of the molecules
increases. This adds to the internal energy of the material to which the heat
is applied. If heat is applied to one end of a metal rod, it will be found that
the other end of the rod gradually becomes warmer. This is because the
molecules in the heated end of the rod increase their motion and strike
other molecules along the rod with greater force, which increases the
motion of the molecules progressively all along the rod. When this occurs,
it is said that the rod is conducting heat.
When a heated object is in contact with a cold object, the heat transfers
from the hot object to the cold object. This also is brought about by the
motion of the molecules in the hot object striking the molecules of the
cold object, thus increasing the motion of the molecules in the cold object.
Measuring Temperature
The degree of heat or cold (heat energy) measurable in a body is called
temperature. Temperature is measured with a thermometer; its value is
expressed in degrees.
In aviation, temperature can be expressed using a number of different
scales. The scales used are Fahrenheit, Celsius, Rankine, and Kelvin. The
Celsius temperature scale is based on the freezing and boiling points of
water. The freezing point of water is given the value of 0°C. The boiling
point of water is labeled as 100°C. In the International System (SI),
temperature is measured using the Kelvin scale. In the Kelvin scale, zero
is the same as absolute zero, the coldest possible temperature.
Absolute zero, one of the fundamental constants of physics, is
commonly used in the study of gases. If the heat energy of a given gas
sample could be progressively reduced, some temperature would be
reached at which the motion of the molecules would cease entirely. If
accurately determined, this temperature could then be taken as a natural
reference, or as a true absolute zero value. Absolute temperatures are
expressed in kelvins or degrees Rankine (°R). The various temperature
scales are compared in Table 2-3.
Since the kelvin is the same size as the Celsius degree and begins
counting 273° higher on the scale,
°C + 273 = kelvins
The Fahrenheit and Rankine scales are 460° apart, so to convert degrees
Fahrenheit to degrees Rankine,
°F + 460 = °R
Effects of heat
The effects of heat make possible many of the powerful machines in use
today. Various fuels, such as gasoline, may be burned to cause a great
expansion of the air and gases of combustion. The expanded gases are
used to move the pistons in gasoline engines, thus causing the crankshaft
to rotate and develop power for turning a propeller. In gas-turbine engines
the burning of fuel with oxygen causes a great expansion of gases, which
drives the turbine of the engine to compress the air, and the exhausted
gases cause the jet thrust. Similarly, the burning of either liquid or solid
fuels in a rocket causes a great expansion of gases, which produces the
thrust due to the acceleration of the gases as they are ejected from the
rocket nozzle.
The energy available from a fuel is determined by the amount of heat it
produces when burned. In order to measure heat energy, it is necessary to
employ heat units. Heat units have been established on the basis of heating
value. In the metric system the heat unit is called the calorie (cal). One
calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of
water 1°C and is equal to approximately 4.186 J. In the English system the
unit of heat measurement is that amount of heat necessary to raise the
temperature of 1 lb of water through 1°F This quantity of heat is called the
British thermal unit (Btu).
The amount of work that can be performed by a certain amount of heat
has also been determined. For example, it has been found that 1 Btu can
do 778 ft-lb of work. Also, 1 cal can produce 4.186 J of work, or about
3.09 ft-lb. From these calculations we may determine how much work can
be obtained from a certain amount of fuel, provided that the heat value of
the fuel is known. The heat values of a few common fuels are given in
Table 2-4.
From the information in the table it can be determined how much power
can be developed when a certain amount of gasoline is being burned in a
given time. For example, if an engine is burning 40 lb/h of gasoline, how
much power will the engine deliver if it is 35% efficient?
Specific heat
The Specific heat of a substance is the number of calories required to
raise the temperature of 1 g of the substance 1°C or the number of Btu’s
required to raise 1 lb of the substance 1°F The value is the same for each.
The Specific heat of water is 1, and that of other substances is usually less
than 1. Table 2-5 gives the Specific heats of a variety of common
substances.
Table 2-5 shows that only 0.22 Btu is required to raise the temperature
of 1 lb of aluminum 1°F and that 0.11 Btu will raise the temperature of 1
lb of iron 1°F. The Specific heat of different substances varies
substantially.
Change of State
Another interesting heat phenomenon is noted when a substance melts or
when it is converted to a vapor. For example, when 1 g of water changes
to ice at 32°F [0°C], it gives up 80 cal. When 1 g of ice is melted, it
absorbs 80 cal. This accounts for the fact that ice can be forced to melt by
the application of salt, and this melting process absorbs heat and lowers
the temperature of the water-salt mixture that we call brine. A home ice
cream freezer utilizes this principle in freezing ice cream. The energy
needed to change from a solid state to a liquid state or from a liquid to a
solid is called the heat of fusion. Once all of the ice has melted, the
temperature begins to rise. When the temperature reaches the boiling point
(212°F), it stops rising. The water then changes to water vapor. The energy
involved in changing from a liquid to a gas or from a gas to a liquid is
called the heat of vaporization.
When a substance is warmed, such as during evaporation, and its
temperature increases, it is because the added energy increases the kinetic
energy of the particles. Condensation and freezing are the opposites of
evaporation. Condensation and freezing are warming processes because
energy is given off to the environment. Melting and evaporation are
cooling processes because energy is absorbed from the environment.
Expansion
As heat flows into a material, the kinetic energy of its particles increases.
As their energy increases, the particles move faster. As the particles move
faster, they collide with each other more violently. These violent collisions
push the particles farther apart. As the particles move farther apart in a
material, the material’s volume increases. Thus, the material expands.
The effect of heat on metals is particularly important in the design and
operation of heat engines. Metals usually expand with an increase in
temperature, and this expansion must be accounted for in the design of an
engine. Materials expand at different rates. The increase in length of a
metal per unit length per degree of rise in temperature is called the
coefficient of linear expansion. As shown in Table 2-6, for iron the
coefficient of linear expansion is 0.000 012 cm/°C. This means that 1 cm
of iron will have a length of 1.000 012 cm after the temperature is
increased 1°C. The coefficient of expansion for aluminum is twice that of
iron. A bimetallic strip of metal can be made of iron and aluminum bonded
together. The strip will bend when heated. Since aluminum expands faster
than iron, the strip will bend toward the iron. As illustrated in Table 2-6,
the modern alloys used in turbine engines often expand much more than
ordinary iron or steel. For this reason a turbine engine must be designed to
“grow” as its temperature increases. A large engine may increase in length
more than an inch at operating temperature. This is one of the reasons the
technician must be careful to allow correct clearances when assembling a
turbine engine. This same precaution must be taken in assembling any
device that is subject to large changes in temperature during operation.
Laws of Thermodynamics
The term thermodynamics is defined as the branch of the science of
physics dealing with the mechanical actions and relations of heat. There
are two principal laws of thermodynamics which are of particular interest
to the aviation technician.
The first law of thermodynamics is similar to the law of the
conservation of energy. That is, heat energy cannot be destroyed; it can
only be changed in form.
The second law of thermodynamics states that heat cannot flow from a
body of a given temperature to a body of a higher temperature. That is,
heat will only flow from a warmer body to a cooler body. Coldness is the
absence of heat.
HEAT TRANSFER
The ability of a substance to either retain or transfer heat plays an
important role in selecting the materials from which aircraft components
and engines will be constructed. There are three basic methods by which
heat is transferred between locations and substances; they are conduction,
convection, and radiation.
Conduction
The transfer of energy through a conductor by means of molecular activity
and without any external motion is called conduction. As a rule,
conduction is more effective in solids than in liquids or gases.
Materials that are poor conductors are used to prevent the transfer of
heat and are called heat insulators. Certain materials, such as finely spun
glass or asbestos, are particularly poor heat conductors. The heat
conductivities of some familiar materials are shown in Table 2-7. These
figures were determined by using a cube of the material 1 cm on a side,
with one face of the cube kept just 1°C cooler than the opposite face. Heat
will flow from the warmer face to the cooler, and the number of calories
per second flowing through the cube is the heat conductivity, or thermal
conductibility, of the material.
Convection
The process by which heat is transferred through fluids by the movement
of matter is called convection. Liquids and gases are called fluids because
they flow. This flow has its basis in the fact that heated bodies increase
their volume and therefore decrease their density. In a teakettle, the water
near the bottom is heated by immediate contact with the hot metal. It
becomes lighter than the rest of the water in the kettle and floats up; its
place is taken by the cooler water from the upper layers. These convection
currents carry the heat up “bodily” and mix the water in the kettle. A
similar phenomenon takes place in the atmosphere when, on a hot summer
day, air heated by contact with the ground streams up to be replaced by
cooler air masses from above.
As the air rises to cooler layers of the atmosphere, the water vapor in
the air condenses into a multitude of tiny water droplets and forms the
cumulus clouds so characteristic of hot summer days.
Radiation
Conduction and convection involve the transfer of energy between
particles of matter. A third way in which heat energy can be transferred
from one body to another is by radiation. Radiation is a transfer of energy
that does not require the presence of matter. Standing outdoors at an open
fire on a winter day, the heat received does not come by conduction
through the air or the ground, since both of these are cold. The heat is not
transferred by convection, since the hot air over the fire rises into the sky,
taking its heat away with it. Just as the bright fames and the glowing coals
radiate light, they also send out an even greater amount of radiant heat that
travels unimpeded through the air, to be absorbed by skin and clothing.
The term radiation refers to the continual emission of energy from the
surface of all bodies. All the energy we receive from the sun has been
radiated in this way across 93 million miles of vacuum. Only a small part
of this energy is in the form of light; most of the rest is radiant heat.
Conduction and convection usually take place very slowly, while radiation
takes place at the speed of light.
A hot object, such as an aircraft engine, may transfer heat by
conduction, convection, and radiation.
FLUIDS
Properties of Liquids
A liquid is defined as a substance that flows readily and assumes the
shape of its container but does not tend to expand indefinitely. Liquids
retain their total volume; a gallon of water will remain a gallon whether it
is poured into a fat dish or into a tall, narrow container. The molecules in a
liquid are free to move throughout the confining space, but they are bound
with a force, one with another, so that they tend to remain together.
Liquids are virtually incompressible. The highest pressures obtainable
with modern laboratory equipment are able to squeeze water only into
about three-fourths of its original volume.
Viscosity
When a force is applied to a liquid, the fluid deforms permanently under
the force, and we say that the liquid flows. Some liquids are more fluid,
that is, flow more readily, than others. It is convenient to have a quantity
which measures the resistance of the liquid to flow. Such a quantity is the
viscosity of the liquid. Viscosity is commonly defined as the resistance of
a fluid to flow. Viscosity refers to the “stiffness” of a fluid, or its internal
friction.
The viscosity index is a measure of the change in the viscosity of a
fluid with a change in its temperature. For most liquids, viscosity
decreases with increasing temperature. This is a reflection of the fact that
the molecules are less tightly bound together at higher temperatures, and,
therefore, the friction between them is less. For water at 0, 50, and 100°C,
the viscosity is 1.79, 0.55, and 0.28 centipoise (cP), respectively. The
viscosity of several fluids is given in Table 2-8.
Archimedes’ Principle
The buoyancy principle, first discovered by Archimedes, is as follows: A
body placed in a liquid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the
liquid displaced. It therefore follows that a floating body will displace its
own weight in liquid. This can be demonstrated by placing a block of
wood in a container of liquid that is filled to the overflow point, as shown
in Figure 2-24. When the block is placed in the liquid, an amount of the
liquid will flow out that is equal in weight to the weight of the block. This
can be proved by weighing the liquid that has flowed out of the container.
FIGURE 2-24 Displacement of a liquid by a floating solid.
Fluid Pressure
Many types of liquids are known, but the most common is water.
Therefore, in considering the characteristics of a liquid, water will be used
as an example. Consider water in a cylindrical glass. Because of its
weight, the water exerts a force on the bottom of the glass, a force the
same as that which would be produced by a cylindrical piece of ice if the
water were frozen and the glass walls removed. This force is distributed
over the entire bottom of the glass so that each square centimeter of the
area of the bottom carries its own equal share of the load. This force per
unit area is called the pressure, P, and is equal to the total force divided by
the area over which it is exerted:
Consider the bowl of water shown in Figure 2-25. The arrows represent
the direction of force acting on the sides and bottom of the bowl. The
amount of force exerted at any particular point depends upon the vertical
distance from the surface of the water to the point where the force is to be
measured. The force exerted at point 1 is determined by the distance a.
Likewise, the force at 2 is determined by the distance b, and the force on
the bottom at 3 or any other point on the bottom of the bowl is determined
by the distance c. To compute total force, the force per unit area, or
pressure, is used. Pressure is expressed in pounds per square inch, in
grams per square centimeter, or in kilopascals (kPa). One pascal is a
pressure of 1 N ⋅ m2.
Pressure due to fluid height (h) also depends on the density (d) of the
fluid. Water, for example, weighs 62.4 lb/ft3, or 0.036 lb/in3, but a certain
oil might weigh 55 lb/ft3, or 0.032 lb/in3. In Figure 2-25, if the distance c
is 4 in [10.16 cm], the pressure, P, at the bottom of the bowl will be
Water, or any other fluid, since it does not have a rigid shape, will exert
equal pressure in all directions. Thus the formula P = hd is equally useful
in calculating the pressure against the wall of a container at any depth, no
matter at what angle the wall happens to be. For this reason, the shape of
the container makes no difference. In Figure 2-26, there are three
containers of water. The areas of the bottoms of the containers are equal,
and the depth of the water, h, is the same in each container. Therefore, the
total force on the bottom of each container is the same as that on the other
two containers.
FIGURE 2-26 Total effect of liquid pressures on differently
shaped vessels.
In Figure 2-26, the containers are filled with a liquid of density d, the
pressure at the bottom is hd for all, and at the points marked A, the
pressure in all three is hd.
The terms area, pressure, and force are mathematically related. This
relationship establishes the foundation upon which hydraulic systems are
based. It permits the engineer to determine the operating pressures
required for certain units in a system, the size of pump required, and the
material strength needed in system units.
Consider the relationship of force, pressure, and area. If any two of
these factors are known, it is possible to calculate the third. Force equals
pressure times area (F = P × A), pressure equals force divided by area (P =
F/A), and area equals force divided by pressure (A = F/P). A simple aid for
the solution of problems involving these factors is the diagram shown in
Figure 2-28. For example, suppose a force of 25 lb is exerted on a piston
whose area is 5 in2. That pressure is the amount of force per unit of area
expressed in pounds per square inch; therefore, on each square inch of the
piston there is 5 lb of force, or 5 psi.
FIGURE 2-28 Device for determining the arrangement of the
force, pressure, and area formulas.
In this equation V is the symbol for volume and P is the symbol for
pressure. The subscript figures identify the first volume and pressure and
the second volume and pressure.
Absolute pressure means the pressure above zero pressure, keeping in
mind that the pressure of the atmosphere at sea level is approximately 14.7
psi [101.325 kPa], or 29.92 in [76 cm] of mercury (Hg). Therefore, if a
confined gas is in a cylinder with the gas at atmospheric pressure and then
the gas is compressed to one-half its former volume, as is shown in Figure
2-30, the pressure exerted by the gas will then be approximately 29.4 psi
[202.65 kPa]. In this example it is assumed that the temperature remains
constant, although under normal conditions, when a gas is compressed, its
temperature increases.
FIGURE 2-30 Gas compressed in a cylinder.
The equation relating to the pressure of a gas where the volume is constant
is
SOUND
Vibration
Vibration is a rhythmic motion back and forth across a position of
equilibrium. The particles of a fluid or of an elastic solid vibrate when its
equilibrium has been disturbed. Such a state is clearly demonstrated in the
plucking of a string on a musical instrument. The effects of vibration in
mechanical devices create many of the problems that plague engineers in
the design of such devices. It is therefore necessary in many instances to
conduct vibration studies before the design of a particular aircraft or
engine can be approved.
To obtain a clear picture of a simple vibratory or harmonic motion, a
device such as that shown in Figure 2-31 can be used. A T-shaped bar with
a slotted head is mounted so that a pin on the rim of a wheel will fit into
the slot in the bar. The bar is mounted in guides so that its motion is
limited to two directions, up and down. When the wheel is rotated at a
constant speed, the movement of the bar up and down will be a harmonic
motion. If a marking pen is attached to the end of the bar so that it will
mark on a strip of paper moved at a uniform speed under the pen, then the
pen will describe a sine curve on the paper. It can be seen that the point P
will move with a constantly changing speed, with the velocity being zero
at points Y and Y1 and maximum at the midpoint M.
Wave Motion
To understand sound it is first necessary to examine wave motion because
sound travels in waves. Sound is produced by initiating a series of
compression waves in a medium capable of transmitting the vibrational
disturbance. The particles of the medium acquire energy from the
vibrating source and enter the vibrational mode themselves. As they do,
they pass on the energy to adjacent particles. If the energy source
continues to vibrate, a train of periodic waves travels through the medium,
and a transfer of energy takes place.
Almost everyone has seen waves in water resulting from a disturbance
in or on the water. The effects of sound in the atmosphere are similar to
disturbances in water, but the difference in the compressibility of the two
media also makes a difference in the nature of the waves. Figure 2-33
shows how waves emanate from a point in water where an object, such as
a small stone, has been dropped. The illustration above the series of circles
shows how a cross section of the water surface looks when an object is
dropped into the water.
FIGURE 2-33 Wave motion demonstrated with a rope.
Sound Transmission
Sound must travel through some form of matter; it cannot travel through
empty space. Most sounds come to us through the air, which acts as the
transmitting medium. Sound is a series of expansions and compressions in
the molecules of the air. It is of a similar nature when passing through a
liquid or solid; however, the velocity is different. The velocity of sound
through a substance depends upon both the density and the elasticity of the
substance that is conducting the sound.
Sound is transmitted better at low altitudes than at high altitudes
because the air is less dense at higher altitudes. In a vacuum, sound will
not be transmitted at all. Liquids are better transmitters of sound than
gases because they have higher elastic moduli and transmit the sound
energy more readily. In general, because of their still higher elastic
moduli, solids are better transmitters of sound than are liquids or gases.
The speed of sound in air is about 331.5 m/s at 0°C. As temperature
increases, the speed of sound increases about 60.96 cm/s for each degree
Celsius rise in temperature. At very high altitudes where the temperature is
many degrees below zero, the speed of sound is much lower than it is at
sea level. The speed of sound in water is about four times that in air; in
water at 25°C sound travels about 1500 m/s. In some solids, the speed of
sound is even greater. In a steel rod, for example, sound travels
approximately 5000 m/s—about 15 times the speed in air. In general, the
speed of sound varies with the temperature of the transmitting medium.
Table 2-9 gives the speed of sound through several common substances at
the indicated temperatures.
Resonance
Another interesting wave phenomenon is that of resonance. Resonance
can be observed if two objects have the same natural vibrational
frequency. Resonance can occur in an airplane by matching the vibration
of the aircraft structure with the engine vibration. In the case of resonance,
the air molecules will transmit their vibrations from one to another and
eventually to the second object as well. This may allow vibration levels to
build to dangerous and even destructive levels. For this reason aircraft
undergo extensive vibration testing.
Doppler Effect
Today, the term Doppler effect is often used in aviation in discussions of
electronic navigation and control systems as well as in discussions of
sound. This is possible because both electromagnetic energy and sound
travel in waves. The Doppler effect is observed in sound when the source
of a sound wave changes its direction with respect to the hearer so that the
number of sound waves per second reaching the ear is changed. Assume
that an aircraft is emitting a sound with a frequency of 1100 hertz (Hz) and
that the aircraft is approaching the listener at a speed of 100 ft/s [30.5
m/s]. Assume also that the temperature is such that the speed of sound is
1100 ft/s [33.5 m/s]. Then, with the frequency at 1100 Hz and the speed of
sound 1100 ft/s, there will be one sound wave (cycle) for each foot
distance from the sound source. Since the sound source is approaching the
listener at 100 ft/s, the listener will hear 1100 + 100, or 1200, Hz; that is,
the sound will have a higher pitch than that at which it is emitted. When
the sound source reaches and then goes away from the listener, the pitch
will suddenly change, so that the listener will hear a pitch of 1000 Hz.
This apparent change in pitch is illustrated in Figure 2-37 and is called the
Doppler effect. The formula for determining the change in frequency as a
result of the Doppler effect is
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the basis for the nautical mile?
2. What is the advantage of the metric system of measurements over the English
system?
3. State the universal law of gravitation.
4. Compare the terms mass and weight.
5. define density.
6. define Specific gravity.
7. What is the difference between the terms velocity and speed?
8. State Newton’s first law of motion.
9. Define inertia.
10. What is the acceleration of gravity?
11. What is the definition of friction?
12. State Newton’s third law of motion.
13. Define thrust.
14. What is the difference between linear and angular momentum?
15. Explain the difference between centripetal and centrifugal forces.
16. Describe a vector.
17. Define work.
18. Define energy.
19. Differentiate between potential energy and kinetic energy.
20. Define power.
21. What is meant by the term mechanical advantage?
22. Define a British thermal unit.
23. define the phrase coefficient of linear expansion.
24. List three methods of heat transfer.
25. What is meant by the term viscosity?
26. State Archimedes’ principle.
27. What three laws are used to understand the behavior of gases?
28. What is meant by the term frequency of vibration?
29. What is the unit of measure for sound intensity?
3
Basic Aerodynamics
INTRODUCTION
An understanding of the basic principles of aerodynamics is as important to the
aviation maintenance technician as it is to the pilot and the aerospace engineer. The
technician is concerned with the strength of an aircraft because of the stresses
applied through the forces of aerodynamics when the aircraft is in flight. Often
responsible for the repair or restoration of aircraft structures, the technician must
know that the repair work will restore the required strength to the parts that are being
repaired. There are certain physical laws which describe the behavior of airflow and
define the various aerodynamic forces acting on a surface. These principles of
aerodynamics provide the foundations for a good understanding of what may be
termed the “theory of flight.”
The study of moving air and the force that it produces is referred to as
aerodynamics. As studied by the engineer or scientist, aerodynamics involves the
use of advanced mathematics and physics; however, this chapter presents only the
basic principles of the subject and their application to the flight of aircraft, without the
necessity of advanced mathematical analysis. The subject can therefore be more
easily understood by you, the student whose primary concern lies with the
maintenance, operation, and repair of the aircraft.
Atmosphere
The aerodynamic forces acting on a surface are due in great part to the
properties of the air mass in which the surface is operating.
Air is a mixture of several gases. For practical purposes, it is sufficient
to say that air is a mixture of one-fifth oxygen and four-fifths nitrogen.
Pure, dry air contains about 78% (by volume) nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and
0.9% argon. In addition, air contains about 0.03% carbon dioxide and
traces of several other gases, such as hydrogen, helium, and neon. The
distribution of gases in the air is shown in Fig. 3-1.
Static Pressure
The atmosphere is the whole mass of air extending upward hundreds of
miles. It may be compared to a pile of blankets. The air in the higher
altitudes, like the top blanket of the pile, is under much less pressure than
the air at the lower altitudes. The air at the earth’s surface may be
compared to the bottom blanket because it supports the weight of all the
layers above it. The static pressure of the air at any altitude results from
the mass of air supported above that level.
The term pressure may be defined as force acting upon a unit area. For
example, if a force of 5 lb is acting against an area of 1 in, there is a
pressure of 5 psi (pounds per square inch); if a force of 20 lb is acting
against an area of 2 in, the pressure is 10 psi. Air is always pressed down
by the weight of the air above it. The atmospheric pressure at any place is
equal to the weight of the column of air above it and may be represented
by a column of water or mercury of equal weight. If the cube-shaped box
shown in Fig. 3-2 has dimensions of 1 in2 on all sides and is filled with
mercury, the weight of the mercury will be 0.491 lb [222.72 g], and a force
of 0.491 lb will be acting on the square inch at the bottom of the box. This
means that there will be a pressure of 0.491 psi on the bottom of the box.
If the height of the box were extended to 4 in with the cross-sectional area
remaining at 1 in2, the pressure at the bottom would be 4 × 0.491 psi, or
1.964 psi. The pressure, as measured, per square inch exerted by a column
of mercury does not change with the area of the cross section. If a 1-in
column of mercury has a cross-sectional area of 10 in2, the pressure will
be 0.491 psi even though the total volume of mercury weighs 4.91 lb.
Likewise, if the 1-in column of mercury has a cross-sectional area of in2,
the pressure will still be 0.491 psi.
As just mentioned, in Fig. 3-3 the space above the mercury in the tube is
a vacuum; this means that the pressure at this point is 0 psia. Psia
indicates “pounds per square inch absolute.” Any gauge marked for psia
measures pressure from absolute zero rather than from ambient pressure
zero.
Atmospheric pressure pressing down on the surface of any liquid will
cause the liquid to rise in an evacuated tube in the same manner as
mercury; however, the height to which a liquid will rise depends upon the
density or specific gravity of the liquid. For example, water will rise to
approximately 33.9 ft [10.34 m] in a completely evacuated tube.
Sometimes pressure gauges are scaled for inches of water (in H2O) rather
than for inches of mercury because such a gauge is more sensitive and will
measure lower pressure differences.
A mercury barometer is essentially a mercury-filled glass tube scaled to
show the height of a mercury column. The upper end of the tube is sealed,
and the lower end is exposed to the pressure being measured. The
barometer can be scaled for pounds per square inch, inches of mercury, or
other unit of pressure. On weather maps, the unit of pressure is the
millibar (mbar), which is approximately one-thousandth of a bar. For
standard purposes, the sea-level pressure is set at 1013 mbar (standard
conditions). The bar is therefore the approximate atmospheric pressure at
sea level. One inch of mercury equals 33.86 mbar.
Since air has weight, it is easy to recognize that the pressure of the
atmosphere will vary with altitude. This is illustrated in Fig. 3-4. Notice
that at 20 000 ft [6097.56 m] the pressure is less than half the sea-level
pressure. This means that more than half the atmosphere lies below the
altitude of 20 000 ft even though the “outer” half extends hundreds of
miles above the earth. Table 3-1 shows the pressures and temperatures at
various altitudes above the earth. This table is based upon standard
conditions established by the International Civil Aviation Organization
(ICAO). The table also shows the density of the air in slugs and the speed
of sound at each altitude.
FIGURE 3-4 Pressure of the earth’s atmosphere at various
altitudes. (Note: Metric equivalents given in round figures.)
Air Temperature
Under standard conditions, temperature decreases at approximately l.98°C
for each increase of 1000 ft [304.88 m] of altitude until an altitude of 38
000 ft [11 585.44 m] is reached. Above this altitude the temperature
remains at approximately –56.5°C.
Textbooks on meteorology often state that the temperature normally
decreases with altitude at a rate of approximately 0.5°C per 100 m, or
about 1°F per 300 ft. This amounts to a decrease of about 1.52°C for each
increase of 1000 ft, which is different from the decrease under standard
conditions. Remember that the textbooks using the foregoing values are
discussing average rather than standard conditions.
Density
The density of the air is a property of great importance in the study of
aerodynamics. Density has been defined previously; however, additional
discussion is given here to relate density to the study of aerodynamics. Air
is compressible, as illustrated in Fig. 3-5. As the air is compressed, it
becomes more dense because the same quantity of air occupies less space.
Density varies directly with pressure, with the temperature remaining
constant. In Fig. 3-5, the air in cylinder B has twice the density of the air
in cylinder A.
Humidity
The condition of moisture or dampness in the air is called humidity. The
maximum amount of water vapor that the air can hold depends on the
temperature of the air; the higher the temperature of the air, the more water
vapor it can absorb. By itself, water vapor weighs approximately five-
eighths as much as an equal volume of perfectly dry air. Therefore, when
air contains 5 parts of water vapor and 95 parts of perfectly dry air, it is
not as heavy as air containing no moisture. This is because water is
composed of hydrogen (an extremely light gas) and oxygen. Air is
composed principally of nitrogen, which is almost as heavy as oxygen.
Assuming that the temperature and pressure remain the same, the
density of the air varies with the humidity. On damp days the density of air
is less than it is on dry days.
Lift
The unique feature of an aircraft as compared with all other types of
transportation vehicles is its ability to lift into the air. The force of gravity
acts on all bodies on or near the surface of the earth and results in the
weight of an object. In order for an aircraft to fly, a force must be created
that will overcome the force of gravity. This force is called lift.
The lift or support the airfoil receives from deflecting the air downward
can vary from 0 to 100% of the total lift required. On the other hand, if the
wing is nosed downward, it may scoop the air upward, causing a
download to be placed on the wing.
Lift can also be created by the way that the air flows around an airfoil.
In order to understand how this lift is created, it is first necessary to
understand Bernoulli’s principle. Daniel Bernoulli, a Swiss scientist of
the eighteenth century, discovered that as fluid (air) velocity increases, the
pressure decreases, and as the velocity decreases, the pressure increases.
This principle can be written mathematically as
2
p + ρV = Constant
where p = pressure
V = velocity
Figure 3-9 illustrates the variation of static, dynamic, and total pressure
of air flowing through a closed tube. Note that the total pressure is
constant throughout the length and that any change in dynamic pressure
produces the same magnitude change in static pressure.
In Fig. 3-10a the airstreams moving through a venturi tube are indicated
by arrows. Notice that close to the venturi wall the airflow conforms to the
shape of the walls. In the center of the tube the airflow is straight. In Fig.
3-10b the walls of the venturi have been moved farther apart. Notice that
the airflow streams close to the walls still follow the wall contours and
that those farther away gradually straighten out. Before the airflow enters
the venturi tube, the streamlines are equally spaced, indicating a uniform
flow velocity. Adjacent to the wall of the tube the streamlines come closer
together, indicating that the velocity of the flow is greater at that point. In
Fig. 3-10c the upper wall has been removed. The flow lines immediately
adjacent to the bottom wall still follow the contour and are spaced closely
together. It is therefore indicated that the velocity immediately adjacent to
a curved surface will increase. According to Bernoulli’s principle, this
increase will bring about a similar decrease in pressure. Notice the
similarity between the shape of the remaining wall of the venturi in Fig. 3-
10c and the shape of a wing.
Airfoils
The structure which makes flight possible is the airfoil. An airfoil is
technically defined as any surface, such as an airplane aileron, elevator,
rudder, or wing, designed to obtain a useful reaction from the air through
which it moves. An airfoil section is a cross section of an airfoil, which
can be drawn as a silhouette. If the wing of an airplane were sawed
through from the leading edge to the trailing edge, the side view of the
section through the wing at that point would be its airfoil section. An
airfoil profile is merely the outline or shape of an airfoil section. The
word airfoil is often used when “airfoil section” or perhaps “airfoil
profile” is meant.
Airfoil Terminology
Since the shape of an airfoil and its angle to the airstream are so important
in determining its performance, it is necessary to understand airfoil
terminology. Figure 3-12 shows a typical airfoil and illustrates various
airfoil-related terms.
The chord line is a straight line connecting the leading edge (the
forward-most tip) and the trailing edge of the airfoil. The distance between
the leading edge and the trailing edge is referred to as the chord.
Notice that in Fig. 3-12 there is more area above the chord line than
below it. This is typical of most airfoils. The mean camber line is a line
drawn halfway between the upper and lower surfaces. This line is also
referred to as the mean line or mid line. Any point on this mean line
should be the same distance from the upper and lower surfaces. The mean
camber is the curvature of the mean line of an airfoil profile from the
chord.
Camber is defined as the curvature of an airfoil surface or an airfoil
section from the leading edge to the trailing edge. The perpendicular
distance between the chord line and the mean camber line is camber. The
degree or amount of camber is expressed as the ratio of the maximum
departure of the mean camber line from the chord to the chord length.
Figure 3-12 shows an airfoil that has a double convex curvature, which
means that it has camber above and below the chord line. Upper camber
refers to the curve of the upper surface of an airfoil, and lower camber
refers to the curve of the lower surface. Camber is positive when the
departure from the straight line is upward, and negative when it is
downward. When the upper and lower cambers of an airfoil are the same,
the airfoil is said to be symmetrical.
The shape of the mean camber line is very important in determining the
aerodynamic characteristics of an airfoil section. The maximum camber
(the maximum displacement of the mean line from the chord line) and the
location of the maximum camber help to define the shape of the mean
camber line. These quantities are expressed as fractions or percentages of
the basic chord dimension. A typical low-speed airfoil may have a
maximum camber of 4% located 40% aft of the leading edge. The
maximum camber is sometimes referred to simply as the camber.
The thickness and thickness distribution of the profile are important
properties of an airfoil. The distance between the upper and lower surfaces
is called, simply, the thickness. The maximum thickness and the location
of the maximum thickness are expressed as fractions of the percentage of
the chord. A typical low-speed airfoil may have a maximum thickness of
12% located 30% aft of the leading edge.
The leading-edge radius of the airfoil is the radius of curvature given
the leading-edge shape. It is the radius of the circle centered on a line
tangent to the leading-edge camber connecting tangency points of upper
and lower surfaces with the leading edge. Typical leading-edge radii are 0
(knife edge) to 4 or 5%.
Figure 3-13 illustrates five airfoil profiles of different shapes together
with their chords. In the figure, profile A has a double convex shape. The
chord is simply the straight line from the leading edge to the trailing edge.
Profile B, which is designed to produce high lift, has a convex upper
curvature and a concave lower curvature. The chord is the straight line
connecting the imaginary perpendiculars erected at the leading and trailing
edges. Profile C has a flat lower surface; therefore the chord is the straight
line connecting the leading and trailing edges. Profile D resembles profile
B, and again the chord is the straight line connecting imaginary
perpendiculars erected at the leading and trailing edges. Profile E is
designed for supersonic flight and is almost symmetrical.
FIGURE 3-13 Airfoil profiles of different shapes.
Airfoils in Motion
When an airfoil is moved through the air, a stream of air flows around the
airfoil. If the airfoil is set at the proper angle and has sufficient velocity,
enough lift will be produced to sustain the heavier-than-air craft in flight.
In examining the flow of air around the airfoil, assume that this is a no-
wind day. Any airflow, or wind, will be a relative wind, that is, a wind
created by the movement of an object through still air. A relative wind
flows opposite the direction of the object in motion. The velocity of its
flow around or over the object in motion is the object’s airspeed.
In Fig. 3-14 a symmetrical airfoil is shown with its chord extended
through the leading edge. As the airfoil moves through the air, a relative
wind is created which flows opposite the flight direction of the airfoil. The
velocity of the relative wind is in direct proportion to the velocity at which
the airfoil is being moved through the air. Figure 3-14 also shows that an
acute angle is formed between the chord of the airfoil and the relative
wind. This angle is called the angle of attack (AOA). The Greek letter α
(alpha) is used to denote this angle.
Drag
As explained previously, air has mass. When an airplane flies through air,
the air is moved. When any mass is moved or accelerated, force is
required and the application of force produces an equal and opposite force.
This is in keeping with Newton’s law of motion. The impact of the air
against the surfaces of the airplane applies force, which tends to hold the
airplane back. This is drag. Specifically, drag is a retarding force acting
upon a body in motion. There are several different types of drag, which are
classified according to their origin.
The second reason why air tends to cling to the surface is the viscosity
of the air. Technically, viscosity is the resistance offered by a fluid to the
relative motion of its particles, but the term is most commonly used to
describe the adhesive or sticky characteristics of a fluid. Even though it is
not always apparent, air does have “thickness,” as does oil. Viscosity may
best be visualized by thinking of the difference between syrup and water:
the syrup is considerably more viscous than water. The viscosity of gases
is unusual in that the viscosity is generally a function of temperature
alone; a decrease in temperature increases the viscosity (thickness).
Therefore, viscosity will generally increase with altitude.
Boundary Layer
The term laminar flow describes the situation when air is flowing in thin
sheets, or layers, close to the surface of a wing with no disturbance
between the layers of air; that is, there is no cross-flow of air particles
from one layer of air to another. Also, there is no sideways movement of
air particles with respect to the direction of airflow.
Laminar flow is most likely to occur where the surface is extremely
smooth and especially near the leading edge of an airfoil. Under these
conditions the boundary layer will be very thin. The boundary layer is
that layer of air adjacent to the airfoil surface. The air velocity in the
boundary layer varies from zero on the surface of the airfoil to the velocity
of the free stream at the outer edge of the boundary layer. This is
illustrated in Fig. 3-19. The boundary layer is caused by the viscosity of
the air sticking to the surface of the wing and the succeeding layers of air.
Ordinarily, the airflow at the leading edge of a wing will be laminar, but
as the air moves toward the trailing edge of the wing, the boundary layer
becomes thicker and laminar flow diminishes. The area where the airflow
changes from laminar to turbulent is called the transition region. This is
illustrated in Fig. 3-20. It is desirable to keep a laminar flow over the
airfoil as much as possible.
Parasite Drag
The term parasite drag describes the resistance of the air produced by any
part of the airplane that does not produce lift. Parasite drag can be further
classified into pressure drag, skin friction drag, and interference drag.
One type of drag, pressure drag, is caused by the frontal area of the
airplane components being exposed to the airstream. A similar reaction is
illustrated in Fig. 3-21, where the side of the airfoil is exposed to the
airstream. The pressure against the front side is much greater than that
formed on the back side, in the wake. This drag is caused by the form
(shape) of the airfoil and is the reason streamlining is necessary to increase
airplane efficiency and speed.
FIGURE 3-21 Form drag and skin friction drag.
Figure 3-21 also illustrates that when the leading edge of the airfoil is
parallel to the airstream, the pressure drag is reduced. However, this does
not eliminate all of the drag. The air flowing along the surface of the
airfoil creates a frictional force on the body. This force is called skin
friction drag. Skin friction drag is caused by air passing over the
airplane’s surfaces, and it increases considerably if the airplane surfaces
are rough and dirty.
Most parts of an airplane, such as the fuselage, cowlings, landing-gear
struts, and other components, will have both thickness and surface area,
resulting in both pressure and friction drag.
Pressure drag and friction drag are both components of parasite drag.
However, in calculating the total parasitic drag force of an aircraft, another
type of drag must also be considered. This type of drag is called
interference drag and is caused by the interference of the airflow between
adjacent parts of the airplane, such as the intersection of wings and tail
sections with the fuselage. Fairings are used to streamline these
intersections and decrease interference drag.
Several factors affect parasite drag. When each factor is considered
independently, it must be assumed that the other factors remain constant.
These factors are (1) the more streamlined an object is, the less the
parasite drag; (2) the more dense the air moving past the airplane, the
greater the parasite drag; (3) the larger the size of the object in the
airstream, the greater the parasite drag; and (4) as speed increases, the
amount of parasite drag increases.
Induced Drag
The term induced drag describes the undesirable but unavoidable by-
product of lift. The pressure differential between the upper and lower
surfaces of the wing result in a vortex being formed at each wing tip,
causing a downward push on the air leaving the trailing edge. This
downward component is termed downwash and produces a rearward
component to lift. The lift component is most effective acting vertically.
When the lift vector is tilted rearward due to the downwash, lift is lost.
This loss of lift is induced drag.
Since induced drag is the direct result of wing-tip vortices, the aspect
ratio (the wingspan to chord ratio), which is discussed in Chapter 4, has a
great effect on the amount of induced drag produced. Induced drag
increases in direct proportion to increases in the angle of attack. The
greater the angle of attack, up to the critical angle, the greater the amount
of lift developed and the greater the induced drag. The amount of air
deflected downward increases greatly at higher angles of attack; therefore,
the higher the angle of attack, the greater the induced drag. However, an
important point to remember is that induced drag decreases with velocity.
Total Drag
The sum of both the induced drag and the parasite drag is the total drag.
total drag = induced drag + parasite drag
The location and direction in which the resultant will point depends
upon the shape of the airfoil section and the angle at which it is set to the
airstream. Throughout most of the flight range, that is, at the usual angles
of attack, the CP moves forward as the angle of attack increases and
backward as the angle of attack decreases. As is illustrated in Fig. 3-25 the
resultant intersects the chord line or center of pressure at progressively
forward locations as the angle of attack is increased. The center of
pressure is generally located at approximately the 25% chord position for
most airfoils. On an airfoil with a 60-in chord, this would locate the center
of pressure at 15 in aft from the leading edge. While the CP travel will
generally be restricted to the 25% (±10%) chord area, the CP can travel
forward or backward from these usual positions. For example, at a low
angle of attack, the CP may run off the trailing edge and disappear because
there is no more lift.
Compressibility
At low flight speeds, the study of aerodynamics is greatly simplified by
the fact that air may experience relatively small changes in pressure with
only negligible changes in density. This airflow is termed incompressible
since the air may undergo changes in pressure without apparent changes in
density, as is shown in Fig. 3-26. Such a condition of airflow is similar to
the flow of water, hydraulic fluid, or any other incompressible fluid.
However, at high flight speeds, the pressure changes that take place are
quite large, and significant changes in air density occur, as is also
illustrated in Fig. 3-26. The study of airflow at high speeds must account
for these changes in air density and consider the fact that the air is
compressible.
FIGURE 3-26 Comparison of compressible and incompressible
airflows.
Speed of Sound
A factor of great importance in the study of high-speed airflow is the
speed of sound. The speed of sound is the rate at which small pressure
disturbances will be spread through the air. The aerodynamic effects of
pressure are carried through the air at the same rate as that of sound
disturbances.
The speed at which sound travels in air under standard sea-level
conditions is 1116 ft/s [340.24 m/s], or 761 mph, or 661 kn. The speed of
sound is not affected by a change in atmospheric pressure because the
density also changes. However, a change in the temperature of the
atmosphere changes the density without appreciably affecting the
pressure; therefore, the speed of sound changes with a change in
temperature. The speed of sound can be calculated with the equation
T = absolute temperature, °R
Thus, Mach 0.5 at sea level under standard conditions (558 ft/s [170
m/s]) is faster than Mach 0.5 at 30 000 ft (497 ft/s [151.52 m/s]).
Subsonic. The aircraft maximum Mach number that all local speeds will be less
than Mach 1.
Transonic. The regime where local speeds are greater and less than Mach 1.
Supersonic. The aircraft’s minimum Mach number when all local speeds are
greater than 1.
Assume that a speed increase to Mach 0.72 will produce the first
evidence of sonic flow. This means that M = 0.72 is the critical Mach
number for this aircraft. As the critical Mach number is exceeded, an area
of supersonic airflow is created and a normal shock wave forms as the
boundary between the supersonic airflow and the subsonic airflow on the
aft portion of the airfoil surface. The acceleration of the airflow from
subsonic to supersonic is smooth and unaccompanied by shock waves if
the surface is smooth and the transition gradual. However, transition of
airflow from supersonic to subsonic is always accompanied by a shock
wave and, when there is no change in direction of the airflow, the wave
formed will be a normal shock wave.
One of the principal effects of the normal shock wave is to produce a
large increase in the static pressure of the airstream behind the wave. If the
shock wave is strong, the boundary layer may not have sufficient energy to
withstand the adverse pressure gradient of the wave, and airflow
separation will occur. At speeds that are only slightly beyond the critical
Mach number, the shock wave formed is not strong enough to cause
separation or any noticeable change in the aerodynamic handling
characteristics of the aircraft. Figure 3-30a shows the normal shock wave
being formed at Mach 0.77. As the Mach number continues to increase to
Mach 0.82, the supersonic flow area gets larger on the upper surface and
an additional area of supersonic flow and normal shock wave forms on the
lower surface.
FIGURE 3-30 Transonic flow patterns.
As the flight speed approaches the speed of sound (Mach = 0.95), the
areas of supersonic flow enlarge and the shock waves move nearer the
trailing edge. The boundary layer may remain separated or may reattach
depending primarily upon the airfoil shape.
The magnitude and location of these shock waves are constantly
changing. Airflow separation will occur with the formation of shock
waves, resulting in the loss of lift. Other phenomena that may be
associated with transonic flight are aircraft buffeting, trim and stability
changes, and a decrease in control-surface effectiveness. These forces and
the turbulence that accompanies transonic flight may cause the pilot to
lose control, especially if the airplane is not designed to operate under
transonic conditions.
When the flight speed exceeds the speed of sound (M = 1.05), the bow
wave forms at the leading edge. The typical flow pattern is shown in Fig.
3-30d. If the speed is increased to some higher Mach number, the oblique
portions of the waves incline more greatly and the detached normal shock
wave moves closer to the leading edge. At supersonic speeds the
aerodynamic control conditions become predictable and orderly again. A
typical supersonic flow pattern is shown in Fig. 3-31. The airflow ahead of
the object is not influenced until the air particles are suddenly forced out
of the way by the concentrated pressure wave set up by the object.
Therefore the airflow does not change direction ahead of the airfoil as
occurred in the subsonic flow shown in Fig. 3-29.
FIGURE 3-31 Typical supersonic flow pattern.
Various types of waves can occur in supersonic flow, and the nature of
the wave formed depends upon the airstream and the shape of the object
causing the flow change. Essentially, there are three fundamental types of
waves formed in supersonic flow: (1) the oblique shock wave, (2) the
normal shock wave, and (3) the expansion wave.
Expansion Wave
If a supersonic airstream were to flow “around a corner” as shown in Fig.
3-35, an expansion wave would form. An expansion wave does not cause
sharp, sudden changes in the airflow except at the corner itself and thus is
not actually a shock wave. A supersonic airstream passing through an
expansion wave will experience these changes:
Drag Divergence
As previously described, the operation of aircraft can be both
unpredictable and unstable in the transonic flight area. The formation of
shock waves can create significant problems with airflow separations and
the resulting rapid rise in drag. At speeds only slightly above the critical
Mach number, the shock wave formation is usually not strong enough to
cause flow separation, and therefore drag changes only slightly. However,
as the speed continues to increase and the shock wave grows in strength,
airflow separation will occur. This separation will result in a rapid increase
in the airfoil drag coefficient. This point is called the drag divergence
Mach number. It is also sometimes referred to as the critical drag Mach
number. In referring to Fig. 3-36, note that from the drag divergence
Mach number to Mach 1 the drag rises sharply and operation within this
range is not desirable. Also notice that at speeds higher than Mach 1 the
drag drops off sharply.
FIGURE 3-36 Drag divergence Mach number.
Sonic Booms
When an airplane is in level supersonic flight, a pattern of shock waves is
developed. Although there are many shock waves coming from an aircraft
flying supersonically, these waves tend to combine into two main shocks,
one originating from the nose of the aircraft and one from the tail.
If these waves (pressure disturbances) extend to the ground or water
surface, as shown in Fig. 3-37, they will be reflected, causing a sonic
boom. An observer would actually hear two booms. The time between the
two booms and their intensity is primarily a function of the distance the
airplane is from the ground. The lower the aircraft is, the closer together
and louder the two booms will be.
FIGURE 3-37 Sonic boom wave formation.
Hypersonic Flight
When the speed of an aircraft or spacecraft is five times the speed of
sound or greater, the speed is said to be hypersonic. High hypersonic
flight is at speeds greater than Mach 10. Generally, NASA defines “high”
hypersonic as any Mach number from 10 to 25 and hypersonic re-entry
speeds as anything greater than Mach 25 (see Table 3-3).
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are the approximate percentages of the principal gases in our
atmosphere?
2. What is the atmospheric pressure at sea level under standard conditions in
pounds per square inch and inches of mercury?
3. What effect does temperature have on the density of the air?
4. In simple terms, explain Bernoulli’s principle.
5. Define airfoil.
6. Define chord line and chord.
7. Define camber.
8. Explain the term relative wind.
9. Explain angle of attack.
10. What is the stagnation point of an airfoil?
11. Discuss the effect of air density with respect to lift.
12. How does wing area affect lift?
13. What is the cause of skin friction on a surface moving through the air?
14. What does the term viscosity mean?
15. Describe laminar flow.
16. What is the boundary layer?
17. Define parasite drag.
18. Define induced drag.
19. Define resultant force.
20. Explain what is meant by the term center of pressure.
21. How does the angle of attack affect the CP on a wing?
22. Define the term speed of sound.
23. What is a Mach number?
24. Explain the term critical Mach number.
25. What are the three types of shock waves?
4
Airfoils and Their
Applications
INTRODUCTION
A general knowledge of the nature of airfoils and the factors affecting their
performance is of value to many technicians, particularly those involved in the
structural repair of airfoils, and to others who may be interested in building their own
airplanes. Chapter 3 discussed basic aerodynamic principles and their application to
airfoils in producing lift.
Since the early days of aircraft research when the Wright brothers tested airfoil
shapes in a small wind tunnel, literally thousands of different airfoil shapes have been
developed and tested. These range from the types that operate at low subsonic
speeds to those designed for supersonic and hypersonic speeds. In this chapter the
basic elements of airfoil design and the characteristics that determine airfoil selection
for different aircraft applications will be discussed.
AIRFOIL PROFILES
An airfoil is any surface, such as an airplane wing, aileron, or rudder,
designed to obtain reaction from the air through which it moves.
An airfoil profile is the outline of an airfoil section. An airfoil section
is a cross section of an airfoil parallel to the plane of symmetry or to a
specified reference plane. If the airfoil shown in Fig. 4-1 is a cross section
of an actual airplane wing, it is correct to call it an airfoil section; if it is
merely the outline, it should be called an airfoil profile. The terms airfoil,
airfoil profile, and airfoil section are used interchangeably in conversation,
even by people who know the technical distinctions. Airfoil profiles can
be made up of certain forms of thickness distributed about certain mean
lines. The major shape variables then become two: the thickness form and
the mean-line form. The thickness form is of particular importance from a
structural standpoint. On the other hand, the form of the mean line
determines some of the most important aerodynamic properties of the
airfoil section. Slight variations in either one of these factors will alter the
airfoil characteristics in some manner.
Over the years, several thousand different airfoils have been developed
and tested. The Wright brothers tested several hundred airfoils themselves
in a homemade wind tunnel. For many years airplanes relied upon
considerable external bracing to provide the necessary support to a wing.
This bracing took different forms, including struts and wires. As stronger
materials were developed, an attempt was made to eliminate the external
bracing in order to reduce drag. To accomplish this, it was necessary to
make the airfoils thicker, and they evolved into the shape shown in Fig. 4-
1. Early textbooks on the theory of flight use this Clark Y airfoil to
illustrate basic principles of airfoils, and this practice has continued.
However, the airfoil profiles developed by NACA (National Advisory
Committee for Aeronautics) were described in detail in NACA Report
460, published in November 1933 and entitled The Characteristics of the
Seventy-Eight Related Airfoil Sections from Tests in the Variable Density
Wind Tunnel. NACA was a government agency which performed
thousands of tests on airfoil shapes to develop information regarding
which were most efficient for various flight conditions. NACA was the
forerunner of NASA, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration,
which has continued airfoil development and testing. The NACA and
NASA airfoil reports do not contain information that a technician would
normally use, but they are of interest to those who wish to widen their
knowledge of aerodynamics.
NACA developed and tested hundreds of airfoils. NACA airfoil profiles
are designated by a standardized numbering system consisting of four,
five, or six digits. The first series of airfoils developed was the four-digit-
numbered airfoils. The first digit indicates the camber of the mean line in
percentage of the chord, the second digit shows the position of the
maximum camber of the mean line in tenths of the chord from the leading
edge, and the last two digits indicate the maximum thickness in percentage
of the chord. Thus the NACA2315 profile has a maximum mean camber
of 2% of the chord at a position three-tenths of the chord from the leading
edge and a maximum thickness of 15% of the chord. Likewise, the
NACA0012 airfoil is a symmetrical airfoil having a maximum thickness
of 12% located at 30% of the chord, as is shown in Fig. 4-2.
Figure 4-3 shows how to draw the NACA2421 profile. First, draw a
baseline and call it the chord. Second, divide the chord into 20 equal
divisions; each division will represent 5% of the chord. Draw vertical lines
of indefinite length at each of these divisions and number them, starting
with 0 at the leading edge and ending with 100 at the trailing edge. These
lines are called stations. Then draw vertical lines at the other stations
shown on the table. For this particular airfoil the additional stations are
1.25, 2.5, and 7.5% of the chord behind the leading edge. Third, lay out
the points for the upper and lower contour lines from the ordinates given
in the second and third columns of the table shown in the figure. Notice
that those in the second column are positive ordinates and those in the
third column are negative ordinates. Positive ordinates are measured
upward from the chord at their stations, and negative ordinates are
measured downward from the chord at their stations in percentage of
chord. Fourth, using a spline or a French curve, connect all these points
with a smooth line. This provides the airfoil section, except that the nose
requires more work.
Airfoil Development
Further airfoil development required that additional information be
included in the numbering system. While this numbering system is still
similar to the four-digit system, it is more complicated and will not be
explained here. Airfoil numbers with five and six digits can presently be
found in the reports of NACA and NASA, along with an explanation of
the significance of the digits.
Although general-aviation aircraft have been operating satisfactorily for
many years with a variety of proven airfoil designs, research and
development have been conducted to improve the efficiency of airfoils
used for light aircraft. Much research has been conducted at the NASA
Langley Research Center using information and technology derived from
the supercritical airfoils (discussed later in this chapter) developed by
Richard Whitcomb and designed for aircraft which operate at speeds just
below the speed of sound.
The first of the new derivatives taken from the supercritical concept but
designed for lower speed, light aircraft is called the GAW airfoil (GAW
stands for General Aviation-Whitcomb). The GAW-1 airfoil is now being
used on some aircraft, such as the Beechcraft Skipper shown in Fig. 4-5.
Its profile is approximately as shown in Fig. 4-6 and is identified by the
concave shape of the aft lower surface. This airfoil has a thickness ratio of
17%, and the design has improved the lift/drag ratio during climb by 50%
when compared to data from the wing which the GAW-1 replaced.
A newer design, the GAW-2 airfoil, has a thickness ratio of 13% and has
a lower drag and a higher CL (coefficient of lift) than the GAW-1. These
features provide an increase in the rate of climb and a decrease in stall
speed. The two airfoils can be used to advantage in a tapered wing with
the GAW-1 at the root, where the extra thickness provides for greater
structural strength, and the GAW-2 at the outer portion of the wing to give
increased aerodynamic efficiency. The approximate profile of the GAW-2
airfoil is shown in Fig. 4-7.
A recent development in airfoil design has been led by Mr. John Roncz.
He began his aeronautical career over 20 years ago by building a computer
and then adapting a NASA airfoil analysis code to run on it, comparing
computer predictions to wind tunnel tests. Roncz and legendary designer
Burt Rutan began a collaboration in which Roncz designed custom airfoil
sections for each of Rutan’s design, including the around-the-world,
record-setting Voyager aircraft. Since that time many aircraft designers
(such as Cirrus Design) have had custom airfoils developed for their
aircraft. These airfoils are proprietary in nature and do not necessarily
follow standard classification nomenclature.
Airfoil Selection
The selection of the best airfoil for an airplane requires a careful
consideration of the many factors that may conflict with one another, with
the result that the final decision is usually a compromise. Some important
factors to be considered in airfoil selection are (1) airfoil characteristics,
(2) airfoil dimensions, (3) airflow about the airfoil, (4) the speed at which
the aircraft is designed to operate, and (5) flight operating limitations.
It is not unusual for an airplane to use more than one airfoil profile in a
wing. Often, a manufacturer will use one airfoil profile for the inboard
wing area, a second profile for the center section, and a third for the
wingtip. While using more than one profile may increase aerodynamic
performance, it also adds greatly to the construction costs. Table 4-1
provides examples of some airfoils commonly used on modern aircraft.
PERFORMANCE OF AIRFOILS
Airfoil Characteristics
A particular airfoil, that is, one having certain definite dimensions, has
specific lift, drag, and center-of-pressure (CP) position characteristics
during flight. These features are collectively known as airfoil
characteristics and they are classified as follows:
1. Lift coefficient
2. Drag coefficient
3. Lift/drag ratio
4. Center-of-pressure position
AR Aspect ratio
CD Coefficient of drag
CL Coefficient of lift
D Drag
L Lift
M Pitching moment
Re Reynolds number
S Wing area
V Speed or velocity
a Wing lift-curve slope
b Wingspan
c Wing chord
cr Root chord
ct Tip chord
x Longitudinal coordinate (fore and aft)
y Lateral coordinate
z Vertical coordinate
α (alpha) Angle of attack
ρ (rho) Air density
where L = lift, lb
CL = lift coefficient
ρ = mass density, slugs/ft3
V = velocity of wind relative to the body, ft/s
S = airfoil area, ft2
Coefficient of Lift
A coefficient is a number or symbol which acts as a multiplier to a
variable or unknown quantity. For example, 3 is a coefficient in 3ab; x is a
coefficient in x(y + z). Thus, a coefficient is a number used as a multiplier.
The fundamental equation for lift can be used to determine the
coefficient of lift (CL) by rewriting it as follows:
This equation says that lift is equal to the lift coefficient times the
dynamic pressure times the wing area. The lift coefficient is usually
determined in wind-tunnel testing. The coefficient of lift is a measure of
how efficiently the wing is changing velocity into lift. High coefficient-of-
lift numbers indicate a more efficient airfoil design. The coefficient of lift
is a function of the airfoil shape and the angle of attack. For a given shape,
the coefficient of lift varies with the angle of attack; therefore, when the
fundamental equation for lift is used, the angle of attack must be specified
to make the computation meaningful. A certain airfoil may have a CL of
0.4 at a 4° angle of attack and a CL of 1.2 at a 16° angle of attack. The
angle of attack must be known before the answer to the lift equation has a
usable value.
To calculate the amount of lift that can be obtained from an airplane
2 2
wing having an area of 180 ft2 [16.7 m2], a velocity of 120 mph [53.6 m/s],
an altitude of 1000 ft [304.8 m], and a CL of 0.4 at a 4° angle of attack, the
following steps can be used: First the velocity is converted into feet per
second. A velocity of 120 mph is equal to 176 ft/s. Next, by reference to
the NASA standard atmospheric tables, it is found that the value of ρ
(density) is 0.002 309. Substitute values in the fundamental equation for
lift where
or
L = 2574.85 lb
The symbol meanings are the same as those stated previously in the
equation for lift except for D (drag) and CD (coefficient of drag).
The equation for drag can be rewritten to obtain the coefficient of drag,
as follows:
or
D = 707.55 lb
Lift/Drag Ratio
The lift/drag ratio is the ratio of the lift to the drag of any body in flight.
This ratio is a measure of the effectiveness of an airfoil because the lift is
the force required to support the weight while the drag is a necessary
nuisance that must be accepted to obtain lift. For any angle of attack, the
CL divided by the CD will give the L/D ratio for an airfoil. For example,
using a CL of 0.4 and a CD of 0.11, the L/D ratio would be calculated as
follows:
The maximum value of the L/D ratio for the wing is always more than
the maximum value of the L/D ratio for the complete airplane, because the
drag for the complete airplane includes not only the drag of the wing but
also the drag contributed by the rest of the airplane. This is based upon the
assumption that all the lift of a conventional airplane is obtained from the
wing. The complete airplane L/D can be represented in the formula
Center-of-Pressure Coefficient
It has been explained that the CP of an airfoil is a point on the chord of the
airfoil that is at the intersection of the chord and the resultant force. The
CP coefficient is the ratio of the distance of the CP from the leading edge
to the chord length. In other words, the CP is given by stating that it is a
certain percentage of the chord length behind the leading edge. For
example, if the chord is 6 ft [1.82 m] long and the CP is 30% of the chord,
then it is 30% of 6 ft, or 1.8 ft [0.546 m] behind the leading edge at that
given angle of attack. Since the pressure distribution varies along the
chord with changes in the angle of attack, the CP, which is the point of
application of the resultant, moves accordingly. It has been previously
explained that the CP generally moves forward as the angle of attack
increases and backward as it decreases, although there are exceptions to
this rule.
Characteristic Curves
At the beginning of this section, airfoil characteristics such as the lift
coefficient, drag coefficient, lift/drag ratio, and CP position were
explained. In order to better visualize the characteristics of a particular
airfoil, these characteristics may be displayed graphically. Characteristic
curves are graphical representations of airfoil characteristics for various
angles of attack. It is important to understand that the values of all the
airfoil characteristics vary with the angle of attack and that they are
different for different airfoil sections.
Figure 4-8 is a coefficient-of-lift diagram for the NACA2421 airfoil. In
this diagram the angle of attack is plotted horizontally, and the value of the
lift coefficient is plotted vertically. Notice that a horizontal line is drawn
and along this line are located points which correspond to the various
angles of attack from −8 to 32°. These points are marked with the angles
represented. At each of these points, the person preparing the illustration
measures vertically upward a distance that represents, to a suitable scale,
the coefficient of lift for that particular angle of attack and makes a dot or
draws a tiny circle. A smooth curve is then drawn through the points
located in this manner. This curve is called the lift-coefficient curve, or
simply the lift curve, for the particular airfoil being represented.
FIGURE 4-8 Coefficient-of-lift curve.
Figure 4-10 shows the lift and drag curves for the NACA2421 airfoil
drawn on the same diagram. This is common practice because it presents
two types of information on one drawing. The coefficient-of-lift and
coefficient-of-drag curves were shown here separately to make it easier to
understand their construction.
Figure 4-11 shows the lift/drag ratio curve drawn on the same diagram
with the lift and drag curves. For each angle of attack the corresponding
coefficient of lift is divided by the corresponding coefficient of drag to
obtain the L/D ratio for that particular angle of attack. A distance is
measured vertically upward to represent the L/D ratio value, and a dot or
circle is drawn. The dots or circles found in this manner are connected by
a smooth line to represent the L/D ratio curve on the diagram.
FIGURE 4-11 Lift/drag ratio curve.
To understand how the L/D ratio curve is obtained from the CL and CD
curves on the diagram, the following example is provided: If the airfoil is
at an angle of attack of 12°, the coefficient of lift, CL, is approximately
0.95, and the drag coefficient, CD, is approximately 0.07. Then the L/D
ratio is CL/CD = 0.95/0.07 = 13. The lift/drag or L/D ratio is equal to 13.
Examine the L/D ratio curve on Fig. 4-11 and you will see that at a 12°
angle of attack this curve has a value of 13. Figure 4-12 shows the curve
representing the position of CP drawn on the same diagram with the lift,
drag, and L/D ratio curves. For each of the angles of attack represented on
the horizontal line, the location of the corresponding CP is plotted
vertically upward in terms of the percentage of chord from the leading
edge, and the points located are connected by a smooth line to provide the
curve.
Wing Area
As has been previously explained, the lift of an airfoil varies directly with
the area. The wing area, S, is simply a measure of the total surface of the
wing. Although a portion of this area may be covered by the fuselage or
the nacelles, pressure is still acting on it; therefore, it is included in the
calculation of the total wing area. The wingspan, b, is measured tip to tip.
The average wing chord, c, is simply a geometric average of the wing
chords. As an example, a pointed-tip delta wing would have an average
chord equal to one-half of the root chord. As shown in Fig. 4-14, the
product of the span and the average chord is the wing area (b × c = S).
Since wingtip vortices exert their influence for a distance inboard from
the tips in any given airfoil, the percentage of area so affected is less for a
long, narrow airfoil than it is for a short, wide airfoil. This is shown in Fig.
4-20, which illustrates the area affected by wingtip vortices. The shape in
the upper-left-hand corner of Fig. 4-20 is short and wide, the center shape
is long and relatively narrow, and the lower-right shape is still longer and
narrower. Although the area affected by wingtip vortices remains the same
for all these shapes, a smaller proportion of the total area is affected when
the airfoil is long and narrow.
Another method that has been used on several aircraft is the installation
of an end plate such as the ones shown in Fig. 4-22. The end plate has had
only moderate success, with the result in many installations being that the
reduction in induced drag is offset by a corresponding increase in parasitic
drag. A variation of the end plate concept is the use of fuel tanks on the
wingtips such as the ones illustrated in Fig. 4-23.
Taper
An airfoil is tapered when one or more of its dimensions gradually
decreases from the root to the tip. When the airfoil decreases from the root
to the tip in both thickness and chord, the airfoil is said to have taper in
plan and thickness. This is shown in the bottom drawing of Fig. 4-25. If
the thickness and the chord remain the same from the root to the tip, there
is no taper.
FIGURE 4-25 Taper in aircraft wings.
The taper ratio affects the lift distribution and the structural weight of
the wing. When a wing is tapered in thickness in such a manner that the
thickness near the tip is 60% of the thickness at the root and it is compared
with an airfoil of constant section (not tapered) equal to the mean
(average) section of the tapered wing, the following characteristics are
observed on certain airfoils: (1) The CP moves less for changes in angle of
attack; (2) the maximum CL is greater and the peak of the characteristic
curve is flatter because all of the wing does not attain the maximum CL at
the same time (i.e., each section reaches its maximum CL at a different
angle of attack from any other section); (3) the CD values are lower, the
most noticeable decrease being at the low angle of attack from any other
section; and (4) the maximum ratio is larger at small angles of attack. It
is interesting to note that a tapered wing may also have a constantly
changing airfoil section from the root of the wing to the tip.
When a wing is tapered in planform and is compared with a rectangular
airfoil that has an equivalent aspect ratio, the following characteristics are
observed on certain airfoils: (1) The CP moves more for changes in angle
of attack; (2) there is a greater maximum CL; (3) there are lower values of
CD, especially at low angles of attack; and (4) the L/D ratio is greater
throughout the flight range, especially at the higher angles of attack. When
a wing or any airfoil is tapered in both thickness and planform, it is
possible to take advantage of the best aerodynamic features of an airfoil
tapered in thickness only and an airfoil tapered in planform only.
When the distribution of the area of a tapered wing places the resultant
force near the center line, it may be possible to build a wing of relatively
light weight, having the thicker, heavier, and stronger portions near the
root, where the greatest stresses normally occur. On the other hand, in a
tapered airfoil, the spars must be tapered and different jigs must be used
for building the ribs. For this reason the construction of the wing tapered
in both planform and thickness becomes considerably more costly than the
construction of other types of wings.
Sweep Angle
A wing is swept when the leading edge of the wing angles backward or
forward from the fuselage. When wing sweep angle is being discussed,
generally it is assumed that the wing is swept backward, although a few
new-technology aircraft employ forward-swept wings. The sweep angle,
Λ, is usually measured as the angle between the line of 25% chord and a
perpendicular to the root chord, as shown in Fig. 4-27. The sweep of a
wing causes definite changes in compressibility, maximum lift, and stall
characteristics. The principal reason for sweeping a wing is to increase the
critical Mach number of the aircraft. If a wing is swept, the airflow will no
longer be in a direct chordwise flow across the wing. A component of the
airflow will also travel spanwise. It is this span-wise direction of the
airflow that raises the critical Mach number. As an example, assume that
the critical Mach number for a wing is 0.85, and the airfoil is swept 25°.
The component of the airflow that will travel chordwise across the wing is
equal to the cosine of 25°, which is 0.9063, multiplied by the free-stream
Mach number. If the aircraft speed is increased to Mach 0.90, as is shown
in Fig. 4-27, then the airflow component flowing chordwise across the
wing is Mach 0.82 (0.90 × 0.9063), which is still below the critical free-
stream Mach number of 0.85.
Wing Flaps
A wing flap is defined by NASA as a hinged, pivoted, or sliding airfoil,
usually near the trailing edge of the wing. It is designed to increase the lift,
drag, or both when deflected and is used principally for landing, although
large airplanes use partial flap deflection for takeoff. Most flaps are
usually 15 to 25% of the airfoil’s chord. The deflection of a flap produces
the effect of adding a large amount of camber well aft on the chord. The
more camber that the airfoil has results in a greater pressure differential
and the creation of more lift. This makes it possible for the airplane to
have a steeper angle of descent for the landing without increasing the
airspeed. Flaps are normally installed on the inboard section of the wing
trailing edge.
Some of the basic types of flap design are illustrated in Fig. 4-29. An
airfoil without a flap is shown at the top.
FIGURE 4-29 Basic types of flaps.
The second drawing shows a plain flap. The plain flap, in effect, acts as
if the trailing edge of the wing were deflected downward to change the
camber of the wing, thus causing a significant increase in both the
coefficients of lift and drag. If the flap is moved down sufficiently, it
becomes an effective air brake.
The split-edge flap is usually housed flush with the lower surface of the
wing immediately forward of the trailing edge. This flap is illustrated in
the middle of Fig. 4-29. The split-edge flap is usually nothing more than a
flat metal plate hinged along its forward edge. The split-edge flap
produces a slightly greater change in lift than the plain flap. However, a
much larger change in drag results from the great turbulent wake produced
by this type of flap.
Figure 4-29 also illustrates the Fowler flap, which is constructed so that
the lower part of the trailing edge of the wing rolls back on a track, thus
increasing the effective area of the wing and at the same time lowering the
trailing edge. The flap itself is a small airfoil that fits neatly into the
trailing edge of the main wing when closed. As shown in Fig. 4-30, when
the flap opens, the small airfoil slides downward and backward on tracks
until it reaches the position desired, thus providing a wing with a variable
coefficient of lift and a variable area. With the Fowler flap, the wing area
can be increased, causing large increases in lift with minimum increases in
drag, the exact amount of increase of each depending upon the angle to
which the flap is lowered. The Fowler flap is one of the designs which are
particularly well adapted for use at takeoff as well as landing.
FIGURE 4-30 Operation of the Fowler flap.
The slotted flap, shown in the bottom drawing of Fig. 4-29, is similar to
a plain flap except that as the flap is extended, a gap develops between the
wing and the flap. The slots allow air from the bottom of the wing to flow
to the upper portion of the flap and downward at the trailing edge of the
wing. This aids in delaying airflow separation and creates a downward
flow of air, which produces an upthrust to the wing.
A variation, and improvement, to the basic Fowler and slotted flaps is
the slotted Fowler flap. When such flaps are initially extended, they move
aft on their track. Once past a certain point on the track, further aft
movement is accompanied by a downward deflection, which opens up one
or more slots. A triple-slotted Fowler flap is shown in Fig. 4-31. The
slotted flap can provide much greater increases in lift than the plain or
split flap, and corresponding drag changes are much lower. This type of
flap requires the installation of a rather complicated structure. The slotted
Fowler flap is usually used on the trailing edge of most turbine transport-
category aircraft.
FIGURE 4-31 Slotted Fowler flap arrangement. (Boeing
Commercial Airplane Co.)
Effects of Flaps
At normal flying speeds, when flaps are fully retracted, that is, when they
are all the way up, they have no effect on the lift characteristics of the
wing. On the other hand, when they are lowered for landing, there is
increased lift for similar angles of attack of the basic airfoil, and the
maximum lift coefficient is greatly increased, often as much as 70%, with
the exact amount of increase depending upon the type of flap installed.
The effectiveness of flaps on a wing configuration depends on many
different factors. One important factor is the amount of the wing area
affected by the flaps. Since a certain amount of the span is reserved for
ailerons, the actual wing maximum lift properties will be less than that of
the flapped two-dimensional section. If the basic wing has a low thickness,
any type of flap will be less effective than on a wing of greater thickness.
The curves of Fig. 4-32 illustrate the lift characteristics of a wing with and
without flaps. With the increase of lift comes a decrease in landing speed;
there is also an increase of drag when the flap is down, however, and this
requires a steeper glide to maintain the approach speed. The increase of
drag also acts as a brake when the airplane is rolling to a stop on the
landing strip.
Leading-Edge Flaps
While flaps are generally located on the trailing edge of a wing, they can
also be placed on the leading edge. Leading-edge flaps are normally used
only on large transport-category aircraft that need large amounts of
additional lift for landing. A leading-edge flap is a high-lift device which
reduces the severity of the pressure peak above the wing at high angles of
attack. This enables the wing to operate at higher angles of attack than
would be possible without the flap.
One method for providing a wing flap is to design the wing with a
leading edge that can be drooped, as shown in the top drawing of Fig. 4-
33. Another method for providing a leading-edge flap is to design an
extendable surface known as the Krueger flap that ordinarily fits smoothly
into the lower part of the leading edge. When the flap is required, the
surface extends forward and downward, as shown in the second drawing
of Fig. 4-33.
There are two general types of slots: the fixed and the automatic. When
the fixed type is used, the airflow depends on the angle of attack. The
disadvantage of a fixed slot is that it adds excessive drag at low angles of
attack. The automatic slot is formed by having a leading-edge airfoil that
will separate from the main leading edge to form a slot. This auxiliary
airfoil is commonly referred to as a slat. A slat is a movable auxiliary
airfoil attached to the leading edge of the wing which, when closed, falls
within the original contour of the wing and which, when opened, forms a
slot.
The automatic slot is nested into the leading edge of the wing while the
wing is at low angles of attack but is free to move forward a definite
distance from the leading edge at high angles of attack. This forms a slot
through which a portion of the airstream flows and is deflected along the
upper surface of the wing, thus maintaining a streamline flow around the
wing. Figure 4-34 shows the effect of the airstream diverted by a slot and
the advantage gained by its use. The top picture shows the airfoil with its
slot closed at a high angle of attack. The airfoil is shown in a stalling
position because the burbling of the air reaches almost the leading edge of
the wing.
The automatic slot has disadvantages as well as advantages. The
number of moving parts and the weight of the wing are increased. The
slots must be installed properly and operate equally well on both wings or
they are useless. If a slot on one wing opens before the slot on the opposite
wing does so, disastrous results could occur. The usual location of slots is
such that they are subjected to ice formation, and in spite of any anti-icing
or deicing equipment, they may fail to function. If any of these factors
causes a lack of balance, lateral control may be impaired. For these
reasons, a device is usually provided for locking slots in a closed position
if they do not function properly.
Figure 4-35 illustrates the effect of a slot on the lift coefficient. Notice
that at angles where the slot is opened, the lift is greater and the maximum
CL occurs at a much higher angle of attack. This indicates that an airplane
with a slotted wing has a lower stalling speed than one without slots, other
things being equal.
Figure 4-36 illustrates the effect of having a combination of slots and
flaps. With this arrangement, it is possible to have a much lower landing
speed, better control of the flight path, and at least a partial elimination of
the nose heaviness that may result from the use of flaps alone. It should be
understood that Fig. 4-36 is based upon a particular set of conditions and
does not illustrate the effect produced by various airfoils and combinations
of different flaps and slots. Other types of flaps and combinations with
slots will produce values differing from those shown in this figure.
FIGURE 4-36 Effect of the combination of slots and flaps.
Spoilers
While flaps, slats, and slots are devices that are designed to greatly
increase the lift that an airfoil creates, it is sometimes desirable to quickly
and effectively decrease the lift on an airfoil. A device designed to reduce
the lift on a wing is called a spoiler. The spoiler is the opposite of a high-
lift device and derives its name from the fact that its purpose is to “spoil”
the lift of the wing. Spoilers are located on the upper surface of wings and
are one of two basic configurations. The more common configuration on
jet transports, shown in Fig. 4-37, has a flat-panel spoiler laying flush with
the surface of the wing and hinged at the forward edge. When the spoilers
are deployed, the surface rises up and reduces the lift. The other
configuration, shown in Fig. 4-38, is common among sailplanes and has
the spoiler located inside the wing structure. When the spoiler is deployed,
it rises vertically from the wing and spoils the lift.
FIGURE 4-37 Spoilers are commonly hinged at their leading
edge.
FIGURE 4-38 Some aircraft, such as sailplanes, have spoilers
that rise vertically out of the wing.
Flight spoilers are used in flight to reduce the amount of lift that the
wing is generating to allow controlled descents without gaining excessive
airspeed. Depending on the aircraft design, the spoilers may be used as the
aircraft’s primary roll control. Instead of using ailerons, as explained in
Chapter 5, an outboard spoiler on the wing can be deflected into the
airstream to destroy lift and induce the aircraft to roll. The principal reason
for using spoilers for roll control is that it frees the entire trailing edge of
the wing for flap use. Longer flap spans mean more of the wing’s camber
can be changed and higher lift coefficients can be obtained.
Ground spoilers are only used when the aircraft is on the ground and are
employed along with the flight spoilers to greatly reduce the wing’s lift
upon landing. They also increase the aerodynamic drag of the aircraft after
landing to aid in slowing the aircraft.
Angle of Incidence
The term angle of attack has been discussed in Chapter 3. A related but
different term is angle of incidence. The angle of incidence of a wing is
the angle formed by the intersection of the wing chord line and the
horizontal plane passing through the longitudinal axis of the aircraft.
Angle of incidence is illustrated in Fig. 4-39. Airplanes are usually
designed with a positive angle of incidence in which the leading edge of
the wing is slightly higher than the trailing edge. The correct angle of
incidence is essential for low drag and longitudinal stability.
Stall Warning
The experienced pilot can usually sense when a stall is about to happen
because of the “feel” of the airplane controls and the reactions of the
airplane. Often, the airplane will start to shake or buffet because of the
flow separation on the wing and the turbulent air buffeting the tail
surfaces. The controls become “sloppy” and do not have the solid feel of
normal flight.
Most airplanes are equipped with stall-warning devices. Typical of such
devices is a small vane mounted near the leading edge of the wing and
arranged so that it will actuate a switch when it rises as a result of an
excessive angle of attack. The switch causes a warning horn to sound
when the angle of attack approaches maximum, usually about 5 to 10 kt
[2.57 to 5.14 m/s] above stalling speed.
FIGURE 4-42 The stall strip ensures that the root section stalls
first.
The stall strip is a triangular strip mounted on the leading edge of the
wing at the inboard end. At high angles of attack where stalling would be
likely to occur, the strip causes the inboard portion of the wing to stall
before the outer portion. This enables the pilot to maintain control of the
aircraft with the ailerons, and the airplane does not “fall off” on one wing.
The laminar flow control system calls for removing the turbulent
boundary layer by suction, thus maintaining laminar flow, as is shown in
Fig. 4-44. Basically, this system includes a suction surface through which
a portion of the boundary-layer air is taken into the airplane, a system for
metering the level and distribution of the ingested flow, a ducting system
for collecting the flow, and pumping units which provide sufficient
compression to discharge the suction flow at a velocity at least as high as
the airplane velocity. The effect of this system is to keep the boundary
layer thin and permit laminar flow to continue.
Vortex Generators
Even though most turbine transport-category aircraft do not fly at the
speed of sound (Mach 1), there are certain areas on the airplane where the
airflow velocity will be greater than Mach 1. This is particularly true at the
upper surface of parts of the wing where, because of the curvature of the
wing, the air velocity must increase substantially above the airspeed of the
airplane. This is illustrated in Fig. 4-45, which shows an airfoil profile
moving through the air at high subsonic speed. A short distance back from
the leading edge of the wing and above the top surface, the air reaches
supersonic speed. At the rear part of the supersonic area where the airflow
returns to subsonic speed, a shock wave is formed, as was discussed in
Chapter 3. To the rear of this shock wave the air is very turbulent, and this
area of the wing is, in effect, partially stalled. This, of course, causes a
substantial increase in drag, which increases as airspeed increases.
Wing Fences
Ideally, air would always flow chordwise over a wing; however, as has
been discussed, air will tend to flow spanwise toward the tip. Spanwise
flow is particularly a problem on swept wings. This spanwise flow of air
may be partially controlled by the use of a wing (flow) fence, such as is
illustrated in Fig. 4-48. A wing fence is a stationary vane, projecting from
the upper surface of an airfoil, which is used to prevent the spanwise flow
of air. Flow fences are often located in alignment with trailing-edge
control surfaces, such as ailerons, to improve the chordwise flow and
thereby the effectiveness of the control surfaces.
FIGURE 4-48 Wing fences. (Gates Learjet Corporation.)
Supercritical Wing
Recently an airfoil has been developed that has a critical Mach number
close to 1. This airfoil is referred to as the supercritical design and was
developed by Dr. Richard Whitcomb of NASA.
The supercritical airfoil, illustrated in Fig. 4-50, has a very slight
curvature on the upper surface and the maximum thickness is much farther
back than normal. The airfoil curves downward at the trailing edge. This
design prevents the rapid pressure rise normally associated with a more
cambered airfoil. It also delays and softens the onset of shock waves on
the upper surface of a wing. The shock wave is far less severe than on a
conventional wing, as is shown in Fig. 4-51, and fuel efficiency is
substantially improved. This design is being adopted on many transport-
category and business-jet aircraft.
Flying Wing
A flying wing is a tailless aircraft that has little or no defined fuselage,
with most of the crew, passengers, cargo, engines, and other equipment
housed inside the main wing structure. A flying wing may have some
small additions to the wings such as nacelles, booms, vertical stabilizers,
or landing gear undercarriage. Almost all of the flight controls (except the
rudder) are integrated into the main horizontal wing structure.
The flying wing configuration has been studied since before World War
II both in the United States and Germany. Several late-War German
military designs were based on the flying wing concept as were a number
of American designs just after the War. The designers hoped that the
reduction in drag due to the absence of a significant fuselage and tailplane
structure would make the flying wing more efficient than conventional
aircraft. These early designs did generally prove to be somewhat more
efficient than conventional aircraft when it comes to speed and range, but
they did present a number of new technical flight-control problems, which
led the manufacturers to discontinue most of the design and production
work on flying wings.
Interest in flying wings was renewed during the design of “stealth”-type
aircraft. The lack of a fuselage and tailplane combined with the
availability of turbine engines embedded in the wing structure made flying
wings potentially more “stealth-like” due to their low radar reflection
cross section. A low radar cross section is the aircraft’s ability to either
diffuse or absorb radar energy or break up the reflected radar energy away
from the radar transmitter.
Preliminary work on small stealth aircraft, such as the F-117, eventually
led to the design and construction of the Northrop B-2 stealth bomber, a
modern, turbine-powered large flying wing. Increasing computerized
flight-control systems permitted the designers to work around the inherent
stability problems of a flying wing while permitting the aircraft to be
designed with stealth in mind.
Because it lacks conventional stabilizing surfaces such as vertical and
horizontal stabilizers, as well as the associated control surfaces, pure
flying wings tend to be unstable and difficult to control. Although lateral
(roll) stability and control are similar to those of a conventional aircraft,
difficulties are encountered in the other two axes of rotation (yaw and
pitch). The general problem is that the aircraft fuselage is foreshortened,
compressing the area of longitudinal stability vis-à-vis the center of
gravity and lift, thereby reducing the mechanical advantage of placing
control surfaces out on a fuselage that acts as a lever. These problems are
difficult to reconcile, and in doing so flying wing designers are typically
faced with adding additional, complicated control systems that reduce or
even negate the expected advantages of the flying wing design, such as
reductions in weight and drag.
It is also difficult, from a commercial point of view, to fit the flight
crew, engines, and payload (cargo and passengers), all within the depth of
the wing section of flying wing aircraft. A wing that is made deep enough
to contain all these will have an increased frontal area when compared to a
conventional wing and fuselage, which in turn results in higher drag,
increased fuel consumption, and slower speeds. Typically the solution
adopted in this case is to keep the wing reasonably thin, and the aircraft is
then fitted with an assortment of blisters, pods, nacelles, fins, and so forth,
to accommodate all the needs of a practical aircraft. These additions add
drag and somewhat negate the entire concept of a flying wing.
In addition to this problem, flying wings also lack the long fuselage that
provides a convenient attachment point for a vertical stabilizer or fin. On a
flying wing the vertical fin is attached directly to the rear part of the wing.
This generally provides a small moment arm from the centers of lift,
weight, and drag, which in turn means that to be effective the fin area must
be relatively large. A large fin has weight and drag penalties, and its use
therefore reduces the advantages of a flying wing. The problem can be
minimized by changing the leading-edge sweepback or adding multiple
vertical fins, but because a flying wing already has stability issues, each
“solution” tends to create even more problems to be addressed.
In most flying wing designs, roll and pitch are controlled using trailing
edge-control devices similar to ailerons. The flight controls operate in
tandem when controlling pitch and opposite when controlling roll (similar
to a V-tail-control system). In the area of yaw control and stability, the
vertical fins that provide this stability are so close to the center of gravity
that any control surface (rudder) mounted on them would have little effect;
thus some alternative means for yaw control must be provided. The only
practical solution is to use differential drag in place of a rudder. When
turning, the drag of the wingtip on the inside of the turn needs to be
increased, which then causes the aircraft to yaw in the direction of the
turn. Enhancing drag is not an efficient method of aerodynamic control,
however.
Methods of yaw control on a flying wing include the use of split
ailerons where the top surface of the aileron moves up while the lower
surface moves down, creating an air brake effect. Another way to yaw the
aircraft is through the use of spoilers. A spoiler in the upper wing skin is
raised, disrupting the airflow and increasing drag. Unfortunately use of a
spoiler also causes a loss of lift, which must be compensated for either by
the pilot or by the flight-control system.
A consequence of using differential drag as a yaw-control method is that
the more an aircraft maneuvers, the more drag it creates. So flying wings
are most efficient when cruising in still air where little control movement
is necessary. In turbulent air or when rapidly or constantly changing
direction, flying wing aircraft may be less efficient than a conventional
design.
Lifting Body
A lifting body is an aircraft configuration in which the fuse-lage itself
produces lift. In contrast to a flying wing, which is essentially an aircraft
with all wing-no fuselage, a lifting body is an aircraft with little or no
wing with an aerodynamic, lift-producing fuselage.
Pure lifting bodies were a major area of research in the 1960s as a
means to build a small and lightweight manned spacecraft. A number of
lifting bodies (see Fig. 4-52) were created to test the concept. Interest in
lifting bodies waned when it became clear that the highly shaped fuselages
needed to create sufficient lift were too small to carry sufficient fuel for
flight. Lifting bodies appeared to make excellent space re-entry vehicles
but could not carry enough fuel for sustained cruise or launch-to-space
types of flights.
The NASA-sponsored X-48 aircraft began its first series of flight tests
in July 2007 and has made over 50 flights. The 21-ft wingspan, 500-lb,
remotely piloted plane is designed to demonstrate the viability of the
blended wing shape. The X-48 has a lift-to-drag ratio 50% greater than
conventional aircraft. The advantages of the BWB approach include
efficient high-lift wings and a wide airfoil-shaped body. This enables the
entire craft to contribute to lift generation with the result of potentially
increased fuel economy and range. Studies suggest that BWB aircraft,
configured for passenger flight, could carry from 450 to 800 passengers
and achieve fuel savings of over 20%.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Explain the meaning of the digits in the NACA four-digit airfoil number.
2. What is the principal difference in design between a GAW-1 and GAW-2 airfoil?
3. Name four airfoil characteristics.
4. What do the following symbols indicate: AR, CD, CL, D, L, S, V?
5. What is the fundamental equation for lift?
6. What is the coefficient of lift?
7. What is meant by lift/drag ratio?
8. Define the term center-of-pressure coefficient.
9. What are characteristic curves for an airfoil?
10. What is meant by the planform of an airfoil?
11. What are wingtip vortices?
12. Define aspect ratio and explain how it may be determined.
13. What is the effect of increasing the aspect ratio of a wing?
14. Give some methods used for increasing the effective aspect ratio of a wing.
15. Describe what is meant when a wing is tapered.
16. How is the sweep angle of a wing usually measured?
17. Define the term mean aerodynamic chord.
18. What is the result of flap deflection?
19. Describe a wing slot.
20. Describe a slat.
21. Describe a spoiler.
22. For what purposes can flight spoilers be used?
23. Why are vortex generators employed on some airfoils?
24. What is the purpose of a wing fence?
25. Describe a supercritical airfoil.
5
Aircraft in Flight
INTRODUCTION
An aircraft must have satisfactory handling properties in addition to adequate
performance. The aircraft must have sufficient stability to maintain a uniform flight
condition and recover from various disturbing influences.
Any person associated with aviation should have some understanding of the actual
processes of flight. An individual who is responsible for the design, construction, and
operation or maintenance of aircraft must be thoroughly familiar with the forces acting
on an aircraft in flight, the components of the aircraft that control the flight forces, and
the reactions of the aircraft to this control. Understanding why the aircraft is designed
with a particular type of primary and secondary control system is essential in
maintaining today’s complex aircraft.
This chapter includes information concerning the stability and control of aircraft that
today’s technician needs to possess in order to make intelligent decisions affecting
the flight safety of both airplanes and helicopters.
The internal structure of the airplane wing shown in Fig. 5-2 must be
such that it can withstand the severe bending moments imposed by the
combination of weight and lift. During flight, the wings of an airplane will
support its maximum allowable gross weight. As long as the airplane is
moving at a steady rate of speed and in a straight line, the load imposed
upon the wings will remain constant.
A change in speed during straight flight will not produce any
appreciable change in load, but when a change is made in the airplane’s
flight path, an additional load is imposed upon the airplane structure. This
is particularly true if a change in direction is made at high speeds with
rapid, forceful control movements.
According to certain laws of physics, a mass (an airplane, in this case)
will continue to move in a straight line unless some force intervenes,
causing the mass (the airplane) to assume a curved path. During the time
the airplane is in a curved flight path, it still attempts, because of inertia, to
force itself to follow straight flight. This tendency to follow straight flight
rather than curved flight generates a force known as centrifugal force,
which acts toward the outside of the curve.
Any time the airplane is flying in a curved flight path with a positive
load, the load the wings must support will be equal to the weight of the
airplane plus the load imposed by centrifugal force. A positive load occurs
when back pressure is applied to the elevator, causing centrifugal force to
act in the same direction as the force of weight. A negative load occurs
when forward pressure is applied to the elevator control, causing
centrifugal force to act in a direction opposite to that of the force of
weight.
Curved flight producing a positive load is a result of increasing the
angle of attack and, consequently, the lift. Increased lift always increases
the positive load imposed upon the wings. However, the load is increased
only at the time the angle of attack is being increased. Once the angle of
attack is established, the load remains constant. The loads imposed on the
wings in flight are stated in terms of load factor.
Load factor is the ratio of the total load supported by the airplane’s wing
to the actual weight of the airplane and its contents; that is, the actual load
supported by the wings divided by the total weight of the airplane. For
example, if an airplane has a gross weight of 2000 lb [907 kg] and, during
flight, is subjected to aerodynamic forces which increase the total load the
wing must support to 4000 lb [1814 kg], the load factor would be 2.0
(4000/2000 = 2). In this example the airplane wing is producing lift that is
equal to twice the gross weight of the airplane. An airplane in straight and
level flight would have a load factor of 1.0.
Another way of expressing load factor is the ratio of a given load to the
pull of gravity; that is, referring to a load factor of 3 as “3 g’s,” where g
refers to the pull of gravity. In this case the weight of the airplane is equal
to 1 g, and if a load of three times the actual weight of the airplane were
imposed upon the wing due to curved flight, the load factor would be
equal to 3 g’s.
An airplane should not be turned with a bank so steep that the safe load
factor of the airplane is exceeded.
Wing Loading
Load factors should not be confused with wing loading. Wing loading is
the ratio of the total gross weight of the aircraft divided by the total wing
area. Wing loading is expressed in pounds per square foot (lb/ft2). Thus a
2000-lb airplane with a 200-ft2 wing would have a wing loading of 10
lb/ft2. Wing loading will range from approximately 10 lb/ft2 for a small
single-engine aircraft to around 75 lb/ft2 for a business jet.
AIRCRAFT STABILITY
Definition
All airplanes must possess stability in varying degrees for safety and ease
of operation. Stability is the inherent ability of a body, after its
equilibrium is disturbed, to develop forces or moments that tend to return
the body to its original position. In other words, a stable airplane will tend
to return to the original condition of flight if disturbed by a force, such as
turbulent air. Airplanes have varying degrees of stability. Aircraft that are
inherently unstable require some type of computerized artificial stability
system to be flown.
Static Stability
An aircraft is in a state of equilibrium when the sum of all forces and all
moments is equal to zero. When an aircraft is in equilibrium, there are no
accelerations and the aircraft continues in a steady condition of flight. If
the equilibrium is disturbed by a gust or a deflection of the controls, the
aircraft will experience acceleration because of an unbalance of moment
or force.
The static stability of an aircraft is defined by the initial tendency to
return to equilibrium conditions following some disturbance from
equilibrium. If an object is disturbed from equilibrium and has the
tendency to return to equilibrium, positive static stability exists. If the
object has a tendency to continue in the direction of disturbance, negative
static stability, or static instability, exists. If the object subject to a
disturbance has neither the tendency to return nor the tendency to continue
in the displacement direction, neutral static stability exists. This is an
intermediate condition which could occur when an object displaced from
equilibrium remains in equilibrium in the displaced position.
These three categories of static stability are illustrated in Fig. 5-4. The
ball in a trough illustrates the condition of positive static stability. If the
ball is displaced from equilibrium at the bottom of the trough, the initial
tendency of the ball is to return to the equilibrium condition. The ball may
roll back and forth through the point of equilibrium, but displacement to
either side creates the initial tendency to return. The ball on a hill
illustrates the condition of static instability. Displacement from
equilibrium at the hilltop brings about the tendency for greater
displacement. The ball on a flat, level surface illustrates the condition of
neutral static stability. The ball encounters a new equilibrium at any point
of displacement and has neither stable nor unstable tendencies.
The term static is applied to this form of stability since the resulting
motion is not considered. Only the tendency to return to equilibrium
conditions is considered in static stability.
Dynamic Stability
While static stability is concerned with the tendency of a displaced body to
return to equilibrium, dynamic stability is defined by the resulting motion
with time. If an object is disturbed from equilibrium, the time history of
the resulting motion indicates the dynamic stability of the system.
Positive dynamic stability is the property which dampens the
oscillations set up by a statically stable airplane, enabling the oscillations
to become smaller and smaller in magnitude until the airplane eventually
settles down to its original condition of flight.
The existence of static stability does not necessarily guarantee the
existence of dynamic stability. However, the existence of positive dynamic
stability implies the existence of static stability. An aircraft must
demonstrate the required degrees of static and dynamic stability if it is to
be operated safely. Fig. 5-5 illustrates the relationship of dynamic and
static stability.
FIGURE 5-5 Relationship of oscillation and stability.
The axis which extends lengthwise through the fuselage from the nose
to the tail is the longitudinal axis. The axis extending through the
fuselage from wingtip to wingtip is the lateral axis. The axis which passes
vertically through the fuselage at the center of gravity is the vertical axis.
During flight, an airplane is rotated about the three axes by means of the
three primary flight controls. The ailerons control roll about the
longitudinal axis, the elevators control pitch about the lateral axis, and the
rudder controls yaw about the vertical axis.
Discussing stability and relating it to the axis of the aircraft is somewhat
confusing because stability is referenced to movement along an axis
instead of rotation about an axis. For example, stability about the lateral
axis (pitch) is referred to as longitudinal stability since it involves rotation
of the airplane along the longitudinal axis. Stability around the
longitudinal axis (roll) is called lateral stability, and stability around the
vertical axis (yaw) is called directional stability.
Longitudinal Stability
The stability of an airplane about the lateral axis is longitudinal stability.
If the airplane is put into a dive or climb and then the control is released,
the airplane should return to level flight automatically. If the airplane does
not have longitudinal stability, it may increase the angle of dive after being
placed in a dive, or it may “porpoise,” that is, oscillate through a series of
dives and climbs (pitch up and down), unless controlled by the pilot.
The location of the center of gravity with respect to the center of lift
determines to a great extent the longitudinal stability of the airplane. For
example, Fig. 5-7 illustrates neutral longitudinal stability. Note that the
center of lift is directly over the center of gravity or weight. An airplane
with neutral stability will produce no inherent pitch moments around the
center of gravity.
Figure 5-8 illustrates the center of lift in front of the center of gravity.
This airplane would display negative stability and an undesirable pitch-up
moment during flight. If disturbed, the up-and-down pitching moment will
tend to increase in magnitude. This condition can occur especially if the
airplane is loaded so that the center of gravity is rearward of the airplane’s
aft loading limits.
FIGURE 5-8 Negative longitudinal stability.
Figure 5-9 shows an airplane with the center of lift behind the center of
gravity. Again, this produces negative stability. Some force must balance
the down force of the weight. This is accomplished by designing the
airplane in such a manner that the air flowing downward behind the
trailing edge of the wing strikes the upper surface of the horizontal
stabilizer. This creates a downward tail force to counteract the tendency to
pitch down and provides positive stability.
Lateral Stability
The stability of an airplane about the longitudinal, or roll, axis is the
lateral stability. An airplane that tends to return to a wings-level attitude
after being displaced from a level attitude by some force, such as turbulent
air, is considered laterally stable.
The factors that primarily affect lateral stability are dihedral and
sweepback. In aircraft terminology, dihedral means the lateral angle of
the wing with respect to a horizontal plane; this is illustrated in Fig. 5-10.
Positive dihedral exists when the tip of a wing is above the horizontal
plane passing through the root of the wing. Negative dihedral exists when
the tip of the wing is below the horizontal plane passing through the root
of the wing.
Directional Stability
The stability of an airplane about the vertical axis is called directional
stability. This means that the airplane will return to a straight flight path
after having been turned (yawed) one way or the other.
Directional stability is accomplished by placing a vertical stabilizer, or
fin, to the rear of the center of gravity on the upper portion of the tail
section. The surface of this fin acts similarly to a weathervane and causes
the airplane to pivot into the relative wind. If the airplane is yawed out of
its flight path, either by pilot action or by turbulence, the relative wind will
exert a force on one side of the vertical stabilizer and return the airplane to
its original direction of flight, as is shown in Fig. 5-13. The amount of
directional stability provided by the vertical fin is proportional to both the
size of the fin and the distance it is located aft of the CG. The larger the
surface area and the farther aft it is located, the greater the stability. Since
the vertical fin is the primary directional stabilizing force, it must be
located aft of the CG for a stable aircraft configuration.
FIGURE 5-13 Weathervane effect.
Sweptback wings aid in directional stability. If the aircraft yaws from its
direction of flight, the wing which is farther ahead offers more drag than
the wing which is aft. The effect of this drag is to hold back the wing
which is farther ahead and to let the other wing catch up. This is illustrated
in Fig. 5-14.
FIGURE 5-14 Effect of sweepback.
Excessive Stability
It is possible to build into an airplane a degree of stability that reduces or
makes difficult control of the aircraft. Stability helps keep the aircraft in a
desired flight path; however, sometimes it is desirable to deviate from that
path. Maneuverability is also an important characteristic of an airplane.
This is the ability of an airplane to be directed along a selected flight path.
The smooth and easy response of the airplane to its controls is important.
If the airplane does not have the proper degree of this quality, it will be
difficult and tiring to fly, particularly through maneuvers. A good balance
between stability and maneuverability is important in any aircraft design.
AIRCRAFT CONTROL
An airplane is equipped with certain fixed and movable surfaces, or
airfoils, which provide for stability and control during flight. These are
illustrated in Figs. 5-15 and 5-16. Each of the named airfoils is designed to
perform a specific function in the flight of the airplane.
Horizontal Stabilizers
As has been discussed, the horizontal stabilizer is used to provide
longitudinal pitch stability and is usually attached to the aft portion of the
fuselage. It may be located either above or below the vertical stabilizer or
at some midpoint of the stabilizer. Conventional tails (horizontal
stabilizers) are placed aft of the wing and set at a slight negative angle
with respect to the wing chordline. This configuration gives a downward
lift force on the tail, as shown in Fig. 5-17. The down-lift force is
dependent on the size of stabilizer and the distance aft that it is placed
from the CG. The horizontal stabilizer may be designed as a fixed surface
attached to the tail or as a movable surface used to provide pitch control.
Vertical Fins
The vertical stabilizer for an airplane is the airfoil section forward of the
rudder and is used to provide directional stability (yaw) for the aircraft, as
has been previously discussed. This unit is commonly called the fin.
A problem encountered on single-engine airplanes is that as the
propeller turns clockwise, a rotating flow of air is moved rearward (see
Fig. 5-18), striking the left side of the fin and rudder, which results in a
left-yawing moment. To counteract this effect, many airplanes have the
leading edge of the vertical fin offset slightly to the left, thereby allowing
the slipstream to pass evenly around it.
Large turbine aircraft often employ two sets of ailerons, one set being
approximately midwing or immediately outboard of the inboard flaps, and
the other set being in the conventional location near the wingtips, as is
shown in Fig. 5-16. The outboard ailerons become active whenever the
flaps are extended beyond a fixed setting. As the flaps are retracted, the
outboard aileron control system is “locked out” and fairs with the basic
wing shape. Thus, during cruise flight at comparatively high speeds, only
the inboard ailerons are used for control. The outboard ailerons are active
during landings and other slow-flight operations.
The ailerons are moved by means of a control wheel in the cockpit. If a
pilot wants to roll the airplane to the right, he or she turns the wheel to the
right. After the desired degree of bank is obtained, the wheel is returned to
neutral to stop the roll. During normal turns of an airplane, the movement
of the ailerons is coordinated with movements of the rudder and elevators
to provide a banked horizontal turn without “slip” or “skid.” A slip, or
sideslip, is a movement of an airplane partially sideways. In a turn, the
slip is downward and inward toward the turn. A skid in a turn is a
movement of the airplane sideways and outward from the turn.
Aileron control in an airplane is complicated somewhat by an effect
called adverse yaw. An aileron that moves down at the trailing edge of a
wing creates considerably more drag than the aileron on the opposite wing
that moves upward the same amount. Therefore, if the ailerons were
rigged to move the same distance in response to the movement of the
cockpit control, the drag of the downward-moving aileron would cause the
airplane to turn toward the side on which the downward-moving aileron is
located. Thus, a pilot wishing to make a left turn would move the control
to the left, causing the right aileron to move downward, but the drag
caused by the aileron would cause the airplane to turn to the right, except
for strong rudder control. To overcome adverse yaw, the ailerons of an
airplane are rigged for differential movement. The differential control
causes the up-moving aileron to move a greater distance than the down-
moving aileron. The amount of differential is sufficient to balance the drag
between the ailerons, thus eliminating the yaw effect. The design for
differential control is explained in the text Aircraft Maintenance and
Repair.
The correct rigging of the ailerons is of primary importance. After an
airplane has been overhauled and during preflight inspections, the
direction of aileron movement with respect to control-stick movement
must be carefully noted. If the wheel is moved to the right, the right
aileron must move up and the left aileron must move down. Reverse
movement of the control should then cause a reverse of the position of the
ailerons.
Rudders
The rudder is a vertical control surface that is usually hinged to the tail
post aft of the vertical stabilizer and designed to apply yawing moments
to the airplane, that is, to make it turn to the right or the left about the
vertical axis. The movement of the rudder is controlled by pedals operated
by the feet of the pilot. When the right pedal is pressed, the rudder swings
to the right, thus bringing an increase of dynamic air pressure on its right
side. This increased pressure causes the tail of the airplane to swing to the
left and the nose to turn to the right. The operation of a rudder is shown in
Fig. 5-20.
Although it appears that the rudder causes the airplane to turn, it must
be pointed out that the rudder itself cannot cause the airplane to make a
good turn. Newton’s first law of motion states that a moving body tends to
continue moving in a straight line unless some outside force changes its
direction. When rudder is applied to an airplane in flight, the airplane will
turn, but it will continue to travel in the same direction as before unless a
correcting force is applied. Thus, with rudder only, the airplane will turn
sideways and skid. In order to prevent this skid in a turn, the ailerons are
used to bank the airplane. In a car, a banked turn is much easier to
negotiate at comparatively high speeds than a flat turn. It is the same with
an airplane. To prevent skidding in a turn, the airplane must be banked.
Too much of a bank without sufficient rudder in a turn will cause
slipping; that is, the airplane will slide down toward the inside of the turn.
It is therefore necessary that the proper amount of rudder and aileron be
applied when entering a turn in order to produce what is termed a
coordinated turn. Usually, after the airplane is placed in a turn, the rudder
pressure is almost neutralized to hold the turn. Likewise, it is necessary to
reduce the amount of aileron used to place the airplane in the turn.
Another factor to note concerning turns is that the steeper the turn, the
more the elevator will have to be used. Thus a properly executed turn
requires the use of all three of the primary controls.
Elevators
The elevators are the control surfaces which govern the movement of the
aircraft around the lateral axis (pitch). They are normally attached to
hinges on the rear spar of the horizontal stabilizer. When the control wheel
in the airplane is pulled back, the elevators are raised. The force of the
relative wind on the elevator surfaces tends to press the tail down, thus
causing the nose to pitch up and the angle of attack of the wings to
increase. The reverse action takes place when the control wheel is pushed
forward. The action of the elevators is illustrated in Fig. 5-21.
FIGURE 5-21 Action of elevators.
T-Tails
The T-tail arrangement positions the stabilizer and elevator at the top of
the vertical fin. A T-tail is illustrated in Fig. 5-23. The use of a T-tail
configuration not only makes the fin and rudder more effective because of
the end-plate action of the stabilizer location, which act similar to the
addition of an end plate on a wingtip, as was discussed in Chapter 4 (see
Fig. 4-22), but it also positions the horizontal tail above wing turbulence.
A T-tail structure will be somewhat heavier than a conventional tail
arrangement due to combined horizontal tail-and-fin bending loads which
must be carried by the fin and the fuselage.
Some T-tail aircraft have systems to compensate for this situation. The
systems range from control stops to elevator down springs. Most large
turbine-powered T-tail aircraft also have mechanical stick shakers for
warning of an impending stall and a mechanical stick pusher for keeping
the aircraft from entering a stalled condition.
Unusual Controls
Some airplanes have been designed with special types of control surfaces
that do not fit into the descriptions of the conventional controls. One such
control is called a ruddervator. The ruddervator is used on airplanes with
a V-tail, and the surfaces serve both as rudders and as elevators. A V-tail
has a slight drag reduction due to the reduction of interference drag, since
there is one less intersection than on a conventional tail. However, since
the total surface area must be the same as on a conventional tail, there is
no reduction in skin-friction drag. A disadvantage of the V-tail is that the
heavier tail structure necessary to support combined horizontal and
vertical surface loading along with a somewhat heavier control system
makes the V-tail generally as heavy as the conventional design it would
replace. The other disadvantage to a V-tail is that it is susceptible to roll
tendencies, and the stability characteristics are somewhat less desirable,
particularly in rough air.
With a ruddervator, when a pilot wants to increase the angle of attack,
he or she pulls back the control wheel and both ruddervators move upward
and inward, as shown in Fig. 5-25. When the wheel is pushed forward, the
ruddervators move downward and outward, as illustrated.
Trim Tabs
The term trim tabs describes small secondary flight-control surfaces set
into the trailing edges of the primary control surfaces. Tabs are used to
reduce the work load required to hold the aircraft in some constant attitude
by “loading” the control surface to a neutral or trimmed-center position.
Figure 5-26 demonstrates the tab action. Tabs can be fixed or variable, and
the variable tabs can be designed to operate in several different manners.
FIGURE 5-26 Effect of trim tabs.
FIGURE 5-27 A fixed trim tab is adjusted on the ground for the
average flight condition. (Ayres Corp.)
Controllable trim tabs are found on most aircraft with at least the
elevator tab being controlled. These tabs may be operated mechanically,
electrically, or hydraulically. When the trim-control system is activated,
the trim tab is deflected in the direction opposite to the desired movement
of the control surface. When the trim tab is deflected into the airstream,
the air tries to push the tab back flush with the control surface. Since the
control mechanism prevents the tab from being pushed back flush, the
control surface will be moved.
Servo Tabs
The servo tabs, sometimes referred to as the flight tabs, are used
primarily on the large main control surfaces. A servo tab is one that is
directly operated by the primary controls of the airplane. In response to
movement of the cockpit control, only the servo tab moves. The force of
the airflow on the servo tab then moves the primary control surface. The
servo tab, illustrated in Fig. 5-29, is used to reduce the effort required to
move the controls on a large airplane.
FIGURE 5-29 Servo tab.
Balance Tabs
A balance tab is linked to the airplane in such a manner that a movement
of the main control surface will give an opposite movement to the tab.
Thus, the balance tab will assist in moving the main control surface.
Balance tabs are particularly useful in reducing the effort required to move
the control surfaces of a large airplane. A balance tab is illustrated in Fig.
5-30.
Spring Tabs
The spring tabs, like some servo tabs, are usually found on large aircraft
that require considerable force to move a control surface. The purpose of
the spring tab is to provide a boost, thereby aiding in the movement of a
control surface. On the spring tab, illustrated in Fig. 5-31, the control horn
is connected to the control surface by springs.
FIGURE 5-31 Spring tab.
Canard Aircraft
The earliest powered aircraft, such as the Wright Flyer (see Fig. 5-32), had
horizontal surfaces located ahead of the wings. This configuration, also on
the Beech Starship (Fig. 5-33), which has two lifting surfaces, with the
forward airfoil being called a canard, is an appealing way to assist in
carrying some of the airplane weight to reduce drag and increase cruising
speed.
FIGURE 5-32 Wright Flyer.
Conventional airplane designs that have tail surfaces located behind the
wing use the horizontal tail to balance the wing pitching moment. This
means a down load on the tail, as previously discussed, and requires an
increase in the lift coefficient to support the added wing load. Since wing
drag increases with wing lift, a climb-and-cruise penalty is paid for the
stability offered by an aft-located horizontal tail.
With the horizontal stabilizer being mounted forward, a nose-up
balancing moment is provided by an upward-lifting force on the canard.
The canard airplane has no stabilizing down loads because the canard,
being mounted forward, shares the lifting loads with the wing. This lift
adds to the wings’ lift and results in a higher L/D ratio for the airplane.
The canard design, with both surfaces providing lift, makes the aircraft
somewhat unstable. This instability is referred to as relaxed static
stability. The forward wing (canard) lifts a greater share of the total
weight per square foot of wing area (i.e., it has a heavier wing loading)
than the aft wing. This is achieved by having the center of gravity well
ahead of the aft wing. The aft wing pitching moment also adds to the
foreplane load.
In a well-designed canard, the forward wing must always stall at a
lower angle of attack than the aft wing. If the aft wing were to stall first,
the aircraft would pitch up, deepening the stall. With the canard stalling at
a lower angle, the aircraft could be flown with the canard alternately
stalling and unstalling, the nose bobbing up and down gently in a
porpoising mode. The CG location in a canard-equipped aircraft is very
critical, with the requirement being that the CG always be located between
the canard and the main wing. Center of gravity travel is also very limited.
Forward-Swept Wing
Another concept in aircraft design is that of the forward-swept wing, as
illustrated in Fig. 5-34. Forward-swept wings achieve the same result as
aft-swept wings in achieving higher critical Mach numbers; however,
forward-swept wings do not suffer the problems with spanwise flow and
the resulting wingtip stall characteristics. The 30° forward-swept wing of
the X-29 provides drag reductions of up to 20% in the transonic
maneuvering range, giving it performance equivalent to an aircraft with a
more powerful engine. As illustrated in Fig. 5-35, air moving over the
forward-swept wing lends to flow inward rather than outward, allowing
the wingtips to remain unstalled at high angles of attack and therefore
easier to control in extreme maneuvers. Forward-swept wings provide less
drag, more lift, better maneuverability, and more efficient cruise speed.
These improvements in performance are gained at the expense of reduced
lateral and longitudinal stability.
Flying Wing
A concept that has been tried several times but with only limited success
until recently is the flying-wing design, which is shown in Fig. 5-36. On a
conventional aircraft, the fuselage is used to carry passengers and cargo.
For the most part, fuselages create no lift, but add greatly to the production
of drag. Therefore, if the need for fuselages could be eliminated, the L/D
ratio of the aircraft could be greatly increased. This is the concept of the
flying-wing design, which eliminates the fuselage. Significant
performance improvement can be achieved with this design. There are,
however, serious stability and control problems that must be overcome.
Pitch stability is one of the most serious problems since there is no
horizontal stabilizer to overcome the positive pitching moment of the
wing. Stabilizing the wing-pitching moment can be achieved by sweeping
the wing aft and twisting the wingtips to a negative angle so that they will
apply a negative lifting force. Directional stability is also a problem since
the effectiveness of a vertical fin is directly proportional to the distance
that it is located aft of the CG. Since there is no fuselage located aft on
which to locate the vertical fin or rudder, the surface area of these controls
must be dramatically increased. Although stability on the flying-wing
design is relaxed, the recent advent of computerized artificial stability
systems makes the flying wing a viable concept.
FIGURE 5-36 Northrop B-2 flying-wing design. (Northrop
Corp.)
AIRFOILS ON BIPLANES
Gap/Chord Ratio
The gap is the distance between the leading edges of the upper and lower
wings of a biplane, as shown in Fig. 5-37, and is measured perpendicular
to the longitudinal axis of the airplane. The gap is sometimes defined as
the distance separating two adjacent wings of a multiplane. These
definitions mean the same thing.
FIGURE 5-37 Gap and chord.
The chord has been defined and explained before in this text. In
addition to other definitions, it may be defined as the straight line tangent
to the lower surface of the airfoil at two points or as the straight line
between the trailing edge and the imaginary perpendicular line at the
leading edge. The chord is indicated in Fig. 5-37. Instead of the gap of a
biplane, it is customary to give the gap/chord ratio. If the gap/chord ratio
is 1, it means that the gap and the chord have the same length. In practice,
the gap/chord ratio is usually close to 1. The principal determining factor
for the gap/ chord ratio is the interplane interference. The upper and lower
wing should be as near to each other as possible for structural reasons and
yet still be far enough apart so that interplane interference is kept at a
minimum.
Gap/Span Ratio
Some textbooks on aerodynamics mention the gap/span ratio. This is the
ratio of the gap to the span, but the gap is always much less than the span;
therefore, the ratio is always less than 1.
Stagger
The term stagger is defined as the difference in the longitudinal position
of the axes of two wings of an airplane. In simple words, stagger is the
amount which the leading edge of one wing of a biplane is ahead of the
leading edge of the other wing.
The upper biplane of Fig. 5-38 has positive stagger, because the
leading edge of the upper wing is ahead of the leading edge of the lower
wing. The lower biplane of Fig. 5-38 has a negative stagger, because the
leading edge of the upper wing is behind the leading edge of the lower
wing. Stagger is expressed in inches, percentage of chord length, or
degrees.
Decalage
The term decalage describes the angular difference between the mean
aerodynamic chords of the wings of a biplane. The angle of wing setting,
or chord angle, is the same thing as the angle of incidence. Therefore,
decalage is the difference between the angles of incidence of the wings of
a biplane.
The decalage is measured by the angle (less than a right angle) between
the chords in a plane parallel to the plane of symmetry. The decalage is
considered positive if the upper wing of a biplane is set at the larger angle
of incidence. In Fig. 5-40, there is an angle of incidence for the upper
wing but none for the lower wing; therefore, there is a positive angle of
decalage, which, in this particular case, happens to be the same as the
angle of incidence of the upper wing.
In Fig. 5-41, the lower wing has an angle of incidence but the upper
wing has none; therefore, there is a negative angle of decalage. In this
particular case, the angle of incidence of the lower wing is the angle of
decalage. If the upper wing were set at an angle of incidence of 3° and the
lower wing were set at an angle of incidence of 2°, there would be a
positive angle of decalage of 1° (3°-2°).
Biplane Loads
A biplane is constructed with external bracing between the wings to
support a large part of the loads that occur during flight and landing. These
external supporting members are shown in Fig. 5-42. During flight, the
flying wires are under a high-tension stress and the interplane struts are
subjected to compression stress. Upon landing, the landing wires arc
under tension and the wing struts are still under compression. The cabane
struts are always under compression, and the cross-brace wires are under
tension.
FIGURE 5-42 Load-bearing members in a biplane.
HELICOPTERS
One of the most versatile and useful aircraft for a wide variety of
applications is the helicopter. The main difference between a helicopter
and an airplane is the main source of lift. The airplane derives its lift from
a fixed airfoil surface, while the helicopter derives lift from a rotating
airfoil called the rotor.
The word helicopter is derived from the Greek words meaning “helical
wing” or “rotating wing.” The rotating wing (main rotor) of a helicopter
has two or more blades, depending upon the design and size of the
helicopter. Each blade is an airfoil having a profile similar to that of an
airplane wing. The same laws of aerodynamics that apply to other airfoils
apply to the helicopter rotor blades.
The great usefulness of the helicopter is its ability to fly straight up,
sideways, forward, or backward, or to remain still in a hovering position.
Because of its ability to land in almost any small, clear area, the helicopter
is used for air-taxi service, police work, intercity mail and passenger
service, power-line patrolling, construction work, fire fighting, agricultural
work, air-sea rescue, and a variety of other services.
Helicopter Flight
The helicopter flies in accordance with the same laws of aerodynamics
that govern the flight of a conventional airplane. In the helicopter,
however, these laws are applied differently. The helicopter is subject to the
same four forces that affect other aircraft: lift, weight, thrust, and drag.
Lift supports the weight of the helicopter, and thrust overcomes the drag
and moves the helicopter in the direction desired.
If the lift vector is broken down into components perpendicular and
parallel to the ground, as shown in Fig. 5-43, there will be a vertical lift
component to support the helicopter and a horizontal thrust component
producing directional flight. The helicopter will move in the direction of
rotor tilt. A helicopter can fly in any direction with reference to the
heading. For example, the helicopter can be headed north and flying south,
east, west, or any other direction. Furthermore, it can move straight up or
straight down, or it can remain stationary. When the helicopter is in
stationary flight, it is said to be hovering. If the helicopter is hovering in a
no-wind condition, the plane of rotation of the rotor is horizontal, or
parallel, with the level ground. During hovering, the sum of the lift and
thrust of the helicopter is equal to the sum of the weight and drag. This is
illustrated in Fig. 5-44. During vertical flight, when the sum of the lift and
thrust is greater than the sum of the weight and drag, the helicopter will
rise. If the sum of the weight and drag is greater than the sum of the lift
and thrust, the helicopter will descend.
FIGURE 5-43 Conditions for horizontal flight in a helicopter.
FIGURE 5-44 Forces acting on a helicopter while hovering.
For forward, rearward, or sideways flight, the rotor must be tilted in the
direction in which the pilot wants to fly. The conditions for varous types of
horizontal flight are illustrated in Fig. 5-43. When flying forward, the rotor
is tilted forward, as shown in the illustration. The forces of flight are
resolved into vertical and horizontal components. If the helicopter is flying
forward in a straight and level path, the thrust is equal to or greater than
the drag in the horizontal direction, and the lift is equal to the weight in the
vertical direction.
When the helicopter is flying rearward, sideways, or in any other
horizontal direction, the thrust is acting in the direction in which the
vehicle is moving, and the drag is acting in the opposite direction. Lift and
weight always act in the vertical direction.
Dissymmetry of Lift
If a helicopter is hovering and no surface wind is blowing, the tip speed of
the rotor is uniform at all points, as is shown in Fig. 5-47. However, as a
helicopter is moved in directional flight, this is not the case. Assuming that
the tip speed of the rotor blades is 500 mph and the helicopter is flying in a
forward direction at 100 mph, a relative wind of 100 mph is flowing into
the rotor, as is shown in Fig. 5-48. Notice that over the right side of the
helicopter the rotor blade has a 500-mph airspeed, which is caused by its
rotational velocity at that point. In addition, the aircraft’s forward-velocity
relative wind is flowing over the blade at that point. The relative wind has
a value of 100 mph. The air flowing over the blade at that point is thus
traveling at 600 mph. Over the nose and tail of the aircraft the airspeed has
returned to approximately 500 mph. On the left side of the helicopter the
rotor blade has a 500-mph rotational velocity. The 500-mph airspeed that
this rotational velocity would normally produce has been modified,
however, by the fact that the aircraft relative wind, flowing at 100 mph, is
flowing in the same direction the blade is moving. The 100-mph aircraft
airspeed must therefore be subtracted from the normal 500-mph rotational-
velocity airspeed. This results in a total blade airspeed of only 400 mph
over the left side of the helicopter. It should be noted that a blade traveling
from the tail to the nose around the right side of the helicopter is termed
the advancing blade because it is advancing into the relative wind. The
blade traveling from the nose to the tail around the left side of the
helicopter is called the retreating blade.
The result of the Coriolis effect on a rotor is that the advancing blade
moves forward (leads) and the retreating blade moves aft (lags) in respect
to the blade attach point. The direction of this leading and lagging
(hunting) is parallel to the plane of the rotor disk. The movement is
absorbed by the vertical drag hinges or by dampers and the structure of the
blades. Two-blade rotors that are underslung and semirigid are not greatly
influenced by the Coriolis effect.
Gyroscopic Precession
The term gyroscopic precession describes an inherent quality of rotating
bodies in which an applied force is manifested 90° in the direction of
rotation from the point where the force is applied. Since the rotor of a
helicopter has a relatively large diameter and turns at several hundred
revolutions per minute, precession is a prime factor in controlling the rotor
operation.
The cyclic-pitch control causes a variation in the pitch of the rotor
blades as they rotate about the circle of the tip-path plane. The purpose of
this pitch change is, in part, to cause the rotor disk to tilt in the direction in
which it is desired to make the helicopter move. When only the
aerodynamic effects of the blades are considered, it would seem that when
the pitch of the blades is high, the lift would be high, and the blade would
rise. Thus, if the blades had high pitch as they passed through one side of
the rotor disk and low pitch as they passed through the other side of the
disk, the side of the disk having the high pitch should rise, and the side
having the low pitch should fall. This would be true except for gyroscopic
precession.
Gyroscopic precession is caused by a combination of a spinning force
and an applied acceleration force perpendicular to the spinning force.
Figure 5-50 is a drawing of a spinning disk that represents the main rotor
of a helicopter. If the disk is spinning in the direction indicated by the
arrow and a force is applied upward at 3:00, the disk will precess (move)
in the direction shown at 12:00. Thus, if a force is applied perpendicular to
the plane of rotation, the precession will cause the force to take effect 90°
from the applied force, in the direction of rotation.
As a result of the foregoing principle, if the pilot wants the main rotor
of a helicopter to tilt in a particular direction, the applied force must be at
an angular displacement of 90° ahead of the desired direction of tilt. The
required force is applied aerodynamically by changing the pitch of the
blades through the cyclic-pitch control. When the cyclic control is pushed
forward, the blade at the left increases in pitch as the blade on the right
decreases in pitch. This applies an “up” force to the left-hand side of the
rotor disk, but the up movement takes place 90° in the direction of
rotation. The up movement is therefore at the rear of the rotor plane, and
the rotor tilts forward. This applies a forward thrust and causes the
helicopter to move forward. The action is illustrated in Fig. 5-51.
FIGURE 5-51 Gyroscopic effect on cyclic-pitch input. (Sikorsky
Aircraft.)
Blade Stall
In studying the effect of forward aircraft speed on the helicopter rotor,
there is a limit of speed beyond which the helicopter cannot fly. As the
forward speed of the helicopter increases, the relative-wind velocity on the
retreating rotor blade decreases, and in order to maintain its share of the
lift, it must continue to increase its angle of attack. In addition, the load is
shifting toward the lips of the blades. At a certain relative-wind velocity,
the retreating blade will stall, owing to the high angle of attack the blade
requires to maintain lift equal to that of the advancing blade. The stall
begins at the tip of the blade and works inward as forward speed increases.
A typical blade-tip stall pattern is shown in the shaded area of Fig. 5-52. A
helicopter stall is typically evidenced first by a vibration. If the stall is
severe enough, the helicopter will pitch, nose up, because even though the
helicopter has lost lift on the left-side retreating blade (due to gyroscopic
precession), the effect will take place approximately over the tail rotor.
Ground Effect
When a helicopter is hovering near the ground, the downward stream of
air strikes the ground and does not escape from beneath the helicopter as
rapidly as it is being driven toward the ground. This causes a buildup of
air pressure below the helicopter, which acts as a cushion to help support
the machine in the hovering position. The ground cushion is usually
effective to a height of approximately one-half the diameter of the main
rotor while the helicopter is hovering. When the helicopter moves
horizontally at 3 to 5 knots (kt) [1.54 to 2.57 m/s], the ground cushion is
left behind.
Translational Lift
A helicopter requires a good portion of available power to maintain a
hover. The power is used to give momentum or acceleration to the mass of
air moving through the rotor system, which, in turn, produces an upward
thrust. When a helicopter is moving horizontally in flight at more than 15
kt [7.7 m/s], the performance of the main rotor improves, owing to the
increased volume of air passing through it. This effect is called
translational lift because the lift of the rotor increases. Less engine power
is required to maintain flight when the helicopter is flying horizontally
than when it is hovering.
Tail Rotor
According to Newton’s third law of motion, for every force there is an
equal and opposite force or reaction. The torque force applied to the rotor
shaft of a helicopter to turn the rotor causes an equal and opposite torque
force, which would turn the fuselage of the helicopter in the opposite
direction unless measures were taken to prevent it. This is the function of
the antitorque rotor, or tail rotor. Since the main rotor turns to the left
(counterclockwise), as viewed from the top on American-made
helicopters, the torque force causes the helicopter to turn to the right, as is
shown in Fig. 5-53. Tail-rotor force must therefore be applied to the right
to keep the heading steady.
FIGURE 5-53 Torque compensation. (Sikorsky Aircraft.)
The combined effect of the tail-rotor thrust and the main-rotor torque is
to apply a net force that causes the helicopter to drift to the right, as is
illustrated in Fig. 5-54. This force is called the lateral drift tendency or
translating tendency. This drift is corrected by rigging the main-rotor mast
so that the main rotor will apply a force slightly to the left, or by designing
the cyclic-pitch control to provide a slight till of the tip-path plane to the
left.
FIGURE 5-54 Lateral-drift compensation. (Sikorsky Aircraft.)
HELICOPTER CONTROLS
The collective-pitch control increases or decreases the pitch of all the
main-rotor blades simultaneously or collectively. Therefore, when a pilot
wants to raise the helicopter from the ground, he or she increases the
collective pitch, thereby increasing lift to all blades evenly. The collective-
pitch control is a lever (slick) that is usually situated at the pilot’s left. The
control is coordinated with the throttle control of the engine so that engine
power will be increased as the lever is raised to increase the collective
pitch. In addition, the lever has a motorcycle-type grip that can be rotated
to make additional adjustments to engine power. The grip is rotated
counterclockwise to decrease power and clockwise to increase power.
The cyclic-pitch control causes a variation of the blade pitch as each
blade rotates through the tip-path plane. This is accomplished through the
tilting of the stationary star (swashplate) shown in Fig. 5-55. The purpose
of the cyclic-pitch control, as mentioned previously, is to cause the tip-
path plane of the main rotor to tilt as required to provide for movement of
the helicopter in a desired direction.
The collective and cyclic controls operate through a mixing box where
the two control inputs are integrated (mixed) together. These inputs are
then transmitted to a star, or swashplate, assembly. The bottom stationary
star is linked to the levers of the control mixing box. Through the linkage,
the star assembly is raised, lowered, and tilted forward and rearward or to
either side. The top star assembly turns with the main rotor. When the star
assembly is parallel to the plane of rotation, the pitch of the rotor blades is
equal and uniform throughout rotation. When the star assembly is raised or
lowered, the pitch of all the blades is changed uniformly, as is shown in
Figs. 5-56 and 5-57. In Fig. 5-56 the collective stick would be at full low
pitch, and the cyclic stick would be centered. The star assembly is at the
low position and level. In Fig. 5-57 the collective stick has been raised to
its full high position, and the cyclic slick is still centered. The star
assembly is at its highest point and the blades are at high pitch.
When the star assembly is tilted, the pitch of the blades changes
throughout the circle of rotation. On one side of the rotor disk the pitch
will be decreasing, and on the other side of the disk the pitch will be
increasing. If the cyclic control stick is moved aft, the star assembly is
tilted. The lowest point of the tilted star assembly is over the stationary-
scissors assembly, while the highest is over a position 180° opposite, or at
the fore-and-aft rod. This means that the rotating star is now rotating in an
inclined circle and, as the blade-pitch control rods rotate, they are
constantly undergoing an up-and-down motion. Because the rods are
attached to the rotor blades, the blades will constantly be changing pitch,
changing from a high pitch value to a low pitch value each revolution.
Because of the use of the mixing unit, both the collective and cyclic
controls may be used in any combination or mixture desired.
The helicopter can be moved in any direction desired merely by moving
the cyclic-pitch control in that direction. The main rotor tilts in the
direction called for by the control, and the helicopter moves as directed. If
the control is in neutral, the helicopter will hover, that is, remain stationary
in the air. In a wind, the helicopter will drift in the direction in which the
wind is blowing unless sufficient rotor thrust is applied to cancel the effect
of the wind.
The heading control for a helicopter is similar to the rudder control for
a conventional aircraft. The “rudder” pedals in a helicopter are not really
rudder pedals because they control the pitch of the tail rotor rather than the
deflection of a rudder. The tail rotor is often called an antitorque rotor,
and the pedals are called antitorque pedals.
During straight and level flight, the pitch of the tail rotor is such that the
rotor provides a thrust that exactly counterbalances the torque of the main
rotor. If the pilot wants to turn the helicopter to the right, she or he
decreases the pitch of the tail rotor by pressing the right pedal. The torque
of the main rotor then causes the helicopter to turn to the right. If the pilot
wants to turn to the left, she or he presses the left pedal and the tail-rotor
pitch is increased. This causes the additional thrust needed to push the tail
to the right, and the helicopter then turns left.
It must be emphasized that the tail-rotor pedals in a helicopter do not
control the direction in which the helicopter is flying. They control only
the direction in which the fuselage is headed. Direction of flight is
controlled through the cyclic-pitch system, as previously described.
Autorotation
The helicopter must incorporate a safety feature to provide for the
condition that exists in the event of power failure. This feature is called
autorotation and is required before a helicopter can be certificated by the
Federal Aviation Administration. If power failure occurs, the engine is
automatically disengaged from the rotor system through a free-wheeling
device associated with the transmission. This disconnect device, the first
step in the autorotation safety feature, will eliminate the engine drag from
the rotor system as well as preventing further damage to the engine.
The second step required for autorotation is to provide for adequate
windmilling of the rotor during descent and to create enough inertia in the
rotor system so the pilot can apply sufficient collective pitch to cushion
the landing. Autorotation is accomplished by aerodynamic forces resulting
from an upward rotor inflow created by the descent of the helicopter. The
turning of the rotor generates lift, which makes it possible to continue
controlled flight while descending to a safe landing. Remember that
during autorotation, aerodynamic force, not engine force, is driving the
rotor.
If engine failure occurs, the pilot immediately lowers the collective-
pitch control, thus reducing the pitch of all rotor blades simultaneously.
The cyclic-pitch control is moved forward to establish the best forward
speed for autorotation. Each helicopter has a characteristic forward speed,
which produces maximum lift and lowest rate of descent.
Once the collective pitch is at the low-pitch limit, the rotor revolutions
per minute can be increased only by a sacrifice in altitude or airspeed. If
insufficient altitude is available to exchange for rotor speed, a hard landing
is inevitable. Sufficient rotor rotational energy must be available to permit
adding collective pitch to reduce the helicopter’s rate of descent before
final ground contact.
At low altitudes and low forward velocities, power failure in a
helicopter is hazardous because of the difficulty in establishing sufficient
autorotational lift to make a safe landing. Manufacturers provide
airspeed-versus-altitude limitations charts to inform the pilot regarding
the combinations of safe altitudes and speeds. A typical chart is shown in
Fig. 5-58. Note that it is comparatively safe to hover and fly at low speeds
at very low altitudes. After attaining an indicated airspeed of 50 mph, or
44 kt [22 m/s], it is comparatively safe to fly at any altitude above 50 ft
[16 m] because there is sufficient time to make the transition to the
autorotation mode.
During autorotation, the outer 25% of the blades produces the lift, the
section between 25 and 70% of the distance from the tip of the blades
produces the driving force that keeps the rotor turning, and the inner 25 to
30% produces neither lift nor drive in any measurable degree.
Ground Resonance
There are two types of vibrations found in helicopters: ordinary and self-
excited. Self-excited vibrations need no periodic external forces to start or
maintain the vibration. Self-excited vibrations can cause the helicopter to
rock fore and aft, or sideways with increasing magnitude, with the rotor
blades weaving back and forth in the plane of rotation. This phenomenon
is known as ground resonance because the vibration occurs when the
aircraft is on the ground. Two conditions must exist to cause ground
resonance. First, there must be some abnormal lead/lag condition which
dynamically unbalances the rotor. Second, there must be a reaction
between the helicopter and the ground through the tires or struts which
would aggravate and further unbalance the rotor.
When resonance is suspected and rotor rpm is within operating range,
the immediate application of power and a rapid takeoff will stop the
condition.
HELICOPTER CONFIGURATIONS
As in the case of fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters have many different
configurations. The most popular helicopter arrangement is that of the
single rotor using a tail rotor, such as is illustrated in Fig. 5-59. The
single-rotor helicopter is relatively lightweight when compared to other
configurations. This is due to its fairly simple design, with one rotor, one
main transmission, and one set of controls.
FIGURE 5-59 Sikorsky’s 76 Mark II Helicopter. (Sikorsky
Aircraft.)
The disadvantages of the single-rotor machine are its limited lifting and
speed capabilities and a severe safety hazard during ground operation,
with the tail rotor positioned several feet behind the pilot and out of the
line of vision. In addition, a portion of the available engine power must be
diverted from producing lift to provide antitorque correction.
Tail-Rotor Designs
The conventional tail rotor consists of a rotor of two or more blades
located at the end of the tailboom. As already discussed, the tail rotor is
used with single-rotor helicopters to counteract yawing movement
resulting from the torque effect of the engine-transmission-main-rotor
system. It does this by generating a side thrust at the end of the tailboom
which tries to rotate the helicopter about its vertical axis. This yawing
thrust is varied to counter the yawing movement imposed by the main-
rotor torque. During cruising flight and hovering changes in altitude, the
tail rotor corrects for torque. The tail rotor can also be used to change the
heading of the helicopter when in a hover.
The Fenestron tail-rotor system uses what might be called a ducted-fan
antitorque system. This system uses a multibladed fan mounted in the
vertical fin on the end of the tailboom. This arrangement reduces
aerodynamic losses due to blade-tip vortices, reduces the blanking of the
antitorque control system by the vertical stabilizer, and reduces the chance
of people walking into the tail rotor.
The ring guard is an adaptation of the conventional tail-rotor system
which has a ring built around the tail rotor. This ring acts as a duct for the
tail rotor, increases the safety of the tail rotor for ground personnel, and
eliminates the verticalstabilizer-blanking effect. These three types of
antitorque controls are shown in Fig. 5-60.
The NOTAR system (NO Tail Rotor), illustrated in Fig. 5-61, was
developed by McDonnell-Douglas Helicopter Company to eliminate the
hazards, maintenance, and noise of the conventional tail rotor. This system
uses a ducted airflow in a tail cone to generate a predetermined amount of
lift on one side of the tail cone and a controllable rotating cold-air exhaust
duct to counteract variations in the main-rotor-system torque.
Tandem-Rotor Helicopters
A tandem-rotor helicopter manufactured by Boeing Vertol, a Division of
Boeing Company, is shown in Fig. 5-62. This helicopter uses two
synchronized rotors turning in opposite directions. The opposite rotation
of the rotors causes one rotor to cancel the torque of the other, thus
eliminating the need for an antitorque rotor. Each rotor is fully articulated
and has three blades. Climb or descent is accomplished by means of the
collective-pitch control. When the collective-pitch lever is raised, the pitch
of all six rotor blades is increased simultaneously, causing the helicopter to
ascend. This control, therefore, operates similarly to the collective-pitch
control for a single-rotor helicopter. Descent is accomplished by lowering
the collective pitch control.
FIGURE 5-62 Tandem-rotor helicopter. (Boeing Vertol, Division
of Boeing Commercial Aircraft Co.)
Tilt-Rotor Aircraft
After many years of research, the technology in the areas of composites
and electronic flight-control systems has finally been developed to make a
functional tilt-rotor aircraft a reality. The tilt rotor has the ability to
combine the vertical takeoff low-speed capabilities of the helicopter with
the high-speed performance of a turboprop airplane.
The V-22 Osprey, illustrated in Fig. 5-66, resembles a twin turboprop
with large-diameter propellers, or rotors, mounted on wingtip nacelles.
The engines rotate from a vertical position for helicopter flight to a
horizontal position for cruise flight.
FIGURE 5-66 V-22 Osprey tilt-rotor aircraft.
Lift in the vertical, or hover, position is provided totally from the 38-ft-
[11.6-cm-] diameter prop rotors. When in the horizontal, or cruise,
position, lift is provided by the wings. The tilt rotor operates effectively
with the engines between the vertical and horizontal positions, which
provides for a wide range of lift and speed combinations. When operated
in this conversion configuration, lift is provided from both the wings and
the prop rotors. Full conversion from the hover to the fixed-wing mode
can be accomplished in approximately 12 seconds.
X-Wing Aircraft
The X-wing aircraft illustrated in Fig. 5-67 is a concept model for a
vertical takeoff and landing aircraft which uses a four-bladed, helicopter-
like rotor system that rotates for hover and low-speed flight and stops at
approximately 200 kt [103 m/s] to become a fixed-wing aircraft for high-
speed flight. The vehicle then flies as a fixed-wing aircraft while
accelerating to speeds of approximately 450 to 500 kt [232 to 257 m/s]
using an auxiliary propulsion system.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are the four forces that are applied to an airplane in flight?
2. How is an airplane’s load factor determined?
3. In what categories may airplanes be type-certificated?
4. What is wing loading?
5. Define static stability.
6. Define dynamic stability.
7. Describe the three axes of an airplane.
8. Define dihedral.
9. How is directional stability accomplished on an aircraft?
10. What are the three primary control surfaces of an airplane?
11. Which primary control affects aircraft movement around each of the three axes?
12. What is a stabilator?
13. Explain the use of trim tabs.
14. How do the loads that are imposed on a canard vary from those that are
imposed on a conventional tail?
15. Explain the term stagger as applied to a biplane.
16. Define the term decalage as applied to a biplane.
17. What is meant by the term blade coning?
18. What is the cause of dissymmetry of lift in a helicopter?
19. Describe the Coriolis effect and explain how it affects the rotor blades.
20. What is gyroscopic precession?
21. What factor limits the forward speed in a helicopter?
22. How is torque counteracted in a single-rotor helicopter?
23. What does the collective-pitch control do in a helicopter?
24. What does the cyclic-pitch control do in a helicopter?
25. Why is a tail rotor not required on a tandem-rotor helicopter?
6
Aircraft Drawings
INTRODUCTION
Engineering drawings and prints (copies of drawings) are essential tools in the design
and manufacture of aircraft. An engineering drawing is used to describe an object by
means of lines and symbols. With the use of a print or a drawing, an engineer can
convey to those who build, inspect, operate, and maintain aircraft and spacecraft the
necessary instructions for ordering the materials, making the parts, assembling the
units, and finishing the surfaces. Drawings constitute the abbreviated written
language of the aerospace industry, a shorthand method for presenting information
that would take many pages of manuscript to transmit. The aviation maintenance
technician must be able to correctly interpret the information on many types of
drawings in technical reference manuals. In addition to engineering drawings, the
technician will encounter schematic diagrams, installation and location drawings, and
wiring charts. Reproduction of drawings was originally done by a process that
produced a print of white lines on a blue background. The term blueprint was used for
these prints. Today, the term blueprint is commonly used to refer to many types of
drawings and prints, without regard to the production or copying process.
TYPES OF DRAWINGS
Production Drawings
A major use of engineering drawings is for the fabrication or assembly of
components. Drawings used for this purpose are also called production
drawings or working drawings. Production drawings can be categorized
as detail drawings, assembly drawings, or installation drawings.
A detail drawing can consist of one part or several parts of an entire
assembly. The detail drawing will provide, by the use of lines, notes, and
symbols, all the specifications (size, shape, and material) needed to make
the part. An example of a detail drawing is shown in Fig. 6-1.
Block Diagrams
A block diagram is a special drawing used to simplify the explanation of
complex circuits. Block diagrams are widely used for electronic circuits
but can be used for any type of aircraft system. A block diagram allows
nonspecialized personnel to understand the function and relationship of
various systems within a component. Various shapes may be used within
the diagram to help explain function. Figure 6-6 is a block diagram of an
autopilot system. Block diagrams are very useful for troubleshooting. By
knowing the input and output for each component, a technician can
identify and isolate those contributing to a malfunction.
FIGURE 6-6 Block diagram of an autopilot system.
Schematic Diagrams
A schematic diagram is also used to explain a system. A simple
schematic shows the functional location of components within a system.
This is done without regard to the physical location of the components in
the aircraft. The flow of fluid in a lubrication system is indicated by the
use of various types of shading, as shown in Fig. 6-7. While some
schematics are colored, black-and-white diagrams provide better copies
and are usable for microfilm and microfiche.
FIGURE 6-7 Lubrication system schematic.
Shop Sketches
A shop sketch may be anything from a simple line drawing, such as that
shown in Fig. 6-9, to a rather complex and detailed drawing, such as a
standard engineering drawing. The purpose of a shop sketch is to convey
information concerning the repair of a part or structure, to illustrate a
proposed modification, to provide information for engineering drafters
from which they can make standard engineering drawings, and for various
other uses where an illustration is necessary to convey technical
information. Due care should be exercised in the preparation of a shop
sketch so that it presents a good appearance, contains complete and
accurate information, and conveys the information that it is intended to
convey.
Wiring Diagrams
The purpose of a wiring diagram is to show all the wires, wire segments,
and connections in an electrical system or circuit. Figure 6-10 is a sample
wiring diagram produced in accordance with Air Transport Association
(ATA) specifications. It should be noted that every wire segment is
identified by an alphanumerical code. The letters and numbers shown in
the diagram are stamped on the wires in the aircraft at intervals of 15 in
[38.1 cm] or less. The connections, to connector plugs or electrical units,
are identified by letters or numbers.
DRAFTING TECHNIQUES
An aircraft maintenance technician does not have to be a skilled
draftsperson. However, in order to correctly read and interpret drawings, a
knowledge of the techniques used to graphically communicate technical
information is essential. These techniques include the use of different
types of views, lines, symbols, standard dimensioning practices, and title-
block information.
Projections
Perspective Drawings
Figure 6-17 shows two different views of the same object, one perspective
and the other oblique. The oblique view is similar to the perspective view,
but the lines are drawn parallel and the length of each line is true to scale.
Foreshortening has been eliminated, but optical illusion is still a problem.
The lines are parallel and of the same length, yet the farthest one from the
observer appears to be longer.
The term isometric is derived from two Greek words, isos and metron,
meaning “equal” and “measure.” Thus we see that isometric means “of
equal measure.”
Orthographic Projections
Figure 6-23 shows that all edges or sharp corners are projected into other
views as outlines or visible edges. Figure 6-24 shows that any line or edge
that cannot be seen from one particular view may be shown as a hidden
line (invisible edge) in that view by means of the appropriate line symbol.
Hidden lines are often omitted for clarity if the drawing is clear without
them.
Conventional Breaks
A pipe, tube, or a long bar having a uniform cross section is not always
drawn for its entire length. When one or more pieces of the object are
broken out and the ends moved together, a larger and more legible scale
can be used. The true length will not be shown, but dimensions give the
measurements to be used for the work. Different types of breaks may be
used for different shapes and materials. Figure 6-25 shows the
conventional breaks used in drawing a round, solid object; a round, hollow
object; a metal object; and a wood object.
Curved Surfaces
Figure 6-26 illustrates the general rule that a curved surface or a circle
appears in one view only in that form. In other views, the curve or the
circle is shown as a straight line or by a pair of straight lines. For example,
there is a hole through the object in Fig. 6-26 which appears as a circle in
the front view, as two parallel lines in the top view, and as two parallel
lines in the right-side view. In the top and right-side views, the lines
representing the hole are dashed lines because the hole cannot be seen
from the top or the side of the object.
FIGURE 6-26 Curved surfaces in a three-view drawing.
The fillet in Fig. 6-26 is shown as a curved line in the front view and as
a straight line in each of the other views. Since it is visible, it is
represented by a solid, straight line in the top and right-side views and by
a solid, curved line in the front view.
Selection of Views
Two-View Drawings
Figure 6-28 also includes drawings of two different objects. The object
at the top has invisible (hidden-line) circles. It is customary to use two-
view drawings such as these to illustrate objects having either drilled holes
or hidden circles. The object at the bottom shows the drilled holes as small
circles in the front view and as dashed lines in the side view.
FIGURE 6-28 Two-view drawings showing hidden circles and
drilled holes.
Single-View Drawings
Some objects are so simple that their shape can be shown by only one
view. Figure 6-29 shows two objects of this type. The object at the top of
the drawing is a cylindrical part with a groove that must be made
according to the directions shown near the root of the arrow. The letter D
indicates that the long cylindrical section has a uniform diameter
throughout its length.
FIGURE 6-29 Single-view drawings.
Sectional Views
Detail Views
A detail view shows only a portion of the object but in greater detail than
the principal view. The detail view may consist of a larger scale or a
sectional view. The portion involved in the detail view will be indicated on
the principal view. This indication may take the form of a letter or a
cutting-plane line, in the case of a sectional detail view. The flap-control
assembly drawing in Fig. 6-22 shows a detailed sectional view of the shaft
and pulley area.
Dimensions
Dimensions are required on any drawing used to fabricate or repair parts.
Dimensions can be broken down into two principal classes, according to
their purpose. When locating holes for drilling or positions for slots, the
technician uses location dimensions. When cutting a piece of stock to the
size and shape for a part, size dimensions are used.
Standards have been developed for the placement and use of dimensions
on drawings, although minor variations will be found. Detailed knowledge
of such standards is the responsibility of the person producing the
drawings. The maintenance technician needs to have adequate knowledge
of such practices to be able to interpret the drawings correctly.
Placement of Dimensions
Figure 6-30 shows how dimensions are located for a simple drawing. A
dimension line has an arrowhead at each end, which shows where the
dimension begins and ends. The dimension is shown by the number at the
break in the line. The short lines at right angles to the arrowheads are
extension lines, which help identify the part of the drawing that the
dimension applies to. Dimensions which are common to two views are
usually placed between the views. On drawings of simple parts, the length
is given under the front view, while the width and thickness are given in
the right-side view.
FIGURE 6-30 Dimension lines for a simple object.
Figure 6-31 shows three views of an object that is solid but can be
regarded for purposes of discussion as two blocks joined together. The
front view shows the length of the small block as 0.875 in [2.22 cm] and
the length of the large block as 1.0625 in [2.70 cm]. The front view also
shows the height of the small block as 1.125 in [2.857 cm] and the height
of the large block as 1.875 in [4.762 cm]. The right-side view gives the
width of the small block as 0.5 in [1.27 cm] and the width of the whole
object as 1.0625 in [2.70 cm].
Dimensions are usually given in inches, but the inch symbol (″) is often
omitted from aircraft drawings to save space and time. When dimension
lines and extension lines cross each other, they are often broken at the
intersection.
Holes to be drilled in a part are located by dimensions to the centers, as
shown in Fig. 6-33. The hole will often be dimensioned by the size of the
drill to be used (e.g., “#7 Drill,” “Drill F,” or “ -in drill”). Unless it is
otherwise indicated, a hole dimension will include the letter D to show
that the dimension is a diameter. Where accuracy is important, the hole
dimensions may be given in decimals. Notes are used to indicate the depth
of holes and counterbores. Notes may also be used to indicate if the part
has a number of equally sized or equally spaced holes.
Title Blocks
The title block is the index to the drawing. It provides all necessary
information that is not shown in or near the actual drawing. It is usually
located in the lower right-hand corner of the drawing, although it may
occupy the whole bottom portion of a drawing made on a small sheet of
paper.
Figure 6-34 is a small drawing prepared by the engineering department
of an aerospace company. The title block is typical, but there will be
variations within the industry. All manufacturers do not prepare their
drawings exactly alike, and even within the same organization it is
impossible and often undesirable to standardize completely the manner of
preparing drawings. Most manufacturers will have standardized
specifications that set forth their procedures for producing drawings. The
person reading the print must be familiar with the practices used by that
manufacturer.
FIGURE 6-34 Typical drawing showing details of an assembly.
A number of features are included in the title block of Fig. 6-34. Each of
these will be discussed separately.
Part Number
Scale
The word scale has many meanings. One of them is the proportion in
dimensions between a drawing, map, or plan and the actual object that is
represented on paper. For example, a map may be drawn on a scale of 1 in
to 1 mi, which means that 1 in on the map represents 1 mi on the earth. In
a like manner, a drawing from which a blueprint is to be made may be
prepared to any desired scale, and the scale is shown in the title block on
the drawing. Most aerospace drawings are made full scale, size, size,
or size.
The name of the part, unit, or assembly is given first and then followed by
descriptive terms, just as the family name is given in a telephone directory,
followed by the given or Christian name, such as “Jones, John J.” In like
manner, in the aerospace industry, the name of a carburetor air-intake
flange would read, “Flange, Carburetor Air Intake,” Likewise, the
assembly shown in Fig. 6-34 is “Support Assembly, Access Door,
Nacelle.” In other words, the noun is given first and is followed by the
descriptive terms.
The location may be a part of the name, such as “Elevator and Tab
Assembly—Left,” showing that it belongs on the left side of the airplane.
Another example is “Installation—C.N. sta. 77 flap control cable pul. brkt.
assemb.” This translates as an installation, located at crew nacelle station
77, and is a flap-control pulley bracket assembly.
Revisions
On the drawing of Fig. 6-34 there is a space in the upper right-hand corner
labeled “Revisions.” Note that two revisions have been made to the
drawing. The disposition and date of the revision, the name or initial of the
person making it, an indication of approval, and the serial number on
which it is to be effective are recorded. The disposition of previously made
parts may also be indicated.
In Fig. 6-34 there are spaces for the dimensions of the standard stock from
which the part is made. In this case the standard stock is tubing, MIL-T-
6737. Limits and tolerances are shown in a supplementary block adjacent
to the basic title block.
Station Numbers
Weight
In a space in the title block for a drawing, the weight of the object shown
in the blueprint is given. This quantity may be the calculated weight, the
actual weight, or both. This information is particularly useful for the
weight-and-balance engineers and others who are concerned with the
balance of the device involved.
Notes
Information that cannot be given completely and yet briefly in the title
block is placed on the drawing in the form of notes, which do not
duplicate information given elsewhere in the same drawing. Notes may be
used to tell the size of a hole, the number of drill to be used in making the
hole, the number of holes required, and similar information, but only when
it cannot be conveyed in the conventional manner or to avoid crowding the
drawing. If the notes apply to specific places on the part, they are placed
on the face of the drawing. If they apply to the part in general, they go in
the “General Notes” at the bottom and to the left of the title block.
Material Symbols
When used, these symbols are intended only for general information
and not to indicate specific types of materials. For example, in the upper
left-hand corner of Fig. 6-35, there is a symbol for iron, including cast iron
and malleable iron, but it does not tell the specific type of iron to be used.
Such information would appear elsewhere on the print. To simplify
changes, the symbol for cast iron and malleable iron is often used by many
companies to refer to all metals.
Process Code
Computer-Aided Processes
Computer-aided design (CAD), previously known as computer-aided
design and drafting (CADD), is the use of computer systems to assist in
the creation of engineering drawings similar to those described in this
chapter. Specialized CAD software is used to increase the productivity of
the designer, improve the quality of the graphics, provide improved
documentation, and potentially create a database for use in computer-aided
manufacturing. CAD data can also be imported directly into simulation
systems to test loads, operations, stress points, and manufacturing
processes.
CAD was originally designed to simply create and store engineering
drawings. However, as the power of the microcomputer became apparent,
it was determined that CAD could include additional nongraphic
information as well. This information includes manufacturing instructions,
materials and processes, and embedded dimensioning and tolerances, as
well as other manufacturing data. CAD systems may be used to design
classic two-dimensional drawings or simulate three-dimensional objects.
This capability is known as solid modeling.
Two-dimensional (2D) CAD is simply a computer version of three-view
drawings. Three-dimensional (3D) wire frame is basically an extension of
2D drafting, but it places all three views of an object together, and the
software can then “rotate” the object permitting the designer to better
visualize the final product. Three-dimensional solid modeling permits a
detailed view of each surface to be available to the designer and allows for
integrated manufacturing data to either be included in or derived from the
drawing. This data can then be sent directly to numerically controlled
machines that will create the part directly from the data included in the
drawing. This is the beginning of the process known as computer-aided
manufacturing (CAM). Integrated software that includes this drawing
and manufacturing capability is known as CAD/CAM and is used
throughout the manufacturing industry.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Why is a drawing often called a blueprint?
2. What is the difference in use between a detail drawing, an assembly drawing,
and an installation drawing?
3. What is the purpose of a block diagram?
4. What is the function of a schematic diagram?
5. In what cases may shop sketches be used?
6. How may a wiring diagram be used by a technician?
7. What is a perspective drawing?
8. How does an isometric view vary from a perspective view?
9. Describe what is meant by orthographic projection.
10. Explain the importance of the width and type of lines used for aircraft drawings.
11. Under what conditions may two-view and single-view drawings be used?
12. When is a detail view used?
13. Compare location dimensions and size dimensions.
14. Where is a dimension placed when it is common to two views?
15. What unit of measurement is generally used for dimensions of aircraft
drawings?
16. What is a limit when used with a dimension?
17. Explain what is meant by tolerance.
18. What type of information is contained in the title block of a drawing?
19. What is the significance of the drawing number?
20. What is meant by right-hand and left-hand parts?
21. With respect to a drawing, what is meant by scale?
22. How are modifications to a drawing noted?
23. What is another term used for the material listing of a drawing?
24. Why are notes found on a drawing?
25. What is meant by process code?
26. Describe CAD/CAM and its possible uses in aviation.
7
Weight and Balance
INTRODUCTION
Aviation has been one of the most dynamic industries since its beginning. New
aircraft are continually being developed with improvements over previous models.
Improvements in design have, in many cases, tended to increase the importance of
the proper loading and balancing of today’s airplanes. Weight-and-balance
calculations are performed according to exact rules and specifications and must be
prepared when aircraft are manufactured and whenever they are altered, whether the
airplane is large or small. The constantly changing conditions of modern aircraft
operation present more complex combinations of cargo, crew, fuel, passengers, and
baggage. The necessity of obtaining maximum efficiency for all flights has increased
the need for a precise system of controlling the weight and balance of an aircraft.
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES
In Chapter 2 the laws of physics were discussed. Included were
discussions of specific gravity and balance, together with explanations of
levers. These principles form the basis for computing weight-and-balance
data for an airplane and will be reviewed briefly here.
Force of Gravity
Every body of matter in the universe attracts every other body with a
certain force that is called gravitation. The term gravity is used to refer to
the force that tends to draw all bodies toward the center of the earth. The
weight of a body is the result of all gravitational forces acting on the body.
Center of Gravity
Every particle of an object is acted on by the force of gravity. However, in
every object there is one point at which a single force, equal in magnitude
to the weight of the object and directed upward, can keep the body at rest,
that is, can keep it in balance and prevent it from falling. This point is
known as the center of gravity (CG).
The CG might be defined as the point at which all the weight of a body
can be considered concentrated. Thus, the CG of a perfectly round ball
would be the exact center of the ball, provided that the ball was made of
the same material throughout and that there were no air or gas pockets
inside (see Fig. 7-1). The CG of a uniform ring would be at the center of
the ring but would not be at any point on the ring itself (see Fig. 7-2). The
CG of a cube of solid material would be equidistant from the eight
corners, as shown in Fig. 7-3. In airplanes or helicopters, ease of control
and maneuverability require that the location of the CG be within
specified limits.
Location of the CG
Since the CG of a body is that point at which its weight can be considered
to be concentrated, the CG of a freely suspended body will always be
vertically beneath the point of support when the body is supported at a
single point. To locate the CG, therefore, it is necessary only to determine
the point of intersection of vertical lines drawn downward from two
separate points of support employed one at a time. This technique is
demonstrated in Fig. 7-4, which shows a flat, square sheet of material
lettered A, B, C, and D at its four corners, suspended first from point B and
then from point C. The lines drawn vertically downward from the point of
suspension in each case intersect at the CG.
There is a total force of 8 lb [3.629 kg] acting downward, and unless the
axis is supported by an upward force of 8 lb, there will be downward
movement but no rotation.
Since the CG limits constitute the range of movement that the aircraft
CG can have without making it unstable or unsafe to fly, the CG of the
loaded aircraft must be within these limits at takeoff, in the air, and on
landing. In some cases, the takeoff limits and landing limits are not exactly
the same, and the differences are given in the specifications for the
aircraft.
Figure 7-9 shows typical limits for the CG location in an airplane. As
previously stated, these limits establish the CG range. The CG of the
airplane must fall within this range if the airplane is to fly safely; that is,
the CG must be to the rear of the forward limit and forward of the aft
limit.
The CG with the aircraft loaded is allowed to range fore and aft within
certain limits that are determined during the flight tests for type
certification. These limits are the most forward- and rearward-loaded CG
positions at which the aircraft will meet the performance and flight
characteristics required by the FAA. These limits may be expressed in
terms of a percentage of the mean aerodynamic chord (MAC) or in inches
forward or to the rear of the datum line.
The relative positions of the CG and the center of lift of the wing have
critical effects on the flight characteristics of the aircraft. Consequently,
relating the CG location of the chord of the wing is convenient from a
design-and-operations standpoint. Normally, an aircraft will have
acceptable flight characteristics if the CG is located somewhere near the
25% average chord point. This means the CG is located one-fourth of the
total distance back from the leading edge of the average wing section (see
Fig. 7-11). Such a location will place the CG forward of the aerodynamic
center for most airfoils.
WEIGHT-AND-BALANCE
TERMINOLOGY
Before proceeding with explanations of the methods for computing
weight-and-balance problems, it is important to have a good understanding
of the words and terms used.
Arm. The arm is the horizontal distance in inches from the datum to the center of
gravity of the item. The algebraic sign is plus (+) if measured aft of the datum
and minus (−) if measured forward of the datum (see Fig. 7-12).
Center of gravity (CG). The CG is a point about which the nose-heavy and tail-
heavy moments are exactly equal in magnitude. If the aircraft were suspended
from this point it would be perfectly balanced. Its distance from the reference
datum is found by dividing the total moment by the total weight of the airplane.
Datum (reference datum). The datum is an imaginary vertical plane or line from
which all horizontal measurements of arm are taken (see Fig. 7-12). The datum
is established by the manufacturer. Once the datum has been selected, all
moment arms must be taken with reference to that point. The location of the
datum may be found in the aircraft’s Type Certificate Data Sheet (see Fig. 7-
13).
Empty weight (EW). The empty weight of an aircraft includes the weight of the
airframe, power plant, and required equipment that has a fixed location and is
normally carried in the airplane. For aircraft certificated under FAR Part 23, the
empty weight also includes unusable fuel and full-operating fluids necessary
for normal operation of aircraft systems, such as oil and hydraulic fluid. For
older aircraft not certificated under FAR Part 23, in place of full oil, only the
undrainable oil is included in the empty weight. The current aircraft empty
weight must be kept as a part of the permanent weight-and-balance records.
LEMAC. LEMAC is the abbreviation for the leading edge of the mean
aerodynamic chord.
Leveling means. Leveling means are the reference points used by the aircraft
technician to ensure that the aircraft is level for weight-and-balance purposes
(see Fig. 7-12). Leveling is usually accomplished along both the longitudinal
and lateral axis. Leveling means are given in the Type Certificate Data Sheet
(see Fig. 7-13).
Main-wheel center line (MWCL). The MWCL is a vertical line passing through
the center of the axle of the main landing-gear wheel.
Maximum landing weight. The maximum landing weight is the maximum weight
at which the aircraft may normally be landed (see Fig. 7-13).
Maximum ramp weight. The maximum ramp weight is the maximum weight
approved for ground maneuver. (It includes the weight of the start, taxi, and
run-up fuel.)
Mean aerodynamic chord (MAC). The MAC is the length of the mean chord of
the wing as established through aerodynamic considerations. For weight-and-
balance purposes it is used to locate the CG range of the aircraft. The location
and dimension of the MAC, where used, will be found in the aircraft
specifications, the Type Certificate Data Sheet (see Fig. 7-13), the flight
manual, or the aircraft weight-and-balance record.
Minimum fuel. Minimum fuel for weight-and-balance computations is no more
than the quantity of fuel required for hour of operation at rated maximum
continuous power. It is calculated on the maximum except takeoff (METO)
horsepower and is the figure used when the fuel load must be reduced to
obtain the most critical loading on the CG limit being calculated. The formula
usually used in calculating minimum fuel is METO hp = minimum fuel in
pounds (e.g., × 360 hp = 180 lb of fuel).
Moment. The moment is the product of the weight of an item multiplied by its
arm. Moments are expressed in pound-inches (lb-in). The total moment of an
aircraft is the weight of the aircraft multiplied by the distance between the
datum and the CG.
Tare. Tare is the weight of the equipment necessary for weighing the airplane
(such as chocks, blocks, slings, jacks, etc.) which is included in the scale
reading but is not a part of the actual weight of the airplane. Tare must be
subtracted from the scale reading in order to obtain the actual weight of the
airplane.
Undrainable oil. That portion of the oil in an aircraft lubricating system that will
not drain from the engine with the aircraft in a level attitude is called the
undrainable oil. This oil is considered a part of the empty weight of the aircraft.
Unusable fuel. Unusable fuel is the fuel that cannot be consumed by the engine.
The amount and location of the unusable fuel may be found in the Type
Certificate Data Sheet (see Fig. 7-13). Unusable fuel is a part of the aircraft’s
empty weight.
Usable fuel. Fuel available for flight planning is called usable fuel.
Useful load. The useful load is the weight of the pilot, copilot, passengers,
baggage, and usable fuel. It is the empty weight subtracted from the maximum
weight.
Weighing point. The weighing points of an airplane are those points by which
the airplane is supported at the time it is weighed. Usually the main landing
gear and the nose or tail wheel are the weighing points (see Fig. 7-14).
Sometimes, however, an airplane may have jacking points from which the
weight is taken. In any event, it is essential to define the weighing points clearly
in the weight-and-balance record.
Weighing Equipment
The type of equipment which is used to weigh aircraft varies with the
aircraft size. Three types of scales are commonly used to weigh aircraft.
Each type is equally effective in obtaining accurate results. The three types
of scales are platform scales, portable electronic weighing system using
load pads, and electronic load cells used in conjunction with jacks.
Light aircraft are often weighed on beam-type platform scales, such as
those illustrated in Fig. 7-15. Platform scales require the use of jacks or
ramps to position the aircraft on the scales.
Equipment Preparation
When preparing to weigh an aircraft, the accuracy of the scales must be
established. This can be done in accordance with instructions provided by
the manufacturer of the scales or by testing the scales with calibrated
weights. When there is nothing on the scales, the reading should be zero.
Note: Most electronic scales require a specified warm-up period.
All the equipment that will be required to perform the weighing
procedures should be located prior to beginning the weight check. The
following is a list of equipment commonly used when weighing an
aircraft:
1. Jacks or ramps
2. Wheel chalks
3. Level
4. Plumb lines
5. Steel measuring tape
6. Hydrometer (for testing the specific gravity of the fuel)
8. Tools and gauges for strut deflation and inflation
9. Nitrogen bottles for strut inflation
Aircraft Preparation
In order to obtain an accurate determination of the aircraft’s weight and
center of gravity, it is important that the aircraft be properly prepared for
weighing.
Specific weighing preparations and procedures will vary with the model
of the aircraft being weighed. However, the following information will
provide general guidance.
The aircraft should be clean and free from excessive dirt, grease,
moisture, or any other extraneous material before weighing. The aircraft
should be dry before it is weighed; thus an aircraft should never be
weighed immediately after it is washed.
All equipment to be installed in the aircraft and included in the
certificated empty weight should be in place for weighing. Each item must
be in the location that it will occupy during flight, as shown on the aircraft
equipment list. All equipment, such as carpets, seat belts, oxygen masks,
and so on, should be placed in their normal location. All tools and other
working equipment must be removed before weighing.
Unless otherwise noted in the Type Certificate Data Sheet, the oil
system and other operating fluids should be checked to see that they are
full. Items that should be filled to operating capacity include lubricating
oil, hydraulic fluid, oxygen bottles, and fire extinguishers.
The fuel should be drained from the aircraft unless other instructions are
given. Fuel should be drained with the aircraft in the level position to
make sure that the tanks are as empty as possible. The amount of fuel
remaining in the aircraft tanks, lines, and engine is termed unusable fuel,
and its weight is included in the empty weight of the aircraft. In special
cases the aircraft may be weighed with full fuel in the tanks, provided that
a definite means is available for determining the exact weight of the fuel.
Weighing Area
The aircraft should be weighed inside a closed building to avoid errors that
may be caused by wind. Hangar doors and windows should be kept closed
during the weighing process. The floor should be level. All fans, air
conditioning, and ventilating systems should be turned off.
Some aircraft use a plumb bob and a target to establish the level on both
axes. In the DC-10 airplane, an inclinometer consisting of a plumb bob
and grid plate is provided in the right wheel well, and brackets for spirit
levels are located in the nose-gear wheel well. In Fig. 7-19 locations of the
leveling means for the DC-10 are shown.
FIGURE 7-19 Locations for leveling means on a DC-10
airplane. (McDonnell Douglas Corp.)
Weighing Procedure
The scale reading should be given a period of a few minutes to stabilize.
The weights of the weighing points should be recorded to provide
information needed for the CG determination. Several readings are taken
for each reaction point, and the average reading is entered on the aircraft
weighing form.
With the aircraft in the level position, it is necessary to measure and
record the weigh point locations on the weighing form. On some aircraft
the exact location of the weigh points will be provided in the aircraft flight
manual or maintenance manual. If the location of weighing points is not
provided, the exact location of the weighing points must be accurately
measured while the aircraft is in the level position and then recorded for
use in the weight-and-balance computation. The location of the datum is
provided in the Type Certificate Data Sheet.
For aircraft where the datum passes through the aircraft, a plumb bob is
dropped from that point to the floor. For aircraft where the datum is
located ahead of the aircraft, a reference point should be located on the
aircraft from which a plumb bob can be dropped to locate the datum. Once
the datum is located on the floor, the plumb bob is suspended from each of
the weighing points. The technician can measure these distances by
projecting the required points to the hangar floor. To project these points to
the hangar floor, a plumb bob may be suspended so that it is
approximately in above the floor. When the swing of the plumb bob
dampens, a cross mark is made on the floor directly under the tip of the
plumb bob. The main reaction points are projected to the floor in the same
manner. After marking the crosses for the two main gear points, a chalked
string is stretched between them. The string is then snapped to the floor,
leaving a chalk line between the main reaction points. The nose or tail
reaction point is projected to the hangar floor in a similar manner, as is
shown in Fig. 7-20.
Computing CG Location
After the necessary dimensions and weights have been obtained, the
empty weight and the empty weight CG can be calculated. Empty weight
is the total of the three scale readings after subtracting the weight of tare
items, plus or minus calibration errors. This weight is important for
subsequent calculation of maximum weight and also is a necessary factor
in the determination of the CG.
Center-of-gravity computations may be figured by several methods. The
formulas used in computing the center of gravity are varied. Whenever
possible, the manufacturer’s weight-and-balance formulas and diagrams
should be used, as shown in Fig. 7-21. Although most manufacturers use
similar formulas, they use different letter designations for different items.
If these formulas are not available, a standard formula may be used for the
EWCG computation.
FIGURE 7-21 Sample airplane weighing. (Cessna Aircraft Co.)
Care must be taken to ensure that the proper sign is applied to each
quantity expressed in a weight-and-balance computation.
Referring back to Fig. 7-24 and disregarding the oil computation, the
problem may be solved with the correct formula from Fig. 7-22, as is
shown here:
Note that this answer is slightly less than the original computation because
the moment of the oil was not considered.
For any computation, it is always a good practice to draw a diagram of
the airplane (nose to the left) with the weighing points and the datum.
From such a diagram it is easy to determine what formula should be used.
Weight-and-Balance Report
After the weight-and-balance calculations are complete, it is important that
they be properly recorded and placed in the aircraft weight-and-balance
records (a sample form is shown in Fig. 7-26). When a new weight-and-
balance report is prepared for an aircraft, the previous report should be
marked superseded, and the date of the new document should be
referenced. The series of weight-and-balance documents should start with
the manufacturer’s data and continue in a chronological order to the latest
weight-and-balance report.
FIGURE 7-26 Sample weight-and-balance report.
AIRCRAFT MODIFICATIONS
During the lifetime of many aircraft, it is often desirable to change the
type of equipment that is installed. The owner of an airplane may wish to
install new radio equipment, an autopilot, an auxiliary fuel tank, or various
other items to make the airplane more serviceable. For each such change,
it is necessary to figure the effect on weight and balance. The
manufacturer is required to provide documents which show the certified
empty weight and the CG for each new aircraft. The continued validity of
weight-and-balance records during the life of the aircraft depends upon
maintaining a series of similar documents showing the calculations for
each successive weight change. It is essential that whenever equipment is
added or removed from the aircraft, an entry is made in the airplane’s
equipment list and permanent weight-and-balance records. Many
manufacturers provide a form, such as the one shown in Fig. 7-27, that
provides for a record of the equipment added or removed as well as a
running total of the weight and balance.
FIGURE 7-27 Sample weight-and-balance record.
The formula used to compute the new EWCG after the addition or
subtraction of equipment is
Observe that the curved arrows shown around the CG location indicate
the effects of positive and negative moments. Positive moments are
clockwise and cause a tail-heavy force, while negative moments are
counterclockwise and cause a nose-heavy force.
Adding Equipment
Let us assume that an owner who has an airplane with an empty weight of
1220 lb [553.4 kg] and an EWCG at +25 wishes to install radio equipment
weighing 15 lb [6.8 kg]. In addition to the radio equipment, a larger
alternator must be installed in order to provide the additional power
required to operate the radio.
First, of course, we must determine where the items of equipment are to
be installed and then determine the arm of each item of equipment. Each
arm must be measured from the airplane datum line to the CG of the
equipment to be installed. It must be pointed out that if the CG of the item
of equipment is not given in the accompanying instructions, the CG must
be determined by the person making the installation. This is easily done by
balancing the item at a single point in the position it will assume in the
airplane. The balance point should then be marked or recorded for use in
the computation.
For the purposes of the problem under consideration, we shall assume
that the radio is installed at +65 and the new alternator is installed at −21.
These points are shown in Fig. 7-29. In order to install a new alternator,
the old alternator must be removed. The weight and the arm of the old
alternator are given in the aircraft’s Approved Flight Manual as 11 lb [5.0
kg] (−21.5). The new alternator weighs 14 lb [6.35 kg], and the arm is
found to be −21. Sufficient information is now available to make the
computation. Arrange the work as shown in Problem 7-4.
Removing Equipment
When removing equipment from an airplane, it is just as necessary to
make weight-and-balance computations as when installing equipment. Let
us assume that the owner of an airplane wishes to remove an extra seat
because it is no longer necessary or required for operation. The airplane
weighs 1000 lb [589.7 kg] empty (with the seat), and the seat weighs 18 lb
[8.16 kg] (see Fig. 7-30). The CG of the airplane as equipped is +78, and
the arm of the seat is +145. We can now arrange the computation as shown
in Problem 7-5.
We observe from the foregoing computation that the removal of the seat
causes the EWCG to move forward almost 1 in [2.5 cm]. It should be
remembered that any removal of weight aft of the CG will cause the CG to
move forward.
If the change in equipment should move the CG outside the CG limits,
flight in the airplane would not be safe or legal. It is sometimes necessary
to compensate for changes in equipment by changing the baggage-weight
allowance, limiting the fuel load, or by adding or removing ballast.
EWCG Range
Some small aircraft are designed so that it is not possible to load them in a
condition which will place the CG outside the fore or aft limits if standard
load schedules are observed. These aircraft have the seats, fuel, and
baggage accommodations located very near the CG limits. They also have
empty-weight CG ranges listed in their Type Certificates. Loads can be
added to or removed from any location within the CG range with complete
freedom from concern about CG movement. Such action cannot cause the
CG to move beyond the CG limits of these aircraft, but maximum weight
limits can still be exceeded.
Most aircraft, however, can be loaded in a manner which will place the
CG beyond limits, in which case the manufacturer will be unable to
establish an EWCG range. In these instances the EWCG range on the Type
Certificate will be listed as “none.”
Overloading
Excessive weight reduces the flying ability of an airplane in almost every
respect. The most important performance deficiencies of an overweight
airplane are
EXTREME WEIGHT-AND-BALANCE
CONDITIONS
We have already explained that every aircraft has an approved CG range
within which the CG must lie if the aircraft is to be operated safely. In
order to determine whether the loaded CG falls within the approved limits,
it is necessary to make two computations, one for most forward loading
and one for most rearward loading. These adverse-loading checks are a
deliberate attempt to load an aircraft in a manner that will create the most
critical balance condition while still remaining within the maximum gross
weight of the aircraft.
It should be noted that when the EWCG falls within the EWCG range
(if one is given), it is unnecessary to perform a forward or rearward
weight-and-balance check. In other words, it is impossible to load the
aircraft to exceed the CG limits, provided standard loading and seating
arrangements are used.
The airplane must have a pilot, so the standard weight of 170 lb [711
kg] is loaded at +85.5 in [217.17 cm]. Since the fuel is at +94 in [238.76
cm], which is substantially to the rear of the forward limit, only the
minimum fuel is used. Because the engine of this particular airplane
develops 150 hp at METO (maximum except takeoff) power and the
formula for minimum fuel is METO hp in lb, 75 lb [34.02 kg] of fuel is
included in the computation. This is loaded at +94 in [238.76 cm]. The
cargo compartment is at +142.8 in [362.71 cm], and any load at this point
will move the CG to the rear; therefore, no cargo will be loaded. Full oil is
required for the engine, so 15 lb [6.8 kg] (7.5 lb/gal, or 3.4 kg/L) of oil is
loaded at +31.7 in [80.51 cm]. The loading computation will then appear
as in Problem 7-6.
Note that the CG could be made to move slightly more toward the rear
by including maximum fuel, since the arm of the fuel is +94. This location
is still forward of the rear limit, however, and so it could not have moved
the CG beyond its rearward limit.
Information required for a most rearward adverse-loading CG check is
as follows:
LOADING CONDITIONS
Sample loading conditions are computed as an indication of the
permissible distribution of fuel, passengers, and baggage which may be
carried in the aircraft at any one time without exceeding either the
maximum weight or the CG range. These sample computations should be
included in the aircraft’s weight-and-balance records or may be posted in
the form of a placard. A typical placard may be similar to the one shown in
Fig. 7-33.
If the ballast in the foregoing problem had been installed near the tail of
the airplane, the weight required would have been less. The requirement
was to produce a certain moment (1241.6 in-lb), and this could have been
done by any combination of weight and arm that would have produced this
moment. The longer the arm that is used, the smaller the weight has to be.
Note that the moment was computed from the forward CG limit (+85.1).
However, after the weight was added to the airplane, the original moment
of the airplane and cargo compartment was used.
To use the loading graph, proceed as shown in Problem 7-9. Then apply
the weight and index number to the CG envelope chart of Fig. 7-35, which
shows that the point is within the envelope. If the airplane is operated with
only a pilot, one passenger, and no baggage, the result will be as shown in
Problem 7-10. When these figures are applied to the CG envelope chart,
the chart shows that the CG is still within limits, even though it has moved
forward.
When computing the CG or loading for a particular airplane, the
technician should consult the approved flight manual for that particular
aircraft. The method for computing the weight and balance is explained in
the manual, and the charts and graphs used for the airplane CG are also
included in the manual. Remember that the aircraft’s weight-and-balance
records must include the current empty weight and the empty-weight
center of gravity. These two items are necessary to begin all loading
computations.
The upper portion of the computer has scales to the right and left of the
index line representing locations and weights forward and rearward of the
21% MAC line of the aircraft. As each section of the aircraft is loaded
with passengers and cargo, the overlay is rotated and marked. After each
section is loaded, the load mark is rotated back to the vertical index line on
the computer. When all passengers, cargo, and fuel have been loaded, the
index line on the overlay will show whether the loading is within limits.
Takeoff weight and CG location in percent of MAC will be indicated.
The indicator provides a reading of the gross weight of the aircraft and
the CG location as a percentage of the MAC. The flight engineer is
therefore always able to determine whether the weight of the aircraft and
the location of the CG are within specified limits. The attitude sensor
determines whether the aircraft is in the correct attitude (level) for an
accurate measurement of CG location.
Leveling
For leveling, a level plate is located on the cabin floor approximately 4.0
in [10.16 cm] forward of the aft seat and left of the helicopter center line.
This is shown in Fig. 7-41. A slotted level plate is located directly above
the level plate. The leveling procedure is then as follows:
Weighing
A helicopter may be weighed with platform scales or by means of
electronic load cells mounted on jacks. The instructions given here are for
weighing with scales.
The helicopter should be weighed in a configuration as near empty
weight as possible. Empty-weight condition allows for the weight of the
basic helicopter together with seats, ballast, special equipment,
transmission oil, hydraulic fluid, unusable fuel, and undrainable oil. The
baggage compartment should be empty. Weighing is accomplished as
follows:
The location of the forward weighing point is 55.16 in [140.1 cm] aft of
the datum line at FS 55.16, and the location of the rear weighing point is at
FS 204.92.
The sum of the weights indicated by the forward scales is 1035 lb
[469.9 kg], and the moment is 1035 × 55.16 = 57 090.6 in-lb [657.84 kg-
m]. The moment of the aft weight is 1063 × 204.92 = 217 829.95 in-lb
[2509.9 kg-m]. The total moment is then 274 920.55 in-lb [3167.8 kg-m].
When this is divided by the total net weight of the helicopter, the CG
location is found to be 131.04 in aft of the datum line.
If a helicopter, when weighed, does not include all the equipment
required for the empty-weight condition, these items must be added. The
weights must be added to the as-weighed weight, and the moments must
be computed and added to the original computed moment. The result is a
total weight known as the derived weight and a slightly different CG
location.
If the final empty-weight CG location does not fall within the
limitations set forth in the empty-weight CG location chart, ballast plates
are installed either forward or rearward in specified locations. Ballast is
never added in both forward and rearward locations. The forward ballast
location in the Bell Model 206L helicopter is at +13 (FS 13.0), and the
rearward ballast location is at +377.18 (FS 377.18) as shown in Fig. 7-42.
The ballast requirement is computed in the way described earlier in the
section on correcting the CG location of airplanes.
WEIGHT-SHIFT-CONTROL AIRCRAFT
Weight-shift-control (WSC) aircraft include many ultralight designs where
the pilot sits in an open cockpit seat situated below a canopy type or
lightweight rigid wing. The theory and concepts of aerodynamics and
weight and balance that apply to larger aircraft also apply to WSC aircraft,
but the means of accomplishing this differ somewhat.
For example, both airplanes and WSC aircraft fly under the same four
forces (lift, gravity, thrust, and drag) and around the same three axes of
rotation (pitch, yaw, and roll). However, a WSC aircraft accomplishes
flight control in a very different manner from a conventional aircraft. The
conventional fixed-wing airplane has moveable controls that alter the lift
on various airfoil surfaces to vary pitch, roll, and yaw. These changes in
lift then change the attitude of the aircraft and eventually its flight path. In
a conventional aircraft, weight normally decreases in flight due to fuel
consumption, and the airplane center of gravity moves with this weight
reduction. A conventional aircraft can also have its load distributed in
different ways, changing the center of gravity significantly. A conventional
aircraft can use its flight controls to compensate and maintain
controllability through the various modes of flight and adapt as the center
of gravity changes. To ensure stability, an aircraft has a center-of-gravity
range or envelope within which it must remain if the flight controls are to
remain effective.
A WSC aircraft, on the other hand, has a relatively fixed planform wing
without vertical or horizontal stabilizers and/ or control surfaces. WCA
aircraft typically have the entire weight of the airframe and its payload
attached to the wing at a single point in a pendulum-like arrangement. The
pilot controls movement of the arm of this pendulum and thereby controls
the aircraft by shifting their weight.
When a change in flight attitude is desired, the pilot displaces the
aircraft’s weight in the appropriate distance and direction. This change
momentarily disrupts the equilibrium between the four forces acting on the
aircraft. The wing, due to its inherent stability, then moves appropriately to
reestablish equilibrium between these forces. WSC is typically used to
affect the pitch-and-roll axis. Because there is no vertical stabilizer or
rudder, no ability exists to directly control movement around the yaw axis.
Because the weight of the airframe acts through the single-wing attach
point, the range over which the weight of the aircraft can act is fixed at the
pendulum arm. Even though weight decreases as fuel is consumed, the
weight remains focused at the same point; therefore the center of gravity
does not shift significantly during flight. The payload is relatively constant
and unchanging, making it unnecessary to calculate a safe CG range of
operation. A WCA acts somewhat like a single main rotor helicopter
because the weight of the aircraft is hanging like a pendulum under the
wing instead of under a rotor. Some WCA aircraft have a wing attach point
that can be adjusted (on the ground) to move slightly forward or slightly
aft, depending on the weight of the occupants.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define center of gravity.
2. What is the general law of the lever?
3. What is the condition that exists when the sum of the positive moments equals
the sum of the negative moments?
4. Define the term moment of force.
5. Define the term arm.
6. What is the operating CG range of an aircraft?
7. In what different methods may the location of the CG and CG range be
expressed?
8. If the wings of an airplane have no sweepback, at approximately what point
should the CG be with respect to the chord of the wing?
9. What is the purpose of the datum?
10. Define empty weight as used for weight-and-balance computations.
11. Define maximum gross weight for an aircraft.
12. How is the useful load of an aircraft determined?
13. What is meant by the term unusable fuel?
14. How much does 1 gal of gasoline weigh? One gallon of oil?
15. What types of scales are commonly used for weighing aircraft?
16. List the equipment in addition to the scales that is commonly used to weigh
aircraft.
17. How is the leveling means for an aircraft determined?
18. What is tare?
19. What should be done with an old weight-and-balance report when a new
weight-and-balance report is computed?
20. List some of the dangers that may exist as a result of overloading an aircraft.
21. What undesirable conditions may exist when an airplane is adversely loaded?
22. What is an adverse-loading check?
23. How is minimum fuel determined for loading checks?
24. In performing a most rearward adverse-loading check, how is it determined
whether an item is to be loaded at the maximum or minimum weight?
25. Why is the proper loading of a helicopter particularly critical?
8
Aircraft Materials
INTRODUCTION
Many materials have been used in aircraft. Early aircraft were lightweight assemblies
of wood and fabric, kept aloft by engines producing marginal power. Steel-tubing and
wooden structural elements with a covering of cotton or linen fabric were used for the
first practical aircraft. The development of aluminum-alloy structures, beginning in the
late 1930s, resulted in the all-metal designs in use today. By the early 1950s, aircraft
development focused on power plants. At that time, aircraft designs were more limited
by power considerations than by structural problems.
As more powerful engines were developed, the use of existing materials was
pushed to the limit. The development of supersonic aircraft resulted in the need for
structural materials that would provide the needed strength at high temperatures, yet
be light enough to get off the ground. The use of titanium, corrosion-resistant steels,
and metal honeycomb developed in response to this need.
Research and development of structural materials are again the center of attention.
Emphasis is being placed upon lighter weight with the development of new metal
alloys. In addition, synthetic fibers and resins are being combined to produce
composites with very favorable strength-to-weight ratios.
A revolution is taking place in materials for aerospace structures. A wide variety of
material types and designs are being used. The technician of the twenty-first century
will no longer be able to perform his or her job by memorizing a few aluminum-alloy
designations or the head markings on a few rivets. However, aircraft built with wood,
steel-tubing, fabric, and conventional aluminum-alloy structures will still be flying and
will still require maintenance. The aircraft maintenance technician, unlike
maintenance technicians in most industries, cannot ignore the old and move on to the
new. The future aviation technician must have a basic knowledge of the properties of
a variety of materials.
AIRCRAFT MATERIALS
Early aircraft made extensive use of wood. Wood was used for both
structural elements and as a cover, or skin. Wood offered a material that
was low cost, lightweight, and easily worked. When used within design
limitations, wood has a high strength. The Hughes HK-1 Hercules (Flying
Boat) had both structure and surface built entirely of laminated wood. A
large number of all-wood training aircraft were built during World War II.
The need to continually protect wood against the elements to prevent
decay was a drawback to its continued use for aircraft. The demise of
wood as a structural material was also affected by the development of
metals for aircraft use.
Materials made of fabric are used for covering aircraft structures made
from wood or metal. The structural strength and the airfoil shapes are
formed by the structural elements. The fabric forms a continuous cover
over these pails. The fabric must be treated with a resinous material called
aircraft-dope. The dope stiffens the fabric and helps to protect it from the
elements. Early fabrics were organic cottons and linens. The strength of
cotton deteriorates with age. The need for careful inspection and periodic
replacement of the fabric cover is a drawback to its use. Synthetic fabrics
with longer service life are replacing cotton as an aircraft covering.
Structures made of metal became popular with the development of
aluminum alloys usable for aircraft. Their light weight and good
formability made aluminum products a natural replacement for wood as a
structural material. The weight of iron-based metals has limited their use
to areas where high strength is required, such as engine mounts or the
steel-tube structure covered with lightweight fabric. Most of the steel,
other than engine parts, that the technician will encounter will be in the
form of steel tubing. Titanium, relatively new to aircraft use, has weight,
strength, and temperature characteristics favorable for high-performance
aircraft. Metals exhibit a number of properties, such as formability, that
enhance their use in aircraft design. Other properties, like susceptibility to
corrosion, limit their use. All metals are subject to and must be protected
from corrosion in varying degrees. Magnesium is a strong, lightweight
metal, but very susceptible to corrosion. The need for added protection
from and constant inspection for corrosion has limited the use of
magnesium as an aircraft material. The future use of metals for aircraft
structures is heavily dependent upon the development of synthetic and
composite materials.
Materials made of plastic are synthetic, or man-made. Plastics are
manufactured by taking apart the basic elements of a material. These
elements are then recombined in a manner which produces a new material
with its own properties. Plastics are widely used in aircraft. Familiar
plastic products include transparent window materials, fiberglass
(polyester-resin) wingtips, ABS-type fairings, and Dacron fabric. Not so
apparent are the synthetic materials used for the resins in paints, for Teflon
hoses, for the dope used on fabric, for various adhesives and sealants, and
for the pulleys used for control cables.
A composite material is one which is made of a combination of two or
more materials or of a material in two different forms. A major advantage
of a composite material is its light weight. A second advantage is the ease
with which complex parts can be formed. The use of composite materials
is not new. Laminated composite materials have been used for a number of
years. For example, control-cable pulleys were once made from a
laminated material of phenol-formaldehyde resin reinforced with linen
cloth. In recent years the use of laminated and sandwich composites have
begun a possible revolution in the materials used for aircraft.
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Materials exhibit a number of characteristics, or properties. The degree to
which various properties exist in a material will determine its suitability
for a specific use. The properties of materials can be categorized as
mechanical, physical, or chemical.
Mechanical Properties
The ability of a material to be deformed without rupture or failure is called
plasticity. Plasticity can take two different forms, ductility and
malleability. The ductility of a material refers to its plasticity under a
tension or a pulling load. Ductility allows materials like aluminum and
copper to be drawn into very small wires. Malleability is the plasticity
exhibited by a material under a pounding or a compression load. The
rolling of metal into a thin sheet is possible due to its malleability. A
material can have high ductility or high malleability, or both. Brittleness
is the opposite of plasticity. A brittle material is one that cannot be visibly
deformed and will shatter or break under load.
The term elasticity describes the ability of a material to deform under
load and return to its original shape when the load is removed. The elastic
limit is the maximum amount of deformation that a material can undergo
and still return to its original shape. When the elastic limit is exceeded,
permanent, or “plastic,” deformation occurs. The elastic limit is also called
the proportional limit. It has been proven that the amount of deformation
in a material is proportional to the stress that causes it, as long as the
elastic limit is not exceeded. The proportional principle of stress and strain
is referred to as Hooke’s law.
A material’s hardness is not a fundamental property but is related to its
elastic and plastic properties. An operational definition of hardness is the
resistance to penetration. In some materials, like steel, the hardness is
directly related to the tensile strength. A hardness test can be used to
estimate the strength of some materials.
There is no direct and accurate method to measure the toughness of a
material. Toughness is a desirable characteristic of the material to resist
tearing or breaking when it is bent or stretched. Closely related to
plasticity, toughness also involves the magnitude of the force causing the
deformation.
One of the most important characteristics of a material is strength. A
simple definition of strength would be the ability of a material to resist
deformation. The type of load, or stress, on a material affects the strength
it exhibits.
The term stress may be defined as an internal force that resists the
deformation of a material resulting from an external load. The different
types of stress are called tension, compression, bending, torsion, and shear.
The five types are illustrated in Fig. 8-1. Tension stress is the result of a
load which tends to pull apart or stretch the material. Compression stress
occurs when the load presses together or tends to crush an object.
FIGURE 8-1 Five kinds of stress.
Two layers of a material being pulled apart result in shear stress. Shear
stress can develop when two pieces of material are bolted or riveted
together. If a force is applied such that the two plates tend to slide over one
another, shear stress develops in the bolt. If the stress becomes greater than
the shear strength of the bolt, it will be cut as with a pair of shears.
The term bending stress describes a combination of three types of
stress in a bending object. Material on the outside of the bend will tend to
stretch and thus have tension stress. Material on the inside of the bend will
be compressed. Tension stress and compression stress, acting opposite of
each other, create a shear stress where they meet.
The last type of stress, torsion stress, is the result of a twisting force. In
Fig. 8-1 a shaft is clamped solidly on one end and a pulley is mounted on
the other end. A cable around the pulley is attached to a weight so that the
weight tends to turn the pulley. This action applies a twisting, or torsion,
force to the shaft. Stress caused by a torsion force is, like bending, a
combination of tension, compression, and shear stress.
The amount of stress developed is a function of the force, or load, and
the area upon which the force acts. Stress is expressed in units of pounds
per square inch (psi). The amount of stress can be determined by the
formula
Stress-Strain Diagrams
Plotting the results of a tensile test produces a graph similar to Fig. 8-4.
The vertical axis of the graph shows the amount of stress (psi), and the
horizontal axis is labeled in units of strain. The amount of strain is plotted
against the amount of stress which causes it. The resulting curve is called a
stress-strain diagram. Much information about the properties of a material
can be learned from observing the stress-strain diagram. The diagram
begins as a straight line indicating that the stress and the strain are
proportional. As stress increases, the elastic limit is reached. This point,
also known as the proportional limit, is indicated by the end of the
straight-line portion of the diagram (A). Exceeding the elastic limit causes
permanent deformation to take place. The point at which permanent
deformation begins is known as the yield point, or yield stress (B). For
some materials, when the yield stress is reached, the strain will continue to
increase with little if any increase in stress. This is illustrated by the line in
Fig. 8-4 having a small “hook” at the yield point. Increasing stress beyond
the yield point causes a rapid rate of strain or deformation to occur until
the material ruptures, or fails (X). The point just prior to failure is known
as the ultimate stress point, or the ultimate tensile strength (C). The
portion of the diagram from the origin (O) to the elastic limit (A) is known
as the elastic, or proportional, range of the material. From the yield point
(B) to the ultimate tensile strength (C) the material is said to be in the
plastic range.
Some more ductile materials will have a curve similar to that shown in
Fig. 8-5. The material does not exhibit an abrupt increase in strain at the
yield point. The stress-strain diagram does not have a definite end to the
straight-line portion. For a material of this type the yield point has been
arbitrarily determined to be the point where a permanent strain of 0.002
occurs.
FIGURE 8-5 Stress-strain diagram for a ductile material.
The angle formed by the straight-line portion of the diagram and the
horizontal axis indicates the modulus of elasticity. The modulus of
elasticity is the value obtained by dividing the stress by the strain. Values
for the modulus of elasticity are quite large. For example, the modulus for
aluminum is 10 × 106, and for steel it is 30 × 106.
Stress-strain diagrams can be used to provide information about a
specific material or to compare several materials. They may also be used
to graphically demonstrate mechanical properties covered in this section.
Diagrams for four materials with widely varying properties are combined
in Fig. 8-6.
FIGURE 8-6 Comparison of four materials.
Strengths of Joints
Many materials are fastened together with bolts or rivets (fasteners) in a
simple lap joint. Regardless of the properties of a material, the strength of
the assembly can be no greater than that of the joint. A joint will fail for
one of four reasons: tensile load, shear load on the fastener, bearing failure
of the material, or tear-out of the material.
A tensile failure is related to the tensile strength of the material. A hole
must be drilled to insert the fastener. The drilled hole will effectively
reduce the cross-sectional area of the material, as shown in Fig. 8-8a. For
this reason the tensile load of a joint will never equal 100% of the tensile
load of the material.
Pbearing failure = fb × t × D
where Pbearing failure = load leading to failure, lb
fb = bearing strength of the material, psi
t = thickness of the material, in
D = diameter of fastener, in
Shear failure:
Bearing failure:
85 000 × 0.050 × 0.25 = 1062.5 lb
Tear-out failure:
2 × (32 000 × .050 × .75) = 2400 lb
In this example the lowest value is that for bearing failure. Therefore, this
joint could not support a load of more than 1062.5 lb.
Physical Properties
Physical properties of materials that are of interest to the aircraft
technician include density, conductivity, and thermal expansion.
The density of a material is its weight per unit volume, such as pounds
per cubic inch. The density combined with the strength characteristics of a
material produces what is known as the strength/weight ratio of a material.
For example, say we are given two materials, A with a tensile yield
strength of 120 000 psi and a density of 0.28 lb/in3, and B with a tensile
yield strength of 60 000 psi and a density of 0.10 lb/in3. We are then asked
to provide a rod 8 in long of each material capable of supporting a load of
10 000 lb. Previously, we used the formula f = P/A to find stress. In this
problem, stress and load are known. To find area, the formula will be
expressed as A = P/f. Carrying out the calculations for the two materials
finds the cross-sectional area required for each material to be
2 2
A = 0.083 in B = 0.167 in
Multiplying the area times the length (8 in) times the density of each
material will give the weight of the required rod:
A = 0.186 lb B = 0.134 lb
Even though rod B will be larger in cross section, it will still weigh less
than rod A because it has a better strength/weight ratio.
Dividing the tensile strength by the density for each material provides the
following values:
5 5
A = 4.3 × 10 B = 6.0 × 10
Chemical Properties
The chemical properties of a material refer to its atomic structure and
basic elements. While they may not appear to be of interest or of
significance to the aircraft technician, the behavior of metals is greatly
affected by chemical properties. Mechanical properties, such as ductility
and hardness, as well as response to thermal treatment are related to
chemical properties. The chemical properties of a metal also determine its
susceptibility to corrosion.
1. Crystalline structure
4. High reflectivity
Within the crystal, there are planes called slip planes. When an external
force is applied to the crystal, the atoms along a slip plane will move in
relation to one another. If the force is less than the elastic limit of the
material, the atoms will return to their original position after the force is
removed. If the force exceeds the elastic limit, plastic deformation will
occur and the shape of the crystal will be permanently altered. As plastic
deformation takes place, the slip plane is “used up,” or reaches a point
where no more slippage occurs. If the force continues, other slip planes
must be brought into action or the metal will fail by rupture. Figure 8-12
illustrates grain (crystal) changes that take place as a metal is deformed by
being rolled to a thinner size.
Solid-Solution Alloys
The term solution brings to mind liquids, but solutions exist in solid
materials as well. A solution consists of the solvent—the base metal—and
the solute—the alloying element. A solid-solution alloy forms when the
atoms of two elements are combined. A solid-solution alloy may be one of
two types: substitutional or interstitial.
A substitutional solid-solution alloy occurs when the solute atoms are
very close in size to those of the solvent. The solute atom takes the place
of, or substitutes for, a solvent atom in the lattice structure (see Fig. 8-
13a). An interstitial solid-solution alloy occurs when the solute atom is
much smaller than the solvent atoms. Instead of replacing another atom in
the lattice structure, the solute atom wedges into the open space between
the solvent atoms (see Fig. 8-13b). In both cases the lattice structure will
be slightly distorted by the changes, providing different properties of the
material.
FIGURE 8-13 Atom arrangement for substitutional solid-
solution alloy (a) and interstitial solid-solution alloy (b).
The Type I alloy will produce crystals that are all a solid solution of
copper and nickel. There will be no pure copper or nickel crystals. A
common nickel-copper alloy called monel is 67% copper and 33% nickel.
When two elements form a solid-solution alloy, the alloy will be
stronger and harder, as shown in Fig. 8-15, and have less electrical
conductivity than would be predicted from the properties of the individual
metals. For example, nickel, with a tensile strength of 50 000 psi [345
MPa], and copper, with a tensile strength of 32 000 psi [221 MPa],
combine to form monel, with a tensile strength of 100 000 psi [670 MPa].
Color and magnetic properties cannot be predicted for solid-solution
alloys.
FIGURE 8-15 Mechanical properties for Type I alloy.
Compounds
In many cases a combination of elements will cause the formation of
compounds. In the formation of a compound, the original identities and
properties of the two elements are lost, replaced by new properties
characteristic of that compound. The heat treatment of many commercial
metals is made possible by compounds; Fe3C for ferrous alloys and CuAl2
for aluminum, for example. These compounds, and their effects, are
covered in more detail in Chapter 9 of this text.
Commercial Alloys
The examples discussed so far represent simple and basic alloys. In reality,
commercial alloys have complex actions taking place as the elements are
combined. In most cases more than two elements are involved. Many of
the commercial alloys are allotropic; that is, the lattice structure changes
under certain conditions. An alloying element may be used to cause such
phase changes, or to prevent them. Phase changes are critical to some
material’s ability to be hardened by heat treatment. Although complex, the
alloying action in effect is a series of separate actions. For example, an
aluminum alloy (2024) may exhibit the effects of both Type I and Type II
alloys as well as form a compound.
Powder Metallurgy
Powder metallurgy (PM) is the process of blending finely powdered
materials, pressing them into a desired shape or form and then heating the
compressed material in a controlled atmosphere to bond the material
(sintering). This manufacturing process permits manufacturers to
“combine” metals of dissimilar characteristics creating unique and custom
parts.
A much wider range of materials can be created using PM production
processes than from direct alloying of melted materials. When typical
metal alloys are created, each metallic substance needs to be melted and
“mixed” together, resulting in the unique chemical and physical properties
of the alloy. Because each metal melts at differing temperatures and reacts
differently to temperature and the atmosphere around it, unwelcome
chemical changes can occur that impede the manufacturing process.
There are many ways to create PM parts, but generally a mix of
extremely fine metal particles are placed into a mold and then pressure
(either physical, fluid or gas) is applied. The resulting article is then
sintered in a furnace. Under heat, bonding takes place between the porous
aggregate particles and the powder bonds to form a solid piece. This
increases the strength of the part by bonding the metal particles. Changes
in pressure and/or temperature change the characteristics of the metal.
Fairly porous, lightweight parts can be created or heavy, dense and
stronger parts can be produced all by varying the temperature and
pressure.
Using PM, it is possible to fabricate components, which would be
impossible to create using classic metal techniques. Because there is no
solid to liquid phase change, powder parts creation can be more flexible
than typical casting, extrusion, or forging. The powdered alloy can also be
created with “nonmetallic” properties such as porosity, controlled voids
(air) in the metal, and even nonmetallic compounds (such as ceramics) can
be added to the alloy.
PM products are still fairly expensive to form and are primarily used in
aviation in high-temperature areas of gas-turbine engines. Field repair of
damaged or distorted PM parts is next to impossible, so these parts are
typically sent back to the manufacturer for repair or replacement.
CORROSION
Corrosion is a problem for all metals. Corrosion is the decomposition of
metallic elements into compounds such as oxides, sulfates, hydroxides,
and chlorides. Compound formation is caused by direct chemical action
and electrolytic action. Chemical corrosion involves reactions with acid,
salts, alkalis, or even the oxygen in air. The presence of moisture will
usually accelerate the chemical action. Electrolytic action occurs when
metals that have different levels of electrochemical activity are in close
proximity in the presence of moisture. The dissimilar metals form the
poles of a galvanic cell, an electric current flows, and the more active
metal is decomposed, or corroded. The susceptibility of a metal to
corrosion varies depending upon its chemical composition and properties.
Corrosion protection and prevention is a very important part of aircraft
maintenance. Processes involving corrosion control are covered in Chapter
9.
FATIGUE
The phenomenon of metal fatigue has long been known, but in recent
years it has become a major concern of aircraft maintenance because of
aging aircraft.
Metal fatigue refers to the loss of strength, or resistance to load,
experienced by a material as the number of load cycles or load reversals
increase. The tensile strength of a material was discussed earlier in this
chapter. The strength values discussed then were based on a single load
application. Load cycles, or load reversals, refer to a material being loaded
and then unloaded. If the elastic limit has not been exceeded during a load
condition, the material, in theory, returns to its original state once the load
is removed. In reality, the application of the load can cause minute cracks
to occur in the material. These cracks are so small as to have no significant
effect upon the metal at first. As the load cycles continue, additional
cracks are formed and old ones get larger. Eventually, the cumulative
effect will be such that the strength of the metal will be compromised. A
large number of load cycles are required before significant strength loss
will be encountered. A load reversal occurs as parts vibrate or flex. Thus
components such as the wings of an aircraft or the rotors of a helicopter
will encounter a high number of load reversals in a short period of time.
The fatigue strength of a metal can be empirically determined and
plotted, as shown in Fig. 8-18. The strength of the material is plotted
against the vertical axis, and the number of load cycles is plotted on the
horizontal axis. Using such a chart allows us to determine how many
cycles can be encountered before the strength of the material falls below a
safe level. This information can be used to determine the number of
cycles, or time, that a part may have on an aircraft before replacement or
other action is required.
AIRCRAFT METALS
An overview of some major metals commonly found in aircraft is given in
the following paragraphs. For more complete coverage of aircraft metals,
see Metallic Materials and Elements for Aerospace Vehicle Structures,
MIL-HDBK-5, published by the U.S. Government Printing Office.
Aluminum (Al)
Aluminum is the principal structural metal for aircraft. A unique
combination of properties makes aluminum a very versatile engineering
and construction material. Light weight is perhaps aluminum’s best known
characteristic. With a specific gravity of 2.7, the metal weighs only about
0.1 lb/in3 [2.8 g/cm3], as compared with 0.28 lb/in3 [7.8 g/cm3] for iron and
0.32 lb/in3 [8.86 g/cm3] for copper. Commercially pure aluminum has a
tensile strength of about 13 000 psi [89.6 MPa]. Its usefulness as a
structural metal in this form is somewhat limited, although its strength can
be approximately doubled by cold working. Much greater increases in
strength can be obtained by alloying with other metals. Aluminum alloys
having tensile strengths approaching 100 000 psi [689.6 MPa] are
available. Aluminum and its alloys lose strength at elevated temperatures,
although some retain good strength at temperatures as high as 400°F
[204°C]. At subzero temperatures, aluminum’s strength increases without
loss of ductility. Aluminum in general is considered as having good
corrosion resistance. The ease and versatility with which aluminum is
made surpasses that of virtually any other material.
Aluminum products are made in two forms, east and wrought. Cast
aluminum is formed into a shape by pouring molten aluminum into a
mold of the required shape. Wrought aluminum is mechanically worked
into the form desired by rolling, drawing, and extruding.
1000 Series. When the first digit is 1, the material is 99% or higher pure
aluminum.
2000 Series. Copper is the principal alloying element in this group. The addition
of copper allows aluminum to be heat-treated to high strengths, but also
reduces its corrosion resistance.
4000 Series. The major alloying element of this group is silicon, which can be
added in sufficient quantities to cause substantial lowering of the melting point
without producing brittleness. The principal use of 4000-series alloys is for
welding wire.
5000 Series. Magnesium is one of the most effective and widely used alloys for
aluminum. When it is used as the major alloying element, the result is a
moderate- to high-strength, non-heat-treatable alloy. Alloys in this series have
good welding characteristics and high corrosion resistance.
6000 Series. Alloys in this group contain silicon and magnesium in proportions to
form magnesium-silicide, thus making them heat-treatable. Though not as
strong as the 2000 and 7000 alloys, the magnesium-silicon alloys possess
good formability and corrosion resistance with moderate strength.
7000 Series. Zinc is the major alloying element of this group and, when coupled
with a small percentage of magnesium, results in a heat-treatable alloy of very
high strength. Usually, other elements, such as copper and chromium, are
added in small quantities.
8000 Series. This series is a category mainly used for lithium alloys.
The second two digits identify the aluminum alloy or indicate the
aluminum purity. The last digit is separated from the other three by a
decimal point and indicates the product form, that is, castings or ingots. A
modification of the original alloy is indicated by a serial letter before the
numerical designation. Alloy A514.0, for example, indicates an aluminum
alloy casting with magnesium as the principal alloy. One modification to
the original alloy has been made, as indicated by the letter A.
Corrosion
Aluminum is considered to be highly corrosion resistant under the
majority of service conditions. When aluminum surfaces are exposed to
the atmosphere, a thin, invisible oxide (A12O3) skin forms, which protects
the metal from further oxidation. Unless this coating is destroyed, the
material remains fully protected against corrosion. Aluminum is highly
resistant to weathering and is corrosion resistant to many acids. Alkalis are
among the few substances that attack the oxide skin and are therefore
corrosive to aluminum.
High-strength alloys containing copper are less resistant to corrosion
than the other alloys. Alloys of this type often have a thin layer of pure
aluminum rolled on each side. The pure aluminum acts as a barrier
between the environment and the less resistant alloy. Aluminum of this
type is known as clad aluminum. (Alclad is a trade name used by
ALCOA for this product.)
While highly corrosion resistant by itself, aluminum is susceptible to
galvanic corrosion resulting from contact with other materials. Among the
structural metals, aluminum is second only to magnesium on the
electromotive series. Galvanic corrosion with any structural metal other
than magnesium results in aluminum being the material corroded or
decomposed.
Workability
Aluminum can be cast by any method known. It can be rolled to any
desired thickness, including a foil thinner than paper. It can be stamped,
drawn, spun, or roll formed. The metal can be hammered or forged, and
there is almost no limit to the different shapes into which it may be
extruded. Aluminum can be turned, milled, bored, or machined in other
manners at the maximum speed at which the majority of the machines are
capable. Almost any method of joining is applicable to aluminum;
riveting, welding, brazing, soldering, or adhesive bonding.
Non-Heat-Treatable Alloys
1100. Pure aluminum that is soft, ductile, and low strength. Its use on aircraft is
limited to nonstructural application. It is also used for making low-strength
rivets.
3003. This alloy is similar to 1100 but has about 20% greater strength. It is used
on aircraft for fluid lines, with limited application for fairings or cowlings.
5052. The highest strength of the non-heat-treatable alloys, 5052 has high
corrosion resistance and high fatigue strength. Having excellent workability, it
is widely used for aircraft cowlings, fairings, and other nonstructural parts
requiring forming. Fluid lines are frequently made of this alloy.
5056. This alloy is used to make rivets for riveting magnesium sheet.
Heat-Treatable Alloys
2017. Used more frequently on older aircraft, 2017 alloy is seen today, if at all,
only in aluminum rivets.
2117. A modification of alloy 2017, this alloy is used exclusively for the
manufacture of aluminum rivets. The 2117 rivet is not as strong as a 2024 rivet
but can be driven with no special treatment.
2024. Alloy 2024 is probably the “standard” structural metal as well as the most-
used metal for aircraft. It is found in virtually every form available, including
sheet, extrusion, bar stock, standard hardware, and tubing. Heat treatable to
high strengths, its ability to be cold-worked is good to excellent for everything
except rivets. Like most heat-treatable alloys, 2024 is not recommended for
welding. To improve corrosion resistance, 2024 sheet stock is available as a
clad material. Alloy 2024 ages rapidly after heat treatment, and most forms will
be in the T3 condition. Alloy 2024 is highly susceptible to intergranular
corrosion if heat treatment is done improperly.
6061. An easily worked metal, 6061 has a strength only two-thirds that of 2024. A
good general-purpose material, it can be welded, offers high corrosion
resistance, and can be worked by almost any means. To develop full strength
after heat treatment normally requires artificial aging; such metal will have a T6
designation.
7075. This is one of the highest strength aluminum alloys available and also one
of the more difficult aluminum alloys to work. Parts should be formed in the
annealed state or at an elevated temperature. Arc and gas welding is not
recommended. Alloy 7075 is available in a clad form to improve corrosion
resistance. This alloy is normally artificially aged and carries the T6
designation.
Aluminum-Lithium Alloys
During the 1980s, development work was begun on a series of aluminum
alloys with lithium (Li) as the major element. An early alloy, 2090, used
copper as the major alloy (2.4 to 3.0%) with 1.9 to 2.6% lithium. Later
alloys have a lower copper content (less than 1.5%) and 1 to 1.5% lithium.
The developmental alloys are numbered as 8000.
These alloys were developed partially as a result of competition from
lightweight composite materials for the future aircraft market. Aluminum-
lithium alloys are 10% lighter than the 2024 alloy: 0.091 – 0.093 lb/in3
[2.51 – 2.59 g/cm3] versus 0.10 lb/in3 [2.8 gm/cm3]. It is estimated that the
weight savings of this alloy would amount to 12 000 lb [5443 kg] on a
large transport aircraft. In addition to the lighter weight, these alloys also
exhibit 15% greater stiffness, which allows significant design changes.
While products are being manufactured from these alloys, their use is
not necessarily widespread. The fact that lithium is a very light and active
element requires that special handling techniques be developed, both to
ensure the integrity of the material and the safety of those working with it.
1. Stainless steels are more difficult to cut and form than many materials.
2. Stainless steels have a much greater expansion coefficient than other steels,
and they conduct heat at a lower rate, making welding more difficult.
3. Many of the stainless steels lose their corrosion resistance under high
temperatures.
Magnesium (Mg)
Magnesium alloys are used frequently in aircraft structures in cast, forged,
and sheet form. The greatest advantage of magnesium is that it is one of
the lightest metals for its strength. A typical alloy for aircraft use might be
AZ31B. This material, which is available in sheet, plate, and extruded
forms, has a density about two-thirds that of aluminum: 0.067 lb/ in3
versus 0.100 lb/in3 [1.85 gm/cm3 versus 2.8 gm/cm3]. AZ31B exhibits
tensile strength of 30 000 to 40 000 psi [207 to 276 MPa]. The A and Z
indicate that aluminum and zinc are the major alloys.
The disadvantages of magnesium are that it is more subject to corrosion
than many metals, it is not easily worked at room temperatures, and if it
ignites, it is extremely difficult to extinguish. Magnesium cannot be cut
easily and has a tendency to tear.
When magnesium is used in an aircraft structure, it can often be
recognized by the fact that it has a yellowish surface due to a chromate
treatment used to prevent corrosion and furnish a suitable paint base.
Because of its tendency to corrode, it is very important that the correct
hardware items, such as the proper rivets, bolts, and screws, be used. For
example, rivets used with magnesium should be made of 5056-H
aluminum alloy. Any metal part used with magnesium should be of a
compatible metal or be properly insulated from the magnesium.
Titanium (Ti)
The use of titanium as a structural material has become widespread since
the early 1960’s. Although discovered in 1790, the first isolation of pure
metallic titanium in sufficient quantity for practical study was not
accomplished until 1906. The Kroll process, widely used for extracting
titanium metal, was developed in 1932. This process was improved upon
by the United States Bureau of Mines, which in 1946 began to produce
titanium sponge in 100-lb batches. Today, titanium is produced in
relatively large quantities in rod, bar, sheet, and other forms for use in the
manufacture of a wide variety of metal products.
Titanium and its alloys are widely used in the aerospace industry
because of their high strength, light weight, temperature resistance, and
corrosion resistance. Titanium is equal to iron in strength, at
approximately 56% of the weight (Ti = .167 lb/in3 [4.6 gm/cm3], Fe = .28
lb/in3 [7.8 gm/cm3]).
The strength of titanium is maintained to temperatures of more than
800°F [427°C], making it useful in the cooler sections of gas-turbine
engines, for the cowling and the baffing around engines, and for the skin
of aircraft subjected to elevated temperatures. When titanium is exposed to
temperatures of 1000°F [538°C] and above, it must be protected from the
atmosphere, because at these temperatures it combines rapidly with
oxygen. The melting point of titanium is approximately 3100°F [1704°C].
Titanium has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion, much lower
than that of other structural metals such as corrosion-resistant steel.
Thermal conductivity is approximately the same as that of corrosion-
resistant steel.
An outstanding property of titanium is its resistance to corrosive
substances and industrial chemicals. It is uniquely resistant to inorganic
chloride solutions, chlorinated organic compounds, chlorine solutions, and
moist chlorine gas. It has excellent resistance to oxidizing acids, such as
nitric or chromic acids, but will be attacked by strong reducing acids. The
resistance of titanium to corrosion by natural environmental substances is
unequaled by other structural metals.
Titanium may be worked by many of the methods employed for steel
and corrosion-resistant steel. It can be sheared, drawn, pressed, machined,
routed, sawed, and nibbled. The operator handling titanium must be
familiar with its peculiarities and special characteristics in order to obtain
good results. The cutting dies and shear blades used in cutting titanium
must be of good-quality steel and must be kept very sharp. Because of its
affinity for oxygen and nitrogen at elevated temperatures, the metal should
be protected by a surrounding atmosphere of inert gas for “hot” working.
The usual method of protection is to heat the metal in an atmosphere of
argon or helium gas. Welding may be done using a gas-shielded process.
At about 1950°F [1065°C], titanium will ignite in the presence of
oxygen and burn with an incandescent fame. A nitrogen atmosphere will
result in ignition and fame at about 1500°F [815°C]. When titanium is
being machined in quantity, fire-extinguishing materials should be
immediately available. Liquid coolants of the proper type should be used
during machining to reduce the possibility of fire.
Titanium is an allotropic metal having CPH crystalline structure (see
Fig. 8-10) at room temperature and changing to a BCC arrangement at
elevated temperatures. When in the CPH phase it is referred to as alpha
titanium, and as beta titanium when in the BCC phase. These are
sometimes referred to as Type A and Type B titanium. Titanium is
receptive to many other metals as alloying elements. The use of alloys has
made possible the stabilization of the beta phase at room temperatures. As
a result, a number of types of titanium metals are available: pure titanium,
alpha titanium, alpha-beta titanium, and beta titanium. Different properties
are exhibited by each type.
Commercially pure (unalloyed) titanium is available in all familiar
product forms and is noted for its excellent form-ability. A designation of
pure titanium alloys usually takes the form of Ti-75. The number (75)
indicates that the minimum yield strength of the product is 75 000 psi [517
MPa]. Pure titanium cannot be hardened by heat treatment, but it can be
annealed. It can be cold worked to above 100 000 psi [689 MPa] yield
strength.
An example of alpha-titanium uses the commercial designation of
8A1-1Mo-1V-Ti, sometimes referred to as Ti-8-1-1. The designation
indicates that the major alloy elements are 8% aluminum (Al), 1%
molybdenum (Mo), and 1% vanadium (V). The addition of an alloying
element creates a tendency for the material to change to the beta phase.
One of the functions of the alloying elements in this category is to
stabilize the alpha structure. Alpha titaniums are stronger but less
workable than their pure counterparts. They can be annealed but not
strengthened by heat treatment. Annealed Ti-8-1-1 will exhibit a yield
strength in excess of 120 000 psi [827 MPa] at room temperature.
The alpha-beta titanium has both forms of internal structure. A widely
used commercial product is Ti-6A1-4V. This metal is heat treatable to
more than 140 000 psi [965 MPa] yield strength. As with many metals, as
the alloy becomes more complex the working properties become more
difficult. Ti-6A1-4V can have most processes performed, but some are
highly developed and require careful attention to detail.
Ti-13V-1lCr-3Al is a heat-treatable, high-strength beta-titanium alloy.
Solution-heat-treated and aged Ti-13-11-3 will develop yield strengths in
the range of 170 000 to 200 000 psi [1172 to 1379 KPa]. As in the case of
the alpha-beta alloy just discussed, this alloy can be worked, but the ease
of workability varies and special processes are required for some
operations.
Copper (Cu)
Copper is one of the comparatively plentiful metals and has been used by
human beings for thousands of years. It is easily identified by its reddish
color and by the green and blue colors of its oxides and salts. It is very
ductile in the annealed state but hardens with cold working. A primary use
for copper is as an electrical conductor. Before the development of
aluminum as a practical metal, copper was used for tubing and other
applications where aluminum is used today.
The principal alloys with a copper base are bronze, brass, and beryllium
copper. Bronze is primarily a blend of copper and tin, the tin content being
from 10 to 25%. Brass is an alloy of copper with 30 to 45% zinc plus
small amounts of other metals. Beryllium copper is approximately 97%
copper, 2% beryllium, and 1% other metals.
Bronze and brass are used for bushings, bearings, valve seats, fuel-
metering valves, and numerous other applications.
Beryllium copper is heat treatable and can be brought up to a tensile
strength of 200 000 psi [1379 MPa]. Beryllium copper is used for
precision bearings, bushings, spring washers, diaphragms, ball cages, and
other applications where its qualities of wear resistance, toughness,
strength, and elasticity are desirable.
Copper is alloyed with aluminum, manganese, silicon, iron, nickel, and
other metals to make a variety of “bronzes.” These are not true bronzes in
the original sense of the word because they do not contain tin. Among
these bronzes are aluminum bronze, silicon bronze, and manganese
bronze. These alloys are available in sheet, bar, rod, plate, and other
standard shapes.
High-Temperature Alloys
Because of the need for metals that can withstand the extremely high
temperatures found in gas-turbine engines, afterburners, thrust reversers,
and other modern equipment, and because of the high temperatures
generated by air friction at supersonic speeds, it has become necessary to
develop metal alloys which retain their strength under elevated
temperature conditions. The products of high-temperature metal research
have led to the development of alloys that use a wide variety of metal
elements to produce the desired results.
High-temperature alloys contain high percentages of nickel, cobalt,
chromium, molybdenum, titanium, and other alloying elements that make
them particularly resistant to heat and corrosion and retain high tensile
strength at elevated temperatures such as 1000 to 2200°F [538 to 1205°C].
Other qualities considered in the development of these alloys include
thermal stability, tensile strength at elevated temperatures, low-cycle
fatigue strength, stress-rupture properties, hot-corrosion resistance, and
oxidation resistance. Some examples of the major groups and
representative alloys are discussed in the following sections.
Iron-Chromium-Nickel-Based Alloys
The alloys in this group generally fall between the austenitic stainless
steels and the nickel- and cobalt-based alloys, both in cost and in
maximum service temperature. They are used in airframes, principally in
the temperature range of 1000 to 1200°F [538 to 649°C], in those
applications in which the stainless steels are inadequate and the service
requirements do not justify the use of the more costly nickel or cobalt
alloys.
One common alloy in this group, A-286, is a precipitation-hardening
iron-based alloy designed for parts requiring high strength up to 1300°F
[704°C] and oxidation resistance up to 1500°F [816°C]. It is used in
turbine engines for parts such as turbine buckets, bolts, and discs. It is also
used for sheet-metal assemblies and is available in the usual mill forms. In
addition to the iron base, the major alloying elements are 25% nickel and
15% chromium.
Nickel-Based Alloys
Nickel is the base element for most of the higher temperature heat-
resistant alloys. While it is much more expensive than iron, nickel
provides an austenitic structure that has greater toughness and workability
than ferrous alloys of the same strength level. The common alloying
elements for nickel are cobalt, iron, chromium, molybdenum, titanium,
and aluminum.
One such alloy, Inconel 702, is a heat-treatable nickel-based alloy
containing chromium and aluminum for oxidation resistance and
aluminum and titanium as hardeners. It is used primarily for parts and
assemblies requiring oxidation resistance to about 2000°F [1093°C] (and
higher under some conditions) rather than high strength and where parts
may require welding during fabrication. Although available in strip, sheet,
bar, and tubing forms, it is used primarily in sheet form. Inconel has 15%
chromium, 3% aluminum, and 0.5% titanium as alloying elements.
Another alloy, Rene 41, is a vacuum-melted precipitation-hardening
nickel-based alloy designed for highly stressed parts operating between
1200 and 1800°F [649 to 982.7°C]. Its applications include afterburner
parts, turbine castings, wheels, buckets, and high-temperature bolts and
fasteners. Rene 41 is available in sheets, bars, and forgings. Alloying
elements include 19% chromium, 11% cobalt, 10% molybdenum, and 3%
titanium.
Cobalt-Based Alloys
The use of cobalt in wrought heat-resistant alloys is usually limited to the
addition of cobalt to alloys of other bases. In very few alloys is cobalt the
base element. These alloys are designed to have very high strength at very
high temperatures. Working properties are extremely limited.
One such alloy, L-605, is a cobalt-based alloy also known as Haynes
Alloy 25. L-605 contains 20% chromium, 15% tungsten, and 10% nickel
as alloying elements. This alloy is used for moderately stressed parts
operating between 1000 and 1200°F [649 and 1038°C]. L-605 is not
hardenable except by cold working and is usually used in the annealed
condition.
PLASTICS
The word plastic is derived from the Greek word plastikos, meaning “to
form.” In a broad sense, any material that can be formed into various
shapes can be called plastic; however, common usage of the term limits it
to synthetic materials developed for industrial use and consumer products.
Most of the materials called plastics are often termed synthetic resins.
Natural resins are usually produced from the sap or pitch of plants or from
certain insects. Natural resins, once used for the manufacture of varnishes
and lacquers, have been largely replaced by synthetic resins.
Plastics are classified as thermosetting resins or thermoplastic resins.
Thermosetting resins harden or set when heat of the correct value is
applied. This type of plastic cannot be softened and reshaped after having
been solidified. Thermoplastic resins can be softened by heat and
reshaped or reformed many times without changing composition, provided
that the heat applied is held within proper limits.
Thermosetting Resins
Common thermosetting resins include phenolics, epoxies, polyurethanes,
polyesters, and silicones.
The phenolic resins are based on phenol and formaldehyde. These
resins are resistant to heat, moisture, chemicals, and oils, and they are
excellent insulators. They are therefore used extensively for various parts
and insulators in electrical devices.
The epoxy resins find many uses in aircraft. They have excellent heat
resistance, insulation qualities, dimensional stability, chemical resistance,
and moisture resistance. When applied in a liquid state, they have
outstanding adhesive qualities. Epoxy resins are used for potting,
encapsulating, casting, reinforced laminates, adhesives, and protective
coatings. Epoxies are usually supplied in two parts. The resin component
is in a syrupy liquid state, and the curing agent may be a liquid or a
powder. The curing agent is mixed with the resin just before the material is
used. The time allowable between mixing and solidification is stated on
the container. In some aircraft, epoxy resin is used as an adhesive agent for
metal bonding. The resulting bond has excellent strength and durability.
Another common use is in coatings for aircraft. Epoxy primers provide an
effective base for other finishes, such as polyurethane.
The polyurethane plastics may be used for rigid or flexible structures.
They are commonly used as a foam that, when solidified, makes very light
heat-resistant and thermal-insulating materials. Polyurethane enamels
make superior finish coatings for aircraft. When properly applied, the
finish has a high gloss and there is no need for sanding, rubbing, polishing,
or waxing. These finishes are weather resistant and retain good appearance
and quality for several years.
The polyester resins are commonly used as a matrix material for glass-
fiber laminates. In aircraft these are found as fairings, tail cones, antenna
housings, radomes, cowling, wheel pants, and similar items.
The silicone resins can be used for reinforced laminates with glass
fiber, fibrous graphite, and other materials. The silicones are superior in
heat resistance and for this reason are used in products exposed to high
temperatures. Among high-temperature silicone materials are oils, greases,
rubbers, and reinforced sheet.
Thermoplastic Resins
Among the thermoplastic resins that may be encountered by the aviation
technician are cellulose acetate, polyethylene, polypropylene, vinyls,
polymethyl methacrylate (acrylic resin), polytetrafuoroethylene (Teflon),
and nylon.
The resin cellulose acetate is used for transparent film and sheet. In
aircraft, cellulose acetate was once used for windows and windshields but
has been replaced by acrylics.
The resin polyethylene is made in low-density and high-density
qualities. Low-density polyethylene is made in thin, flexible sheet or film
and is used for plastic bags, protective sheeting, and electrical insulation.
High-density polyethylene is used for containers such as fuel tanks, large
drums, and bottles.
The vinyls are manufactured in a variety of types and have a wide range
of applications. Their use in aircraft includes seal coverings, electrical
insulation, moldings, and tubing. They are flexible and resistant to most
chemicals and moisture.
Another resin, acrylic resin, is a water-clear plastic that has a light
transmission of 92%. This property, together with its weather and moisture
resistance, makes it an excellent product for aircraft windows and
windshields.
The resin polytetrafuoroethylene (Teflon) is encountered in
nonlubricated bearings, tubing, electrical devices, and other applications.
It is extremely tough and almost frictionless. It has good resistance to
temperatures as high as 500°F [260°C] and remains flexible at low
temperatures.
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Structural materials known as composites are made of many different
materials and in a variety of forms. The use of plastic resins has made
possible the development of nonmetallic materials that are often superior
to metals in strength/weight ratio, corrosion resistance, ease of fabrication,
and cost. Newer aircraft use composite materials for many structural parts,
and the use of composite materials for wingtips, cowlings, fairings, flaps,
spoilers, and ailerons is common.
For this text, composite materials will be divided into two categories,
laminated and cored, or sandwich, construction. Both types of
construction produce lightweight parts and components with high tensile
strength. The need for adequate stiffness to handle compression and
bending loads has resulted in a large variety of material and design
configurations.
An in-depth coverage of the various materials and designs of composite
materials exceeds the scope of this text. The objective of this section is to
give you a basic knowledge of the common design principles and
materials used by the aircraft industry. Detailed information on material
application, construction techniques, and repair procedures is available in
the text Aircraft Maintenance and Repair.
Laminate Materials
The laminates are made by laying a resin-saturated fabric over, or within,
a mold to produce a desired shape. The laminate will be made up of a
number of individual layers, called plies, of the fabric. In laminated
construction, much of the tensile strength comes from the fabric, which is
known as the reinforcing material. The resin, which bonds the plies
together and provides stiffness, is usually referred to as the matrix. The
term lay-up is often used to describe the process of adding the plies of
fabric and resin to the form.
For full strength to be developed, the reinforcing fibers must be
completely encapsulated by the resin. It is also essential that individual
plies be in contact with the next layers, with no air pockets or areas of
excess resin.
For individual parts or those with complex shapes, lay-ups are usually
done manually. On laminated items such as tubing, piping, pressure
vessels, and cylindrical containers, fabrication may be done by machine,
using continuous bundles of fibers called rovings or tows. The roving is
drawn through a reservoir of resin and machine-wound onto the form.
The orientation of the reinforcing fibers in the matrix is very important.
A component may be designed to have unidirectional or bidirectional
strength, depending upon the fiber orientation. Much of the stiffness, or
compressive strength, in a laminated part is derived from the shape of the
part and is not necessarily an inherent property of the materials used. An
advantage of laminated construction is that complex shapes can be made
in one piece.
It should be obvious that laminated construction for aircraft components
is a highly developed science. The fabrication and repair techniques for
laminates require close attention to detail and must be specifically
followed to obtain a product with the desired characteristics. Equally
important is the use of the correct materials. A number of fibers and resins
are used with widely varying properties. Care must be exercised to obtain
the correct combination of materials and to follow the correct procedures
for construction or repair.
Reinforcing Materials
The most commonly used form of reinforcing material in laminates is
woven fabric, although continuous bundles, rovings or tows, and chopped
mats are also widely used.
Fabric consists of threads woven at right angles to each other. The warp
threads are those running parallel to the length of the fabric. Threads
running across the warp are called the fill (weft). As it comes from the
mill, the warp edges are bound by the fill so that the fabric will not
unravel. These edges are called the selvage edges and can be used to
identify the warp threads. The selvage edges should be removed before
use in a laminate because the weave is different from the rest of the fabric.
In addition to the base material, fabrics used for laminating will vary by
thread count (warp and fill), tensile strength, and weight, usually
expressed in ounces per square yard (oz/yd2).
The weave patterns, or methods in which the warp and fill threads
interlace, also vary and determine many of the properties of a fabric. A
major advantage of composite construction is that the strength can be
tailored to the application. If a component needs strength in only one
direction, such as the cap strip of a spar, unidirectional fabric may be used.
A unidirectional fabric has most of the fibers running parallel to the warp
and thus its strength lies in the same direction. Some unidirectional
fabrics, such as those shown in Fig. 8-20, do not have any fill threads, but
use small cross threads to hold the warp threads in place. A unidirectional
material will provide the needed strength at a lighter weight, due to the
absence of fill threads. Bidirectional fabric is woven to provide strength
in both directions, warp and fill. However, the strength will not necessarily
be equal in both directions. The actual thread count in each direction will
determine the respective strengths. If not equal in both directions, the warp
will have the greatest strength.
Fiberglass
Fiberglass is made from small strands of glass which are spun together and
woven into cloth. Fiberglass is one of the older reinforcing materials.
Although inexpensive, it is lower in strength and heavier than other
materials. Fiberglass has been widely used in aircraft for nonstructural
parts. Two types of fiberglass fabric are used. E-glass is the more
commonly used fabric and is inexpensive. S-glass has a different chemical
formulation and is 30% stronger and 15% stiffer. E-glass will retain its
properties up to 1500°F [815°C].
Aramid Fibers
Kevlar is the registered trademark of Dupont for an aramid fiber. Aramid
material ranks high in stiffness, toughness, and impact resistance. It is also
lightweight. These materials can usually be identified by their yellow
color. An unusual benefit is that cowlings made of aramid fibers transmit
less noise and vibration than ones made of glass or graphite.
Graphite/Carbon Fiber
Made primarily of carbon, the term graphite is also used for this material.
High strength, high stiffness, and low density are characteristics of these
fabrics.
Ceramic
The main advantage of fabric made from ceramic fibers is its ability to
withstand temperatures of almost 3000°F [1650°C]. Otherwise it is heavy,
very expensive, and comparable with S-glass in strength.
Hybrid Materials
Combining different materials in a component is yet another way in which
the composite material can be designed for specific applications. A hybrid
material may have plies of different material to use the “strengths” of each
type. In some cases, fabrics are woven from a combination of thread
materials. Such a hybrid fabric might be used to gain the high stiffness of
one material combined with the vibration-dampening characteristics of
another.
The fabrics just listed are made in many different weaves, weights, and
strengths. Table 8-4 shows values for an example of each type of fabric.
Matrix Materials
The matrix bonds the fibers together and transfers the stresses among the
fibers. Early composite materials made use of polyester resin. As a matrix
material, polyester resin was low strength and brittle. Many newer matrix
systems have been developed which provide for a variety of needs.
Many of the matrix systems are epoxy resins. Epoxy is a thermosetting
resin that has outstanding adhesion and is very good at bonding nonporous
and dissimilar materials. Epoxy resins are well known for their strength,
resistance to moisture, and compatibility with most chemicals. Epoxy
should be thought of as a family of matrix systems, as there are a number
of formulations for specific applications. A system may be designed for a
specific application or for requirements related to temperature,
rigidity/flexibility, cure rate, or a specific fiber.
Virtually all of the resins require the addition of a catalyst, or hardener,
to set up and develop their full properties. Once the hardener has been
added, the resin must be used before the material begins to cure. The rate
of cure may vary with the amount of hardener to be added. The mixing of
the parts of a matrix system are critical and the manufacturer’s directions
should be closely followed.
Preimpregnated Materials
Preimpregnated fabrics, commonly call prepregs, are those that have the
resin system already impregnated into the fabric by the manufacturer.
Advantages of using prepregs include the following:
1. The prepreg material will contain the proper amount of the matrix.
2. The reinforcing fibers are completely encapsulated with the matrix. Resin-
rich or resin-lean areas are avoided.
3. The matrix will have the correct proportions of resin and hardener.
1. The materials must be kept in a freezer to prevent the chemical action of the
hardener from beginning.
3. The materials are usually more expensive than that encountered when doing
manual lay-ups.
Sandwich Materials
In most cases a material’s tensile strength will be more than adequate for a
designed task. The problem lies in the lack of stiffness, or the inability of
the material to take a compressive load without buckling. One way in
which a material may be “stiffened-up” for higher compressive loads
requires increasing the thickness of the material. The stiffness will be
increased, but so will the weight. A second method is to fasten structural
shapes, such as angles or channels, to the part to increase rigidity. This
method not only adds weight but increases the complexity and cost of
fabrication. With the development of modern adhesive systems, it is
possible to solve this problem with composite, sandwich construction. In
this method, a “sandwich” is constructed using at least two layers of high-
strength material for facings and a lightweight, lower-strength material for
a core. By bonding the facings to the core, a composite material is formed
with the tensile strength of the facings and a high level of rigidity from the
increased thickness. For example, if two layers of fiberglass laminates are
placed on each side of a foam core, the stiffness (resistance to buckling)
will be many times greater than when four fiberglass layers form a solid
laminate. The foam core, being lightweight, produces an almost negligible
increase in weight.
Facing Materials
Virtually any type of material can be used for a facing in a sandwich-type
material. In areas of high temperature or high abrasion, metal may be a
choice. Because the facing can be thin to allow the overall sandwich
material to be relatively light, many materials, such as titanium and
stainless steel, can be used as facings. For general-purpose uses or where
weight is critical, laminated composite materials are commonly used for
facings.
Core Materials
Core materials used for sandwich construction may be either solid
materials or honeycomb materials. A section of honeycomb sandwich
material is shown in Fig. 8-21. The core is made up of corrugated material
assembled in a way that resembles a honeycomb. The face, or skin, is
bonded to the honeycomb core. Honeycomb core can be made of fiber
laminates, paper, or metal. Honeycomb core made of stainless steel and
titanium is used for high-temperature applications. The honeycomb core is
specified by the type of material, the thickness of the material, and the size
of the hexagon-shaped cell. Honeycomb material is manufactured in
blocks, allowing the core material to be cut to the desired thickness or
shape. The facings can be metal or solid laminate materials. The
combination of materials chosen for a honeycomb sandwich will depend
upon the conditions in which the component will be used.
Figure 8-23 shows the cross section of a wing built of similar materials
but in what may be called a “moldless” method of construction. The whole
wing has a solid foam core cut to the desired airfoil shape. All lines, wires,
cables, and so forth that will pass through the wing are placed in the foam,
or a passage is made for them. The entire core is then covered with layers
of fabric, impregnated with resin, and finished.
Metal-Matrix Composites
Although most work is still in the developmental stage, the potential for
metal-matrix composites is promising. This composite is formed by
adding the reinforcing materials, in the form of chopped fibers or strands
of fibers, into the metal while in a molten slate. When cooled, the solid
metal matrix is strengthened by the fibers. The metal can be worked with
conventional metalworking processes, with allowance for the changed
properties of the composite.
Manufacturers are also experimenting with metal-ceramic matrix
materials.
Metal Bonding
Although not necessarily a composite material, the bonding of metals, as a
means of joining them, uses many of the same adhesive materials,
fabrication methods, and inspection techniques as in composite
construction. Bonded metal joints are usually higher strength and have a
longer fatigue life than conventional riveted joints. Once a process is set
up, bonded joints are usually more economical in terms of manufacturing
cost than riveted joints. The disadvantages of bonded joints include the
need for special inspection processes and specialized repair
considerations.
AIRCRAFT WOOD
Three forms of wood are commonly used in aircraft: solid wood,
laminated wood, and plywood. To be used in an aircraft, the wood must be
of aircraft quality.
Solid Wood
The standard species of solid wood for aircraft use is Sitka spruce. Other
species of wood that may be substituted for spruce include Douglas fir,
noble fir, western hemlock, northern white pine, white cedar, and yellow
poplar. The substitution of these materials for spruce should only be done
in accordance with the guidelines established by the FAA and published in
Advisory Circular AC43.13-1A.
To be aircraft quality, a piece of wood must meet a number of criteria.
Many of these are determined by the original growth conditions
encountered by the tree from which the wood has been cut. A tree grows
by developing new fibers around its circumference each year. During the
spring, the growth is more rapid and is distinguished by fibers of a larger
size and thinner walls. The wood formed during this period is called
spring wood and is lighter in color than the smaller, thicker-walled fibers
formed during summer growth. Spring wood is also weaker than summer
wood. The dark-colored layers of summer growth form what are called
annual rings. The grain pattern of a wood refers to the directional
orientation of the fibers. Since annual rings are layers of fibers, they also
show the grain pattern. The grain pattern and annual rings are both
important criteria for the evaluation of wood as aircraft quality.
specification AN-W-2 for Sitka Spruce specifies that the slope of the
grain shall not be steeper than 1 in 15 and that the wood must be sawn
vertical grain and shall have no fewer than six annular rings per inch. The
determination of the slope of the grain is shown in Fig. 8-24. Sawn
vertical grain refers to the log being sawn in such a manner that the annual
rings form an angle of 45 to 90° with the face of the board. This is
accomplished by a process known as radial sawing, as compared to plain
sawing. Examples of radial-and plain-sawn wood are shown in Fig. 8-24.
Having no less than six annual rings per inch ensures that the piece does
not have an excess of the weaker spring wood.
The strength of wood will vary directly with the density. Aircraft-
quality spruce must have a specific gravity of at least 0.36. A defect called
compression wood has the appearance of an excessive growth of summer
wood. Wood with this defect has a high specific gravity and should be
rejected.
Wood must be kiln dried to be aircraft quality. As the moisture of a
wood increases, the strength decreases. The use of kiln drying ensures that
the wood has been brought to an acceptable moisture content. Wood fibers
continually exchange moisture with the surrounding air, depending upon
the humidity. As moisture is absorbed or released, the fibers expand and
contract. Provisions must be made for the dimensional change which
occurs. The dimensional change of a board will be the greatest across the
fibers and parallel to the growth rings, somewhat less across the fibers and
perpendicular to the growth rings, and negligible in a longitudinal
direction. In essence, the greatest dimensional change (due to moisture)
will occur to the thickness of a radial-sawn board.
Certain defects in wood will affect its use for aircraft. Checks are
longitudinal cracks extending across annual rings. Shakes are longitudinal
cracks between annual rings. Checks and shakes are formed during tree
growth, as shown in Fig. 8-25. Splits are longitudinal cracks caused by an
artificially induced stress. Wood containing checks, shakes, or splits is not
aircraft quality. A spike knot, shown in Fig. 8-26, runs perpendicular to
the annual rings. Spike knots are not allowed in aircraft quality wood.
FIGURE 8-25 Shakes and checks in wood.
Certain other defects may exist if they are within limitations as listed in
AC43.13-1A. These include wavy grain, hard knots, pin-knot clusters,
pitch pockets, and mineral streaks. Any form or evidence of decay is cause
for the wood to be rejected.
Laminated Wood
Laminated wood is made up of a number of layers glued together. Unlike
plywood, laminated wood has the grain running the same direction in all
layers. The wood may have been laminated in order to form it to a shape,
to use materials that have had defects removed, or to get a specific size.
The FAA allows solid spruce spars to be replaced with laminated spars or
vice versa, provided the material is of the same quality.
Plywood
Aircraft-grade plywood is made of imported African mahogany or
American birch veneers laminated to cores of poplar or basswood with
waterproof glue. Plywood made to specification MIL-P-6070 calls for
shear testing of the plywood after immersion in boiling water for 3 hours.
Conventional plywood has the grain of alternate layers running at 90°.
Aircraft plywood is made in two styles, with one having grain at 45°
angles in alternate plies. Aircraft plywood is used for skin or for
reinforcing plates.
Further details on aircraft-quality wood as well as the maintenance and
repair of wood structures may be found in the FAA’s Advisory Circular
AC43.13-1A.
AIRCRAFT FABRICS
The fabric discussed in this section is used for covering aircraft wings,
control surfaces, and fuselages. As was discussed in the section on the
reinforcing material for laminates, fabric is a material of various types of
threads woven at right angles to each other. The warp threads are those
running parallel to the length of the cloth. Threads running across the warp
are called the fill. The fabric as it comes from the mill has each edge
bound by the fill so that it will not unravel. These edges are called the
selvage edges and can be used to identify which are warp threads. The
manufacturer will normally print identification information on the fabric
along the selvage edge.
specifications for fabric will normally reference the thread count, or the
number of threads per inch. The thread count will be specified for both
warp and fill, as they may be different. The fabric may have a specified
weight stated in ounces per square yard.
Aircraft-covering materials were originally made from cotton. Three
specifications exist for the manufacture of cotton fabric. Grade A cloth
(AMS3806) has a minimum of 80, and a maximum of 84, threads warp
and fill. It is required on fabric-covered airplanes with wing loading in
excess of 9 lb/ft2 or a never-exceed-speed in excess of 160 mph. Grade A
cloth must have a tensile strength of 80 lb/in, warp and fill, when new. It is
allowed to deteriorate to 56 lb/in (70%) in use before being replaced.
Fabric is tested by putting a 1-in-wide strip in a tensile tester and pulling it
to failure. Note that the figures are given as units of pounds per inches of
width and not pounds per square inch.
Aircraft other than those requiring Grade A fabric may use AMS3804
airplane cloth, sometimes called intermediate grade. Fabric made to this
specification has a minimum of 80 and a maximum of 94 threads, warp
and fill. New strength for intermediate fabric is 65 lb/in. Gliders with a
wing loading of less than 8 psi and a never-exceed speed of 135 mph or
less can use AMS3802 cotton cloth. This glider cloth has a maximum of
110 threads per inch, warp and fill, with a new strength of 50 lb/in.
Aircraft linen is manufactured to British specifications and may be
substituted for Grade A cloth.
The installation of a fabric cover requires several other types of
materials. A waxed cord, normally called rib-lacing cord, is used to lace
the fabric to the ribs and other parts of the aircraft structure. Reinforcing
tape is a heavy cotton tape used over ribs between the fabric and the rib-
lacing cord. Its purpose is to keep the cord from cutting through the fabric.
Surface tape, also called finishing tape, is usually made in various
widths from the same material as that used for the cover. The purpose of
surface tape is to cover seams and rib-lacing cords.
The cover is not complete until the required finishes have been applied.
The finishes for fabric covers include nitrate dope, cellulose-nitrate dope,
and cellulose-acetate-butyrate dope. Both clear and pigmented dope are
used. The cover must be installed and finished in accordance with set
standards. The FAA’s Advisory Circular AC43.13-1A provides detailed
information on fabric-covering installation and maintenance.
Fabrics made from synthetic fibers have been developed as a
replacement for cotton fabrics. The most common synthetic is a Dacron
cloth sold under several trade names. Dacron cloth has the advantage of
being longer lasting than cotton. It can be heat-shrunk to size and bonded
seams can be used, making the application of the cover easier than cotton.
Fiberglass has also been used as a cotton replacement. Virtually all fabric-
covered aircraft were originally built with cotton fabric. Replacement of
the cover with another material is a major alteration. The manufacturer of
a synthetic material may have obtained a supplemental type certificate
(STC) to allow the installation of his or her product. If a synthetic material
is being used, the instructions supplied by the manufacturer, with the STC,
must be strictly followed.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the five types of stress. Give two common examples of each type.
2. Why are materials normally not rated in terms of compressive strength?
3. What is the difference between the elasticity and the plasticity of a material?
4. How can you estimate the modulus of elasticity from looking at a stress-strain
diagram?
5. What is the difference between a substitutional solid-solution alloy and an
interstitial solid-solution alloy?
6. What type of crystals do you find in a Type II alloy?
7. Why is aluminum alloy a good structural material for aircraft?
8. Describe the composition and properties of aluminum alloy 7075-T6.
9. What is the SAE number for chrome-molybdenum steel?
10. What alloying elements are used in 18-8 stainless steel?
11. What type of CRES may be hardened by heat treatment?
12. What are the advantages of magnesium for aircraft parts?
13. What are the disadvantages of magnesium?
14. What precautions must be taken when titanium is heated to a temperature
above 1000°F [538°C] and when welding titanium?
15. For what purpose is beryllium copper used?
16. What is the difference between thermosetting and thermoplastic resins?
17. What are the advantages of polyurethane enamels?
18. For what purpose are polyester resins commonly used?
19. What materials are used for aircraft windshields and windows?
20. What is the function of the matrix system in a laminate?
21. Describe honeycomb core material.
22. What materials may be used in honeycomb sandwich construction?
23. What types of wood are considered standard for aircraft structures?
24. What defects in aircraft woods make them unsuitable for use?
25. Describe the criteria used to determine if an aircraft fabric is Grade A.
9
Metal Fabrication
Techniques and Processes
INTRODUCTION
This chapter describes various processes used in the production and fabrication of
metal parts and components for aircraft. The intent is not to provide detailed
instruction on the processes that the technician is expected to perform. That material
is covered in other texts. The objective of this chapter is to give you a better
understanding of the techniques used to make the materials with which you will be
working. As mentioned in the preceding chapter, the aircraft maintenance technician
of the twenty-first century will be required not only to perform a number of skilled
tasks but to understand what he or she is doing. The technician must understand the
new materials as well as the new and improved processes for working with them.
MILL PRODUCTS
Metal materials are manufactured in a number of shapes and sizes. The
technician should be able to use the correct terminology to specify such
products, including the following:
Bar. A solid product that is long in relation to its cross-sectional dimensions and
that is square or rectangular (excluding plate or flattened wire), with sharp or
rounded corners or edges, or hexagonal or octagonal, with regular edges. At
least one perpendicular distance between parallel faces must be in [9.5 mm]
or greater.
Foil. A rolled product, rectangular in cross section, with a thickness less than
0.006 in [0.15 mm].
Plate. A rolled product rectangular in cross section and form, with a thickness of
0.250 in [6.35 mm] or more and sheared or sawed edges.
Rod. A solid product that is long in relation to its cross-sectional dimensions and
in [9.55 mm] or greater in diameter.
Sheet. A rolled product that is rectangular in cross section and form, with a
thickness of 0.006 through 0.249 in [0.15 through 6.32 mm] and sheared, slit,
or sawed edges.
Wire. A solid, wrought product that is long in relation to its cross-sectional area
and that is square or rectangular (with sharp or rounded corners or edges),
round, regularly hexagonal, or regularly octagonal in cross section; it also has
a diameter, or the greatest perpendicular distance between parallel faces
(except for flattened wire), less than in [9.5 mm].
Methods used for marking foil sheet and other shapes are shown in Fig.
9-2. Items too small for conventional markings, like rivets, are identified
by symbols and numbers that are an integral part of the metal.
FABRICATION OF METAL
COMPONENTS
Most metal products begin as ingots, formed by pouring molten metal into
large molds and allowing it to cool. At a later time the ingot is further
processed by either casting or plastically forming the material into a
wrought shape. Both cast and wrought materials are subjected to a variety
of processes, which might include heat treatment, machining, welding, and
numerous types of inspection.
Those products in which the metal has been mechanically worked or
plastically formed to a desired shape are called wrought products.
Forming of the metal may be by cold working or hot working. Hot
working involves plastic deformation of the metal at a temperature which
results in the metal being continually recrystallized (annealed); therefore,
strain hardening, or work hardening, does not occur. For aluminum, hot
working is performed at 650 to 900°F [343 to 482°C], depending on the
alloy. This is above the temperature required for recrystallization, but well
below the melting point or other heat-treatment temperatures.
The term cold working refers to work done at a temperature below that
required for recrystallization. Cold working causes a permanent change in
the grain shape and orientation. The strength and hardness that is gained
from the cold working is usually desirable. However, in cases of severe
deformation, the cold-working effects may need to be removed by
annealing. Since a metal is limited as to how much deformation can occur
before failure or rupture, it may be necessary to periodically anneal the
material during the forming process. The alteration of the grain structure
can also strengthen a product by providing a directional orientation for the
flow of stresses within the metal.
The term cast products describes those products formed by melting the
metal and pouring it into a mold of the desired shape. Since plastic
deformation of the metal does not occur, no alteration of the grain shape or
orientation is possible. The grain size of the metal can be controlled by the
cooling rate, the alloys of the metal, and the thermal treatment. Castings
are usually considered as being lower in strength and more brittle than a
wrought item of the same material. For a product with an intricate shape or
internal passages, casting may be the most economical process. Except for
some engine parts, most metal components found on an aircraft will be
wrought.
It should be noted that all metal products start in a cast form. Wrought
metals are converted from cast ingots by plastic deformation. For high-
strength aluminum alloys, an 80 to 90% reduction (i.e., dimensional
change in thickness) of the material is required to obtain the high
mechanical properties of a fully wrought structure.
All metals and alloys do not respond to heat treatment. Ferrous metals,
iron and steel, can usually be heat-treated; many corrosion-resistant
(stainless) steels cannot. Some alloys of aluminum are strengthened by
heat treatment, but others must be hardened by cold working. The high-
temperature nickel-based alloys can be heat-treated in some cases,
depending upon their composition. The temperatures and processes of heat
treatment vary considerably among the different metals. It is essential that
the process specification for a particular product be followed if the desired
properties are to be attained.
The hardening of metal by heat treatment is usually the result of one of
two phenomena. Some metals are allotropic; that is, their lattice structure
will change at elevated temperatures. By using certain alloys and thermal
treatment, a stronger internal structure can be stabilized for use at normal
operating temperatures. Steel is hardened through this process.
Aluminum is not allotropic. The hardening of aluminum is
accomplished by alloying an element that is soluble only at higher
temperatures. At lower temperatures, the alloy precipitates as a metallic
compound, producing hardening effects.
Annealing Aluminum
Aluminum is annealed by heating it to the required temperature, allowing
it to soak for the time necessary for recrystallization to occur, and cooling
the metal slowly. Table 9-4 provides specific data for annealing aluminum.
Annealing of Steel
Steel products can be fully annealed by heating to the appropriate
temperatures (see Table 9-5) and cooling slowly.
Case-Hardening Processes
Case-hardening processes produce a hard, wear-resisting surface, while
leaving the core of the metal tough and resilient. Three common methods
of case hardening are carburizing, nitriding, and cyaniding.
The process of carburizing consists of holding the metal at an elevated
temperature while it is in contact with a solid, liquid, or gaseous material
rich in carbon. Time is allowed for the surface metal to absorb enough
carbon to become high-carbon steel.
The nitriding process is accomplished with special alloy steels
containing small amounts of chromium, molybdenum, and aluminum by
holding at temperatures below the critical point in anhydrous ammonia.
Nitrogen from the ammonia is absorbed into the surface of the steel as iron
nitride. This produces a greater hardness than carburizing, but the
hardened area does not reach as great a depth.
The process of cyaniding is a fast method of producing surface
hardness on iron-based alloys of low carbon content. The metal may be
immersed in a molten bath of cyanide salt, or powdered cyanide may be
applied to the surface of the heated metal. During this process, the
temperature of the steel must range from 1300 to 1600°F [538 to 871°C].
The exact temperature depends upon the type of steel, the depth of the
case hardening desired, the type of cyanide compound used, and the time
that the steel is exposed to the cyanide. In using sodium cyanide or
potassium cyanide, great care must be taken to avoid getting any of the
cyanide into the mouth, eyes, or any other part of the body. These
materials are deadly poisons.
HARDNESS TESTING
Materials used for the structural parts of an aircraft are frequently
examined to determine their hardness. Hardness is used as an indication of
strength for many materials and it is based on the desired value given in
the material specifications.
Hardness testing is accomplished by means of various types of
instruments, all of which enable the operator to estimate the tensile
strength of the material.
Using too small of a sample of metal may result in the problem shown
in Fig. 9-15. If the metal can flow away from the ball or brale as shown, a
false reading will be obtained. False readings may also result from taking
two readings too close together, as illustrated in Fig. 9-16.
NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION
Because of the need to save weight, aircraft components are usually
designed to operate at high stress levels. This is no problem if a
component is able to carry its design load. Flaws, or discontinuities of the
metal’s structure, may develop during the manufacturing process or during
operation of the aircraft. Even a small defect may cause a part not to carry
its design load or even to fail. Both the manufacturer and the aircraft
maintenance agency must have a means of determining the integrity of the
component or part. Nonde-structive inspection (NDI) refers to a number
of methods that have been developed to detect and measure the extent of a
discontinuity without damaging or destroying the part or component. Most
NDI equipment is not highly complex, but it does require a knowledgeable
and skilled operator that can interpret the test results. To do so requires
that the technician have knowledge not only of the NDI process but also of
the properties of the materials being tested, the types and effect of flaws
that might be present, and what constitutes an unacceptable level of
defects.
Types of Defects
A number of defects may develop in a piece of metal during the
manufacturing processes. Gas pockets developing in molten metal may
cause porosity or voids in the metal. During forming, these pockets may
be shaped into a fold, a lap, or a seam. All of these terms are used to
describe a break, or discontinuity, in the grain structure of the metal. Many
of these defects are subsurface and thus not visible.
Materials may also be overstressed during forming, causing cracks to
occur. Heat and stress buildup during the machining of a part may also
result in cracks.
In operation, cracks may develop from overstress or high-temperature
operations. Such defects would be quite likely to occur on certain types of
components, such as wheels, brakes, and certain engine parts. Perhaps the
major defects of interest to the aircraft maintenance technician are those
resulting from corrosion or fatigue.
Magnetic-Particle Inspection
Penetrant Inspection
The penetrant process involves the use of a penetrating dye which seeps
into cracks or other defects. Before applying the dye, the part must be
thoroughly cleaned and dried to remove oil, rust, scale, and other foreign
materials. The dye is applied by dipping the part in the dye, by brushing,
or by spraying. The dye is then allowed to “soak” on the part to ensure that
it has penetrated all possible cracks or fissures. The part is then washed
with a special cleaner or with water to remove all dye left on the surface,
which is then dried. The developer, a fine white powder suspended in a
solvent, is sprayed or brushed on the part, or the part can be dipped in the
developer. The developer is allowed to dry, and the penetrant will flow
from any cracks or fissures, revealing their presence, as shown in Fig. 9-
19. After inspection, the developer is washed off with solvent.
FIGURE 9-19 Penetrant and developer action.
Penetrant inspection can be used on any material but will only detect
surface defects or subsurface defects if they are open to the surface.
Porous or rough surface materials are not commonly tested by this
method, as the penetrant would enter the pores and other surface
irregularities and give false readings.
In the use of any particular penetrant process, the technician should
follow carefully the instructions provided by the manufacturer. These
instructions are usually found on the container for the penetrant and the
developer.
Fluorescein-penetrant inspection is a penetrant inspection that uses a
fluorescent penetrant. When viewed under a black light (ultraviolet light),
the indications will be fluorescent and thus easier to see.
Eddy-Current Inspection
Ultrasonic Inspection
X-Ray Inspection
Thermography
CORROSION CONTROL
Essentially, corrosion is the decomposition of metallic elements into
compounds such as oxides, sulfates, hydroxides, and chlorides. It is
brought about by direct chemical action and by electrolytic action.
Chemical corrosion is caused by an acid, salt, or alkali in the presence of
moisture. Water provides the vehicle through which the chemical action
takes place. Electrolytic corrosion takes place when metals that have a
different level of chemical activity are touching or are in close proximity
in the presence of moisture. The two dissimilar metals form the poles of a
galvanic cell, an electric current flows, and the more active metal is
decomposed. This is a process similar to electroplating.
Types of Corrosion
The types of corrosion most commonly encountered in aircraft are surface
corrosion, dissimilar-metals (electrolytic) corrosion, fretting corrosion,
stress corrosion, and intergranular corrosion (Fig. 9-21). Corrosion is
noted as discoloration on a metal surface, as rust on steel parts, as greenish
deposits on brass and copper, as white or gray powder or deposits on
aluminum and magnesium, or as some other color or deposit depending
upon the chemical combination involved.
FIGURE 9-21 Types of corrosion. (a) Pitting corrosion; (b)
stress corrosion; (c) fretting corrosion; (d) galvanic corrosion; (e)
crevice corrosion; (f) filiform corrosion.
Filiform Corrosion
Physical Corrosion
Even though they are more corrosion resistant than metals, composite
structures can suffer corrosion when operating in harsh environments.
Nonmetallic fiber-based composites such as fiberglass and carbon
materials typically encase the fibers in a corrosive-resistant resin. This
usually provides sufficient protection for the internal fibers. However, any
opening that leads directly to the fibers, such as those left from drilling
holes or removing large amounts of material, may provide corrosive
materials with a direct pathway to the structural components of the
composite part. Special care needs to be taken when machining or
repairing composite parts to ensure that the protective resin coating is not
breached. Constant movement, application of load, and/or vibration can
also lead to microcracks in the resin casing providing another pathway for
corrosive materials to enter the substructure of the part.
The finish of such items as drilled holes, reamed holes, and spot faces is
not usually specified if the maximum roughness to be produced will be
acceptable. The roughness of fillets and chamfers conforms to the rougher
of the two connected or adjacent surfaces, unless otherwise indicated.
Unless specified, a symbol used on a plated or a coated surface always
signifies that a control applies to the parent-metal surface before plating or
coating.
Lay may be defined, for the purpose of this discussion, as the direction
of tool marks or the grain of the surface roughness. Waviness and tool-lay
designations also covered in the National Aerospace Standards Committee
Specification NAS30 have not yet been adopted by all manufacturers.
The symbol in Fig. 9-23b indicates rms 500. This is a very rough, low-
grade machine surface resulting from heavy cuts and coarse feeds in
milling, turning, shaping, and boring as well as from rough filing and
rough disk grinding. This is also the natural finish of some forgings and
sand castings. It is not used for aluminum alloys or other soft metals, for
surfaces in tension, or where notch sensitivity is a factor. It may be used
on secondary items but is generally not called out as a finish for aircraft or
missile parts.
Figure 9-23c is the symbol for rms 250. This is a medium machine
finish and is fairly inexpensive to produce. Figure 9-23d is the symbol for
rms 100. This finish is generally known as a smooth machine finish and is
the product of high-grade machine work in which relatively high speed
and fine feeds are used in taking light cuts with wellsharpened cutters.
Figure 9-23e is the symbol for rms 40. This is a fine machine finish
produced by a carbide or diamond bore, a medium surface or cylindrical
grind, a rough emery buff, a ream, a burnish, or a similar tool.
Root-mean-square 20, a very fine finish, is indicated by the symbol in
Fig. 9-23f. This finish is produced by a fine cylindrical or surface grind, a
very smooth ream, a smooth emery buff, or a coarse to medium lap or
hone. The extremely smooth finishes are indicated by Figs. 9-22g, h, and j.
These finishes are produced by honing, lapping, microhoning, polishing,
or buffing.
Root-mean-square 10 and the finer finishes may have either a dull or a
bright appearance, depending upon the method used to produce them. The
surface appearance must not be considered in judging quality; the degree
of smoothness must be determined by feel or by roughness-measuring
instruments.
METAL SURFACE TREATMENTS
A number of surface treatments for metals have been developed to reduce
or eliminate corrosion. Treatments for aluminum alloys include anodizing,
alodizing, and processes involving chromic acid and sodium dichromate.
All these processes provide a protective film, and parts so treated must be
handled carefully to avoid damaging the film. The aviation maintenance
technician is not usually required to apply the more complicated
treatments because they require equipment not generally available in the
field. Usually, such treatments are applied by manufacturers and large
overhaul bases.
Magnesium is usually treated with a chrome-pickle or sodium-
dichromate process. These processes produce an excellent protective film
that can be repaired by brushing chromic-acid solution on damaged areas.
Steel parts are protected by cadmium plating, chrome plating, or
phosphate processes such as Parkerizing, bonderizing, parco lubrizing, or
granodizing. These processes effectively protect the surface from
oxidation, and the parts may be painted over after preparation as specified
by the manufacturer of the product applied.
Cadmium Plating
Cadmium plating is a nonporous, electrolytically deposited layer of
cadmium that offers high corrosion resistance for steel. Plating is done per
U.S. Military Specification MILP-416A. Three types of cadmium plating
are considered in this specification:
Type II. This type consists of Type I plating followed by a chromate treatment.
Type II plating is a light to dark gold color. It has improved corrosion resistance.
Procurement specifications for most aircraft now specify Type II plating.
Anodizing
A finish produced by anodizing, applied to aluminum by an acid-plating
process, hardens the surface, reduces porosity, increases abrasion
resistance, and has high dielectric strength. Anodized aluminum can be
dyed almost any color. U.S. Military Specification MIL-A-8625R covers
three types of anodizing:
Type I. Chromic anodize coating will vary from a light to a dark gray color
depending on the alloy. This coating is given a chromate treatment to seal the
surface.
Type II. Sulfuric anodize coating is the best coating for dying. Nondyed coating
will have a dull yellow-green (gold) appearance when sealed with a chromate
treatment.
Type III. Hard anodize coating can be used as an electrical insulation coating or
as an abrasion-resisting coating on devices such as hydraulic cylinders and
actuating cams.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. How is aluminum alloy marked for identification?
2. What is the difference between sheet metal and metal plate?
3. How is a cast material converted to a wrought material?
4. What are the disadvantages to continuous-roll forming?
5. What is the difference between die drawing and extrusion?
6. What is meant by heat treating?
7. What is meant by solution heat treatment of aluminum alloy?
8. What is artificial aging?
9. How is maximum hardness attained in carbon steel?
10. What is meant by tempering of steel?
11. Describe how case hardening of steel is accomplished.
12. Explain the purpose of precipitation heat treatment.
13. Compare the heat treatment of magnesium with that of aluminum alloy.
14. What precautions must be observed in heating magnesium?
15. Explain the principles of hardness testing with typical testers.
16. How are hardness testers calibrated?
17. What is meant by nondestructive testing?
18. If a part is suspected of having cracks approximately perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis, what type of magnetization should be employed?
19. How is penetrant inspection accomplished?
20. What is the principle of ultrasonic inspection?
21. How can dissimilar-metal corrosion be prevented?
22. What is the cause of intergranular corrosion?
23. What should be done to repair corrosion where no appreciable damage has
occurred?
24. How should corrosion be removed from aluminum alloys?
25. What precaution must be taken when cleaning aluminum alloys that have been
anodized?
10
Standard Aircraft
Hardware
INTRODUCTION
In the design, production, and maintenance of aircraft, space vehicles, or any other
device for which specific quality and performance requirements are established, it is
necessary to select standards and develop specifications to ensure that the aircraft or
other device will meet its requirements. Generally speaking, standards and
specifications establish quality, size, shape, performance, strength, finish, materials
used, and numerous other conditions for aircraft and their components. Because of
the almost infinite number of sizes, shapes, and materials involved in mechanical
devices, a wide variety of standards and specifications have been developed covering
hardware, metals, plastics, coatings, nonmetallics, and manufactured components.
In order to provide measures of uniformity, the military services, technical societies,
manufacturers, and other agencies have attempted to establish uniform standards
that are universally acceptable for particular materials, products, dimensions, and
other items.
This chapter is primarily concerned with the use of such standards for parts known
as hardware. Standard aircraft hardware includes such items as fastener assemblies,
control-cable fittings, fluid-line fittings, and electrical-wiring components. Fluid-line
fittings are covered in Chapter 12 of this text, and wiring components are covered in
other texts.
A listing of all the aircraft hardware for fasteners, cables, and miscellaneous
applications would require a publication much larger than this text. The hardware
covered in this chapter has been chosen as being representative of the types of
hardware that you will encounter and that will also be found on a large number of
aircraft. Much of the information in this chapter relates to standards and designation
codes. Learning this information will enable you to use the technical information
available for hardware not covered in this text.
The emphasis in this chapter will be on the identification and the function of various
types of hardware items. It is not practical to provide you with specific instructions
relating to the installation of all types of fasteners and other items of hardware that
you may encounter. In other texts, specific information is given relating to the items of
hardware involved in particular operations. For example, the installation of rivets is
discussed in the structural-repair section of the text Aircraft Maintenance and Repair.
It is very important that all items be installed or applied in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions. Numerous items of hardware apply only to certain makes
and models of aircraft and should be handled as specified by the manufacturer of the
product.
STANDARDS
A standard is variously defined as (1) something established for use as a
rule or basis of comparison in measuring or judging capacity, quantity,
content, extent, value, quality, and so forth; (2) a level or grade of
excellence; and (3) any measure of extent, quality, or value established by
law or by general use or consent.
In the normal performance of their duties, technicians encounter an
extensive array of standards establishing the characteristics of the
materials and components that they will use from day to day in repair and
maintenance work. Among these standards are AN (Air Force and Navy),
AND (Air Force-Navy Aeronautical Design), MS (Military Standard),
NAS (National Aerospace Standard), NAF (Naval Aircraft Factory), and
AS (Aeronautical Standard).
Fluid-line (hydraulic) fittings manufactured before World War II were
manufactured to AC (Air Corps) standards. Some of these fittings may
still be in use on old aircraft. All fittings are currently manufactured to
meet AN or MS standards.
The most widely used standards for aircraft hardware are AN and MS.
These standards have been established by the military to ensure the quality
and uniformity of hardware acquisitions. Items manufactured in
accordance with these standards are not limited to military use and are
found in all classifications of aircraft. Examples of AN parts are shown in
Fig. 10-1, and MS parts are shown in Fig. 10-2.
In recent years, all items approved for military applications have been
manufactured according to MS drawings and procedures. Many former
AN parts are now produced as MS parts; for example, the universal-head
rivet listed under AN470 is now manufactured under MS20470.
Hardware items not used for military aviation but which have been
proven satisfactory by the aerospace industry may be given an NAS
designation.
In addition to items produced under these standards, manufacturers
often design their own hardware items, which are given manufacturers’
part numbers. Many such parts may be identical, or almost identical, to
standard parts. The technician must be careful to ensure that only the
specified approved parts are installed. If the manufacturer specifies the
item by a “standard” part number, then any part meeting that standard can
usually be installed.
The NAF standards are those developed and approved for use by the
Naval Aircraft Factory. Items or parts manufactured under these standards
are almost all superseded by AN or MS standards.
AND standards are generally of more interest to the engineer than the
technician because they are primarily standards for design.
AS standards have been established by the Society of Automotive
Engineers (SAE). They include design standards, parts standards, and
specifications that have not been assigned AMS (Aeronautical Materials
specifications) numbers. Materials manufactured under AMS
specifications are often required for use on civil aircraft by the FAA; for
example, Grade A fabric used for covering aircraft is designated
AMS3806.
Table 10-1 lists a few of the AN, MS, and NAS numbers and the items
to which they apply. This listing is only a sample, and it should be
understood that there are hundreds of items covered by these standards.
The agency for which the aircraft maintenance technician works should
have complete listings among its technical publications.
Industry Standards
In addition to the standards previously described, industry organizations
have also developed standards and specifications that are not necessarily
covered by other standards. The American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM) is one of the more active organizations in the
establishment of material standards.
The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is a federation of
other “standard-setting” organizations. Its function is to serve as a
clearinghouse for standards. When a standard is established by the ANSI,
the item standardized is generally accepted by all groups concerned with
the particular item.
One of the leading organizations concerned with standards for iron and
steel products is the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI). Standards
established for most iron and steel products are designated by AISI
numbers. Many iron and steel products are also covered by standards
issued by the SAE and ASTM. Other steel and iron products are
standardized by the Alloy Casting Institute (ACI), the Investment Casting
Institute (ICI), the Gray Iron Founders’ Society (GIFS), the Steel
Founders’ Society of America (SFSA), and the Metal Powder Association
(MPA).
The SAE, ANSI, and ASTM are concerned with almost all the materials
used in the aircraft field. Other organizations concern themselves with
limited fields, such as iron and steel, nonferrous metals, plastics and
rubber, nonmetallics, and finishes and coatings.
SPECIFICATIONS
A specification may be defined as a particular and detailed account or
description of an item; specifically, it is a statement of particulars
describing the dimensions, details, or peculiarities of any work about to be
undertaken, as in architecture, building, engineering, or manufacturing. A
specification also sets forth the standards of quality and performance that a
particular aircraft or aircraft component must meet to be acceptable for the
purpose intended. Products of many types are manufactured according to
specifications and then tested to ensure that the specifications are met.
Military specifications
Of concern to persons working in the aircraft field are the frequently
encountered military specifications for materials and products. Such
specifications are designated MIL followed by a letter and a number. For
example, the specification for standard aircraft cable, 7 by 19, carbon
steel, is MIL-C-5424. MIL is the abbreviation for military. C is the first
letter of the first word in the title of the specification (cable), and 5424 is
the basic serial number. The number could be followed by a letter, which
would indicate a revision in the basic specification.
A few of the products produced to an MIL specification that the
technician may encounter are listed in Table 10-2.
FAA specifications
The FAA requires all aircraft, aircraft engines, and propellers to be
certificated. As part of the certification process, specifications covering all
parts and components of the aircraft are developed. These specifications
may include reference to parts built under AN, MS, or NAS standards.
Replacement or modification parts for a certificated aircraft must be one
of several types:
THREADED FASTENERS
Hardware items used to fasten two or more parts together are called
fasteners. Fasteners are essential to the structural integrity of the aircraft.
It is essential that the aircraft technician be able to determine that the
proper fastener is or has been used. Threaded fasteners allow parts to be
taken apart and reassembled as necessary. In most cases, threaded
fasteners are reusable.
Threaded fasteners, for the purposes of this chapter, consist of bolts,
nuts, and other associated items, such as washers or locking devices.
Designation Codes
All standard hardware will have a designation code that identifies the
basic item and its dimensions, materials, and special features. The code
will usually relate to an AN, MS, or NAS standard. In some cases the
manufacturer may use its own code to supplement the standard. While a
code may look quite complex, most consist of a meaningful assortment of
letters and numbers. The technician must have some knowledge of the
basic part (bolt, screw, rivet) to develop a full understanding of the code.
The code structure for a few common items should be committed to
memory. Because of the number of items of standard hardware, it will be
necessary in many cases for the technician to make reference to technical
literature or distributors’ catalogs.
The term dash number is frequently used when discussing designation
codes. This comes from the practice of separating the basic parts of the
code with dashes (-). For example, in a code such as AN4-16, the AN4
designates the item and the first size, usually the diameter of the item. The
-16 would give an indication of the length. It is possible for some
hardware to have several dash numbers. In some designations, the dash
may be replaced with a letter or a number to designate some special
condition, such as AN4H16 or AN4H-16.
Figure 10-4 shows some of the dimensions that are applied to screw
threads. Threads are classified as internal and external depending upon
their application. The major diameter of an external thread is the
diameter measured across the thread crest. The minor diameter is the
diameter at the root of the thread. For internal threads, the major diameter
applies to the root and the minor diameter to the crest. For a given size, the
major and minor diameters will be the same for both the internal and
external threads. Pitch diameter is a standard value for a given thread size
and is approximately halfway between the major and minor diameter.
FIGURE 10-4 Thread dimensions.
The lead of a screw refers to the distance that the screw will advance
into another threaded object with one revolution. This is the same as the
pitch, or the distance between crests, for most threads. Most threads are
described in terms of the number of threads per inch (tpi) or the number
of crests in a length of 1 inch. It should be apparent that tpi and pitch are
related, in that the reciprocal of tpi (1/tpi) equals pitch.
Unified national threads are made in two series, unified national fine
(UNF) and unified national coarse (UNC). The basic difference for these
two series is in the number of threads per inch for a given diameter. For
example, a -in-diameter coarse-thread bolt (UNC) will have 20 threads
per inch, while a in fine-thread bolt (UNF) will have 28. A discussion of
the advantages and disadvantages of coarse or fine threads is beyond the
scope of this chapter.
Threaded aircraft fasteners larger than in diameter are dimensioned by
fractions of an inch. Those smaller than in are dimensioned by screw
sizes. The AN3 ( -in diameter) bolt used for aircraft is an exception to
this practice. Machine-screw sizes, shown in Table 10-3, range from 0, the
smallest, to 12, the largest. It should be noted that the dimension of a No.
10 machine screw is 0.190 in, or very close to in (0.1875 in). The screw
threads for a bolt that has in diameter will use the same threads
specified for a No. 10 machine screw. Screw-thread sizes may be better
visualized by remembering that a No. 10 screw has approximately in
diameter and that a No. 5 screw has in diameter. The technician will
encounter extensive use of No. 8- and No. 10-sized screws in aircraft
maintenance.
In Table 10-3, the number of threads per inch for both UNC and UNF is
shown for the various sizes. Technicians will find that their work is
enhanced by a knowledge of the threads per inch for the common sizes.
External threads are usually cut with a die. Some dies are adjustable so
that the depth of the thread can be slightly varied. This will allow the
tightness, or fit, of the thread to be varied. Internal threads are cut with a
tap. Before using the tap, a hole must be drilled for the tap to go into. The
drill used for this is called the tap drill. The tap drill must be at least as
large as the minor diameter. Tap drill sizes are given in Table 10-3.
Threads may also be cut on machine tools or formed by rolling.
The fit between internal and external threads has been standardized into
five classes ranging from Class 1, loose, to Class 5, tight. Aircraft bolts
use a Class 3 thread, while aircraft screws may use either a Class 2 or 3
thread.
Figure 10-5 shows a code used to specify screw threads. The letters
designate it as unified national coarse or unified national fine, followed by
the diameter expressed as either a screw size or a fraction of an inch.
Following a dash is the number of threads per inch. A second dash
number, from 1 to 5, specifies the class of thread fit. A letter A following
the class of fit indicates an external thread, and a B indicates an internal
thread.
Bolts
A bolt is designed to hold two or more parts together. It may be loaded in
shear, in tension, or both. Bolts are designed to be used with a nut and to
have a portion of the shank that is not threaded, which is called the grip.
Machine screws and cap screws have the entire length of the shank
threaded.
The dimensions used for a bolt are shown in Fig. 10-6. Bolt sizes are
expressed in terms of diameter and length. The diameter is the diameter of
the shank, and the length is the distance from the bottom of the head to the
end of the bolt. The grip length should be the same as the thickness of the
material being held together. The grip length can be determined by using a
reference chart for AN bolts.
General-Purpose Bolts
An all-purpose structural bolt used for both tension and shear loading is
made under AN standards 3 through 20. The bolt diameter is specified by
the AN number in sixteenths of an inch. For example,
AN3 in diameter
AN11 in diameter
AN3-7 in long
AN3-15 1 in long
The lengths stated will be nominal; the actual length may be from to
in longer than shown.
The bolts in the AN3 to 20 series were designed for use with a
castellated nut and cotter pin. The standard bolt has a hole drilled in the
shank for a cotter pin. If self-locking nuts are used, a plain or nondrilled
shank should be used. To specify a bolt with a plain shank, the letter A is
placed after the dash number. For example,
The standard bolt is made of alloy steel (2330). AN all-purpose bolts are
also available made from aluminum alloy and corrosion-resistant steel. To
specify aluminum alloy, the letters DD are inserted in front of the length
designation. Corrosion-resistant steel is specified by the letter C. For
example,
Close-Tolerance Bolts
Clevis Bolts
Clevis bolts (AN21 through 36) are designed only for shear-load
applications. The slotted, domed head results in this bolt often being
mistaken for a machine screw. Closer examination (see Fig. 10-9) reveals
that, unlike a machine screw, it has only a relatively short portion of the
shank threaded. Since it will only be loaded in shear, a thin “shear” nut can
be used. Use of this design provides more clearance for moving parts at
each end than with a regular bolt-and-nut combination. The clevis bolt is
made of alloy steel with an identifying cross on the head. The threaded
shank is drilled for a cotter pin unless the letter A appears after the dash
number in the designation code.
A large number of bolts are produced under MS and NAS numbers. These
include high-strength bolts, high-temperature bolts, and internal-
wrenching bolts (shown in Fig. 10-10). The standards for these bolts will
have a designated code for identification. The particulars of these codes as
well as the bolt applications may be found in various technical
publications relating to MS and NAS standards and in hardware-
distributor catalogs.
Nuts
Nuts are used to hold bolts in place and to provide the necessary clamping
force to make a strong joint. The strength of a bolted joint depends upon
the bolt and the nut being tightened to a specified torque. To ensure that
the torque is maintained, various means are used to “lock” the bolt and the
nut together. Nuts are locked, or safetied, to the bolt by several means.
One method involves mechanically locking the two together with safety
wire or a cotter pin. A second method is to cause adequate friction
between the threads of the nut and the bolt to, in effect, lock them together.
The amount of friction can be increased in several ways. One way is by
the use of a spring-type lock washer. A second way is the use of a second
nut on the bolt, called a check nut. A third way is to use a nut with special
design features that cause an increase in friction.
The designation code for nuts includes information similar to that for
bolts: the basic part, the size, the material, and the thread size.
The nut designed for use with AN bolts is the AN310 castellated nut,
shown in Fig. 10-11. The AN310 nut is shaped for a cotter pin to be used
to mechanically lock the nut and bolt together. The standard material for
the AN310 nut is alloy steel; aluminum and corrosion-resistant steel are
also used. The size of the AN310 nut is specified with a dash number that
is the same as the number of the bolt it fits. The type of material is
designated with the letter D before the dash number for aluminum, the
letter C for corrosion-resistant steel, and no letter for steel. For example,
AN310-5 is a steel-castellated nut for a -in-diameter bolt. All AN310
nuts have UNF Class 3 threads.
Similar to the AN310 nut is the AN320 shear nut. The AN320 shear
nut is designed for use with a cotter pin but is only about one-half to two-
thirds as thick as the AN310. It is designed for use with the clevis bolt.
The code for the AN320 is the same as for the AN310. The shear nut is
made in dash numbers from 1 to 20 (-1 for No. 6 and -2 for No. 8
machine-screw sizes). AN320 nuts are made only with fine threads.
The AN315 plain nut is shown in Fig. 10-11. The name is very
descriptive, as the AN315 has no special features. Plain nuts are available
with either left-hand (counterclockwise to tighten) or right-hand
(clockwise to tighten) threads. The code for size and material is the same
as for the AN310. Right-hand or left-hand thread is designated with an L
or an R following the dash number. For example,
AN315C6L Plain nut, left-hand thread for a -in bolt from stainless steel
Standard aircraft hardware normally has right-hand threads. Plain nuts are
often used on control rods and wires, which have right-hand threads on
one end and left-hand threads on the other. This arrangement of threads
allows the rod or wire to be adjustable in length.
The plain nut can be locked with a lock washer or a check nut. The
AN316 check nut is a thinner version of the plain nut. To lock the plain
nut, the check nut is tightened against it. This loads the plain nut so that
the bolt and nut threads are pushed tightly together. The identification
code for the check nut is the same as for the plain nut, including the
designation of right-hand and left-hand threads.
Self-Locking Nuts
Self-locking nuts are made with a nonmetallic insert or with the top two or
three threads distorted. As the bolt screws into the nut and encounters the
insert or the distorted threads, a downward force is placed on the nut. The
force removes all the axial play between the threads of the nut and the bolt
and creates adequate friction to “lock” the nut.
Self-locking nuts are made in both coarse- and fine-thread types. The
type of thread is designated in the identification code by listing the size
and number of threads per inch as the dash number. A -in bolt (-4) and a
No. 4 machine screw will both have dash numbers starting with 4. The
technician must use the number of threads per inch to designate the correct
size (see Table 10-3). For example,
Earlier in this chapter it was stated that a -in bolt uses a No. 10 machine-
screw thread. The self-locking nut used with an AN3 bolt will have a dash
number of 1032 (No. 10 screw, 32 threads per inch).
One of the first self-locking nuts was the AN365 (see Fig. 10-11),
which uses a nonmetallic insert to provide the locking force. Original
inserts were of an elastic, fibrous material, giving the nut the name of fiber
locknut or elastic-stop nut. Current nonmetallic inserts are made from
nylon. In turning through the insert, the bolt does not cut threads but
forces its way into the elastic material. As previously mentioned, the force
required to “push” through the insert removes all axial play and locks the
nut and bolt together. As long as the insert material retains its elasticity,
the nut may be reused. The AN364 nut is a shear-nut version of the
AN365. The AN364 is used with clevis pins or in other applications where
the bolt is loaded primarily in shear. The nonmetallic insert will soften and
melt under high temperatures. Both the AN364 and the AN365 are limited
to operating temperatures below 250°F. Materials for locknuts include
steel, aluminum, and brass. The letters D and B before the dash number
designate aluminum and brass as the material. For example,
Standards for AN364 and AN365 nuts have been superseded by MS20364
and MS20365. The material and size designations of the code remain the
same.
The need for a nut to operate in higher temperatures resulted in the
development of the AN363 metallic locknut. The locking action in these
nuts is caused by slightly distorting the top threads of the nut. As the bolt
is screwed into these threads, a downward force is placed upon the nut,
pushing it against the bolt threads and holding it tight. The AN363 nut is
usable to 550°F [288°C]. The AN363C, made of corrosion-resistant steel,
can be used up to 800°F [427°C]. The standard for AN363 has been
superseded by MS20363. The size designation is the same as that used for
AN365 nuts.
Two types of lightweight, self-locking nuts usable to 450°F [232°C]
have been developed under NAS1291 (MS21042) and NAS679A
(MS21040). The NAS1291 is an all-metal hexagon design. An identifying
feature is that the wrench size is much smaller than that used on
conventional nuts. For example, an AN310-4 uses a -in wrench; an
NAS1291 for a -in bolt will use a -in wrench. The NAS679A is of
conventional size but has been stamped to shape. Both of these nuts have
the threads slightly distorted to provide the self-locking force.
Federal Aviation Regulations prohibit the use of self-locking nuts on
any bolt subject to rotation in operation, unless a nonfriction locking
device is used in addition to the friction lock.
Plate Nuts
Nuts which are made to be riveted in place in the aircraft are called plate
nuts. Their purpose is to allow bolts and screws to be inserted without
having to hold the nut. Self-locking plate nuts are made under a number of
standards and in a variety of shapes and sizes. Figure 10-12 shows an
AN366 two-lug plate nut with a nonmetallic insert. Also shown is an
NAS680A lightweight, all-metal, 450°F [232°C] plate nut.
Washers
Washers serve up to three functions when used with a bolt and a nut. One
is to protect the material being fastened from being marred or crushed. A
second is to take up any excess grip length on the bolt and to allow the nut
to tighten before reaching the ends of the threads. The grip length of the
bolt should be equal to but never less than the thickness of the metal.
Since bolts vary in length by eighths of an inch, the grip length will
usually be slightly longer than the thickness of the material. This extra
length is compensated for by adding washers. A third function of a washer
is to provide a locking force between the nut and the bolt.
The AN960 flat washer is a general-purpose washer for use under the
heads of bolts or nuts. The AN960 is available in cadmium-plated steel,
corrosion-resistant steel, or aluminum. This washer is made in two
thicknesses, regular and light, to provide more variation in the positioning
of a nut on the threads. The thin washer is one-half the thickness of the
regular washer. The AN960 washer is sized by the screw or the bolt that it
fits. The dash number for a washer to be used with a screw is the same as
the screw size. For use with an AN bolt, the dash number for the diameter
of the bolt followed by 16 (e.g., 416, 516) is used. The exception is the
AN3 bolt, which uses a -10 washer. Material designation is similar to that
for nuts. A washer from the light, or thin, series is designated by placing
the letter L after the dash number. For example,
The AN970 large-area flat washer was designed to be used with bolts
in wood structures. Figure 10-14 shows an AN970 washer for an AN4 bolt
compared to an AN960 washer for an AN8 bolt. The large area of the
washer spreads the clamping force over a larger area and keeps the
relatively soft wood fibers from being crushed. Although originally
designed for wood, the AN970 will work equally well in any installation
of a similar nature. Since the AN970 is only made in sizes for AN bolts,
the dash number of the size code will be the same as that for the bolt. For
example, AN970-5 is a steel large-area washer for an AN5 bolt.
Lock washers are made in two designs. The AN935 split-ring lock
washer is made of a twisted piece of steel. As the nut turns on the thread,
the steel is flattened. The spring action of the steel provides the friction
force to keep the nut tight. The size code for the AN935 standard uses the
same dash number scheme as for AN960 washers. The AN935 standard
has been superseded by an MS35338 standard. The size in the MS35338
code is given by a sequential number. For example,
Cotter Pins
Cotter pins are used to lock castellated nuts onto drilled bolts or to secure
plain-shank pins in a hole. Figure 10-16 illustrates the proper use of cotter
pins. AN380 is the standard for cadmium-plated steel cotter pins, with
AN381 being the standard for those made of corrosion-resistant steel. The
size of cotter pins under the two standards are designated by two dash
numbers. The diameter of both types is expressed in thirty-seconds of an
inch. The second dash number for the AN380 gives the length in quarters
of an inch. The length for AN381 cotter pins is given in sixteenths of an
inch. Both standards for cotter pins have been superseded by a combined
standard, MS24665. Diameter, length, and type of material are represented
by a single series of sequential numbers under MS24665 specifications.
For example,
The size of cotter pin to use with AN3, 4, and 5 bolts is the AN380-2-2
( by in). AN380-3-3 cotter pins ( by in) are used for AN6, 7, and 8
bolts.
Safety Wire
Safety wire is used in some cases to lock castellated nuts to drilled bolts or
to secure a bolt with a drilled head. Stainless-steel safety wire is made in
accordance with standard MS20995. The size of the safety wire is
specified by a dash number representing the diameter of the wire in one-
thousandths of an inch. Safety wire is available in diameters of 0.021,
0.025, 0.035, 0.041, and 0.051 in. The designation code contains the letter
C to indicate that the material is corrosion-resistant steel. For example,
MS20995-C41 is 0.041 stainless-steel safety wire. Safety wire is usually
purchased in 5-lb spools or 1-lb dispensing packages.
Aircraft Screws
Aircraft use a large number of machine screws and self-tapping screws.
Screws are used to fasten inspection panels, cowling, fairings, and similar
components not requiring high-strength fasteners. Screws are designed to
be installed into threaded objects. On aircraft, they are used with plate nuts
or regular AN nuts.
A screw has the shank threaded all the way to the head, as can be seen
in Fig. 10-17. Most machine screws specified for aircraft have coarse
threads with a Class 2 fit. An exception is the No. 10 screw, which has a
fine thread compatible with nuts used for AN3 bolts. The common screws
used for aircraft are the 6-32, 8-32, and 10-32, all three having the same
32 tpi. AN standards exist for Nos. 6 and 8 fine-thread screws, and some
of these may be encountered by the technician.
Structural Screws
Certain machine screws are made from alloy steel and have a portion of
the shank with no threads, thus providing a grip length. These screws are
known as structural screws and are used in a manner similar to a bolt.
Structural screws include the AN509 (100° flat head), the AN525 (washer
head), and the MS27039 (pan head). The AN525 is called a washer-head
screw because the head shape appears to have a washer on it. The AN509
standard has been superseded by MS24694. Structural screws have a grip
length that must be considered in choosing screw length and that is part of
the designation code.
Screw Designations
AN screws use two dash numbers to indicate screw size. The first number
is the screw diameter (6, 8, 10), and the second gives the length in
sixteenths of an inch. The letter R before the second dash number
designates a recessed (Phillips) head. The letter B, C, or D before the first
dash number reveals the material to be brass, corrosion-resistant steel, or
aluminum.
Some AN standards have been superseded by MS standards. The MS
standards use sequential numbers to designate size, similar to the system
described earlier for cotter pins. Because of the simplicity of the AN code,
it is still in widespread use. For example,
Self-Tapping Screws
NONTHREADED FASTENERS
With the exception of pins, the fasteners covered in this section are not
designed to be taken apart. To disassemble parts held together with these
systems requires the destruction of the fastener.
Pins
Metal pins of various shapes are used in certain locations in aircraft where
their characteristics make their use beneficial. A flat-head pin, taper pin,
and roll pin are shown in Fig. 10-20.
A flat-head pin, also called a clevis pin, for use in aircraft is covered
by MS20392. Pins of this type are frequently used to join rod ends to bell
cranks, to link secondary-control-cable terminals to control arms or levers,
and to perform similar tasks where the control is not in continuous
operation. This type of pin is installed with the head up to reduce the
possibility of its dropping out if the cotter pin comes loose through wear.
The pin is safetied with a cotter pin or safety wire.
A taper pin is designed to carry shear loads in a situation where a rod
and a tube are telescoped or where two tubular members of different
diameters are telescoped to form a rigid joint. Since the pin is tapered, it
will eliminate all play in the joint when properly installed. The most
satisfactory type of taper pin is threaded on one end so it can be secured
with a taper-pin washer and a shear nut. The length and diameter of a taper
pin are critical for any particular installation because a pin of the wrong
size will not secure the joint in a rigid condition.
The roll pin is a split tube made of spring steel and chamfered at the
ends. The split extends the full length of the pin on one side. When the pin
is driven into an undersized hole, the pin reduces in diameter just enough
to enter the hole. Since the pin is normally larger than the hole, when
compressed in the hole it will maintain strong pressure against the sides of
the hole, thus keeping it securely in place. It can best be removed with a
pin punch.
Rivets
Rivets are metal pin-type fasteners designed primarily for shear-type
loads. Thousands of rivets are used in aircraft to join sheet-metal skins and
to fasten the skin to the aircraft structure. Rivets are fastened in place by
forming, or upsetting, a second head on the end of the shank. As the
rivet’s upset head is being formed, the entire shank of the rivet swells in
diameter and completely fills the hole. With the hole filled, all play
between the rivet and the sheet metal is eliminated, forming a very tight
joint.
The majority of the rivets for aircraft are made of aluminum-alloy
material. Aluminum rivets manufactured to AN standards (see Fig. 10-21)
have the following head shapes:
Alloy 1100 Type A rivets are made from pure aluminum. The rivets are
soft and of low strength and are used only for nonstructural purposes.
Alloy 2024 Type DD rivets are the strongest of the aluminum rivets.
Alloy 2024 is too hard to drive, or form, in its normal state. Forming an
upset head creates internal stresses, causing the rivet to crack. The rivets
must be heat-treated and quenched immediately prior to driving.
Immediately after they have been quenched, the material is relatively soft
and can be formed (driven) without adverse effects. The material age-
hardens very rapidly after heat treatment and quenching. In a very short
time the material will again become too hard to drive. If the rivets are
refrigerated after quenching, the cold temperature will slow down the
aging process, allowing more time to elapse before the rivets have to be
re-heat-treated. For this reason, 2024 rivets are called icebox rivets.
Alloy 2017 Type D rivets have approximately 85% of the strength of
2024 rivets. Although not as much of a problem as 2024 rivets, the Type D
rivets are difficult to drive and age-harden rapidly. Larger sizes of these
rivets must be kept refrigerated or must be heat-treated immediately prior
to use.
Alloy 2117 Type AD rivets are made from a modification of the 2017
alloy that allows the rivets to be driven “off the shelf,” that is, at any time.
The AD rivet has 77% of the strength of a 2024 rivet. The 2117 rivet,
identified by a recessed dot, is the “standard” rivet for aluminum aircraft
structures.
Alloy 5056 Type B rivets are used for riveting magnesium sheets.
Magnesium is too hard of a material to be used for rivets. The 2117 rivet,
used for aluminum, has copper as a major alloy, which presents a potential
for corrosion in the proximity of magnesium. Aluminum alloy 5056 has
magnesium as a major alloying element and provides adequate strength for
rivets in magnesium structure.
Some other aircraft-rivet materials and the letter used to identify the
material are
Copper C
Stainless steel F
Monel M
Rivets are sized by the diameter of their shanks and by their length.
Rivets are made in diameters that increase in -in increments. Common
sizes of rivets used for general-aviation aircraft have a - to -in shank
diameter. A protruding-head-rivet length is the distance from the bottom of
the head to the end of the shank. The length of a flush-head rivet is the
overall length of the rivet. The designation code for rivets uses two dash
numbers for the size. The first dash number gives the diameter of the rivet
in thirty-seconds of an inch. The length of the rivet is stated in sixteenths
of an inch by the second dash number.
The complete designation code for rivets includes the basic AN number,
which gives the head shape. This is followed by the letter code indicating
the material. Finally, the size is given by diameter and length. For
example. MS20470AD3-7 is a universal-head rivet of 2117 aluminum
alloy, in diameter, and in length. Most rivets are anodized or given a
zinc-chromate treatment by the manufacturer. The color of the rivet
provides no information in terms of material.
Detailed instructions for rivet installation are given in the text Aircraft
Maintenance and Repair. Information is also available in the FAA’s
Advisory Circular 43.13-1B.
Special fasteners
In addition to the standard nuts, bolts, screws, and rivets, there are many
specialized fasteners that have been developed to join parts or structures
where the more common fasteners cannot meet all of the requirements.
Special fasteners are used for installations where only one side of the
material is accessible. Other specialized fasteners are used because of the
need for high strength. Still others are used because they provide high
strength with less weight than conventional hardware.
Space does not permit descriptions of all the special fasteners available.
A few of the typical fasteners will be described so that you may better
understand the principles behind their design and installation.
Many of the special fasteners use manufacturers’ part numbers even
though they are made to MS or NAS standards. Before installing a special
fastener, the manufacturer’s technical data should be checked to make sure
the fastener is approved for that application. The installation of many
special fasteners requires special tooling and precise handling. It is
essential that the manufacturer’s instructions be followed when working
with this type of hardware. The information on installation in this text is
for general knowledge and should not be used for specific applications.
Blind Rivets
Blind Bolts
A blind bolt, like a blind rivet, is one that can be completely installed from
only one side of a structure or assembly. The blind bolt is used when it is
necessary to use a fastener with high shear strength. The bolt is usually
made of alloy steel, titanium, or other high-strength material. A typical
blind lock bolt is shown in Fig. 10-26, consisting of a nut, sleeve, and
screw. Selecting the bolt of the correct length and diameter for the
particular installation is very important, and the specification sheet for the
product used should be followed closely.
Installation consists of inserting the sleeve in the hole and pulling the
nut toward the sleeve, causing the nut to form a collar against the
workpiece. A core bolt is inserted in the sleeve and torqued as specified in
the installation instructions. There are many sizes, types, and designs of
blind bolts, and the technician must make certain to use the size, type, and
material that has been approved for the repair or replacement that is being
made.
A number of high-strength fasteners have been developed to use for
permanent installations where it is desired to reduce weight and
installation time. Such rivets or bolts can be used only where their use has
been approved by the appropriate authority.
Swaged-Collar Fasteners
The Hi-Shear rivet has a pin made of steel or other high-strength material
and is held in place by a swaged collar of aluminum or other soft material.
The collar is driven onto the die end of the rivet by means of a special tool
in a conventional pneumatic rivet gun. The installation of a Hi-Shear rivet
is shown in Fig. 10-27. Because there is no change in the pin diameter
during installation, the hole size is very critical and may require reaming
to size in many cases. Although the pin is relatively expensive, the
installation tools are not, and the process can be easily learned. As with all
fasteners, it is very important that the correct size be selected for the
particular application.
FIGURE 10-27 Installation of a Hi-Shear rivet. (Hi-Shear Corp.)
Lock bolts are used where permanent assemblies are made because they
save weight, provide strength equivalent to standard bolts, and are easy to
install. They provide excellent shear strength, and the tension lock bolts
provide good tension strength. The tension lock bolts have four collar-
locking grooves, while the shear-type lock bolts have only two locking
grooves. In selecting a lock bolt, the shear and tension loads must be
known.
A Hi-Lok bolt, illustrated in Fig. 10-31, is a threaded fastener but has
features of the swaged-collar type. The installation of the Hi-Lok fastener
is completed on one side of the assembly after the bolt has been inserted
through the hole from the other side. The hexagonal wrench tip of the
installing tool is inserted into a recess in the bolt, which holds the pin
(bolt) while the tool turns the collar (nut). As the collar is tightened to the
designed torque level built into the collar, the hex portion of the collar is
sheared off automatically by the driving tool. This leaves the installation
with the correct amount of torque and preload. A permanent collar has, in
effect, been swaged onto the pin threads without subjecting the structure to
pneumatic pounding, as in the installation of the Hi-Shear rivet.
Installation of the Hi-Lok fastener is much less complex than the lock
bolts just described. The Hi-Lok fastener is made in several styles and
material combinations. While relatively expensive, the installation
procedures are easy.
FIGURE 10-31 Installation of a Hi-Lok fastener. (VOI-SHAN.)
CABLE FITTINGS
Cable fittings are required to connect a cable to control arms, to other
fittings, to turnbuckles, and to other sections of cable. When it is necessary
to attach a cable to a turn-buckle or some other device and swage-type
fittings are not available, the AN100 cable thimble is used. A thimble is
illustrated in Fig. 10-34. It is attached by a swaged Nicopress sleeve.
FIGURE 10-34 Cable thimble.
The Nicopress sleeve and a spliced cable fitting are shown in Fig. 10-
35. The Nicopress sleeve is composed of copper and is pressed (swaged)
on the cable by means of a special tool. The specifications for a properly
installed sleeve are established by the manufacturer.
To install a swaged fitting, the cable is inserted to the full depth of the
barrel in the fitting and is held firmly in this position while the swaging
operation is completed. The swaging can be done either with a hand
machine or with a power swaging machine. The machine presses the metal
of the fitting barrel into the cable to the extent that there is no visible
division between the fitting and the cable if a cross-sectional cut is made
through the swaged portion. After the swaging operation is completed, the
swaged barrel should be checked with a go/no-go gage to make sure that
the proper degree of swaging has been accomplished. It is also advisable
to mark the cable when it is inserted into the barrel of the fitting to make
sure that it does not slip during the swaging operation. It is also good
practice to mark the junction of the terminal or fitting and the cable with
paint to provide a means of detecting slipped cable at later inspections.
TURNBUCKLES
Turnbuckles are used for adjusting the tension of control cables. A
standard turnbuckle consists of a barrel and two steel ends, one end
having a right-hand thread and the other having a left-hand thread. When
the barrel is rotated, the ends are moved together or away from each other.
The end of the barrel having the left-hand threads is marked with a groove
completely around the end of the barrel.
Typical turnbuckles are illustrated in Fig. 10-37. The AN-type
turnbuckle is safetied with safety wire, and the MS-type turnbuckle is
safetied with an MS21256 safety clip. The barrel (MS21251) of this
turnbuckle has a groove in the threads on both ends to receive the straight
end of the safety clip. The end fittings also have the threads grooved for
the clip. The clip locks the threads of the barrel and fittings together to
prevent any rotation.
SAFETY BELTS
Although safety belts for civil aircraft may not be considered as aircraft
hardware, they do involve hardware and must meet rigid standards. For
this reason, they are included in this section.
All seats that may be occupied during takeoff or landing must be
equipped with approved safety (seat) belts. The requirements for safety
belts are set forth in Technical Standard Order C22d, issued by the FAA.
Models of safety belts manufactured for installation on civil aircraft since
November 30, 1960, have had to meet the standards of National
Aerospace Standards (NAS) specification 802, with certain exceptions.
Any safety belt meeting all the requirements of NAS802 may be approved
for use.
The principal difference between the requirements of TSO C22d and
NAS802 is in the strength of the safety-belt assembly. TSO C22d states
that the safety-belt strength need be only 1500 lb [680 kg] for a single-
person belt and 3000 lb [1360 kg] for a two-person belt. NAS802 requires
3000 and 6000 lb [1360 and 2720 kg], respectively. Any safety belt
meeting the requirements of TSO C22d may be used on civil aircraft.
Safety belts must be designed so as to be easily adjustable. Each belt
must be at least 1 in [4.92 cm] wide and equipped with a quick-release
mechanism designed so that it cannot be released accidentally. A safety
belt may be approved for one person or for two adjacent persons,
depending upon its strength. A belt for one person must be capable of
withstanding a load of 1500 lb [680 kg] applied in alignment with the
anchored belt. The quick-release mechanism must be capable of
withstanding this load without undue distortion and must be easily
releasable under a load simulating a person hanging on the belt.
A safety belt approved for two adjacent persons must be capable of
withstanding a load of 3000 lb [1360 kg] applied in alignment with the
anchored belt. The quick-release mechanism must be easily releasable, as
described previously. After a test under extreme load, the release
mechanism must be releasable with a pull of not more than 45 lb [20 kg].
The strength of a safety belt is determined by a test as specified in
NAS802. The static testing of the belt and its attachments must be
accomplished under conditions simulating the belt pulling against a human
body. Each half of an approved safety-belt assembly must have a legible
and permanent nameplate or identification label with the following
information: (1) the manufacturer’s name and address; (2) the equipment
name or type model designation; (3) the serial number and/or date of
manufacture; and (4) the applicable TSO or NAS number.
KEEP CURRENT
It must be emphasized that new standards are constantly being issued and
that older standards become obsolete. Nevertheless, many of the older
standards are still effective, and it is up to the maintenance technician to
use only approved parts and materials. It is always safe to select materials
and parts that are specified in the manufacturer’s overhaul or maintenance
manual for a particular airplane, power plant, or accessory.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define standard.
2. List the meanings of the following standard designations: AC, AF, AN, AS, NAS,
and NAF.
3. What standard has superseded the AN standard?
4. In case of doubt, should a technician install a standard part or a part designated
by the manufacturer’s part number?
5. What does AMS stand for?
6. What is the purpose of the ASTM?
7. Who establishes standards for iron and steel?
8. What does SAE stand for?
9. What is an MIL specification?
10. What agency establishes aircraft, engine, and propeller specifications?
11. What is the purpose of a close-tolerance bolt?
12. What is meant by a UNF Class 3 thread?
13. How is the material of an aircraft-standard nut indicated in the standard
identification number?
14. Describe a castellated nut and how it may be safetied.
15. Explain the principle of a fiber locknut.
16. What is the difference between a standard machine screw and a structural
screw?
17. How are rivet heads marked to indicate material?
18. Describe and explain the purpose of a blind rivet.
19. What is the purpose of a blind bolt?
20. What are the advantages of lock bolts?
21. What is a structural-panel fastener?
22. Explain the purpose of a turnbuckle.
23. Describe a Nicopress sleeve.
24. Give the requirements for a safety belt in an aircraft.
11
Hand Tools and Their
Application
INTRODUCTION
Technicians are often judged by their knowledge of tools and by the manner in which
they care for their tools. A variety of hand tools are necessary for the maintenance of
aircraft. It is essential that the aviation maintenance technician be well informed and
skilled in the use of these tools.
Common hand tools have very broad applications and are used by people with a
wide variety of training and experience. As a result, hand tools are often taken for
granted and misused. Many users are surprised to find that there are many details
affecting the design, construction, and use of the various tools. Tools are designed for
specific purposes and for working with specific types of materials. Using a tool in a
manner for which it was not designed can result in damage to the part or the tool as
well as serious injury to the user. The proper and safe use of hand tools is very
important to the aircraft technician.
Because of the number of tools in existence, this chapter concentrates on the
frequently used hand tools that all technicians would have in their personal tool box.
Specialized tools for use in areas such as sheet-metal fabrication are covered in other
textbooks. The emphasis of this chapter is on the ability to identify different tools and
understand their function.
Examples of specialized rules are shown in Figs. 11-4 and 11-5. The
triangular-shaped engineering rule has six scales graduated in tenths,
twentieths, thirtieths, fortieths, fiftieths, and sixtieths of an inch. The
graduations on the six scales are numbered so that the instrument may be
used to scale down a drawing to any desired proportion of an actual
measurement. The shrink rule shown in Fig. 11-5 is used by those
making patterns for use in casting. The pattern for the part must always be
made a certain proportion larger than the actual part, depending upon the
metal to be cast. This is due to the metal shrinking a small amount as it
solidifies in the mold. A shrink rule made to conform to the shrinkage of
the metal is used in laying out and measuring the dimensions of the
pattern. Many other types of specialized rules exist.
Reading a Rule
The first step in reading a rule is to know the value of the graduations on
the rule. A careful study of the rule prior to taking measurements will
make it possible for the technician to read the measurements quickly and
accurately. Figure 11-6 shows a measurement being taken with a steel rule
graduated in thirty-seconds of an inch. Examination of the drawing will
show that the measurement being taken is in. Observe that the
measurement is taken from the 1-in point on the scale rather than from the
end. This method is more accurate because it is difficult to align and easy
to damage the end of the rule.
FIGURE 11-6 Reading a measurement.
The reading of a rule is not difficult; however, the technician must know
the units into which the rule is divided and also must know the
subdivisions of these units. Figure 11-7 shows four different edges of rules
to illustrate given measurements. The rules shown are subdivided into
sixteenths of an inch. The rule in Fig. 11-7a shows a measurement at the
arrowhead of 1 in. This could also be read 1 in or 1 in. In b, the rule
shows a measurement of 2 in at the arrowhead, in c, in, and in d, 1
in.
FIGURE 11-7 Scale readings.
A decimal rule is shown in Fig. 11-8. The user of this rule should note
that the divisions of the inches are in tenths rather than eighths. If a person
were not careful, it would be easy to read a measurement as 1 instead of
1 . Decimal rules are marked with divisions as small as in.
Calipers
In some cases it is not possible or convenient to take measurements with a
rule, such as when measuring inside and outside diameters or the width of
a slot. A caliper can be used for these measurements. A basic caliper has
two parts that can be moved in relation to one another, allowing different
dimensions to be set. There are many types of calipers. Figure 11-9 shows
two spring calipers commonly used for inside or outside measurement.
The distance between the ends of the legs are adjusted with a screw
working against a spring. The calipers shown require the use of a rule or
other direct reading device to determine the units of measurement.
Calipers can be used as a gage when machining a part to size by first
setting the caliper, with the aid of a rule, to the desired dimension and then
comparing it to the part as work progresses.
FIGURE 11-9 Spring calipers.
Figure 11-11 shows a slide caliper. This device has a scale located on a
beam with one fixed jaw. A second jaw is free to move up and down the
beam. The ends of the jaws are formed so that either inside or outside
measurement can be made. The sliding jaw has two reference lines marked
in and out. The distance between the jaws will be the value on the scale
opposite the appropriate reference line.
Precision Measurement
The ability of the human eye to accurately read the graduations of a scale
is limited. The need for precision measurement as small as ten-
thousandths of an inch has necessitated the development of equipment
capable of this function. Two tools used to obtain more precise
measurements are the micrometer and the vernier scale.
Micrometers
In Fig. 11-15 the scales for four different micrometer readings are
shown. Examine these settings and see if your readings show that a is
0.235, b is 0.036, c is 0.121, and d is 0.762. To develop proficiency in the
use of a micrometer, you should obtain one and practice taking readings
on a variety of small objects. These readings should be compared for
accuracy with similar readings taken by an experienced technician.
FIGURE 11-15 Micrometer scale readings.
The micrometer shown in Fig. 11-12 has a part called the cam locknut
on the frame and a ratchet at the end of the thimble. The purpose of the
cam locknut is to lock the spindle in place after a setting has been made so
that there will be no change in the reading when the micrometer is
removed from the material. The purpose of the ratchet is to provide a
uniform pressure for taking readings. Figure 11-16 shows the micrometer
being used to take a reading on a small part: the pressure of the spindle is
applied through the ratchet. The ratchet and spindle are turned to the left
by means of the ratchet itself, and when the proper pressure is reached, the
ratchet will slip, preventing any further pressure from being applied to the
spindle, providing a uniform pressure for each reading. Special
micrometers are made to take readings which cannot be made with a
standard micrometer. Figure 11-17 shows a micrometer designed to
measure the distance between a concave and a convex surface, such as the
wall thickness of a tube. Figure 11-18 shows a micrometer which has a
60° angle on the spindle and anvil to make it suitable for measuring screw-
thread diameters.
Vernier Scales
To summarize, in reading a vernier scale, look for the line on the vernier
scale that lines up with a line on the main scale. The value of the vernier-
scale line will be the amount to add to your base value. Figure 11-24
represents a micrometer barrel scale (A), a thimble scale (B), and a vernier
scale (C). Determine what value is shown. Your answer should be 0.1724.
FIGURE 11-24 Reading a vernier-scale micrometer.
• Turn the ratchet until the micrometer’s jaws are wide enough to fit the object
you are measuring.
• Place the object being measured between the jaws of the micrometer.
• Turn the ratchet clockwise again until the micrometer’s jaws have a firm
grasp on your object.
• Read the digital display of your micrometer to determine the length, width, or
diameter of the object being measured.
Care of Micrometers
Vernier Calipers
main scale
plus
vernier scale
The vernier caliper is a precision tool that should be cared for in the same
manner as the micrometer.
Gages
The inside micrometer and the vernier caliper can make inside
measurements. However, there are many occasions when they are difficult
to use. Various gages have been developed to be used with micrometer
calipers that in general provide more convenient and accurate inside
measurements.
A set of telescoping gages is shown in Fig. 11-27. The telescoping gage
is shaped like a T, with one fixed arm and one telescoping arm. The fixed
arm is hollow and contains a coiled spring which extends into the
telescoping arm. The gage has a screw-stop arrangement by which the
telescoping arm may be held at any desired point of extension.
To use a telescoping gage, the gage with the correct size range must be
chosen. For example, if a technician wants to measure a hole having a
diameter of 1 in, the to 1 in gage should be selected. The telescoping
arm is depressed, and the knurled spindle is turned to the holding position.
The gage is then inserted into the hole to be measured, and the telescoping
arm is released. When it seems certain that the gage is in the maximum
extended position which the hole will allow, the operator tightens the
knurled spindle to hold the gage in a fixed position. The gage is then
removed carefully and measured with a micrometer. It is best to take more
than one measurement for each dimension, because there is a possibility of
error if the gage is not exactly in the right position when the telescoping
arm of the gage is set.
In using the telescoping gage, the gage must not be forced into any
position, and the holding mechanism must not be screwed in too tightly.
As is true with any precision measuring tool, the telescoping gage must be
handled with care at all times.
To accurately measure holes smaller than in, small-hole gages are
recommended. A set of small-hole gages is shown in Fig. 11-28. Each
gage consists of a small split ball or half ball with an inner shaft upon
which is mounted a cone. When the knurled knob on the end of the gage is
turned, the shaft moves axially and changes the position of the cone in the
split ball. This, in turn, changes the outer dimension of the split ball. When
a technician wants to measure the inside of a small bearing or any other
small hole requiring exact dimensions, a gage is selected which will fit
easily into the hole when the gage is at its smallest dimension. The gage is
inserted into the hole and expanded until it fits the hole firmly but not
tightly. It is then removed, and its largest dimension is measured with a
micrometer. This procedure will provide an accurate measurement of the
hole’s diameter.
FIGURE 11-28 Small-hole gages.
The radius and fillet gage shown in Fig. 11-30 consists of a number of
metal leaves which have been shaped with inside and outside radii of
specific sizes. This gage can be used to check the radius of a part being
fabricated or to check for stretch or other deformations of a part in use. It
can also be used for laying out radii for new parts.
Angular Measurement
The measurement of angles is involved in many aircraft maintenance
operations. Many of these, such as setting propeller angles or checking
control-surface travel, require precision equipment beyond the scope of
this chapter. The general-purpose measurement of angles can be done with
a protractor or a combination square.
A protractor is an instrument for drawing or measuring angles. One
type of protractor used by many technicians is shown in Fig. 11-32. The
combination square, shown in Figure 11-2, consists of a steel rule used
with one of three heads. The square head is used to measure, layout, or
check 90 and 45° angles. This head can also be positioned on the scale to
assist in making a number of repetitive measurements, or it can be used as
a marking gage. The protractor head provides for measuring or drawing
angles. The center head can be used to locate the center of round stock.
FIGURE 11-32 Protractor.
WRENCHES
Wrenches are used for the installation and tightening of threaded fasteners.
They are made in a variety of shapes to meet the requirements of the
fastener, the installation design, or the physical location of the fastener
assembly. The technician should always use a wrench designed for the
operation to be performed. If the wrong wrench is used, the material may
be damaged.
Basic aircraft hardware uses the hexagonal, or six-point, shape for bolt
heads and nuts. Hardware is dimensioned by the distance across flats.
Wrenches are sized by the hardware they fit and are made in fractional and
metric sizes. Table 11-1 lists commonly used fractional wrench sizes. The
bolt and nut sizes shown are for standard AN hardware. Other types of
hardware may use different sizes of wrenches. Metric-sized wrenches and
sockets are shown in Table 11-2.
The wrenches covered in this chapter are designed as hand tools and
should be used in that manner. Specially designed wrenches for use with
power or impact tools are available. Wrenches may be purchased
individually or in sets.
Open-End Wrenches
Open-end wrenches are commonly used for general mechanical work
requiring the tightening or loosening of threaded fasteners. The open-end
wrench is used for both square and hexagonal-headed bolts and nuts. The
illustration in Fig. 11-33 shows that an open-end wrench will make contact
only on two faces of the bolt or nut. For this reason it is essential that the
open-end wrench be precisely made to fit the head. Clearance between the
wrench and the head may result in the wrench slipping and rounding off
the corners of the head. An open-end wrench of good quality will have the
proper fit but can become worn or deformed with use. A wrench that does
not fit tightly should be rejected by the technician.
Box-End Wrenches
The most effective type of wrench to use in turning a nut or the head of a
bolt is the box-end wrench, illustrated in Fig. 11-35. In the illustration,
the 12-point, or double-hex box wrench, is shown. Box-end wrenches are
the most effective wrenches because they apply pressure to six points on
the nut or bolt head. Figure 11-36 shows how two different types of box-
end wrenches apply force to the head of a bolt. Note that both wrenches
apply force at six points equally spaced around the head. For this reason,
the 12-point wrench may be used just as effectively as the 6-point wrench;
however, the 12-point wrench may operate through an angle of 30°,
whereas the hex wrench requires an angle of 60° through which to operate.
This makes the 12-point wrench more useful in close or restricted areas.
The 12-point wrench is required by some specialized aircraft hardware
using 12-point bolt heads and nuts.
Box-end wrenches are among the most useful tools used by the
technician. The box-end wrench should be the preferred wrench to use
whenever possible. Like open-end wrenches, most box-end wrenches will
have two different size ends. Box-end wrenches are made with a variety of
angular offsets between the handle and the end, as shown in Fig. 11-37. A
ratcheting box-end wrench is shown in Fig. 11-38. This wrench makes it
possible to tighten a nut or bolt completely without having to remove the
wrench.
Combination Wrenches
The combination wrench is manufactured with a box-end wrench on one
end and an open-end wrench on the other end. Such a wrench is illustrated
in Fig. 11-39. These wrenches are quite popular with technicians because
they provide the versatility necessary in many mechanical operations.
Flare-Nut Wrenches
The flare-nut wrench (see Fig. 11-40) looks like a box-end wrench with
one side removed, forming a gap. The gap allows the wrench to be slipped
over a tube and placed on a flare nut. The flare-nut wrench provides the
advantages of a box-end wrench in tightening a flare nut. Flare nuts are of
lower strength than standard hardware nuts and are easily damaged by
tightening with an open-end wrench. Flare-nut wrenches are manufactured
in both 6- and 12-point designs.
Allen Wrenches
Set screws and certain aircraft bolts use an internal wrenching head. These
fasteners do not have a hex head but rather a hex shape recessed into the
shank. Tightening these fasteners requires the use of a hex-shaped tool
called an Allen wrench. Most of these wrenches are shaped as an L, as
shown in Fig. 11-43, although T shapes are also available. Allen wrenches
are made in a variety of sizes from 0.028 in to in, as measured across the
flats.
FIGURE 11-43 Allen wrenches. (Proto Tools.)
Socket Wrenches
One of the tools most useful to the technician is the socket wrench. A set
of socket wrenches is shown in Fig. 11-44. Socket sets are made of a
variety of types and sizes of drivers and sockets.
Socket Drivers
Socket wrenches have a square opening which accepts the driving tool.
The basic size of a socket set is determined by the size of the drive. Sets
are made in , and -in drives. Adapters are made to allow different
sizes of sockets and drivers to be used together. The aircraft technician
will make extensive use of the - and -in drive sets. Metric-sized socket
wrenches use standard fractional-sized drivers.
Sockets can be turned, or driven, by a number of tools. These include
the speed handle, the breaker bar, the sliding T-handle, and the ratchet
handle, as shown in Fig. 11-45. The speed handle is used with a socket to
make the rotation of the bolt or nut more rapid than with other types of
handles. The breaker bar and T-handle are used where it is necessary to get
more torque on a bolt, such as to “break loose” a tight nut. The ratchet
handle is used to rotate the socket wrench in a very restricted area where
only a small amount of handle movement is available. The ratchet handle
allows the socket to be left on the head of the bolt or on the nut until it is
completely tightened. Not pictured is a handle best described as a
screwdriver-type handle. This handle is widely used for socket wrenches
in low-torque applications.
Sockets
Sockets are made in a variety of shapes and sizes for use with a given bolt
head or nut size. Figure 11-46 shows a standard socket and a deep
socket. The standard socket and the deep socket are similar in design and
use except for the amount of bolt clearance provided. Figure 11-47 shows
the dimensional difference between the two types of sockets. Both types
pictured are available as either a 6-point or 12-point socket.
Torque Wrenches
A torque wrench includes a measuring device designed to indicate the
twisting force being applied to a nut or a bolt in inch-pounds (in-lb), foot-
pounds (ft-lb), or newton-meters (N ⋅ m). Fig. 11-49 illustrates three
torque wrenches with three different methods for indicating torque. Each
of the torque wrenches is designed to be used with a socket wrench. The
wrench in Fig. 11-49a is a beam-type torque wrench. It has a pointer
which moves across the indicating scale in an amount proportional to the
force exerted by the wrench. The movement of the pointer is caused by
deflection of the spring-steel handle. A torsion-type torque wrench is
shown in Fig. 11-49b. With this wrench the torque is indicated by a small
dial gage attached to the wrench. The gage is actuated by a spring
mechanism in the handle. An adjustable toggle-type torque wrench is
shown in Figure 11-49c. The operator sets the wrench at the desired torque
value with a micrometer-type adjustment on the handle. When the desired
torque is applied to the wrench, the wrench clicks and the handle
momentarily releases. The wrench is capable of applying increased torque
once this point has been reached. Technicians using this type of wrench
must be sure they recognize the release action. This toggle-type wrench
does not have the direct reading capability of the other two torque
wrenches.
FIGURE 11-49 Torque wrenches. (Sears Roebuck & Co.,
Snap-on Tool Corp.)
Torque wrenches are available in a number of ranges, such as 30 to 200
in-lb, 150 to 1000 in-lb, 5 to 75 ft-lb, and 30 to 250 ft-lb. The technician
should choose a wrench that has a range of torque values compatible with
the work he or she is doing. Torque wrenches are precision instruments
and should be handled and stored with care. Torque wrenches must be
calibrated on a periodic basis.
Torque wrenches should be used in every case where the force applied
to a nut or bolt is critical. This is especially true in the assembly of
components in the aircraft engine. Extensions and special attachments are
required for use of the torque wrenches in certain applications. These will
change the effective arm of the wrench, and a correction value must be
calculated to get the correct torque setting. Methods for calculating this
correction are explained in the FAA’s Advisory Circular 4313-1B.
Most state-of-the-art torque wrenches are now digitally operated. They are
used in the same manner as older torque wrenches. To safely and
accurately use a digital torque wrench, the technician must
• Not use extensions, such as a pipe or an iron tube, on the handle of the
wrench.
• Verify the calibration of the wrench if you know or suspect that its capacity
has been exceeded.
• Make sure that the direction switch is fully in the correct position.
Pipe Wrenches
The pipe wrench is used for assembling and disassembling pipes and
fittings. A pipe wrench, illustrated in Fig. 11-50, has jaws fitted with sharp
hardened-steel teeth designed to grip pipes or rods. The wrench is
designed so that when the jaws are adjusted to a pipe and the handle is
pulled forward, the jaw pressure will increase, causing the teeth to grip the
pipe very firmly. The pipe wrench must not be used on any pipe or rod
where the finish must be preserved, because the teeth of the wrench will
mark the surface of the object being gripped. Furthermore, a pipe wrench
will crush thin-walled tubing. It is unlikely that the technician will ever
use a pipe wrench on an aircraft, but she or he will find it useful for other
jobs around the shop. When it is necessary to use a pipe wrench on a
surface that must not be marred, a strap wrench, shown in Fig. 11-51,
should be used.
FIGURE 11-50 Pipe wrench.
Spanner Wrenches
Several different types of spanner wrenches are illustrated in Fig. 11-52.
The first is an adjustable-hook spanner wrench. This wrench is designed
for use with large nuts having notches cut in the periphery into which the
hook may be inserted. With the adjustable hook on the wrench, it is
possible to accommodate several different sizes of nuts. The second
wrench is called a pin-hook spanner wrench. This wrench is designed for
use on nuts having holes drilled in the periphery and works in a similar
manner as the just discussed wrench. The third wrench is an adjustable
pin-face spanner wrench. This wrench is used to turn large nuts which
are recessed flush with the part in which they are installed. Holes are
drilled on the face of such nuts so that an adjustable pin-face spanner
wrench may be used for installing or removing the nut.
FIGURE 11-52 Spanner wrenches.
SCREWDRIVERS
The most frequently used tool for aircraft maintenance is probably the
screwdriver. Hundreds of machine screws and sheet-metal screws are used
in aircraft to hold cowlings, fairings, access panels, and inspection plates
in place. Screwdrivers are made in a wide range of sizes and blade design.
Plain Screwdrivers
A plain screwdriver is shown in Fig. 11-53. When a screw, is driven the
width of the screwdriver blade should not exceed the diameter of the
screw head. If the screwdriver tip is too wide, it will mar the material into
which the screw is being driven. A screwdriver on which the tip has been
rounded or beveled should not be used to drive a screw because there is a
danger that it may slip out of the slot in the screwhead, thus damaging
both the screw and the material into which the screw is being driven. If the
screwdriver tip is found to be worn, it should be replaced or ground to the
shape shown in Fig. 11-54.
Cross-Point Screwdrivers
Screws are manufactured with a number of designs for the driving tool in
addition to the straight slot. A recessed-cross design, known as a Phillips
head, provides a more positive drive than is possible with a straight-slot
screwdriver. The Phillips-head screw has become a virtual standard for
aircraft. The Phillips-screwdriver tip is made with four flutes, as shown in
Fig. 11-57, which fit the recess in the Phillips-head screw. Phillips-
screwdriver tips are made in four sizes, with No. 1 being the smallest and
No. 4 the largest. It is important when using this screwdriver to have the
size which matches the recess in the screw head. Phillips screwdrivers will
wear on the ends, as shown in Fig. 11-58. If this condition exists, the
screwdriver should be replaced.
FIGURE 11-57 Phillips (cross-point) screwdriver. (Snap-on
Tool Corp.)
Special Screwdrivers
To compensate for a variety of tip shapes and sizes, screwdriver sets have
been developed. The set consists of a screwdriver-handled driver with hex-
shaped bits. In addition to the variety of shapes and sizes available in such
sets, the replacement of worn tips is more economical.
The stubby screwdriver is designed for use where longer screwdrivers
cannot be used conveniently. These screwdrivers have different bit
designs, such as standard and Phillips, as shown in Fig. 11-61. In many
installations, screws are placed in a position where they cannot be reached
conveniently with a regular screwdriver. In order to get on a screw placed
in such a restricted position, it is necessary to use an offset screwdriver,
such as the ones illustrated in Fig. 11-62.
FIGURE 11-61 Stubby screwdrivers.
Power Screwdrivers
The use of power screwdrivers has been limited by the cost of electric and
pneumatic units and the need for a power source. Lightweight battery-
powered power screwdrivers have been developed that are an economical
addition to the technician’s tool box. The speed that a powered unit
provides will make the technician’s work more time-efficient. The torque
that a power screwdriver can provide should be controllable to prevent
damage to screw heads from excessive force.
Use of Screwdrivers
It must be emphasized that screwdrivers are designed only for driving
screws and should not be used as pry bars, as chisels, or for any other
purpose which may damage the tool.
PLIERS
The technician will need an assortment of pliers to perform aircraft
maintenance. As with the other tools covered in this chapter, pliers exist in
many different designs for specific functions.
A pair of combination slip-joint pliers is shown in Fig. 11-64.
Combination pliers have jaws capable of gripping flat or round objects.
Most combination pliers have light cutting capability. A slip-joint makes it
possible to enlarge the jaw width. Combination slip-joint pliers are used
for general-purpose holding and gripping. Pliers are sized by their overall
length. Combination pliers are made in sizes ranging from 4 in to almost
10 in.
HAMMERS
As a group of tools, hammers are a strong candidate for the title of most
misused. While primarily designed as a pounding tool, hammers have a
number of designs for different types of pounding as well as different
types of material. The use of the wrong hammer can cause damage to the
material and personal injury to the user.
One method of classifying hammers is by the shape of the peen end.
Peen may be spelled pein or peen; in this text we shall use the spelling
peen. The peen end is the end of the hammer head opposite the face. The
aircraft maintenance technician will use the ball-peen hammer, shown in
Fig. 11-72, frequently. The ball-peen hammer is also called a toolmaker’s
or machinist’s hammer because of its all-around usefulness when working
with metals. The head is made of a tough steel to permit its use in
pounding against other steel parts, such as punches and chisels. The
combination of the flat face and the rounded peen make the ball-peen
hammer useful for a variety of metal-forming tasks. Ball-peen hammers
are sized by the weight of the head. The weights range from 4 oz, for light
work, to as much as 3 lb. A common size used by technicians would be 8
oz.
Soft hammers are made with heads or faces of plastic, rawhide, wood,
brass, copper, lead, or rubber. Soft hammers are designed to apply
moderately heavy blows to various materials, including metals, without
causing damage. For many jobs, a soft hammer will serve as well as a steel
hammer. Soft hammers are used for forming metal, separating tightly
fitted parts, assembling parts where a tight fit is required, removing tight-
fit bolts, and a variety of other jobs. The soft hammer may have
replaceable tips, as shown in Fig. 11-74, or be of construction similar to
the rubber mallet in Fig. 11-75.
Chisels
The chisel is the basic metal-cutting tool. The chisel consists of a steel tool
with a hardened point. The shearing force is usually supplied by a
hammer. The term cold chisel refers to the act of cutting a metal without
having to heat it up. Cutting with a chisel is called chipping.
Chisels are made with four different shapes of cutting edges, as shown
in Fig. 11-76. The cape chisel is normally used for cutting grooves, such
as keyways or slots. The point of the chisel is narrow and has a very short
cutting edge. The diamond-point chisel is ground to a sharp V-edge. It is
used for chipping metal in sharp corners or for cutting V-grooves. The
round-nose chisel is used for cutting rounded or filleted corners. The flat
chisel has a wide cutting edge. It may be used for cutting sheet metal or
comparatively thin bar stock. It may also be used to chip a surface to a
desired shape.
FIGURE 11-76 Types of chisels.
The chisel most commonly used by the technician will be the flat chisel.
The wedge-type cutting action is shown in Fig. 11-77. The cutting angle of
a flat chisel should be sharpened to between 50 and 75°, depending upon
the type of metal. In general, as the material gets softer, the angle should
become sharper (closer to 50°). An angle of 60° is adequate for most
work. The head of the chisel is the end opposite the point. The head is not
hardened and may become “mushroomed,” as shown in Fig. 11-78, during
use. If mushrooming develops, the head should be ground to eliminate the
possibility of injury from flying chips.
Hacksaws
Hand sawing of metal is done with a hacksaw. The hacksaw, as shown in
Fig. 11-79, consists of the frame and the blade. The frame is designed to
hold the blade. It is adjustable for different-length blades and is designed
so that the blade can be installed in any of four positions. The blade can be
compared to a number of small chisels, each cutting or chipping the metal.
The hacksaw blade varies in length, number of teeth, and type of material.
As with all cutting tools, the blade must be harder than the material it is
cutting. Blades are made in various degrees of hardness. A harder blade
will usually cut longer and straighter than a softer, more flexible blade.
The harder blade will also be more brittle and break more easily if it is
twisted while cutting. Some blades are made that have a flexible back with
hardened cutting edges.
Hacksaw blades are made with different sizes of teeth, varying from 14
to 32 per inch. The number of teeth to use depends upon the thickness of
the metal. The teeth must be far enough apart to provide clearance for the
chips to get out. If the clearance is inadequate, the blade will clog with
chips and stop cutting. When cutting thin material, there should be at least
two teeth in contact with the work at all times to prevent the teeth from
breaking. The teeth of hacksaw blades have a set (see Fig. 11-80) that
makes the cut, or kerf, slightly wider than the blade. The purpose of the set
is to provide clearance for the blade as it passes through the metal. The
width of the cut will decrease as the blade wears out during use. A cut
made with a worn blade will be narrower than that required for the teeth of
a new blade to pass through. Thus it is recommended that a new blade not
be used to continue a cut started with a worn blade.
Hand Shears
Aircraft sheet metal can be cut with hand shears. The most commonly
used shears for sheet-metal work are the aviation snips shown in Fig. 11-
81. The snips shown in the figure are a design intended for making
straight-line cuts. Aviation snips are made in two other designs, right
hand and left hand, with curved jaws for curved cuts. The terms right
hand and left hand refer to the relative position of the blades. The design
type can be identified by holding the snips with the tip of the blades
pointing away from your body. The right-hand snips will have the lower
jaw on the right side and vice versa for the left. A common practice among
manufacturers is to have handles that are green on right-hand snips, red on
left-hand snips, and yellow on straight snips.
Making a curved cut with the snips requires that the metal on one side
of the snips be distorted to provide for movement of the tool. In general,
the smaller the radius of the curve, the more the metal will be distorted.
Aviation snips are designed so that the lower jaw will push the metal, on
that side, up and out of the way. Figure 11-82 illustrates the use of both
types of snips to cut a round circle. Note that the direction of cut depends
upon which portion of the metal is to be used and which is scrap. In Fig.
11-82a, the object is to end up with a round disk, and the direction of cut
would be as shown. In Fig. 11-82b, the object is to end up with a square
piece with a round hole, and the direction of cut is the opposite.
Aviation snips are made with serrated teeth on the jaws to provide better
shearing action. If the jaws are damaged or become dull, they should be
sharpened by a specialist or replaced.
Files
Files are used by technicians to cut and shape metal. Files consist of
hardened metal shapes with a number of chisel-like teeth cut into them.
While there are hundreds of file types, the aviation technician needs to
only be familiar with a few general-purpose types. Files are categorized by
size, shape, type of cut, and coarseness of cut. The selection of a file from
these criteria will depend upon the material being filed, the nature of the
cut to be made, the type of finish desired, and the amount of material to be
removed at a given time.
Figure 11-83 shows the names of the parts of a file and how the length
is measured. The tang of the file is the sharp-pointed end and is designed
for a handle. The heel of the file is next to the tang and contains the start
of the teeth. The face of the file is one of the wide, flat sides. The side
opposite the face is called the back. The point of the file is the end
opposite the tang. The length, as shown, is from the heel to the point. Files
vary in length in 2-in increments from 4 to 20 in. Common sizes are 6, 8,
10, and 12 in.
The type of cut refers to the shape of the teeth on the file. Figure 11-84
shows, from left to right, a single cut, a double cut, a rasp cut, and a
curved tooth, or vixen, cut. The single cut has a single series of teeth. The
double cut has a second series of teeth cut at an angle to the first. The first
set of teeth, called the overcut, is deeper than the second set, called the
upcut. In general, a double-cut file will remove metal faster but will leave
a rougher finish than a single cut.
FIGURE 11-84 Types of file-tooth cuts.
The rasp cut has a series of raised, individual teeth. The rasp makes
fast but rough cuts. It is used primarily on soft materials, such as
aluminum and lead, where fast removal of material is desired.
The curved-tooth file has relatively large spaces between the teeth,
which allows the file to be used on soft materials without clogging.
Curved-tooth files will produce a very smooth surface on soft materials,
such as aluminum.
The coarseness of cut, for both single- and double-cut files, is related to
the spacing between the teeth. Six terms used to describe these spacings
are (from most coarse to finest) rough, coarse, bastard, second cut,
smooth, and dead-smooth. The spacing for these cuts is not fixed but is
dependent upon the length of the file. As the files get shorter, the spacing
decreases and the cut becomes finer. For example, a 14-in smooth file may
be more coarse than an 8-in bastard file. The aviation technician will have
the most need for bastard, second-cut, and smooth files.
File Shape
The shape of a file is its general outline and cross section. Many files are
tapered, which means that they decrease in width and/or thickness from
the heel to the point. Files that do not change in cross section are called
blunt files. Figure 11-85 shows several shapes of files. The flat file (a)
has a rectangular cross section that is slightly tapered toward the point in
both width and thickness. The flat file has double-cut teeth on both faces
and on the edges. A hand file is similar to the flat file, with tapered
thickness but uniform width. The hand file also has one safe edge, which
means the edge does not have teeth cut in it. The mill file may be tapered
or blunt but has single-cut teeth and is used where smooth finishes are
desired.
FIGURE 11-85 Different shapes of files.
File Identification
The length of a file and the type of teeth are readily determined by
observation. Most of the manufacturers will stamp the file shape and
coarseness of cut on the heel of the file.
There are three basic ways in which a file can be put to work: (1) straight
filing, (2) draw filing, and (3) lathe filing.
The process of straight filing consists of pushing the file lengthwise
across the metal and applying sufficient pressure to make the file cut.
Draw filing consists of grasping the file at each end and pushing or
pulling it across the work to produce a fine finish. Lathe filing is the
application of the file to a piece of metal turning in a lathe.
Work to be filed should usually be held in a vise. The jaws of the vise
should be covered with soft sheet metal to prevent damage to the work
being filed. The vise should be at approximately elbow height for best
results. If the work is of a heavy nature requiring a great amount of filing,
the vise should be lower, but if it is to be fine, delicate work, it is better for
the vise to be nearer eye level.
Before a file is used, a handle should be installed on the tang. A typical
handle is turned from wood and has a metal ferrule on the end into which
the tang is to be inserted. The metal ferrule prevents the handle from
splitting. The handle is installed simply by inserting the tang into the hole
at the end of the handle and tapping the handle to set the tang into place.
When taking a cut with the file, pressure should be applied only on the
forward stroke. On the return stroke, the file should be lifted from the
work unless the material being filed is soft. In that case the file may be
permitted to remain in contact with the material, but no pressure should be
applied other than that of the file’s weight.
One of the quickest ways to ruin a file is to use too much or too little
pressure on the forward stroke. Different materials require different
touches; in general, just enough pressure should be applied to keep the file
cutting at all times. If allowed to slide over the harder metals, the teeth of
the file rapidly become dull, and if they are overloaded by too much
pressure, they are likely to chip or clog.
Draw filing is used extensively to produce a perfectly smooth, level
surface. A standard-mill bastard file is normally used for draw filing, but
where a considerable amount of stock is to be removed, a double-cut flat
or hand file will work faster. The double-cut file usually leaves small
ridges in the work and consequently does not produce a finished job if a
smooth surface is required. In such cases the double-cut file may be used
for the “roughing down,” and the single-cut mill file is used for finishing.
File life is greatly shortened by improper care as well as by improper
use and improper selection. Files should never be thrown into a drawer or
tool box containing other tools or objects. They should never be laid on
top of each other or stacked together. Such treatment ruins the cutting
edges of the teeth and causes nicks in the edges. Files should be kept
separate, standing with their tangs in a row of holes or hung in a rack by
their handles. They may also be placed in separate grooves made by
attaching strips of wood to a baseboard.
It is important to keep the teeth of a file clean of filings and chips,
which collect as a result of use. After every few strokes, the end of the file
should be lightly tapped on the bench to loosen the metal particles from
the teeth. The teeth of the file should be brushed frequently with a file
brush or card (see Fig. 11-86). To remove stubborn pinnings from the file
teeth, a sharp scorer is used. This tool is made of soft iron and is often
included with the file card. Pinnings are the soft metal particles which
clog the teeth of the file and stick in place so they are not easily removed
by brushing.
Drills
The maintenance technician is often faced with the necessity of boring
accurately sized holes in metal parts in order to make attachments and to
join parts in an assembly. The tool usually used for boring such holes is
the spiral, or twist, drill. This steel drill usually consists of a cylinder into
which spiral grooves or “flutes” have been cut. One end of the drill is
pointed, and the other is shaped to fit a drilling machine.
The principal parts of a drill are illustrated in Fig. 11-87. The illustration
shows the shank, body, flute, land, margin, and lip, or cutting edge.
FIGURE 11-87 Parts of a drill.
The shank of a drill is the part designed to fit into the drilling machine.
It may be a plain cylinder in shape for use in a drill chuck on a drill motor,
drill press, or hand drill. The drill shank may also be tapered for use in
drill presses.
The body of a drill is the part between the point and shank. It includes
the spiral flutes, the lands, and the margin. The body is slightly larger in
diameter at the tip than at the shank, thus causing it to bore a hole with
clearance to prevent the drill from binding.
The point of a drill includes the entire cone-shaped cutting end of the
drill. The point includes the cutting edges, or lips, which are sharpened
when the drill is ground.
The web is the portion of the drill at the center along the axis. It
becomes thicker near the shank. The web may also be defined as the
material remaining at the center of the drill after the flutes have been cut.
The web forms the dead-center tip at the point of the drill. The dead
center is in the exact center of the tip and is on the line forming the axis of
the drill.
Drill Sizes
The lip-clearance angle provides clearance between the cutting lip and
the rest of the bit. The cutting lips are comparable to chisels. To cut
effectively, the area at the back of the lip must be relieved. Too little
clearance results in the drill point rubbing and not penetrating. If the angle
is too large, the cutting lip will be weakened. Because of the shape of the
bit, lip clearance should be increased slightly as the cutting lip approaches
the dead center. If the lip clearance has been correctly ground, the angle
formed by the dead center and the cutting lip should be between 120 and
135°.
The angle and lip of each cutting lip must be equal. If they are not
equal, the dead center will be displaced from the center line of the drill.
The resulting hole will be oversized or distorted.
A properly sharpened drill will not function properly if the correct drill
speed and feed are not used. Drill speed refers to the speed at which the
cutting lips pass through the metal. Cutting speed varies depending upon
the metal being drilled and the metal from which the drill is made. Cutting
speed is stated in terms of feet per minute (fpm). The speed of drill bits is
normally measured in terms of revolutions per minute (rpm). It is
necessary therefore to convert the rpm of a drill bit, sized in fractions of an
inch, to a lip-cutting speed in fpm. A simplified formula for doing this is
Countersinks
Counterbores
The counterbore is also used for spot facing. Spot facing is the process
of cutting a smooth surface around the edge of a hole to provide a square
seat for a bolt head. In this case, the counterbore is permitted to cut just
deep enough to make the desired seat.
Composite Structures
Because glass and carbon fibers are very abrasive, drill bits made from
steel tend to fail or dull after drilling just a few holes. Tungsten carbide
bits last longer but still lose sharpness rapidly. Tungsten carbide bits
coated with polycrystal-line diamond (PCD) tend to stay sharper and last
longer. PCD bits are very expensive and can be easily chipped, however. If
multiple holes are to be drilled at one time, periodic adjustment of the
drilling machinery and setup might be necessary as the drill wears.
Development into drill bits made specifically for composite materials is
ongoing with new and better products being continuously introduced.
Drilling though composite parts can be very different from working
with metals and/or wood. Composites are often bonded to other parts
(aluminum, or titanium) and often the hole must be drilled through both
the metal and composite materials. Because different bits are needed for
each material, it is suggested that drill bits appropriate to the material
being cut be utilized during the process. This requires that different bits be
swapped out when drilling one hole through compound structures. Care
must be taken to keep the drill perfectly aligned and not to enlarge or
damage any previously drilled hole.
Because composite materials are thermal insulators, it is difficult to
remove the heat generated by drilling. Excessive heat build up can damage
the composite structure by degrading the epoxy material. The use of lower
cutting speeds and the possible need for coolant will aid in preventing
damage to the composite material. Because most composite structures are
formed by laminating discrete layers of material, care must also be taken
to ensure that the force and vibration inherent to the drilling process does
not cause any delaminations. Backing plates should be used when drilling
through a composite structure, and excessive tool pressure should be
avoided during the process.
Reamers
A reamer is a cutting tool designed to enlarge a hole, to produce an
accurately sized hole, or to cut a tapered hole. These tools are made in a
wide variety of sizes and styles for a multitude of applications. Figure 11-
91 pictures two types of reamers for hand use. The first reamer pictured is
a standard straight-fluted reamer, and the second is an adjustable, or
expansion, reamer.
To hold small taps for cutting threads, the T-handle tap wrench is used.
This wrench grips the tap firmly and may be turned with one hand. Care
must be taken to hold the handle straight so the tap will be in exact line
with the hole to be threaded. It is advisable to apply some light cutting oil
to the tap when cutting threads in steel or any other hard metal. For large
taps, a larger hand-tap wrench, shown in Fig. 11-93, is used.
The threading of a metal rod with a die mounted in a die stock is shown
in Fig. 11-95. The rod to be threaded is held securely in a vise, and a light
oil is applied to the end. The starting side of the die is placed over the end
of the rod and is turned in a clockwise direction. From time to time the
direction of the die movement is reversed to clear the threads of metal
chips. This same practice is advisable when using a tap to cut threads in a
hole.
PUNCHES
Different punches are made for a variety of purposes, the most common
types being the drift punch, the center punch, the prick punch, and the pin
punch. The drift punch has a long tapered end with a blunt point. It is
normally used for aligning holes for bolts or pins to facilitate installation.
The center punch has a 90° conical point and is used to make an
indentation in metal to mark the location of holes to be drilled and to make
the drill start at the correct point. The prick punch resembles the center
punch in appearance except it has a sharper point. It is used during layout
work to precisely mark center locations. Prick-punch marks should be
enlarged with a center punch prior to drilling. The pin punch has a long,
straight cylindrical end and is used to drive and remove various types of
pins from shafts or other parts. Pin punches are sized by the diameter of
the punch end. Aviation technicians need a minimum set of , and -
in pin punches. Punches are illustrated in Fig. 11-96.
SAFETY EQUIPMENT
The most valuable tool in the tool box is the one that will prevent personal
injury to the individual. These pieces of equipment are also among the
most inexpensive items that the tool box can contain. At a bare minimum,
the technician should have his or her own personal eye protection, hearing
protection, and respirator.
An example of safety glasses for eye protection is shown in Fig. 11-98.
Some personal glasses have hardened, or safety, lenses. If a technician
wants to use personal glasses, it is recommended that clip-on side shields
be purchased to prevent injury from the side.
FIGURE 11-98 Safety glasses.
Tubing Materials
In the early days of aviation, copper tubing was used extensively in
aviation as it was easy to form, bend, and repair. In modern aircraft,
aluminum-alloy, corrosion-resistant steel, or titanium tubings have
generally replaced copper tubing.
Aluminum-alloy tubing made from 1100 H14 ( -hard) or 3003 H14 ( -
hard) is used for general purpose lines of low or negligible fluid pressures,
such as instrument lines and ventilating conduits. Tubing made from 2024-
T3, 5052-O, and 6061-T6 aluminum alloy is used in hydraulic and
pneumatic systems, fuel and oil lines, as well as in general-purpose
systems of low and medium pressures (1000 to 1500 psi).
Corrosion-resistant steel tubing is used extensively in high-pressure
hydraulic systems (3000 psi or more) for the operation of landing gear,
flaps, brakes, and in fire zones. Higher tensile strength of steel permits the
use of tubing with thinner walls; consequently, the final installation weight
is not much greater than that of the thicker wall aluminum-alloy tubing.
Steel lines are commonly used where there is a risk of foreign object
damage (such as the landing gear and wheel well areas) as steel is more
damage resistant than aluminum. Although identification markings for
steel tubing differ, all usually include the manufacturer’s name or
trademark, the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) number, and the
physical condition of the metal.
Titanium tubing is used extensively in transport-category and high-
performance aircraft hydraulic systems for pressures above 1500 psi.
Titanium is 30° stronger and 50° lighter than steel. Cryofit fittings or
swaged fittings are used with titanium tubing. Titanium tubing and fittings
are never to be used with any oxygen system assembly. Titanium alloys
are oxygen reactive, and spontaneous combustion may occur when
titanium comes into contact with pure oxygen.
Material Identification
The basic components of a flared connection are the AN818 nut, the
AN819 sleeve, and one of a number of fittings with a cone to match the
tube’s flare. Fittings commonly used are classified as tube fittings,
universal/bulkhead fittings, and pipe-to-tube (or pipe-to-AN) fittings.
Fittings are specified by AN or MS numbers that identify the function of
the fitting. Table 12-3 lists some common fittings and their function.
Figure 12-7 shows three common tube fittings used to join two or more
tubes.
FIGURE 12-7 Typical fittings for aircraft tubing.
Flared-Fittings Designations
Pipe-to-AN nipples are sized by the tube used on the flared end.
Common fittings have a specified relationship between the size of the tube
and the pipe thread size, as shown in Table 12-5.
High-pressure fluid lines are made of material which is too hard to form
satisfactory flares. Flareless fittings, made to MS standards, are designed
to eliminate the need for a flare on the tube. A sleeve seizes and grooves
the tube as the fitting is tightened, producing a fluid-tight seal.
The flareless tube fitting consists of three units: a body, a sleeve, and a
nut. The body of the fitting has a counterbored shoulder against which the
end of the tube rests. The counterbore has a cone angle of about 24°
which, upon assembly, causes the cutting edge of the sleeve to cut into the
outside of the tube. Tightening of the nut forces the sleeve to form the
metal-to-metal seal. A cutaway illustration of the MS flareless tube fitting
is shown in Fig. 12-14. Flareless fittings are easy to identify since there is
no flare cone or no space between the threads and the end of the fitting.
FIGURE 12-14 Flareless tube fitting.
Many aircraft use swaged fittings to join tubes in areas where routine
disconnections are not required. Military specifications require that all
tubing be permanently joined, either by swaging or welding, except where
it is necessary to make disconnections. Swaged fittings are made by
Deutsch Metal Components from aluminum, stainless steel, and titanium
and they are used with tubes of the same material. The fittings are attached
quickly and easily by means of a hydraulically operated portable swaging
tool. A cutaway view of a swaged fitting is shown in Fig. 12-15. The
advantages of the swaged-type tube fittings are that the original cost is low
compared with that of standard AN or MS fittings, the installation takes
less time, substantial weight is saved, and repairs can be made on the
aircraft without removing complete sections of tubing.
Quick-Disconnect Couplings
Cryofit Fittings
Low-Pressure Hoses
Medium-Pressure Hoses
MIL-H-8794 hose is used for pressures up to 1500 psi [10 342 kPa], and
slightly higher in certain sizes. This type of hose, shown in Fig. 12-19, has
a synthetic rubber tube with one layer of braided cotton and one layer of
stainless-steel braid for reinforcement. A rubber-impregnated braided
cotton cover makes this type of hose easy to identify. Yellow markings are
the same as on the 5593 hose with the exception of the LP symbols. MIL-
H-8794 hose is approved for aircraft hydraulic (mineral-based),
pneumatic, coolant, fuel, and oil systems. There are other hoses that have
braided cotton covers that are not compatible with the fluids or pressure
that 8794 hose is used for. Only MIL-H-8794-specification hose will have
yellow markings.
Many hoses currently being manufactured for this pressure range use
inner tubes made of tetrafluoroethylene (TFE, or Teflon) or a variety of
new synthetic rubber materials. Teflon hose can be used for practically all
fluids that may be encountered on an airplane. Teflon is nonaging,
chemically inert, and physically stable, and it can withstand relatively high
temperatures. Medium-pressure Teflon hose is produced under
specification MIL-H-27267. Most of the newer hoses may be identified by
their covers, which are a stainless-steel braid. Identification of these hoses
requires that a printed tag from the manufacturer be attached. Technical
information on these hoses can be easily obtained from the manufacturer
and distributor.
High-Pressure Hoses
Extra-High-Pressure Hoses
Size of Hoses
A hose is sized in accordance with the size of a tube with similar fluid-
carrying capabilities. A -in hose will carry the same amount of fluid as a
-in tube. The inner diameter (ID) of the hose inner tube would therefore
be approximately the same as the ID of a tube. The hose will use the same
dash number to indicate size as that used on a comparable-sized tube.
Thus a -in hose will be identified as a -8 hose (e.g., MIL-H-8794-8
indicates a -in medium-pressure hose).
Identification of Hoses
Hose Fittings
Preparation of Tubing
When a section of tubing must be replaced, it should be replaced with a
tube of the identical material, diameter, and wall thickness. The
replacement section should be straight and round.
The ends of the tube are cut to the correct dimension. It is important to
make clean, square cuts at 90° to the center line of the tubing. When the
technician wants to cut aluminum tubing or tubing of any comparatively
soft metal, a tube cutter similar to that shown in Fig. 12-26 should be used.
The tube cutter will make a clean, right-angle cut without leaving burrs or
crushing the tube. A hardened reamer is often included as part of a cutter.
The reamer is used to smooth the inner edge of the cut where the metal has
been pressed inward a small amount. If the tube ends are not properly
cleaned and smoothed, the flares will not be satisfactory because any nick,
cut, or scratch will be enlarged in the flaring operation.
FIGURE 12-26 Hand-operated tube cutter.
Hand Bending
The wall thickness and the outside diameter govern the minimum
permissible bend radius for tubing, but it is advisable to make the bends as
large as the installation will permit. It is also desirable to make all bends of
the same radius in any one line. Minimum bend radii for aluminum-alloy
and stainless-steel tubing installations for use on aircraft are provided in
Table 12-7.
The method for determining the radius of a bend is shown in Fig. 12-27.
The radius of the bend is measured from the inner surface of the tubing.
Tubing correctly bent will maintain a circular shape and present a smooth,
uniform appearance without kinks or distortion. Figure 12-28 shows two
bends in the upper part of the photo that are acceptable. The two lower
bends exhibit excessive flattening and kinking. A small amount of
flattening in bends is acceptable, but should not exceed an amount such
that the small diameter of the flattened portion is less than 75% of the
original outside diameter.
FIGURE 12-27 Radius of tubing bend.
FIGURE 12-28 Good and bad bends.
Soft tubing with less than a -in diameter can be bent by hand without a
bender. For larger sizes, specialized tools and equipment are needed.
Bending tools are divided into two types: hand benders, which require a
different tool for each tube OD, and production benders, which can be
used for different tube sizes by changing the attachments. Production
benders may be either manually or power operated.
The choice of the particular bender to be used depends upon the size
and the material of the tubing to be bent, the kind of benders available, and
the number of bends to be made. If only one or two bends are to be made,
it is often more economical to use a hand bender rather than take the time
to set up a production bender. The use of a typical hand bender is shown in
Fig. 12-29.
FIGURE 12-29 How to use a hand bender.
Before beginning the flare, the sleeve and the nut should be slipped on
the tubing, since it may be impossible to install them after the flare is
formed.
It is not possible to make a satisfactory flare without the aid of a good
tool. Several types of flaring tools are available at reasonable cost, but the
technician must make sure that the tool selected will produce a suitable
flare without damaging the tubing.
A practical hand flaring tool, shown in Fig. 12-32, consists of parallel
bars between which are split blocks with holes of various sizes. The
blocks are split so that they can be separated for the insertion and removal
of tubing. The holes are slightly less than the outside diameter of the
tubing so that they will grip the tubing firmly when the clamping screw is
tightened. A yoke, which carries the flaring cone, slides over the entire
assembly.
To produce a flare with this tool, the clamping screw at the end of the
tool is loosened so that tubing can be inserted through the correct-sized
hole. About in [0.635 cm] of the tubing is extended above the clamping
blocks. The clamping screw is then tightened to hold the tubing in place.
Next, the yoke with the 37°-flaring cone is slid over the tool and
positioned so the cone is directly over the end of the tubing. When the
flaring-cone screw is turned, the cone is forced into the end of the tubing
until the desired amount of flare is formed.
Aluminum tubing with outside diameters less than in [0.952 cm] must
have a double flare. Double flares can usually be made with a slight
addition to or alteration of the flaring tools. The use of an adapter, shown
in Fig. 12-33, will make most of the flaring tools capable of forming
double flares. A comparison of single and double flares is shown in Fig.
12-5.
Tube Beading
In many low-pressure applications, it is permissible to make a hose-to-
tube connection by sliding the hose over the tube end and securing it with
a hose clamp. Figure 12-34 illustrates this method of connection. If the
tubing diameter is more than in [0.952 cm], a bead must be formed on
the tubing.
FIGURE 12-34 Low-pressure hose-to-tube connection.
Plumbing Installation
The proper functioning of the many fluid systems in aircraft is assured by
the original design and manufacture of the systems; continued satisfactory
operation depends on the proper maintenance, service, and installation of
replacement parts.
Installation of Tubing
• Lubricate nuts and fittings on the outside of the sleeve and on the male threads
of the fittings, except for the starting threads.
• Lubricate coupling nuts and fittings on the outside of the flare, and lubricate the
female threads, except for the starting threads.
Note that for a high-pressure hose, the cover must be removed from a
length of the hose equal to the distance from the end of the socket to the
notches.
The preceding instructions apply to only two of the many hose and end-
fitting combinations. While some end fittings will have more complex
looking components, the installation procedures are very similar to those
already discussed.
After completing the installation of the end fittings, the hose assembly
should be tested to the required pressure. If the assembly is not being
immediately installed on an aircraft, the ends should be capped to prevent
contamination.
• Do not lay hose where it may be stepped upon or run over by a vehicle.
• When loosening or tightening hose fittings, turn the swivel nut only. Do not turn
the hexes that form part of the socket or nipple assembly. Hold the socket with
a wrench to prevent it from turning.
• Cover open ends of hose assemblies with caps or plugs until the assemblies
are to be installed.
• Check the hose and the fittings for cleanliness, inside and out, before
installation.
Support clamps are used to secure the various lines to the airframe or
power-plant assemblies. Several types of support clamps are used for this
purpose. The most commonly used clamps are the rubber-cushioned and
plain. The rubber-cushioned clamp is used to secure lines subject to
vibration; the cushioning prevents chafing of the tubing. A plain clamp is
used to secure lines in areas not subject to vibration. A Teflon-cushioned
clamp is used in areas where the deteriorating effect of Skydrol, hydraulic
fluid, or fuel is expected. However, because it is less resilient, it does not
provide as good a vibration-damping effect as other cushion materials.
• Cracked hare
• Scratches or nicks greater in depth than 10% of the tube wall thickness or in
the heel of a bend
• A dent of more than 20% of the tube diameter or in the heel of a bend
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What metals and alloys are commonly used for tubing in plumbing systems?
2. Describe a pipe thread.
3. How are pipe-thread dimensions designated?
4. Explain how a flareless fitting provides a seal against fluid leakage.
5. How may a flareless fitting be identified by inspection?
6. Describe a swaged tube fitting.
7. What are the advantages of swaged fittings?
8. At what pressure is a hose assembly pressure tested?
9. Describe the differences in the construction of low-pressure, medium-pressure,
and high-pressure hose.
10. How may hose be identified?
11. Why is it poor practice to install short, straight sections of tubing between fixed
parts of an aircraft?
12. Explain the importance of the flare in a flared tube fitting.
13. On what tubing is double flaring required?
14. Why are beads used on some tubing?
15. What lubricant may be used when presetting a flareless-fitting sleeve for use in
a hydraulic system?
16. What is the purpose of lay line on aircraft hose?
17. How may a twist in a section of hose be corrected?
18. Describe the installation of reusable hose fittings.
19. When installing a reusable fitting on high-pressure hose with a synthetic rubber
outer ply, how can the amount of the outer ply to be removed be determined?
20. How can the interior of a preformed hose be checked for blisters or collapse of
the inner tubing?
21. Why should tube fittings not be forced into position?
22. What is the effect of overtightening flared fittings?
23. How much slack should be allowed in the installation of aircraft hose
assemblies?
24. What defects are not acceptable in metal tubing?
25. What are the tubing color codes for hydraulic, fuel, and oxygen lines?
13
Federal Aviation
Regulations
INTRODUCTION
When the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is mentioned, most people think in
terms of its responsibilities in the operation and maintenance of the world’s largest
and most advanced air-traffic-control system. Almost half of the agency’s workforce is
engaged in some phase of air-traffic control. No air-traffic-control system, no matter
how automated, can function safely and efficiently unless the people and the
machines within the system measure up to certain prescribed standards. The FAA
has been charged with establishing and enforcing standards relevant to the training
and testing of aviation personnel and the manufacture and continued airworthiness of
aircraft.
There are more than 200 000 civil aircraft in the United States, and the FAA
requires that each be certificated as airworthy. The original design and each
subsequent aircraft constructed from that design must be approved by FAA
inspectors. Even home-built aircraft require FAA certification. All civil aircraft
certificated for operation by the Federal Aviation Administration must be maintained in
accordance with the requirements of the Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR) issued
by the FAA. Federal Aviation Regulations affect aircraft design, operation,
maintenance, repair, and alteration. In this chapter, regulations of particular interest to
aviation maintenance technicians will be discussed.
Sec. 601 (a) The Secretary of Transportation is empowered and it shall be his duty to
promote safety of flight of civil aircraft in air commerce by prescribing and revising from
time to time:
• Aerospace Medicine
• Rulemaking
• Managing the system for registration of civil aircraft and all airmen records
Many of the functions of the Flight Standards Service are carried out by
field offices such as the following:
Regional Offices
The FAA regional offices serve as an extension of the national
headquarters and handle the day-to-day problems that arise in the various
geographic regions. The regional offices plan the functions that will occur
in the region, such as compiling statistics, providing navigational aids and
regional personnel, and administering examinations and inspections. They
are responsible for the standardization of the maintenance and engineering
practices of the airlines and manufacturers located within the region.
There are 10 regional offices, as shown in Fig. 13-1 (a list of FAA regional
offices is provided in the Appendix).
FIGURE 13-1 FAA regional offices.
District Offices
The technician’s primary contact with the FAA will be with airworthiness
inspectors assigned to the local district office known as Flight Standards
District Office (FSDO). Flight Standards District Offices are primarily
responsible for the local application and enforcement of FAA rules, and
primarily handle the following:
• Accident reporting
• Aircraft maintenance
• Aircraft permits
Aeronautical Center
The FAA Mike Monroney Aeronautical Center in Oklahoma City consists
of a number of FAA departments. The Airmen Certification Branch has
the records of all individuals that have received airman certificates. One of
the largest centers for aviation training is located there, as is the
department that develops the various FAA tests. FAA aircraft are also
maintained and repaired at this installation.
Accident Investigation
The FAA participates with the National Transportation Safety Board
(NTSB) in the investigation of major aircraft accidents to determine if any
immediate action is needed to correct deficiencies and prevent a
recurrence. In addition, the agency investigates most nonfatal and many
fatal general-aviation accidents on behalf of the NTSB, although the
responsibility of determining probable cause remains with the NTSB. The
FAA also investigates accidents to see if any Federal Aviation Regulations
have been violated.
“Alteration” refers to changing the design of the aircraft from that originally
certificated. Alterations range from major changes in the structure or engine to
the addition or removal of relatively minor equipment. Alterations are divided
into two categories: major and minor.
“Major alteration” means an alteration not listed in the aircraft, aircraft engine, or
propeller specification:
The terms approved data and acceptable data are frequently encountered
when working with the regulations. Acceptable data refers to information
that may be used as a basis for FAA approval for major repairs and
alterations. Examples would include Advisory Circulars 43.13-1B and
43.13-2B, manufacturers’ technical publications, or military technical
orders. Approved data refers to data which have previously been found to
be acceptable and thus have been approved by the FAA. If an alteration or
repair duplicates an operation previously approved, approved data are
being used. In such cases, it is usually only necessary to have the
workmanship approved and not the data. An example of approved data
would be a supplemental type certificate, which will be discussed in a later
chapter of this text.
Performance Rules
Paragraph 43.13(b) sets forth criteria for determining the quality of the
work performed:
Each person maintaining or altering, or performing preventive maintenance, shall do
that work in such manner and use materials of such quality that the condition of the
aircraft, airframe, aircraft engine, propeller, or appliance worked on will be at least equal
to its original or properly altered condition (with regard to aerodynamic function,
structural strength, resistance to vibration, and deterioration, and other qualities
affecting airworthiness).
Return to Service
Appendices
Once the appropriate eligibility requirements have been met, the applicant
is ready to start the testing to demonstrate his or her knowledge and skill.
The applicant must pass all the required tests appropriate to the rating he
or she seeks within a period of 24 months.
The written examinations cover the construction and maintenance of
aircraft appropriate to the rating sought and the applicable provisions of
FAR Parts 43, 65, and 91. There are three written tests. A general test is
required for the airframe rating and the powerplant rating, containing
material common to both areas. The applicant for an airframe rating will
take a test (100 questions) over airframe structures and systems. The
Powerplant applicant will take a 100-question test over Powerplant theory,
systems, and components. The minimum passing grade for each test is
70%.
In the event that the applicant fails one or more sections of a test, he or
she may retake that section after waiting 30 days from the date of the test
or by presenting a statement from a certificated aviation maintenance
technician that he or she has had additional instruction in the areas failed.
As stated previously, all tests must be passed in a 24-month period.
Although the test questions have been published, the integrity of the
written exam is closely guarded. Any person found attempting to cheat or
otherwise compromise an examination is not eligible for an airman
certificate for a period of one year from the date of the violation. In
addition, the commission of that act is a basis for suspending or revoking
any airman certificate or rating held by that person.
After successfully completing the applicable written tests, the applicant
is eligible to demonstrate his or her skills through oral and practical
examinations. These are given by FAA-designated mechanic examiners.
A student in an aviation maintenance technician school may be allowed to
take the oral and practical tests as part of the final subjects of his or her
training.
When all examinations have been passed and an application for the
certificate and ratings completed, a temporary airman certificate is issued.
This certificate is good for 120 days. After processing the application, the
FAA will mail a permanent certificate to the applicant.
An aviation maintenance technician certificate is effective until it is
surrendered, suspended, or revoked. It has no expiration date. In the event
a certificate is suspended or revoked, it must be returned to the
administrator.
A name change or the replacement of a lost certificate can be taken care
of by contacting the FAA in Oklahoma City. Details of this procedure are
given in Section 65.16. The FAA must be notified, in writing, within 30
days of any change of address. The details for this notification are
provided in Section 65.21.
Each person who holds an aviation maintenance technician certificate
must keep it within the immediate area where he or she normally exercises
the privileges of the certificate. In addition, he or she must present it for
inspection upon the request of any member of the FAA, NTSB, or any
federal, state, or local law enforcement officer.
Security Disqualification
Inspection Authorizations
Repairman Certificates
Type Certificates
The aircraft type certificate is issued for a certain design, or type, of
aircraft, aircraft engine, or propeller. A person seeking a type certificate
for a product must make formal application in the manner prescribed in
Part 21, Certification Procedures for Products and Parts. The FAA then
designates the standards and any special conditions to be met by that
product. The applicant does all necessary tests and calculations and
provides all documentation to show that the product does meet or exceed
all requirements. If the product passes these tests, the FAA will issue a
type certificate.
The type certificate consists of the type design, the operating
limitations, the type certificate data sheet, the applicable regulations with
which the FAA requires compliance, and any other conditions or
limitations prescribed for the product. The type design consists of the
following:
Restricted-Category Aircraft
A restricted type certificate will be issued for an aircraft that has been
shown to have no feature or characteristic which makes it unsafe when
operated under the limitations prescribed for its intended use. The aircraft
must also meet airworthiness requirements of an aircraft category except
for those requirements that the administrator finds inappropriate for the
special purpose for which the aircraft is to be used. An aircraft that has
been accepted for use by an armed force of the United States and has later
been modified for a special purpose may also be given a restricted type
certificate.
Special-purpose operations include the following:
Maximum speed in level flight with maximum continuous power (Vh)—138 mph
(120 knots)
Unpressurized cabin
Fixed landing gear, except for an aircraft intended for operation on water or a
glider
Military-Surplus Aircraft
Import Products
Production Certificates
A person may apply for a production certificate if he or she holds a current
type certificate, a license agreement, or an STC for the product concerned.
An applicant must show that he or she has established and can maintain
a quality-control system for the product so that each article will meet the
design provisions of the pertinent type certificate. The details of this
quality-control program are outlined in Section 21.143.
The holder of a production certificate may obtain an airworthiness
certificate without further showing, except that the administrator may
inspect the aircraft for conformity with the type design; or in the case of
other products, obtain approval for installation on certificated aircraft.
Airworthiness Certificates
Section 91.203 requires that no person may operate an aircraft unless it
has an appropriate and current airworthiness certificate. Any registered
owner of a U.S.-registered aircraft may apply for an airworthiness
certificate for that aircraft. Airworthiness certificates are issued in two
classes, standard and special.
The first class of certificates, standard airworthiness certificates, are
issued for aircraft type certificated in the normal, utility, acrobatic,
commuter, or transport category; for manned free balloons; and for aircraft
designated by the administrator as being in a special class of aircraft. The
second class, special airworthiness certificates, include LSA restricted,
limited, and provisional airworthiness certificates; special flight permits;
UAS and OPA; and experimental certificates. Airworthiness certificates
are transferred with the aircraft.
For an LSA manufactured outside the United States, the applicant must
meet all the requirements listed previously as well as provide to the FAA
evidence that the aircraft was manufactured in a country with which the
United States has a bilateral airworthiness agreement concerning airplanes
or bilateral aviation safety agreement with associated implementation
procedures for airworthiness concerning airplanes, or an equivalent
airworthiness agreement and the aircraft is eligible for an airworthiness
certificate, flight authorization, or other similar certification in its country
of manufacture.
A special flight permit may be issued for an aircraft that may not currently
meet applicable airworthiness requirements but is capable of safe flight for
the purpose of
The Evaluation and Special Projects Branch of the FAA is responsible for
the issuance of airworthiness certificates for the civil operation of
unmanned aircraft. Civil use of these aircraft operating in the National
Airspace System (NAS) requires an appropriate and valid airworthiness
certificate. Military operations are the purview of the Department of
Defense. Civil unmanned aircraft system (UAS) operations outside of the
NAS (typically very low and small aircraft) do not presently need an
airworthiness certificate.
Currently, the FAA issues UAS and optionally piloted aircraft (OPA)
special airworthiness certificates: special flight permits and experimental
certificates. Special flight permits are issued for production flight testing
of new production aircraft. Experimental certificates are issued only for
the purposes of research and development, crew training, and market
survey operations.
In addition to the typical manned aircraft airworthiness requirements,
UAS/OPA airworthiness applications must also address the following:
• Operating limitations
• Initial flight testing
• Pilot qualification
FAA Order 8130.34 describes the requirements for UAS and OPA
airworthiness certification in more detail.
Experimental Certificates
AIRWORTHINESS STANDARDS
The FAA publishes the minimum standards for aircraft certification in
several different parts of the Federal Aviation Regulations depending upon
the use of the aircraft. In this section we will look at the format and
organization of these parts as well as the type of information they contain.
You are not expected to know details of the various standards, but you
should be capable of locating specific information in the appropriate part.
The administrator will determine which part or parts of the regulation
are effective when an application for a type certificate is filed. The
proposed aircraft must meet those standards or a type certificate will not
be issued. Since the airworthiness standards are constantly being revised,
it is important to be able to determine exactly which amendments apply to
a particular aircraft. This information is found in the type certificate data
sheets.
Applicability
The various parts which prescribe airworthiness standards for the issuance
of type certificates and changes to those certificates are as follows:
The FAA recodified the Civil Air Regulations into the Federal
Aviation Regulations in the early 1960s. Aircraft that had
applications for type certificates prior to this change are
certified under the Civil Air Regulation airworthiness
standards. The relationship between the parts of the Federal
Aviation Regulations and the Civil Air Regulations is as
follows:
FAR CAR
23 3
25 4b
27 6
29 7
33 13
35 14
General. This subpart lists the applicability for the part and other information
necessary to clarify that applicability.
Flight. This subpart details the flight requirements that the aircraft must be able
to perform and maintain, such as stability, stalls, spins, and performance under
various power conditions. The requirements for weight, center of gravity, and
ground handling are also listed in this subpart.
Structure. This subpart sets the minimum requirements for the various loads that
the structure must be able to withstand in flight, during takeoff and landing, and
while on the ground.
Equipment. This subpart covers the remainder of the equipment installed in the
aircraft other than that covered under the powerplant section. Major coverage
is given to instruments, electrical systems, lights, and safety equipment. A
section entitled Miscellaneous Equipment sets the standards for such items as
electronics, hydraulics, oxygen, and pressurization equipment. Specific
examples of standards in this section are the required flight instruments, the
number of spare fuses, the color of position lights, and the use of chemical
oxygen generators.
Subpart A, General
Subpart A, General
Each person who produces a part for which a replacement time, inspection
interval, or related procedure is specified in the airworthiness limitations
section of a manufacturer’s maintenance manual or in the instructions for
continued airworthiness must permanently and legibly mark that
component with a part number (or equivalent) and a serial number (or
equivalent).
Each person who produces a replacement or a modification part under a
parts manufacturer approval must permanently and legibly mark the part
with
Critical Parts
All certificated repair stations are closely regulated and monitored by the
FAA. The agency requires air carriers to ensure that their contract
maintenance and training programs, and the contractors themselves, fully
comply with federal regulations. There are approximately 4187 domestic
and 709 foreign FAA-certified repair stations.
It has become a more common practice for some air carriers to contract
out or outsource some or all of their aircraft maintenance. Although not
specifically governed by FAR 145, these airlines must still meet FAA
requirements if they rely on contract maintenance. The contracting airline
must ensure that all contractors follow the procedures specified in the air
carrier’s maintenance program and the airline must show that the provider
has the capability, organization, facilities, and equipment to perform the
work.
Both the air carrier and the FAA inspect work done at repair stations.
The air carrier conducts oversight through its continuing analysis and
surveillance system, which requires audits of the facilities working on the
carrier’s aircraft. The FAA monitors through the issuance of a repair-
station certificate. FAA inspectors perform on-site visits and review air
carrier audits. An FAA inspector is not required to give notice prior to an
inspection. The inspector presents any issues found to the repair station
informally during a briefing prior to leaving the facility. A formal letter of
findings follows, and the FAA may start enforcement actions for violations
of regulations.
Many U.S. air carriers rely on foreign repair stations outside the United
States for at least some of their maintenance. These facilities are certified
annually by the FAA, and a repair station may lose its certificate if it does
not comply with FAA requirements. The agency only certifies the number
of foreign repair stations it can effectively monitor. Oversight is conducted
by FAA inspectors assigned to IFOs in London, Frankfurt, Singapore, New
York, Miami, Dallas, and San Francisco.
FAA standards for foreign and domestic repair stations are the same as
those required for domestic repair stations. The FAA conducts at least one
comprehensive, in-depth inspection annually for renewal of the repair
station’s certificate. The FAA notifies a repair station prior to an inspection
to meet the repair station’s security requirements, make sure the
appropriate personnel are available, and allow the facility to do any
needed coordination with remote work sites or contractors. The agency
also notifies the appropriate U.S. embassy and the country’s national
aviation authority.
The United States has country-to-country bilateral aviation safety
agreements with France, Germany, and Ireland. These agreements
eliminate duplicate efforts by the FAA and the national aviation
authorities, and specify that each authority perform certification and
surveillance activities on behalf of the other. The FAA audits these
national aviation authorities, reviews their inspector guidance materials,
inspector staffing levels and training programs, and performs joint repair-
station audits with the authorities’ inspectors. Under these agreements, the
FAA conducts sample inspections of repair stations located in these
countries but leaves day-to-day oversight of the facilities to their
respective national aviation regulatory agencies.
In general, a repair-station certificate gives an agency, rather than an
individual, the authorization to perform maintenance, preventive
maintenance, and alterations. A repair station may also authorize the work
to be approved for return to service. The repair station is limited to doing
only those operations for which it is rated. These ratings may be very
broad or may be quite limited.
Repair-Station Ratings
Ratings are issued in a number of categories and further broken down into
various classes. Airframe ratings are as follows:
Class 1, Mechanical
Class 2, Electrical
Class 3, Gyroscopic
Class 4, Electronic
A limited rating may be issued for a repair station. This rating may allow
the station to perform work on a particular make of aircraft, a particular
model of that aircraft, or even a specific component, by manufacturer or
model, of an aircraft. A limited rating may also be issued for special
services such as welding or nondestructive testing and inspection.
Repair-Station Personnel
• A description of the system and procedures used for inspecting incoming raw
materials to ensure acceptable quality and inspecting all articles that have
been involved in an accident for hidden damage before maintenance,
preventive maintenance, or alteration is performed
Each repair station, before approving an item for return to service after
maintenance or alteration, must have that article inspected by a qualified
inspector. The station must certify on the maintenance or alteration record
of that item that it is airworthy.
A qualified inspector is a person employed by the station who has
shown by experience that she or he understands the inspection methods,
techniques, and equipment used in determining the airworthiness of the
article concerned. She or he must also be proficient in using various types
of mechanical and visual inspection aids appropriate for the article being
inspected.
Each certificated repair station must maintain adequate records of all work
that it does, naming the certificated mechanic or repairman who performed
or supervised the work and the inspector of that work. The station must
keep these records for at least 2 years after the work is done.
The preceding paragraph refers to the records for the repair station. The
aircraft records must have entries as described in Parts 43 and 91.
Each domestic repair station must report to the administrator within 72
hours after it discovers any serious defect or other recurring nonairworthy
condition in an aircraft, powerplant, propeller, or related component.
FAR 145 also prescribes rules for foreign repair stations and limited
ratings for manufacturers. That information is not covered in this text.
OPERATIONS CERTIFICATION
The FAA requires those performing certain types of operations (primarily
commercial air carrier) to comply with rules over and above those found
in Part 91. The parts covering these operations include the following:
Part 129, Operations: Foreign Air Carriers and Foreign Operators of U.S.-
Registered Aircraft Engaged in Common Carriage
• Student instruction
• Banner towing
• Other business names under which the certificate holder may operate
• Airport limitations
• Director of safety
• Director of operations
• Chief pilot
• Director of maintenance
• Chief inspector
To serve as chief inspector under FAR 121, the person must have the
following:
• A mechanic certificate with both airframe and powerplant ratings, and have
held these ratings for at least 3 years
If the operating certificate is for an FAR 135 operation, the airline must
designate a director of operations, chief pilot, and a director of
maintenance. The director of maintenance must hold a mechanic
certificate with airframe and powerplant ratings and have either of the
following:
Maintenance Operations
The certificate holder must develop and maintain a manual that includes a
list of persons with whom it has arranged for the performance of any of its
required inspections, other maintenance, preventive maintenance, or
alterations, including a general description of that work. The manual must
contain all the processes and procedures that must be followed in
performing maintenance, preventive maintenance, and alterations of that
certificate holder’s airplanes. The manual must include at least the
following:
• Instructions to prevent any person who performs any item of work from
performing any required inspection of that work
• The current status of life-limited parts of each airframe, engine, propeller, and
appliance
• The time since last overhaul of all items installed on the aircraft which are
required to be overhauled on a specified time basis
• The identification of the current inspection status of the aircraft, including the
times since the last inspections required by the inspection program under
which the aircraft and its appliances are maintained
The operator is required to develop and maintain a system that ensures that
• The replacement times for life-limited parts specified in the aircraft type-
certificate data sheets, or other documents approved by the Administrator,
are complied with
The inspection program approved for the airline must include at least the
following:
• Instructions, procedures, and standards for the conduct of inspections for the
particular make and model of airplane, including necessary tests and checks.
The instructions and procedures must set forth in detail the parts and areas
of the airframe, aircraft engines, propellers, appliances, and survival and
emergency equipment required to be inspected.
No one who performs any item of work can be part of the process of
performing any required inspection of that work and procedures to ensure
that work interruptions do not adversely affect required inspections and to
ensure that required inspections are properly completed before the airplane
is released.
There are many different means with which to comply with the
requirement for inspections. Some of the inspection programs that may be
approved for use include, but are not limited to, the following:
• A list of those persons with whom the certificate holder has arranged for
performance of inspections under this part
Manual Requirements
• Instructions to prevent any person who performs any item of work from
performing any required inspection of that work
• A fire during flight and whether the related fire-warning system functioned
properly
• An exhaust system that causes damage during flight to the engine, adjacent
structure, equipment, or components
FAR Part 135.431 describes the system for the continuing analysis and
surveillance of the performance and effectiveness of its inspection
program. This surveillance program must be in place to cover any
maintenance, preventive maintenance, or alterations performed regardless
of whether those programs are carried out by the certificate holder or by
another person.
In addition, the certificate holder or the organization performing
maintenance or preventive maintenance functions must establish a training
program to ensure that each person (including inspection personnel) who
determines the adequacy of work done is fully informed about procedures
and techniques and new equipment in use and is competent to perform that
person’s duties.
FAR Part 135.439 details the records that must be maintained concerning
any aircraft maintenance or inspections. The records are required to
contain at least the following information:
• The total time in service of the airframe, engine, propeller, and rotor
• The time since last overhaul of each item installed on the aircraft that are
required to be overhauled on a specified time basis
• The identification of the current inspection status of the aircraft, including the
time since the last inspections required by the inspection program under
which the aircraft and its appliances are maintained
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. When was the FAA created?
2. In what FAA region do you live?
3. Why does the FAA investigate accidents?
4. What does Part 25 of the Federal Aviation Regulations deal with?
5. Who has the primary responsibility of seeing that airworthiness directives are
complied with?
6. Who can supervise a 100-hour inspection?
7. Which Appendix of Part 43 provides information for filling out Form 337?
8. How long does an applicant have to complete the examinations for a
technician’s (mechanic’s) rating?
9. What types of repairs may a certified technician perform on instruments?
10. What privileges does inspection authorization offer?
11. When does a manufacturer have to provide instructions for continued
airworthiness?
12. What is a utility-category aircraft?
13. What would be the advantage of obtaining a production certificate?
14. How long is an experimental airworthiness certificate good for?
15. What does PMA stand for?
16. Which part of the Federal Aviation Regulations deals with airworthiness
standards for aircraft engines?
17. What does Appendix G of Part 23 cover?
18. Which FAR part would you use to determine the size of registration markings to
paint on an aircraft?
19. What classes of powerplant ratings might you find in a repair station?
20. What requirements must a repair station meet if it uses apprentices?
21. What FAR part does a domestic air carrier operate under?
22. What size of aircraft can be operated under Part 135?
23. What type of maintenance is required for an airtaxi aircraft with six seats?
24. What must be included in an approved aircraft inspection program under Part
13 5?
25. What information must be in the airworthiness release for a Part 135 operator?
14
Technical Publications
INTRODUCTION
Over an aircraft’s service life virtually all of its components are involved in some form
of inspection, preventive maintenance, overhaul, repair, or replacement. Even the
best designed aircraft and components will occasionally develop defects. A system
must be in place that will allow for the dissemination of technical material from both
the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and aircraft manufacturers to correct these
defects. The technical information needed to correct defects must be available in
clear, concise language and organized in such a way as to be easy to use by the
technician. This information may be in the form of a technical manual, or it may
appear in notices of potential problems. The development and distribution of this
needed technical information is a responsibility shared by the FAA and the
manufacturers. The proper use of these publications by the technician is a must in
maintaining today’s complex aircraft.
ADVISORY CIRCULARS
The FAA issues Advisory Circulars (AC) (see Fig. 14-1) to inform the
aviation community, in a systematic way, about nonregulatory information
of interest. Unless the advisory circular is incorporated into an FAR, its
contents are not binding on the public. An advisory circular is issued to
provide guidance and information in its designated subject area or to show
a method acceptable to the FAA for complying with a related FAR.
FIGURE 14-1 Advisory circular.
SERVICE-DIFFICULTY REPORTING
PROGRAM
The primary function of the FAA is to ensure that aviation is a safe and
dependable form of transportation. One of the means for promoting safety
is the service-difficulty reporting (SDR) program. The SDR program is
an information system designed to provide assistance to aircraft owners,
operators, maintenance organizations, and manufacturers in identifying
aircraft problems encountered during service. The program provides for
the collection, organization, analysis, and dissemination of aircraft service
information so as to improve the service reliability of aviation products.
AIRWORTHINESS DIRECTIVES
When an aircraft or engine is newly developed, engineers have to rely on
the past history of similar products or analyses to predict when defects or
unsafe conditions will arise. As service time is accumulated, various
problems can arise that create potentially unsafe conditions. This happens
even though the manufacturers have conducted extensive testing of the
product. When an unsafe condition is discovered, a system must be in
place that can evaluate the seriousness of the problem and, if necessary,
notify the appropriate people of the corrective action that must be taken.
The FAA uses airworthiness directives (ADs) to notify aircraft owners
of these unsafe conditions and to require their correction. ADs prescribe
the conditions and the limitations, including inspections, repairs, or
alterations, under which the product may continue to be operated.
The guidelines for when an airworthiness directive is issued is covered
in FAR Part 39.1, Applicability, which says,
This part prescribes airworthiness directives that apply to aircraft, aircraft engines,
propellers, or appliances (hereinafter referred to in this part as products) when,
ADs are Federal Aviation Regulations and are published in the Federal
Register as amendments to FAR Part 39. Depending on the urgency,
ADs are published in the following categories.
Emergency AD
These ADs are of an urgent nature (e.g., immediate safety of flight) and
cannot wait for publication in the Federal Register. When an emergency
AD is issued, the AD applies only to the people who receive “actual
notice” by first-class mail and/or fax to the registered owners of those
aircraft. A follow-up AD is then normally published in the Federal
Register as a Final Rule; Request for Comment.
It contains nonregulatory information and guidance that does not meet the
criteria for an AD but is still of sufficient importance to distribute to the
aviation community. Individual bulletins can be searched and downloaded
online at the SAIB database located in the FAA’s RGL.
Distribution of ADs
Ad Numbers
An AD is an amendment to FAR Part 39 and each is uniquely identified
using an eight-digit number in the following format. The first four digits
are the year of issuance, the second two-digit block is the biweekly period
of the year (there are 26) in which the AD was issued, and the last two-
digit block is the sequence of the AD note within that biweekly time
period. For example, an AD listed as 2012-10-13 would have been the
thirteenth AD issued during the tenth biweekly period of the year 2012.
There was an older system of listing ADs (primarily used before the year
2000) that used a six-digit number such as 92-08-03 that you should be
familiar with. The 92 identifies the year of issue (1992), the 08 identifies
the period as being in the eighth biweekly period, which is the fifteenth or
sixteenth week of the year. The 03 is a sequential number and simply
means that it was the third AD adopted in that period.
Ad Content
The content of AD notes can be divided into several categories, such as
applicability, compliance time and date, effective dates, and required
actions. (Figure 14-6 is a sample AD.)
FIGURE 14-6 Sample airworthiness directive.
Applicability of ADs
Effective Dates
The effective date of the AD is usually published toward the end of the
note. In the case of a revision, the effective date of the revision and the
date of the original amendment are given. Care should be taken to ensure
that when a revision becomes effective, it does not require additional
action on a previously received AD.
Required Action
The required action may take the form of inspection, replacement of parts,
modification of design, or changes in operating procedures. The required
action could be totally described in the AD note, or reference may be
made to a manufacturer’s service bulletin which will give the details of the
required action. Notification to the FAA upon compliance or other special
record entries in the aircraft maintenance records may be required. The
action may call for recurring inspections or other action until certain parts
are replaced or modified.
Compliance Responsibility
Responsibility for AD compliance lies with the registered owner or
operator of the aircraft. This responsibility is usually met by having
appropriately rated maintenance technicians accomplish the maintenance
required by the AD.
Maintenance technicians may also have direct responsibility for AD
compliance, aside from the times when AD compliance is the specific
work contracted for by the owner or operator. When a 100-hour, annual, or
progressive inspection or an inspection required under Part 123 or 125 is
accomplished, FAR Section 43.15(a) requires the person performing the
inspection to perform it so as to determine that all applicable airworthiness
requirements are met, which includes compliance with ADs.
Maintenance technicians should be aware that even though an
inspection of the complete aircraft is not made, if the inspection conducted
is a progressive inspection, determination of AD compliance for those
portions of the aircraft inspected is required.
Ad Record Entries
FAR Part 91.417 requires that the aircraft records contain the current
status of applicable airworthiness directives including, for each, the
method of compliance, the AD number, and the revision date. If the AD
involves recurring action, the time and date when the next action is due is
required. An Airworthiness Directive Compliance Record, such as is
shown in Fig. 14-7, is recommended as a record of AD compliance.
FIGURE 14-7 Airwothiness directive compliance record.
1. Identification
4. Notes
Type Certificate Data Sheets are issued for aircraft, aircraft engines, and
propellers. Since the information for each of these three products is
different, they will be covered separately.
Aircraft Data Sheets
Identification
A Type Certificate may have more than one model of an aircraft approved
under it due to changes in the type design. In most cases, the manufacturer
will designate the changes with a new model number, such as Cessna
150E. In a few cases, the manufacturer may stay with the basic model
designation and indicate the changes with serial numbers. All of the
information which pertains specifically to that model is presented first,
and then the next change or model of aircraft is covered. The aircraft is
identified by model, type certificate category or categories, and date of
approval.
Many Aircraft Specifications and some Type Certificate Data Sheets
carry coded information to describe the general characteristics of the
product. This information may be found in the model caption line or a
separate line entry titled “Type” or “Designation.” Aircraft codes
(designations) are as follows for the example 2 PO-CLM:
The other information contained for a particular model will include
• Engine(s)
• Airspeed limits
• Baggage capacity
• Oil capacity
• Control-surface movement
This section contains the location of the datum and the leveling means. It
also includes the certification basis, production basis, and required
equipment. The certification basis lists the exact regulations and the
special conditions, if any, that apply to each of the models. The production
basis lists whether or not a production certificate was used and other
pertinent information.
On aircraft that are still listed on an Aircraft Specification, the
equipment will be listed and numbered to correspond to the required
equipment listed for specific models. The list also shows the weight of the
equipment and the arm for weight-and-balance purposes. Optional
equipment is also included in this list.
A Type Certificate Data Sheet contains the statement, “The basic
required equipment as prescribed in the applicable airworthiness
regulations (see Certification Basis) must be installed in the aircraft for
certification.” Any special equipment not covered by this statement will be
listed. The required equipment is listed in the aircraft’s equipment list.
Notes
This section contains information that may apply to all models or certain
aircraft within a given model. The information listed is very important and
should not be ignored.
In all cases, Note 1 reads, “Current weight-and-balance report together
with the list of equipment included in certificated empty weight and
loading instructions when necessary must be provided for each aircraft at
the time of original certification.” This note on an Aircraft Specification is
slightly different in wording but not in meaning or intent. Unique weight-
and-balance information for this aircraft is also located in this note.
Another note. Note 2, pertains to the required placards for the aircraft
and includes the following or a similar statement: “The following placards
must be displayed in front of and in clear view of the pilot.” Placards, if
any, are listed and must be present if the aircraft is to conform to its type
certificate.
Other notes contain information about equipment installed in specific
models, special operating procedures for various models, modifications,
conversion from one model to another, and similar information.
This section is similar to that found on the Aircraft Type Certificate Data
Sheets. Engine TCDSs also use coded information in identifying engines.
Engine Codes (Types) are as follows for the example 4LIA (sometimes
4LAI):
Data Pertinent to Specific Models
Data in this section includes the following information for the various
models of engines:
• Type
• Shaft (type)
• Fuel grade
• Displacement
• Timing
• Compression ratio
• Oil-sump capacity
• Weight
• Propeller
• Carburetion ignition
• Magnetos ignition
Notes
MANUFACTURERS’ PUBLICATIONS
Service Bulletins
The medium used by manufacturers to communicate with owners and
operators is the service bulletin. Service bulletins are issued to notify
others of design defects, possible modifications, or a change in approved
maintenance practices. Service bulletins may contain information on
special inspections or checks that are needed to maintain the aircraft,
engine, or accessory in safe operating condition.
In addition, alert service bulletins may be issued by the manufacturer
on matters requiring the urgent attention of the operator and are generally
limited to items affecting safety. Compliance with service bulletins is
generally considered voluntary by the general-aviation operator. A service
bulletin can be made mandatory by incorporating it into an airworthiness
directive. Service-bulletin compliance may also be made mandatory by
requiring compliance in the inspection program that is being used, or, for
commercial operators, in the operating guidelines that they have had
approved. In addition, most engine or component overhaul procedures
require compliance with service bulletins when the unit is overhauled.
Service bulletins are usually mailed to registered owners and obtained
by maintenance personnel on a subscription basis. Manufacturers also
maintain database and e-mail systems to alert operators to the issuance of
service bulletins.
TECHNICAL MANUALS
FAA Order 8110.54A, Instructions for Continued Airworthiness
Responsibilities, Requirements, and Contents, contains the instructions
concerning the information that must be provided by the manufacturer.
This order provides guidance on responsibilities, requirements, and
content for instructions for continued airworthiness (ICA).
The statutory requirements for developing and publishing an ICA for
each aircraft were made effective in 1980. These requirements provided a
universal and standardized method for aircraft, aircraft engine, and
propeller maintenance data, replacing various maintenance manual data
standards previously in effect and making one unified standard. The ICA
regulations require manufacturers applying for a design approval, or a
change to a design approval, to develop and furnish ICA information and
make those instructions available. The manufacturer is responsible for
ensuring there is enough information in the ICA to maintain the continued
airworthiness of the product. Whereby the TCDS system simply listed
product information, the ICA system is intended to provide a way to keep
products airworthy through the documentation of recommended methods,
inspections, processes, and procedures applicable to that aircraft, including
information on each item or part, as appropriate, installed on the aircraft.
The manufacturer must list the documents that will constitute a
complete set of ICA for its design as early as practical in the project and
submit that list to the FAA for concurrence. The submittal must include the
applicant’s program showing how it plans to distribute changes to the ICA
it has made, as the DAH, or by the manufacturers of installed products and
appliances. Examples of these changes must include a list of effective
pages, revision levels, revision bars, and date changes.
Once published, the ICA for each aircraft must include the following:
Maintenance Manual
The technical publication that is most frequently used by the technician is
the aircraft maintenance manual. The maintenance manual contains the
information necessary to enable the technician to check, service,
troubleshoot, and repair the airplane and its associated systems. It also
includes information necessary for the technician to perform maintenance
or make minor repairs to components while they are installed on the
airplane. The maintenance manual does not contain information relative to
work normally performed on components when they are removed from the
aircraft. Maintenance manuals are prepared for the technician who
normally performs work on units, components, and systems while they are
installed on the aircraft. For instance, the airplane maintenance manual
provides the instructions for installing a magneto and timing it to the
engine, but information on overhauling the magneto is located in the
overhaul manual. Most maintenance manuals will make frequent use of
illustrations and schematic diagrams that make the text easier to
understand. Troubleshooting information describing probable
malfunctions, how to recognize those malfunctions, and the corrective
action required are included. Detailed information on more complex
specialized subjects, such as wiring diagrams or structural repair, may be
included in the maintenance manual for smaller aircraft but is generally
separated into separate manuals for larger aircraft.
Overhaul Manual
The manufacturer’s overhaul manual contains detailed step-by-step
instructions covering work normally performed on a unit away from the
aircraft. The overhaul manual is prepared for the technician who normally
performs shop work, not for the aircraft service technician. The manual,
which includes the approved and recommended overhaul procedures, is
written to provide a technician with the information necessary to overhaul
and test a part, thus making it available for reinstallation on an aircraft.
Weight-and-Balance Manual
The weight-and-balance-manual is used to transmit weight-and-balance
data to the operator. The manual contains the information required to
analyze and establish weight-and-balance procedures. The manual also
includes the procedures used to weigh the aircraft.
Vendor Data
Due to frequent changes and varying combinations of some types of
aircraft equipment and accessories, such as avionics, filters, and
instrumentation, it is impossible to include information on these types of
items in the aircraft maintenance manual. The manufacturers of these
components produce technical information related to the installation,
maintenance, and testing of their products. This information is commonly
referred to as vendor data.
The original ATA Spec 100 contained format and content guidelines for
technical manuals written by aviation manufacturers and suppliers, and
was then adopted for use by airlines and other segments of the industry in
the maintenance of their respective products. This document provides the
industry-wide standard for numbering every aircraft system, often referred
to as the ATA system or ATA chapter numbers. Adaptations of this
numbering system can be found in many other areas of aircraft
maintenance. Service bulletins routinely refer to ATA numbers. Many
airlines also organize their parts rooms based on the ATA numbering
system.
The ATA has also developed other specifications which are related to
aircraft maintenance. The specifications include the following:
Specification 101, technical data on ground support equipment
Specification 102, a computer software manual, which provides a
standard for the presentation of digital computer software documentation
Specification 103, a specification for airport fuel inspection and testing
Specification 104, guidelines for aircraft maintenance training
Specification 105, guidelines for training and qualifying personnel in
nondestructive testing
MANUFACTURERS’ OPERATING
PUBLICATIONS
Manufacturers produce technical publications that are required for the
operation of an aircraft. While such publications are primarily intended for
flight crew members, the technician must be familiar with the aspects of
these publications that are related to the maintenance and inspection of an
airplane.
Operation Specifications
Operation specifications are issued to supplement air-carrier and air-taxi
rules by listing additional privileges and limitations that are not
specifically covered by the regulations. Operation specifications are
divided into different subparts such as the kinds of operations authorized,
airport limitations, weight-and-balance data, and maintenance procedures
(see Fig. 14-15).
FIGURE 14-15 Operation specification topics.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the purpose of an Advisory Circular?
2. How may an Advisory Circular be made mandatory?
3. How are general-aviation service difficulties generally reported to the FAA?
4. What is the purpose of Airworthiness Alerts?
5. Alerts are published as what Advisory Circular?
6. When does the FAA issue an Airworthiness Directive?
7. To which FAR are ADs published as amendments?
8. How are ADs indexed?
9. How often is the AD Summary published?
10. What are the subject areas into which ADs are divided?
11. How often are newly issued and revised AD Notes mailed out?
12. What do the digits 06 signify in the AD number 92-06-07?
13. When is a technician responsible for performing an AD search?
14. What items need to be included in an AD record entry?
15. What is the difference in content between a TCDS and Aircraft Specifications?
16. In how many volumes are TCDSs published?
17. In which volume would technical information about older aircraft models of
which no more than 50 remain in service be found?
18. What does the designation code 4 P-CSM mean?
19. To what will Note 2 on a TCDS always refer?
20. What is the purpose of an STC?
21. What publication is issued by manufacturers to notify owners of design defects?
22. To which manufacturer’s publication would you refer in locating information on
troubleshooting an aircraft system?
23. What is the purpose of the ATA Specification 100 code?
24. What publication provides a list of the aircraft equipment that must be operable
in order to initiate a flight?
25. What is the purpose of operation specifications?
15
Ground Handling and
Safety
INTRODUCTION
Most aviation technicians devote a portion of their time to ground-handling and taxiing
aircraft. The complexity of today’s aircraft and accompanying ground-support
equipment creates an expensive and dangerous work environment. The purpose of
this chapter is to give you information on the procedures, techniques, and safety
precautions involved in handling and servicing aircraft on the ground. Because of the
many different types of aircraft and aircraft operations, it is possible to provide only
general information and standard practices. For the specific operations applying to a
particular aircraft, the technician should consult the aircraft’s service manual.
FIRE SAFETY
Fire is one of humanity’s greatest discoveries. For all its many advantages,
however, fire is capable of producing disaster in a matter of seconds. Fires
continue to take their toll even though the technological knowledge and
capability exists to prevent and retard fires.
There are four classes of fires, each determined by what is burning. The
most common is that which occurs in ordinary combustible materials:
paper, wood, textiles, and rubbish. It is designated as a Class A fire. Fires
in combustible liquids, such as gasoline, alcohol, oil, grease, and oil-based
paint, form a second category known as Class B fires. The third, Class C
fires, are those occurring in live electrical equipment, such as fuse boxes,
switches, appliances, motors, or generators. Class D fires are those of high
intensity that may occur in certain metals such as magnesium, sodium,
potassium, titanium, and zirconium. The greatest hazard exists when these
metals are in a molten state or in finely divided forms of dust, chips,
turnings, or shavings.
Spontaneous Ignition
Aviation technicians need to be particularly aware of spontaneous
ignition caused by the lubricants and solvents that are used in maintaining
aircraft. Certain materials, such as rags soaked with oil or solvents, are
capable of generating sufficient heat to cause combustion. These rags
should be disposed of in airtight cans.
Extinguishing Agents
Class A fires respond best to water or water-type extinguishers which cool
the fuel below combustion temperatures. Class B and C extinguishers are
effective but not equal to the wetting/cooling action of the Class A
extinguisher.
Class B fires respond to carbon dioxide (CO2), halogenated
hydrocarbons (halons), and dry chemicals, all of which displace the
oxygen in the air, thereby making combustion impossible. Foam is
effective, especially when used in large quantities. Water is ineffective on
Class B fires and in fact will cause the fire to spread.
Class C fires involving electrical wiring, equipment, or current respond
best to carbon dioxide (CO2), which displaces the oxygen in the
atmosphere, making combustion impossible. The CO2 extinguisher must
be equipped with a nonmetallic horn to be approved for use on electrical
fires. Two reasons for this requirement must be considered:
FLIGHT-LINE SAFETY
The source of most accidents on the flight line is that of propellers or
rotors. A propeller or rotor is difficult to see when in operation. Even
personnel familiar with the danger of a turning propeller or rotor
sometimes forget about its presence. Propeller-and-rotor-to-person
accidents differ from other aircraft accidents in that they usually result in
fatal or serious injury. This is because a propeller or rotor rotating under
power, even at slow, idling speed, has sufficient force to inflict serious
injury. It should be remembered that a rotating propeller or rotor is
extremely dangerous and should be treated with extreme caution. Some
manufacturers of propeller and rotor blades use paint schemes to increase
the visibility of the blades. Technicians should give strong consideration to
maintaining the visibility paint scheme of the original manufacturer.
Persons directly involved with aircraft service are most vulnerable to
injuries by propellers or rotors. Working around aircraft places these
individuals in the most likely position for possible propeller or rotor
accidents. Aircraft service personnel should develop the following safety
habits:
TOWING AIRCRAFT
Particular care must be exercised when pulling or pushing an aircraft.
Persons performing towing operations should be thoroughly familiar with
the procedures that apply to the type of aircraft to be moved. When towing
aircraft, the proper tow bar must be used. The wrong type of tow bar or
other makeshift equipment can cause damage to the aircraft.
As illustrated in Fig. 15-4, the tow bar is usually made with fittings for
attachment to the ends of the axles or to the tow fittings on the landing-
gear strut or axle. Large aircraft are towed by means of specially designed
towing vehicles. Figure 15-5 shows a Boeing 747 airplane being towed by
such a vehicle. The aircraft is attached to the towing vehicle by a tow bar
designed for the purpose. In this type of towing, the operator of the towing
vehicle must be in constant communication with the operator of the
aircraft in the cockpit. The operator of the aircraft is also in radio contact
with ground-traffic control in the tower.
FIGURE 15-4 Tow-bar attachment.
During the towing of aircraft, care must be taken to make sure that the
following precautions are followed, otherwise damage to the aircraft may
result:
Hand Propping
Hand propping a starter-equipped engine with a low battery or a defective
starter, although convenient, can expose personnel to a possible accident.
For safety reasons, the replacement of the faulty starter and the use of a
ground power source should be considered rather than hand cranking.
Only experienced persons should do the hand propping, and a reliable
person should be in the cockpit. Hand propping with the cockpit
unoccupied has resulted in many serious accidents.
If the aircraft has no self-starter, the engine must be started by swinging
the propeller. The person who is turning the propeller calls, “Fuel on,
switch off, throttle closed, brakes on.” The person operating the engine
will check these items and repeat the phrase. The switch and the throttle
must not be touched again until the person swinging the prop calls,
“Contact.” The operator will repeat “Contact” and then turn on the switch.
Never turn on the switch and then call, “Contact.”
When swinging the prop, a few simple precautions will help to avoid
accidents. When touching a propeller, always assume that the ignition is
ON. The switches which control the magnetos operate on the principle of
short-circuiting the current to turn the ignition off. If the switch is faulty, it
can be in the OFF position and still permit current to flow in the magneto
primary circuit.
Be sure the ground is firm. Slippery grass, mud, grease, or loose gravel
can lead to a fall into or under the propeller. Never allow any portion of
your body to get in the way of the propeller. This applies even though the
engine is not being cranked.
Stand close enough to the propeller to be able to step away as it is
pulled down. Stepping away after cranking is a safeguard in case the
brakes fail. Do not stand in a position that requires leaning toward the
propeller to reach it. This throws the body off balance and could cause you
to fall into the blades when the engine starts. In swinging the prop, always
move the blade downward by pushing with the palms of the hand. Do not
grip the blade with the fingers curled over the edge, since “kickback” may
break them or draw your body into the blade path.
Starting Turbine Engines
Before starting a gas-turbine engine, it is important to see that the areas in
front of and to the rear of the engines are clear. The airplane should be
resting on clean concrete or asphalt so that no loose material can be drawn
into the inlet of the engines. The area to the rear of a gas-turbine engine is
exposed to intense heat and high-velocity gases when the engine is
running, as is illustrated in Fig. 15-3. Materials or objects that can be
damaged by heat should be cleared from the exhaust area.
With a gas-turbine engine, care must be taken to follow the
manufacturer’s instructions for starting. Since these engines have several
different types of fuel-control units, the operator must know the
procedures to be followed for the particular engine. Basically, the engine
must be rotated to approximately 10% of full speed, ignition must be
provided, and the proper amount of fuel must be delivered to the fuel
nozzles. A manual start for some types of jet engines can be accomplished
as follows:
Taxiing Aircraft
The taxiing of small aircraft is not difficult, but it does require
watchfulness and care. Before starting to taxi, the pilot or the technician
observes carefully to see that no other aircraft, persons, vehicles, or
obstructions are likely to be in or near the taxi route. A small aircraft’s
direction is controlled during taxiing with the use of rudder-pedal steering,
brakes, and, in the case of twin-engine aircraft, differential engine power.
A large aircraft is controlled during taxiing by the use of selective engine
thrust, the nose-wheel steering system, and the brakes. The geometric
arrangement of the main landing gear can result in different ground-
maneuvering characteristics for different aircraft. Basic factors that
influence the geometry of a turn are as follows:
Jacking Aircraft
Since jacking procedures and safety precautions vary for different types of
aircraft, only general jacking procedures and precautions are discussed
here. Consult the applicable aircraft manufacturer’s maintenance
instructions for specific jacking procedures. In jacking one wheel only, a
small jack can be used at the landing-gear jack pad. This procedure is
employed when tires are being changed and when brakes are being
repaired or serviced. When only one set of wheels has to be raised, a low
single-base jack is used, as shown in Fig. 15-15. Before the wheel is
raised, the remaining wheels must be chocked fore and aft to prevent
movement of the aircraft. The wheel should be raised only high enough to
clear the floor.
For jacking the complete aircraft, wide-base jacks, such as the large
tripod types shown in Fig. 15-16, should be used because of the greater
stability they afford. The size and configuration of the aircraft will dictate
the type and number of jacks needed to raise it. Many small aircraft are
raised by using a jack under each wing spar and a weighted tail stand, as
shown in Fig. 15-17. If this method is used, be sure to consult the
manufacturer’s recommendations on the amount of weight needed.
Transport-category aircraft may use several jacks, with three or four jacks
being used to raise the aircraft and additional jacks being inserted to
stabilize it after it has been jacked up. Figure 15-18 illustrates the jack
points on a Boeing 747. The airplane is provided with three main jacking
points and five stabilizing jacking points. The primary jacking points are
at the wing-body junction and the tail. The five stabilizing points are
located with one at the nose and two under each wing.
Many aircraft have jack pads located at the jack points. Others have
removable jack pads or jacking adapters that are inserted into receptacles
prior to jacking (see Fig. 15-19). The correct jack pad should be used in all
cases. The function of the jack pad is to ensure that the aircraft load is
properly distributed at the jack point and to provide a convex bearing
surface to mate with the concave jack stem.
Hoisting
It is often necessary to hoist airplanes and helicopters in order to perform
certain service and maintenance operations. When hoisting the entire
airplane or any of the airplane components, it is recommended that
hoisting slings, manufactured specifically for the airplane, be used. These
slings are designed to lift the airplane or components from the
approximate center of gravity. Most fuselage hoist slings are adjustable to
allow for different weight and center-of-gravity variations. Figure 15-20
illustrates an aircraft and its components being hoisted with a sling.
FIGURE 15-20 Aircraft sling. (Rockwell International.)
GROUND-SUPPORT EQUIPMENT
Ground-support equipment is needed primarily for the operation of aircraft
on the ground when the aircraft engines are not operating. In some cases,
small ground-support units, such as battery carts, preoil units, and test
units, are used with light aircraft, but this is not usually a regular and
ongoing procedure, as it is with large aircraft. Ground-support units for
large aircraft include electrical power supplies, air-conditioning and/or air-
supply units, hydraulic test units, and various service units. The units used
on a regular basis are those supplying electric power and air for starting
engines, ventilating, heating, and cooling.
When a battery cart is to be used, the technician must determine that the
voltage and capacity of the unit is compatible with the system voltage of
the aircraft being serviced. A 12-V power supply cannot service a 24-V
system, and a 24-V power supply will cause severe damage if connected to
a 12-V system.
A specially designed receptacle is usually installed in the aircraft system
to make it impossible to connect the power supply with the wrong polarity
(+/−). The plug on the power-supply cable cannot be inserted into such an
aircraft receptacle unless the polarity is correct. In all cases, the master
switch of the aircraft should be off when the battery cart is being
connected or disconnected to the aircraft.
A mobile electrical power unit consists of engine-driven generators
mounted on a trailer or a truck, such as the power supply pictured in Fig.
15-22. It is designed to supply the correct type of power (ac or dc) and the
correct voltage and capacity for the aircraft that it is to service.
The air needed for servicing an aircraft must be warm and oil free.
Some types of compressors require that oil separators be installed in the
outlet line to eliminate oil from the air. The screw-type compressor does
not require an oil separator because no oil is used to lubricate the screw
elements. The screws are precision machined and timed so there is no
contact between them as they rotate.
A cutaway view of a screw compressor is shown in Fig. 15-24. It
consists of two screw helical rotors that mate with a very small clearance
that does not allow an appreciable amount of air leakage. The male rotor
has four lobes and turns 50% faster than the female rotor. The effect is to
continuously compress the air as it moves from the inlet to the outlet. This
is because the air space between the rotor lobes decreases continuously
from the inlet to the outlet.
Air is drawn into the compressor through the inlet port, and it then
moves into the space between the lobes. As the rotors revolve further, the
air inlet is sealed and the compression of the air begins. The rotary motion
produces a smooth compression that continues until each groove in turn
reaches the beginning of the outlet port. The air is then forced smoothly
out of the compressor, and the outlet end is sealed again, ready for the next
cycle. No special inlet and outlet valves are needed because both the inlet
and the outlet ports are automatically covered and uncovered by the ends
of the rotors.
The most effective and economical air supply for large aircraft is the
stationary type. A system of this kind is limited to new airports or those
that are being extensively remodeled. This is because the air piping must
be installed under the runways and aprons. The initial cost of this
installation is higher than for the use of mobile units; however, the savings
in operating costs quickly make up for the difference.
With a fixed air supply, there is one location for all the compressors,
and the compressors are driven by efficient electric motors. Since electric-
power costs are substantially lower than fuel costs, the economic
advantages are considerable. The compressors are large screw-type units
capable of starting several turbine engines at once. Maintenance costs are
very low because of the trouble-free electric motors and the screw-type
compressors.
The fixed air system eliminates the need for ground units adjacent to the
airplanes. This eliminates air and noise pollution and reduces traffic clutter
around the airplanes.
FUELING
Perhaps the most common service operation on aircraft is the filling of
fuel tanks. Improper fueling procedures have caused many aircraft
accidents and in-flight incidents. Fueling personnel should be familiar
with the fuel requirements for the models and types of aircraft they are
servicing. The following paragraphs contain a description of the problems
that may be encountered in fueling aircraft and the recommended
procedures for combating these problems.
Fuel Contamination
Fuel is contaminated when it contains any material that was not provided
under the fuel specification. This material generally consists of water, rust,
sand, dust, microbial growth, and certain additives that are not compatible
with the fuel, fuel-system materials, and engines.
Water Contamination
All aviation fuels absorb moisture from the air and contain water in both
suspended-particle and liquid form. The amount of suspended particles
varies with the temperature of the fuel. Whenever the temperature of the
fuel is decreased, some of the suspended particles are drawn out of the
solution and slowly fall to the bottom of the tank. Whenever the
temperature of the fuel increases, water is drawn from the atmosphere to
maintain a saturated solution. Changes in fuel temperature, therefore,
result in a continuous accumulation of water. During freezing
temperatures, this water may turn to ice, restricting or stopping the fuel
flow.
There is no way of preventing the accumulation of water formed
through condensation in fuel tanks. The accumulation is certain, and the
rate of accumulation will vary; therefore, storage tanks, fuel-truck tanks,
and aircraft fuel tanks should be checked daily for the presence of water.
Any water discovered should be removed immediately. Adequate settling
time is necessary for accurate testing. The minimum settling time for
aviation gasoline is 15 minutes per foot-depth of fuel and 60 minutes per
foot-depth of turbine fuel. Testing storage tanks and fuel trucks may be
done by attaching water-detecting paste or litmus paper to the bottom of
the tank dipstick. The procedure is to push the dipstick to the bottom of
the tank and hold it there for 30 seconds. When the dipstick is removed,
the detecting paste or litmus paper will have changed color if water is
present.
Microorganism Contamination
Other Contaminations
Pipelines, storage tanks, fuel trucks, and drum containers tend to produce
rust that can be carried in the fuel in small-sized particles. Turbine fuels
tend to dislodge rust and scale and carry them in suspension. Fuel may
also be contaminated with dust and sand, which enters through openings in
the tanks and through the use of fuel-handling equipment that is not clean.
Contamination Control
The presence of any contamination in fuel systems is dangerous.
Laboratory and field tests have demonstrated that when water is
introduced into a gasoline tank, it immediately settles to the bottom. Fuel
tanks are constructed with sumps to trap this water. Most fuel-dispensing
equipment includes filters to remove the liquid, dust, and rust particles
from the fuel. It is advisable when fueling from drums to use a 5-micron
filter or, as a last resort, a chamois-skin filter and filter funnel.
It is impossible to keep water from forming in airplane tanks; therefore,
it is necessary to regularly drain the airplane’s fuel sumps in order to
remove all water from the system. It may be necessary to gently rock the
wings of some aircraft while draining sumps to completely drain all the
water. On certain tail-wheel-type aircraft, raising the tail to a level-flight
attitude may result in additional flow of water to the gascolator or main
fuel strainer. If left undrained, the water accumulates and will pass through
the fuel line to the engine where it may cause the engine to stop operating.
The elimination of contaminants from aviation fuel may not be entirely
possible, but these contaminants can be controlled by the application of
good “housekeeping” habits.
Octane Color
80 Red
100LL Blue
115 (military use only) Purple
Jet A Clear or straw colored
New Fuels
Autogas
Many owners of airplanes designed to use 80-octane aviation gas (avgas)
have switched to automobile gas (autogas) fuel instead of using 100LL.
Aside from the economic advantages, many 80-octane engines seem to run
better on autogas than on either 80-or 100-octane avgas. Moreover, in an
FAA study, autogas was found to have no detrimental effects on low-
compression engines, and although some questions have been raised about
the ability of autogas to resist vapor lock, the FAA found no conclusive
evidence that quality autogas would cause vapor-lock problems in aircraft.
The key is in knowing the quality of the fuel. Alcohols are often added to
auto fuel between the refinery and the local merchant. Alcohol in autogas
causes several problems in airplanes. It causes the fuel to be less resistant
to vapor lock, to retain water in suspension, and to deteriorate rubber seals
in the fuel system.
Automobile fuel has been approved for use in the engines of numerous
aircraft. These aircraft may be operated on automobile fuel under the
provisions of supplemental type certificates.
Turbine Fuels
There are two types of turbine fuel in common use today: (1) kerosene-
grade turbine fuel, now named Jet A, and (2) a blend of gasoline and
kerosene fractions, designated Jet B. There is a third type, called Jet A-1,
which is made for operation at extremely low temperatures.
There is very little physical difference between Jet A (JP-5) fuel and
commercial kerosene. Jet A was developed as a heavy kerosene, having a
higher flash point and lower freezing point than most kerosenes. It has a
very low vapor pressure, so there is little loss of fuel from evaporation or
boil off at higher altitudes. It contains more heat energy per gallon than
does Jet B (JP-4).
Nevertheless, Jet B is similar to Jet A. It is a blend of gasoline and
kerosene fractions. Most commercial turbine engines will operate on either
Jet A or Jet B fuel. However, the difference in the specific gravity of the
fuels may require fuel-control adjustments. Therefore, the fuels cannot
always be considered interchangeable. Both Jet A and Jet B fuels are
blends of heavy distillates and tend to absorb water. The specific gravity
of jet fuels, especially kerosene, is closer to water than that of aviation
gasoline; thus, any water introduced into the fuel, either through refueling
or condensation, will take an appreciable time to settle out. At high
altitudes, where low temperatures are encountered, water droplets combine
with the fuel to form a frozen substance referred to as gel. The mass of
gel, or “icing,” that may be generated from the moisture held in
suspension in jet fuel can be much greater than that in gasoline.
Turbine-Fuel Additives
Certain turbine-engine-powered aircraft require the use of fuel containing
anti-icing additives. Therefore, fuel personnel must know whether or not
the fuels they dispense contain additives. When anti-icing additives are to
be added to the fuel, the manufacturer’s instructions (usually printed on
the container) should be followed to ensure the proper mixture. Anti-icing-
additive content in excess of 0.15% by volume of fuel is not
recommended, as higher concentrations can cause the aircraft fuel-
capacitance system to give erroneous indications.
Certain oil companies, in developing products to cope with aircraft fuel
icing problems, found that their products also checked “bug” growth.
These products, known as biocides, are usually referred to as additives.
However, some additives may not be compatible with the fuel or the
materials in the fuel system and may be harmful to other parts of the
engine with which they come in contact. Additives that have not been
approved by the manufacturer and the FAA should not be used.
Fuel-Tank Markings
Federal Aviation Regulations Part 23, Section 23.1557(c) (1), requires that
aircraft fuel-filler openings be marked with the word FUEL, and the
minimum fuel grade or designation for the engines. Typical fuel-tank
markings are illustrated in Fig. 15-25. It is equally important that tank
vehicles be conspicuously marked to show the type of fuel carried. The
marking should be of a color in sharp contrast to that of the vehicle and in
lettering at least 12 in tall. This marking should be on each side and on the
rear of the tank vehicles. Additionally, the tank vehicles’ hose lines should
be marked by labels next to the nozzle and every 6 ft.
FIGURE 15-25 Typical fuel-tank markings.
Overwing Fueling
When using the overwing method, the fuel-filler hose should be draped
over the wing’s leading edge (as is demonstrated in Fig. 15-26). Never lay
the fuel-filler hose over the wing’s trailing edge because aircraft structural
damage may result. A simple rubber shower mat may be used to provide
protection for the wing’s leading edge during fuel operation. Step ladders
or padded upright ladders may be used to provide easy access to high-
wing and large aircraft. Avoid standing on wing surfaces, and never stand
on wing struts. Hold the fuel nozzle firmly while it is inserted in the fuel-
tank filler neck, and never block the nozzle lever in the open position. Be
sure that the fuel filler caps are replaced and securely latched when fueling
is completed.
FIGURE 15-26 Overwing fueling.
Pressure Fueling
Most large transport-category aircraft are fueled from a single point under
the wing or fuselage, as demonstrated in Fig. 15-27. This means that a fuel
hose can be connected at one point under the wing or fuselage of the
aircraft to refuel the entire system or that a fueling station is provided
under each wing so that all the tanks in one wing can be fueled from one
station.
FIGURE 15-27 Pressure fueling.
This type of pressure fueling greatly reduces the time required to fuel
large aircraft. Other advantages of the pressure-fueling process are that it
eliminates aircraft skin damage and hazards to personnel as well as
reduces the chances for fuel contamination. Pressure fueling also reduces
the chance of static electricity igniting fuel vapors; thus the need for the
static ground wire is eliminated.
Defueling Aircraft
The defueling of aircraft is critical in that the danger of fire is increased
by empty fuel tanks filled with flammable vapors and by the vapors
produced by spilled fuel, particularly gasoline. The technician involved
with defueling should take every precaution to reduce the possibility of
fire and should observe every rule and regulation established to prevent
and combat fires. The safety of the procedure is the prime consideration.
Defueling procedures are usually given in manufacturer’s aircraft
maintenance manuals; however, these cannot always give consideration to
the conditions that may exist at the time and place of defueling. The
technician involved must, therefore, exercise great care in her or his
preparations and performance to ensure that all precautions have been
observed.
When an airplane is to be defueled, the following general rules should
be followed unless other procedures which are just as effective have been
established by the aircraft operator or operational organization:
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What method should be used to remove spilled gasoline from a hangar floor?
2. What are some safety precautions that should be followed when moving
compressed-gas cylinders?
3. What three ingredients are essential for a fire?
4. List the different classifications of fire.
5. Why are oil-soaked rags a fire hazard?
6. What type of fire extinguisher agent is recommended for a Class B fire?
7. What three conditions are necessary for the starting of an internal-combustion
engine?
8. Why should a reciprocating engine be rotated by hand or with the starter before
it is started?
9. What should be checked with regard to a radial engine before starting?
10. Describe the precautions that should be taken with respect to the surrounding
area before starting a gas-turbine engine.
11. What is a hot start and what action should be taken when such a start occurs?
12. What is a hung start?
13. What factors influence the geometry of a turn when taxiing?
14. By what means are aircraft tied down when parked?
15. What precaution must be observed in using hemp rope to tie down an airplane?
16. What is the purpose of gust locks?
17. Under what conditions is it advisable to leave the parking brakes off on a
parked aircraft?
18. Why is it important to use specially designed jacking points when jacking
aircraft?
19. What are the advantages of fixed electrical power supplies over mobile units?
20. For what purposes is a ground air supply required on large aircraft?
21. List some examples of fuel contamination.
22. What color is 100LL avgas?
23. What markings should be found adjacent to a fuel filler opening on an aircraft?
24. What are two methods of fueling aircraft?
25. What are the advantages of pressure fueling?
16
Aircraft Inspection and
Servicing
INTRODUCTION
Airplanes are designed and built to provide many years of service. For an airplane to
remain airworthy and safe to operate, it should be operated in accordance with the
recommendations of the manufacturer and cared for with sound inspection and
maintenance practices. The Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs) require the
inspection of all civil aircraft at specific intervals to make sure that the aircraft’s
condition is equal to its original or properly altered condition with regard to
aerodynamic function, structural strength, and resistance to vibration.
Aircraft inspection may range from a casual “walk around” to a detailed inspection
involving complete disassembly and the use of complex inspection aids. This chapter
will discuss aircraft inspection requirements and practices as well as review activities,
such as servicing and lubrication, that generally accompany inspections.
Progressive Inspections
The progressive inspection system has been designed to schedule
inspections of aircraft on a predetermined basis. The purpose of the
program is to allow maximum use of the aircraft, to reduce inspection
costs, and to maintain a maximum standard of continuous airworthiness.
This system is particularly adaptable to larger multiengine aircraft and
aircraft operated by companies and corporations where high use is
demanded. A progressive inspection satisfies the complete airplane
inspection requirements of both the 100-hour and annual inspections. The
instructions and schedule for a progressive inspection must be approved
by a representative of the local district office of the FAA having
jurisdiction over the area in which the applicant for the progressive
inspection is located. Approval for such an inspection system requires that
a person holding an inspection authorization supervise the inspection
program and that an inspection-procedures manual be available and
readily understandable to the pilot and the maintenance personnel.
The frequency and detail of the progressive inspection must provide for
the complete inspection of the aircraft within each 12 calendar months and
be consistent with the manufacturer’s recommendations, field-service
experience, and the kind of operation in which the aircraft is engaged. The
progressive inspection schedule must ensure that the aircraft, at all times,
is airworthy and conforms to all applicable Aircraft Specifications, Type
Certificate Data Sheets, Airworthiness Directives, and other approved data
such as service bulletins and service letters issued by the manufacturer. If
the progressive inspection is discontinued, the owner or operator must
immediately notify the local FAA district office in writing. After the
discontinuance, the first annual inspection is due within 12 calendar
months after the last complete inspection under the progressive inspection
schedule. The 100-hour inspection required by FAR Part 91 is due within
100 hours of operation after that same complete inspection.
A typical progressive inspection schedule is shown in Fig. 16-3. Under
this program, the airplane is inspected and maintained in four operations,
called events, scheduled at 50-hour intervals. The events are arranged so
that a 200-hour flying cycle results in a complete aircraft inspection.
Inspection Programs
Large aircraft (over 12 500 lb) and turbine-powered multiengine aircraft
are excluded from using 100-hour or annual and progressive inspections.
Because of their complexity, the inspection programs for these aircraft
tend to be more specific than the 100-hour or annual inspections. FAR
Section 91.409 provides four options to the owner or operator in the
selection of an inspection program:
Walk-Around Inspections
To keep an aircraft in proper operating condition and to locate defects that
arise between major inspections, manufacturers recommend various types
of walk-around and preflight inspections. Frequent minor inspections of
airliners are conducted by flight engineers or maintenance personnel. The
inspections are usually conducted at every stop at which time permits (see
Fig. 16-5). For example, the inspector might carry a flashlight and check
the interior of the tailpipe for the condition of the turbines and thrust
reversers. The inspector further might check the tires, look for fluid leaks,
and examine the fuselage and control surfaces for wrinkles and any other
condition that indicates deterioration or damage.
Special Inspections
In addition to the regularly scheduled inspections, many manufacturers
provide for special inspections that are to be performed in the event that
the aircraft is subjected to stresses outside of its normal operating
environment. These inspections may be for such events as lightning
strikes, sudden engine stoppages, severe wind-gust loads, or extremely
hard landings. Since these inspections tend to be very specific in nature, it
is necessary to refer to the manufacturer’s maintenance manual for
performance details.
CONDUCTING A 100-HOUR OR
ANNUAL INSPECTION
Although specific inspection practices and procedures will vary depending
on the size of the aircraft and the type of inspection being conducted, the
basic fundamentals followed in conducting an inspection do not change.
Inspection Preparation
The inspection process commences with the owner requesting that an
inspection be performed on the airplane. At this point a work order should
be filled out itemizing the work that is to be accomplished. A firm
understanding should be reached about the cost of the inspection, what is
included in this cost (e.g., servicing, lubrication, airworthiness directive
compliance, and so on), and the approximate time period planned for
completing the inspection. In order to gain a better understanding of the
history and the present condition of the aircraft, it is necessary to obtain
the airplane’s maintenance records for thorough study and review.
An important part of the preinspection process is researching
airworthiness directives (ADs) and service bulletins. The technician must
determine whether all applicable airworthiness directives on the aircraft,
powerplant, propeller, instruments, and appliances have actually been
accomplished.
If the maintenance records indicate compliance with an AD, the
technician should make a reasonable attempt to verify this. The reason for
this verification is that it is not uncommon for a component that was
brought into compliance with an AD and properly recorded to then be
replaced by another component which had not yet been brought into
compliance with the AD. Additional information on airworthiness
directives is located in Chapter 14.
The FAA general aviation airworthiness alerts (AC43-15) are also an
important source of service experience. These alerts are selected service
difficulties reported to the FAA on malfunction or defect reports. It makes
sense to use the experiences other persons have had on similar products.
These publications help ensure that a problem area is not overlooked.
Prior to beginning the inspection, the checklist to be used should be
located, along with discrepancy forms, the appropriate maintenance
manual, and the Type Certificate Data Sheet.
The tools needed to perform the inspection should then be readied.
Inspection tools can be many and varied, ranging from a pocket-sized
magnifying glass to a complete X-ray machine. The principal tools for
most inspectors are a flashlight and an inspection mirror; however,
additional items such as a magneto-timing light, compression tester, and
jacks are among the other tools usually required.
Lubrication
As is true of any item of machinery where moving parts bear against one
another, lubrication is required at many locations in an aircraft. The type
of lubrication for each point is determined by the type of bearing, the
bearing loads, the frequency and speed of the movement, the temperatures
at the bearing, and the materials that bear against one another. Lubricants
used for aircraft may be ordinary lubricating oil such as that used in the
engine, lightweight lubricating oil, various weights of greases, high-
pressure (HP) grease, low-temperature grease, high-temperature grease,
graphite, silicone, and other special lubricants.
The frequency of lubrication for each lubrication point in an aircraft is
specified by the manufacturer together with the type of lubricant, the
method of application, and any special instructions. Information regarding
lubrication is provided in the manufacturer’s maintenance manual for each
model of aircraft.
Commercial airlines develop their own schedules and procedures for
lubrication of their aircraft. Lubrication is usually detailed and
accomplished as a part of the continuous airworthiness maintenance
program.
Lubrication information for light airplanes is often presented in the form
of charts and tables. Figure 16-9 is a chart for a light twin-engine airplane.
Information and instructions for the use of the chart are shown in Fig. 16-
10. The parts nomenclature is given in Fig. 16-11.
SERVICING AIRCRAFT
Servicing aircraft requires great care and attention to detail, regardless of
the type of aircraft being serviced or the particular service being
performed. The servicing of particular aircraft and their components is
usually described in great detail in the manufacturers’ maintenance and
service manuals. Instructions given in these manuals should be followed
for the satisfactory and safe performance of aircraft.
Engine-Oil Service
The oil quantity for small aircraft should be checked daily or before each
flight. The dipstick is marked to show the maximum quantity of oil
permitted in the engine sump or tank. If the dipstick shows that the oil is
near or below the required minimum level, oil must be added. In no case
should the oil level be permitted to rise above the maximum line. The oil
sump or tank must have sufficient foaming space to allow for the
expansion of the oil and the development of foam.
Aircraft manufacturers usually give specific instructions regarding the
engine-oil service. Typical of such instructions are those provided by the
Cessna Aircraft Company for the Model 421 airplane:
Check oil level before each flight. Capacity for each engine-oil sump is 13 U.S.
quarts, which includes 1 quart for oil filter. (Do not take off on less than 9 quarts.)
When preflight shows less than 9 quarts, service with aviation-grade engine oil,
SAE 30 below 40°F, SAE 50 above 40°F. The aircraft is delivered from the factory
with straight mineral oil; therefore it will be necessary during the break-in period or
first 50 hours of operation to add straight mineral oil. Multiviscosity oil with a range
of SAE 10W30 is recommended for improved starting and turbocharger controller
operation in cold weather. Detergent or dispersant oil conforming to Continental
Motors Specification MHS-24A must be used after the first 50 hours of new or
overhauled engine operation.
Oxygen-System Service
Oxygen supplies should be replaced whenever the oxygen-pressure gauge
(or gauges) show that the supply is low. Oxygen bottles (tanks) should be
serviced only with breathing oxygen. In removing and replacing the units
of an oxygen system, oils, greases, or other petroleum products must not
be used for the lubrication of parts or fittings. Only an approved oxygen-
system lubricant should be used. A suitable lubricant for oxygen-system
fittings is military specification MIL-T-5542-B or an equivalent.
Oxygen systems that use compressed gaseous oxygen are replenished
by means of an oxygen-service unit containing breathing oxygen. Service
is accomplished by connecting the ground-service unit to the remote fill
line of the system and opening the valves required to permit oxygen to
flow into the system. Care must be taken to observe the oxygen pressure
and to avoid overfilling the system.
WARNING: Avoid making sparks and keep all burning cigarettes or
fire away from the vicinity of the airplane when working on the oxygen
system. Inspect the filler connection for cleanliness before attaching it to
the filler valve. Make sure that your hands, tools, and clothing are clean,
particularly of grease and oil, because these contaminants will ignite upon
contact with pure oxygen under pressure. As a further precaution against
fire, open and close all oxygen valves slowly during filling.
Some airliners are equipped with chemical-oxygen generators instead of
supplying the system with gaseous oxygen from a tank. These systems use
a sodium chlorate core, which, when fired, generates pure oxygen that is
fed through a filter to the oxygen outlets. Servicing these units involves
replacing the oxygen generator.
Servicing Batteries
In servicing batteries, it is most important to know whether a battery is a
lead-acid type or an alkaline type, such as a nickel-cadmium battery.
Service procedures for the different types vary considerably. The service
manual or the instructions for the battery should be consulted unless the
technician is thoroughly familiar with the procedure.
Lead-Acid Batteries
Whenever checking a battery, determine that all the connections are clean
and tight and the fluid level is above the baffle plates. If it is necessary to
add fluid, use distilled water. Do not overfill the battery. When the cells
are overfilled, water and acid may spill on the lower portions of the
fuselage. A hydrometer check should be performed to determine the
percentage of charge present in the battery.
Corrosion on the battery terminals and connections may be neutralized
by applying a solution of baking soda and water mixed to the consistency
of thin cream. Do not allow any of this soda solution to enter the battery.
Repeat this application until all bubbling action has ceased before washing
the battery and box with clean water.
Nickel-Cadmium Batteries
Tires
Maintaining proper tire inflation will minimize tread wear and help
prevent tire ruptures caused from running over sharp stones and ruts.
When inflating tires, visually inspect them for cracks and breaks. Reverse
the tires on the wheels, if necessary, to produce even wear. All tires and
wheels are balanced before installation and the relationship of tire, tube,
and wheel should be maintained upon reinstallation. Out-of-balance
wheels can cause extreme vibration in the landing gear during takeoff and
landing. When landing, tires grow slightly due to the shock load.
Normally, this growth is balanced by tread wear so there is no increase in
the tire diameter.
OPERATIONAL INSPECTION
Before an aircraft may be approved for return to service after an annual or
100-hour inspection, FAR 43.15 requires that the engines be operated.
To determine satisfactory performance, in accordance with the
manufacturer’s recommendations, of
MAINTENANCE RECORDS
In the process of returning an aircraft to service after completing an
inspection or performing maintenance, technicians will encounter a
number of official forms, including maintenance records relating to their
work. A properly completed maintenance record provides the information
needed by the owner or operator and the maintenance personnel to
determine when scheduled maintenance is to be performed. Aircraft
maintenance record keeping is a responsibility shared by the owner and
the maintenance technician, with the ultimate responsibility assigned to
the owner by FAR 91.417.
A properly executed set of maintenance records will save the owner
money since maintenance personnel will spend less time in research to
establish the status of the item to be worked on. Good records are also
invaluable to maintenance personnel in troubleshooting aircraft
malfunctions.
Cleaning Tires
Tires should be cleaned with an emulsion cleaner or with soap or detergent
and water. Petroleum solvents cause the deterioration of natural rubber and
therefore should not be applied to rubber tires. Small oil or grease spots
can be cleaned off with a cloth dampened with a petroleum solvent,
provided that the spot is wiped dry immediately.
Interior Cleaning
To remove dust and loose dirt from the upholstery and carpet, clean the
interior regularly with a vacuum cleaner.
Oily spots may be cleaned with a household spot remover, used
sparingly. Before using any solvent, read the instructions on the container
and test it on an obscure place on the fabric to be cleaned. Never saturate
the fabric with a volatile solvent because it may damage the padding and
backing materials.
Soiled upholstery and carpet may be cleaned with a foam-type
detergent, used according to the manufacturer’s instructions. To minimize
wetting the fabric, keep the foam as dry as possible and remove it with a
vacuum cleaner.
If the airplane is equipped with leather seating, clean the seats by using
a soft cloth or a sponge dipped in mild soap suds. The soap suds, used
sparingly, will remove traces of dirt and grease. The soap should be
removed with a clean, damp cloth.
The plastic trim, headliner, instrument panel, and control knobs need
only be wiped off with a damp cloth. Oil and grease on the control wheel
and control knobs can be removed with a cloth moistened with Stoddard
solvent. Volatile solvents, such as were mentioned in the paragraphs on the
care of plastic windshields, must never be used since they soften and craze
plastic.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the difference between an annual inspection and a 100-hour
inspection? How are they alike?
2. What condition requires the performance of 100-hour inspections on aircraft?
3. How often is an annual inspection required?
4. Why is a checklist required when making an annual or a 100-hour inspection?
5. Who may perform a 100-hour inspection?
6. Who is authorized to perform an annual inspection?
7. What inspection requirements does a progressive inspection satisfy?
8. Who must supervise a progressive inspection?
9. What inspection-program options are available to the operators of turbine-
powered multiengine airplanes?
10. From what sources may a technician select an inspection checklist?
11. What condition requires the performance of an altimeter and static-pressure-
system inspection?
12. How often must a transponder be inspected?
13. What are the principal tools used for inspecting an aircraft?
14. What is the purpose of a discrepancy list?
15. What two criteria must be met for an aircraft to be declared airworthy?
16. What should be done if the Airworthiness Certificate cannot be located during
the inspection?
17. What precautions should be taken when servicing an oxygen system?
18. What items are required to be checked during the performance of an
operational inspection?
19. What are the advantages of a well-organized set of maintenance records?
20. What happens to permanent aircraft records when an aircraft is sold?
21. How long must temporary aircraft records be kept?
22. What items must be included in an inspection record entry?
23. What items must be included in a maintenance record entry?
24. What is the purpose of FAA Form 337?
25. Give the number and distribution of copies required when Form 337 is
prepared.
Appendix
A Amperes, area
AA The Aluminum Association
AAIP Approved aircraft inspection program
ABC After bottom center (piston)
ABDC After bottom dead center
AC Air Corps; advisory circular
ac Alternating current
AD Airworthiness directive
ADF Automatic direction finder
ADMA Aviation Distributors and Manufacturers Association
AF Air Force
AIAA American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
AISI American Iron and Steel Institute
AMS Aeronauticals Materials Specification
AN Air Force—Navy
AND Air Force—Navy Design
A & P Airframe and Powerplant
APU Auxiliary power unit
AR Aspect ratio
AS Aeronautical Standard
ASTM American Society for Testing Materials
ATA Air Transport Association of America
ATC After top center
ATDC After top dead center
avdp Avoirdupois pound
b Wing span
BBC Before bottom center
BBDC Before bottom dead center
BC Bottom center
BDC Bottom dead center
BF Buoyant force
bhp Brake horsepower
BITE Built-in test equipment
bmep Brake mean effective pressure
bsfc Brake-specific fuel consumption
BTC Before top center
Btu British thermal unit
c Average wing chord
C Celsius; center; centigrade
CAB Civil Aeronautics Board
CAS Calibrated airspeed
CAT Carburetor air temperature
CD Coefficient of drag
C-D Converging-diverging nozzle (jet engine)
CDP Compressor discharge pressure
CDT Compressor discharge temperature
CG Center of gravity
CHT Cylinder head temperature
CIP Compressor inlet pressure
CIT Compressor inlet temperature
CL Centerline
CL Coefficient of lift
CM Coefficient of pitching moment
CP Center of pressure
CPR Compressor discharge (pressure) ratio
CRS Certified repair station
cs Root chord
CSD Constant-speed drive
cT Tip chord
D Drag
dB Decibel
dm Decimeter
DME Distance-measuring equipment compatible with TACAN
dyn Dyne
E Electromotive force (voltage)
EAS Equivalent airspeed
EC Exhaust valve closes
EGT Exhaust gas temperature
EPR Engine pressure ratio
eshp Equivalent shaft horsepower
EVC Engine vane control
EW Empty weight
EWCG Empty weight center of gravity
F Fahrenheit; force; thrust
F Net thrust
F Ram drag of engine airflow
FAA Federal Aviation Administration
FAR Federal Aviation Regulation
FE Flight environment
FED Federal
Fg Gross thrust
FM Fan marker for ILS; frequency modulation
FSDO Flight Standards District Office (FAA)
g Gram
GADO General Aviation District Office (FAA)
GAMA General Aviation Manufacturers Association
GAW General-Aircraft-Wing
GS Glide slope of ILS
Hg Mercury
Hz Hertz
I Electric current (amperage)
IA Inspection authorization (FAA)
IC Intake valve closes
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization
IFR Instrument flight rules
IGV Inlet guide vanes
ILS Instrument landing system
IO Intake valve opens
IPC Illustrated parts catalog
K Kelvin
Kt Knot
kPa Kilopascals
L Lift
L/D Lift/drag ratio
LDA Localizer-type directional aid
LE Leading edge
LF Low frequency
LOC Localizer of ILS: location
LORAN Long-range navigation equipment
M Moment
M Mach number
MA Mechanical advantage
MAC Mean aerodynamic chord
MAP Manifold pressure (absolute)
M or D Malfunction or defect report
MEK Methyl-ethyl-ketone
MEL Minimum equipment list
METO Maximum except takeoff (power)
MIL Military
MM Middle marker for ILS
MS Material Standard; Military Standard
MSL Mean sea level
MWCL Main-wheel center line
N Newton
NACA National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
(superseded)
NAF Naval Aircraft Factory
NAS National Aerospace Standard; Navy Aircraft Standard
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NDB Nondirectional beacon (ADF)
NPRM Notice of proposed rule making
NTC Negative torque control
NTS Negative torque signal
OAT Outside air temperature
OBAWS On-board aircraft weighing system
OGV Outlet guide vanes
OM Outer marker for ILS
P Pressure
p Density
PALS Precision aircraft landing system
PMA Parts manufacturing authorization
psi Per square inch
PVA Polyvinyl alcohol
PVC Polyvinyl chloride
Q Dynamic pressure
R Rankine; Reynolds number
RBN Radio beacon
rpm Revolutions per minute
S Airfoil area
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
sfc Specific fuel consumption
SPEC Specification
STC Supplemental type certificate
STD Standard
∑ The sum of
T Temperature
TACAN Ultra-high-frequency tactical air navigation aid
TAS True airspeed
TAFI Turn-around fault isolation
TC Top center; type certificate
TCDS Type Certificate Data Sheet
TDC Top dead center
TET Turbine exhaust temperature
T/F Turbofan
TIP Turbine inlet pressure
TIT Turbine inlet temperature
T/J Turbojet
TOP Turbine outlet pressure
TOT Turbine outlet temperature
T/S Turboshaft
tsfc Thrust-specific fuel consumption
TSO Technical standard order (FAA)
TSS Thrust-sensitive signal
UHF Ultra-high frequency
V Velocity; volts; volume
VA Design maneuvering speed (aircraft operation)
VB Design speed for maximum gust intensity
VC Design cruising speed
VD Design diving speed
VDF/MDF Demonstrated flight diving speed
VF Design flap speed
VFC/MFC Maximum speed for stability characteristics
VFE Maximum flap extended speed
VFR Visual flight rules
VH Maximum speed in level flight with maximum
continuous power
VHF Very high frequency
VIGV Variable inlet guide vanes
VLE Maximum landing gear extended speed
VLO Maximum landing gear operating speed
VLOF Lift-off speed
VMC Minimum control speed with critical engine inoperative
VMO/MMO Maximum operating limit speed
VNE Never exceed speed
VOR Very-high-frequency omnirange station
VORTACCollocated VOR and TACAN
VR Rotation speed (aircraft takeoff)
VS Stalling speed or minimum steady flight speed at which
the airplane is controllable
VSO Stalling speed or the minimum steady flight speed in the
landing configuration
VSI Stalling speed or the minimum steady flight speed
obtained in a specific configuration
VTOL Vertical takeoff and landing
VV Variable viscosity
VX Speed for best angle of climb
VY Speed for best rate of climb
V1 Critical engine failure speed
V2 Takeoff safety speed
W Weight
Central Region
Governing Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, and Nebraska
901 Locust St.
Kansas City, MO 64106-2641
(816) 329-3050
Eastern Region
Governing Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, and New York
159-30 Rockaway Boulevard
Jamaica, NY 11434-4848
(718) 553-3001
Southern Region
Governing Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Mississippi, North
Carolina, Puerto Rico, South Carolina, Tennessee, and the Virgin Islands
1701 Columbia Avenue
College Park, GA 30337
(404) 305-5000
Southwest Region
Governing Arkansas, Louisiana, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas
2601 Meacham Boulevard
Fort Worth, TX 76137
(817) 222-5000
Western-Pacific Region
Governing Arizona, California, Hawaii, Nevada, American Samoa, Guam,
and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands
15000 Aviation Boulevard
Lawndale, CA 90261
(310) 725-3550
FEDERAL AVIATION REGULATIONS
Part Title
1 Definitions and Abbreviations
11 General Rulemaking Procedures
13 Investigative and Enforcement Procedures
21 Certification Procedures for Products and Parts
23 Airworthiness Standards: Normal-, Utility-, and Acrobatic-
Category Airplanes
25 Airworthiness Standards: Transport-Category Airplanes
27 Airworthiness Standards: Normal-Category Rotorcraft
29 Airworthiness Standards: Transport-Category Rotorcraft
31 Airworthiness Standards: Manned Free Balloons
33 Airworthiness Standards: Aircraft Engines
35 Airworthiness Standards: Propellers
36 Noise Standards: Aircraft Type Certification
39 Airworthiness Directives
43 Maintenance, Preventive Maintenance, Rebuilding, and
Alteration
45 Identification and Registration Marking
47 Aircraft Registration
49 Recording of Aircraft Titles and Security Documents
61 Certification: Pilots and Flight Instructors
63 Certification: Flight Crew Members Other Than Pilots
65 Certification: Airmen Other Than Flight Crew Members
67 Medical Standards and Certification
71 Designation of Federal Airways, Area Low Routes,
Controlled Airspace, and Reporting Points
73 Special Use Airspace
75 Establishment of Jet Routes and High-Area Routes
77 Objects Affecting Navigable Airspace
91 General Operating and Flight Rules
93 Special Air Traffic Rules and Airport Traffic Patterns
95 IFR Altitudes
97 Standard Instrument Approach Procedures
99 Security Control of Air Traffic
101 Moored Balloons, Kites, Unmanned Rockets, and
Unmanned Free Balloons
103 Ultralight Vehicles
105 Parachute Jumping
107 Airport Security
108 Airplane Operator Security
109 Indirect Air-Carrier Security
121 Certification and Operations: Domestic, Flag, and
Supplemental Air Carriers and Commercial Operators of
Large Aircraft
125 Certification and Operations: Airplanes Having a Seating
Capacity of 20 or More Passengers or a Maximum Payload
Capacity of 6000 Pounds or More
127 Certification and Operations of Scheduled Air Carriers with
Helicopters
129 Operations of Foreign Air Carriers
133 Rotorcraft External-Load Operations
135 Air-Taxi Operators and Commercial Operators
137 Agricultural Aircraft Operations
139 Certification and Operations: Land Airports Serving CAB-
Certificated Air Carriers
141 Pilot Schools
143 Ground Instructors
145 Repair Stations
147 Aviation Maintenance Technician Schools
149 Parachute Lofts
150 Airport Noise Compatibility Planning
151 Federal Aid to Airports
152 Airport Aid Program
153 Acquisition of U.S. Land for Public Airports
154 Acquisition of U.S. Land for Public Airports under the
Airport and Airway Development Act of 1970
155 Release of Airport Property from Surplus Property
Disposal Restrictions
5T Mauritania
5U Niger
5V Togo
5W Samoa
5X Uganda
5Y Kenya
6O Somalia
6V, 6W Senegal
6Y Jamaica
7O Yemen
7P Lesotho
7QY Malawi
7T Algeria
8P Barbados
8Q Maldives
8R Guyana
9A Croatia
9G Ghana
9H Malta
9J Zambia
9K Kuwait
9L Sierra Leone
9M Malaysia
9N Nepal
9Q Democratic Republic of the Congo
9U Burundi
9V Singapore
9XR Rwanda
9Y Trinidad and Tobago
Glossary
The following list of words and terms represents those that are often
encountered in the field of aviation. Additional terms are defined in the
text; however, there are still other words or terms that technicians hear or
see and for which they may want a definition. For a more complete list of
definitions, technicians should consult a good aviation dictionary.
Back, of files
Balance:
CG and
computer-calculated
of helicopters
of load
weight and
Balance computer
Balance planning sheet
Balance tabs
Ball-peen hammer
Banjo fittings
Bank
Bar
Base
Basic dimensions
Battery cart
Battery servicing
BCC. See Body-centered cubic
Beam-type torque wrench
Bearing failure
Beech Starship
Beechcraft Duchess
Beechcraft Skipper
Bell Model 206L Long Ranger helicopter
Bending
Bending moment
Bending stress
Bernoulli’s principle
Beryllium copper
Beta-titanium
Bidirectional fabric
Bill of materials
Binary system
Binomials
Biocides
Biplanes:
airfoils on
load for
Bisector
Bismuth
Blade, of hacksaw
Blade flapping
Blade stall
Blended wing body (BWB)
Blind bolts
Blind rivets
Block diagrams
Blueprints
Blunt files
Body, of drills
Body-centered cubic (BCC)
Boeing
Bolts
Borrow from next column, in subtraction
Bottoming tap
Boundary layer
Bow waves
Box-end wrenches
Boyle’s law
Brake servicing
Brass
Brazed tube fittings
Break lines. See Broken-material line
Breaker bar
Brinell hardness test
British thermal unit (Btu)
Brittleness
Broken line
Broken-line graph
Broken-material line
Bronze
Btu. See British thermal unit
Buckling
Bulbed Cherrylock rivets
Bulkhead fittings
Buoyancy
Burbling
BWB. See Blended wing body
Dacron cloth
Daily inspections
Dash number
Datum
definition of
for helicopters
DC-10
Dead center, of drills
Dead-smooth files
Decalage
Decibels
Decimal system
fractions in
addition of
division of
to fractions
multiplication of
subtraction of
Deep socket
Deep stall
Defects:
acceptable levels of
reporting
types of
Defueling
Deice boots
Denominator
Density
in aerodynamics
of aircraft materials
Department of Transportation (DOT)
Derived weight
Designation codes
Detail drawings
Detail views
Developer
Diagonal-cutting pliers
Diameter
Diamond-point chisels
Die drawing
Dies
Diesel engines
Difference
Digit value
Digits
Dihedral
Dimension line
Dimensions:
in drawings
limits with
Directional stability
Discrepancy report
Displacement, of sound
Dissimilar-metals corrosion
Dissymmetry of lift
Distance
District offices, of FAA
Dividend
Dividers
Division
Divisor
Domestic repair station
Doppler effect
DOT. See Department of Transportation
Double convex curvature
Double cut, by files
Downwash
induced drag and
Downwash angle
Drafting techniques
Drag
fundamental equation for
for helicopters
relative wind and
resultant force and
thrust and
Drag coefficient
Drag curve
Drag divergence Mach number
Drag force
Draw filing
Drawing, of sheet-metal parts
Drawing number
Drawings
aircraft
CAD for
conventional breaks in
dimensions in
for electrical and electronic systems
lines in
techniques for
title blocks for
types of
views in
weight and
Drift punch
Drills
sizes of
Drill-point angles
Drill speed
Drilled-head engine bolts
Drooped wingtips
Dry particles
Dry power, for extinguishing fires
Duckbill pliers
Ductibility
Dust filter
Dye
Dynamic pressure
Dynamic stability
Dyne
E-glass
Ear plugs
Earmuff-style protectors
Eddies
Eddy-current inspection
Effective aspect ratio
Efficiency
Effort force
82-octane (82UL)
Elastic limit
Elastic range
Elasticity
modulus of
Electrical conductivity
Electrical forces
Electrical power supplies
Electrical systems:
drawings for
schematic diagrams for
Electrical values
Electronic digital micrometers
Electronic digital torque wrenches
Electronic load cells
Electronic systems:
drawings for
logic circuitry for
Elementary operations, FARs and
Elevators
Elevons
ELSA. See Experimental light sport aircraft
Emergency ADs
Empennage
Empty weight (EW), definition of
Empty-weight center of gravity (EWCG)
of conventional airplane
location determination for
range
of tricycle-gear airplane
End plate
T-tails and
Energy
Engine-oil service
Engineering rule
Engines
diesel
FAA airworthiness standards for
TCDSs for
English system
Envelope charts
Epoxy resins
Equal lines
Equations
Equilateral triangle
Equilibrium
Equipment, Instrument, and Certificate Requirements
Ergs per second
Escape velocity
Eutectic alloy
Eutectic point
Even numbers
EW. See Empty weight
EWCG. See Empty-weight center of gravity
Excessive stability
Exfoliation
Exhibit aircraft
Exotic metals
Expansion
Expansion waves
Experimental certificates
Experimental light sport aircraft (ELSA)
Exploded view
Exponent
Export aircraft
Extension line
Extra-high-pressure hoses
Extreme weight-and-balance conditions
Extremes
Extrusion process
FAA. See Federal Aviation Administration
Fabric
Face, of files
Face-centered cubic (FCC)
Facing materials
Factor
Fahrenheit scale
Failures
reporting
False Brinelling. See Fretting corrosion
FARs. See Federal Aviation Regulations
Fasteners
Fatigue, of metals
Fatigue strength
Faying surfaces
FCC. See Face-centered cubic
Federal Aviation Act of 1958
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
ADs by
Advisory Circulars by
aeronautical Center of
airworthiness standards and
district offices of
IA by
M or D and
organization of
regional offices of
RGL of
specifications
Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs)
acceptable data and
accepted practices and
for annual inspections
appendices to
approved data and
certification in
elementary operations and
Equipment, Instrument, and Certificate Requirements of
history of
Instructions for Continued Airworthiness in
Maintenance, Preventive Maintenance
and Alterations of
for operations certification
performance rules of
return to service in
security disqualification in
for STC
Feed, of drills
Fenestron tail-rotor system
Ferritic steels
Ferrous metals:
alloys of
heat treatment of
Fiberglass
Files
Filiform corrosion
Fill
Final Rule; Request for Comment (FRC)
Finish symbols, for metals
Finishing tape
Fins
Fire:
extinguishing of:
agents for
principles for
nature and classification of
safety with
Fire extinguishers identification
First-class lever
Fittings
fluid lines and
for hoses
for tubes
Fixed airfoils
Fixed ballast
Fixed power supplies
Fixed trim tabs
Flaperons
Flare-nut wrenches
Flared tube fittings
Flareless tube fittings
Flat chisels
Flat-head pins
Flat-head screws
Flat washer
Fleet empty weight
Flexible-die forming
Flexible steel rule
Flight-line safety
Flight Standards District Office (FSDO)
Flight Standards Service
Flight tabs. See Servo tabs
Flight test
Flow fences
Fluid height
Fluid lines. See also Hoses; Tubes
color codes for
fabrication, repair, and installation of
fittings and
inspection of
types of
Fluid pressure
Fluids
Fly-by-wire system
Flying wing
Flying wires
Foam, for extinguishing fires
Foaming space
Foil
Folds
Foot-pound
Foot-pounds per second
Force
on airplane in flight
area and
composition and resolution of
on helicopter hovering
from liquid
pressure and
Foreign repair station
Foreshortening
Forging
Forward-swept wing
Fowler flap
Fractional-size drills
Fractions
addition of
decimal fractions to
in decimal system
division of
multiplication of
subtraction of
Frame, of hacksaw
FRC. See Final Rule; Request for Comment
Frequency, of sound
Fretting corrosion
Friction
Front view
FSDO. See Flight Standards District Office
Fuel/fueling:
aviation grades for
contamination in
defueling and
overwing
precautions and procedures for
pressure
safety with
synthetic
for turbine engines
Fuel-tank markings
Fulcrum
Full section
Gages
Gallon
Gap
Gap/chord ratio
Gap/span ratio
Gases
GAW airfoil
Gears
General aviation airworthiness alerts
General Aviation-Whitcomb (GAW) airfoil
General gas law
General law of lever
General-purpose bolts
Geometry
constructions in
formulas in
GIFS. See Gray Iron Founders’ Society
Glider cloth
Go and no-go gages
Grade A cloth
Graduations
Grain
Grain pattern
Grain size
Gram
Graphite/carbon fiber
Graphs
Gravitation
Gravity,. See also Center of gravity; Empty-weight center of gravity; Specific
gravity
acceleration of
lift and
Gray Iron Founders’ Society (GIFS)
Grid plate
Grip
Ground effect, for helicopters
Ground handling, safety and
Ground power unit
Ground resonance
Ground-support equipment, safety with
Gust locks
Gyroscopic precession
Hacksaws
Half-round files
Half section
Halogenated hydrocarbons, for extinguishing fires
Hammers
Hand benders, for fluid lines
Hand files
Hand propping
Hand shears
Hand-tap wrench
Hand tools
cutting tools
gages
hammers
pliers
precision measurement with
punches
rules and scales
safety equipment
screwdrivers
wrenches
Hardening process
Hardness
of aluminum alloy
testing
for metals
Hardware:
for aircraft
cable fittings for
cowling fasteners for
nonthreaded fasteners for
panel fasteners for
specifications for
standards for
threaded fasteners for
turnbuckles for
Heading control
Heat
on exotic metals
Heat insulators
Heat of fusion
Heat of vaporization
Heat transfer
Heat treatment:
of alloys
of aluminum alloys
of ferrous metals
of magnesium alloys
of metals
of stainless steel
of steel
of titanium
Heel, of files
Helicopters
balance of
CG of
configurations
controls for
datum for
horizontal flight by
hovering by
leveling
tail rotors on
weight of
Hex-shank screwdriver
Hexadecimal system
Hexagon
Hi-Lok bolt
Hi-Shear rivet
Hidden line. See Invisible outline
High efficiency
High hypersonic high-speed flight
High pitch, for helicopters
High-pressure hoses
High-speed flight
High-speed stalls
High-temperature alloys
Hoisting, of aircraft
Hooke’s law
Horizontal stabilizers
Horsepower
Hoses
fittings for
inspection of
installation of
maintenance of
protective sleeves for
storage of
Hot working
Hovering, by helicopters
Hub
Humidity
Hybrid materials
Hydraulic systems servicing
Hydrometer
Hypersonic high-speed flight
Hypotenuse
Kelvin scale
Kevlar
Kilogram
Kilowatt
Kinetic energy
Knots, for aircraft mooring
Krueger flap
L-605
Laminar
Laminar flow control
Laminate composites
Laminated wood
Landing wires
Laps
Large airplanes, inspections for
Large-area flat washer
Lateral area
Lateral axis
Lateral drift tendency
Lateral stability
Lathe filing
Law of conservation of energy
Lay-up
LCD. See Lowest common denominator
Lead, of screw
Lead-acid batteries
Leading and lagging
Leading-edge flaps
Leading edge mean aerodynamic chord (LEMAC)
Leading-edge radius, in airfoil
Left-hand aviation snips
Left-hand parts
LEMAC. See Leading edge mean aerodynamic chord
Length
Letter-size drills
Level plate
Leveling means
Levers
general law of
Lift
and air density
airfoil area and
airfoils and
coefficient of
CP and
for helicopters
relative wind and
resultant force and
weight and
wing flaps and
Lift curve
Lift/drag ratio
Lifting body
Light intensity
Light sport aircraft (LSA)
Limited airworthiness certificates
Limits, with dimensions
Line
Linear momentum
Lines
in drawings
Lip-clearance angle
Lips, of drills
Liquid
force from
sound and
wave motion in
Liquid lock
Liquidus
Liter
Literal numbers
Lithium
Load adjuster
Load factors
in turns
Load/loading
of aircraft
balance of
for biplanes
Loading envelope
Loading graphs
Local speed
Location dimensions
Lock bolts
Logic circuitry
Long division
Longitudinal axis
Longitudinal stability
Low efficiency
Low pitch, for helicopters
Low-pressure hoses
Lowest common denominator (LCD)
LSA. See Light sport aircraft
Lubrication
Painted surfaces, cleaning of
Panel fasteners, for hardware
Parallel line
Parallelogram
area of
Parasite drag
Parentheses, in algebra
Part number
Parts manufacturer approval (PMA)
Pascal’s law
PCD. See Polycrystalline diamond
Pearlite
Peen end hammers
Penetrant inspection
Percentage
Performance rules, of FARs
Period, of sound
Perpendicular line
Perspective drawings
Phantom line
Phenolic resins
Phillips head screwdriver
Physical corrosion
Pi
Pictorial drawings
Pie chart
Pillar file
Pilot certificate
Pin-hook spanner wrench
Pin punch
Pinnings
Pins
Pint
Pipe-to-AN nipple
Pipe wrenches
Pipes
schedule numbers for
Pitch, of screw
Pitch diameter
Plain flap
Plain nut
Plain sawing
Plain screwdriver
Plain weave
Plane surface
Planes
Plastic deformation, of metals
Plastic range
Plasticity
Plastics
Plate
Plate nuts
Platform scales
Pliers
Plug tap
Plus sign (+)
for arm
Plywood
PM. See Power metallurgy
PMA. See Parts manufacturer approval
Points
of drills
of files
Polycrystalline diamond (PCD)
Polyester resins
Polyethylene
Polygons
area of
Polynomials
Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon)
Polyurethane plastics
Porosity
Portable electronic weighting system
Positional notation
Positive decalage
Positive dihedral
Positive load
Positive numbers
Positive pressure
Positive stagger
Positive static stability
Potential energy
Pound
Power
of numbers
Power metallurgy (PM)
Power screwdrivers
Precipitate
Precipitation heat treatment
Precision measurement
Preflight inspections
Preimpregnated materials (Prepregs)
Presetting tool
Press brake
Pressure. See also specific types
aerodynamics and
area and
force and
Pressure drag
Pressure fueling
Preventive maintenance
Prick punch
Primary control surfaces
Print number. See Drawing number
Process code
Product, in multiplication
Production certificates
Production drawings
Progressive inspections
Prop rotors
Propeller
FAA airworthiness standards for
safety with
TCDSs for
Propeller torque
Proper fraction
Proportion
Proportional limit
Proportional range
Protection benders, for fluid lines
Protective sleeves, for hoses
Protractor
Protractor head
Psia
Pull-type lock bolt
Pulleys
Punches
Pure (unalloyed) titanium
Pythagorean theorem
Quadrant
Quadrilaterals
Quart
Quick-disconnect couplings
Quotient
Radial sawing
Radiation
Radius
Radius and fillet gage
Rankine
Rasp cut, by files
Rat-tail files
Ratchet handle
Ratings, for repair-station certificate
Ratio
RBCC. See Rocket-based combined cycle
Reamers
Rebuilding
Recessed head
Reciprocating engines, starting
Recrystallization
Rectangle
area of
Reducing the fraction
Reed & Prince screwdriver
Re-entry hypersonic flight
Regional offices, of FAA
Registration, of aircraft
Registration marks
Regular polygons
Regulatory and Guidance Library (RGL), of FAA
Reinforcing materials
Reinforcing tape
Relative wind
Relaxed static stability
Rene
Repair-station certificate
Repairman
certificates for
Resistance force
Resonance, of sound
Respirators
Restricted airworthiness certificate
Restricted-category aircraft
Resultant force
Retreating blade
Return to service:
in FARs
repair-station certificates and
Revisions, to drawings
Reynolds number
RGL. See Regulatory and Guidance Library
Right angle
Right-hand aviation snips
Right-hand parts
Right-side view
Right triangle
Ring guard
Rivets
Rivnuts
Rocket-based combined cycle (RBCC)
Rockwell hardness test
Rod
Roll pins
Rolling
Ronez, John
Root-mean-square microinch system of surface-roughness designation
Root of number
Ropes, for aircraft mooring
Rotary wing
Rough files
Round files
Round-head screw
Round-nose chisels
Rounding off, of decimal fractions
Rubber mallets
Rudders
Ruddervators
Rules, scales and
S-glass
SAE. See Society of Automotive Engineers
Safe edge files
Safe operation
Safety:
with aircraft hoisting
with aircraft jacking
equipment
with fire
on flight-line
with fueling
general precautions for
ground handling and
with ground-support equipment
with hand propping
with propeller
with starting
with taxiing
with towing aircraft
Safety belts
Safety glasses
Safety wire
Safety-wire twisters
Sandwich materials
Scale, for drawings
Scale effect
Scales, rules and
Scalene triangle
Schedule numbers, for pipes
Schematic diagrams
Scientific notation
Screw compressor
Screw-pitch gage
Screw thread
Screwdrivers
Screws
Scribes
SDR. See Service difficulty reports
Seams
Secant
Second cut files
Second power
Secondary control surfaces
Section lines
Sectional views
Sector
area of
Security disqualification, in FARs
Self-locking nuts
Self-tapping screws
Selvage edges
Semicircle
Semirigid rotor
Service bulletins
Service difficulty reports (SDR)
Servo tabs
SFSA. See Steel Founders’ Society of America
Shake-proof lock washer
Shakes
Shank, of drills
Shapes
of airfoils
as wrought metal product
Shear failure
Shear nut
Shear stress
Shearing
Sheet
Shock waves
airfoil and
in transonic flight
Shop sketches
Short division
Shrink rule
SI. See International System of Units
Side-by-side rotor helicopters
Sideslip
Silicon
Silicone resins
Sine
Sine curve, sound and
Sine wave
Single cut, by files
Single rotor
Single-view drawings
Size dimensions
Skid
Skin friction
Skin friction drag
Slant height
Slats
Slide calipers
Sliding T-handle
Slip planes
Slipstream
Slots
AOA and
stalling speed and
with wing flaps
Slotted flap
Slotted Fowler flap
SLSA. See Special light sport aircraft
Slug
Small-hole gages
Smooth files
Soaking time, for aluminum alloys
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
Socket wrenches
Sockets
Soft hammer
Soldered tube fittings
Solid
volume of
Solid-solution alloys
Solidus
Solute
Solution heat treatment
of aluminum alloys
Solvent
Sonic boom
Sound. See also Speed of sound
Doppler effect and
measurement of
resonance of
transmission of
wave motion of
Spanner wrenches
Spec by ATA
Special Airworthiness Certificate
Special flight permits
Special inspections
Special light sport aircraft (SLSA)
Specific gravity
of aircraft materials
Specific heat
Specifications, for hardware
Speed
Speed handle
Speed of sound
high-speed flight and
temperature and
Sphere, volume of
Spike knot
Spindle
Spinning
Spiral (twist) drill
Spiral-ratchet screwdriver
Split-edge flap
Split-ring lock washer
Splits
Spoilers
Spontaneous ignition
Spot facing
Spring calipers
Spring tabs
Spring wood
Square
area of
Square centimeters
Square files
Square foot
Square head
Square inches
Square meters
Square of number
Square root
Square yards
Stabilator
Stability. See also specific types
of aircraft
Stagger
Stagnation point
Stainless steel
Stalls
Stall strip
Stalling angle
Stalling speed
Standard airworthiness certificates
Standard atmosphere
Standard Cherrylock rivets
Standard sockets
Standard weights
Starting, safety with
State of equilibrium
Static pressure
lift and
Static stability
Station numbers
Stations
STC. See Supplemental type certificate
Steel. See also specific types
alloys, heat and
annealing of
heat treatment of
for tubes
Steel Founders’ Society of America (SFSA)
Steering-lockout-pin
Straight angle
Straight filing
Straight line
bisecting
Straight-line bend
Straight peen hammer
Strain
Strain hardening
Strap wrench
Strength
of joints
Stress
Stress corrosion
Stress-strain diagrams
Structural repair manual
Structural screws
Stubby screwdrivers
Stump-type lock bolt
Subsonic high-speed flight
Substitutional solid-solution alloy
Subtraction
Subtrahend
Sum
Supercritical wing
Supersonic high-speed flight
Supplemental type certificate (STC)
Surface
Surface area
Surface corrosion
Surface-roughness symbols, for metals
Surface tape
Swaged tube fittings
Sweep angle
Sweepback
Symbols
Synthetic fuels
T-tails
Tail rotor
Tandem-rotor helicopters
Tang, of files
Tangent
Tap drill
Taper
Taper in plan and thickness
Taper in plan only
Taper pin
Taper ratio
Taper tap
Tapered files
Taps
Tare
Taxiing
TBCC. See Turbine-based combined cycle
TCDSs. See Type Certificate Data Sheets
Tear-out failure
Technical-data presentation systems
Technical manuals
Technical publications
Technical standard order (TSO)
Teflon. See Polytetrafluoroethylene
TEMAC. See Trailing edge mean aerodynamic chord
Temper
Temperature:
measurement of
speed of sound and
Tempering
Tensile failure
Tensile testing
Tension stress
Terminal velocity
Thermal conductivity
Thermal expansion
Thermodynamics
Thermography
Thermoplastic plastics
Thermoplastic resins
Thermosetting plastics
Thermosetting resins
Thickness, in airfoil
Thickness gage
Thimble
Thread gage
Threaded fasteners
Three-square files
Thrust
Thrust line
Tilt-rotor aircraft
Tires:
cleaning
servicing
Titanium
Title blocks, for drawings
Title VI, Safety Regulation of Civil
Aeronautics
Toggle-type torque wrench
Tolerance, with dimensions
Ton
Tool and equipment list
Top view
Torque
Torque force
Torque wrenches
Torricelli’s experiment
Torsion stress
Torsion-type torque wrench
Total drag
Toughness
Towing aircraft, safety with
Trailing edge mean aerodynamic chord (TEMAC)
Translational lift
Transonic high-speed flight
Transponder inspections
Transport-category aircraft
Transportation Security Administration (TSA)
Transposed equations
Transverse waves
Trapezoid
area of
Triangles
area of
dimensions of
duplication
Triangular files
Tricycle-gear airplane, EWCG of
Trigonometry
Trim tabs
Troy ounce
Troy pound
Truss-head screw
TSA. See Transportation Security Administration
TSO. See Technical Standard order; Technical standard order
Tube cutter
Tubes
bending of
fittings for
flaring of
installation of
Tungsten carbide
Turbine-based combined cycle (TBCC)
Turbine engines:
fuels for
starting
Turbine-powered airplanes, inspections for
Turnbuckles
Turns, load factors in
Twisting moment
Two-view drawings
Type Certificate Data Sheets (TCDSs)
aircraft data sheets for
content of
data for:
for all models
for specific models
database for
for engine
inspections and
notes for
for propeller
sample of
Type certificates
Type I alloy
Type II alloy
V-tail
Vectors
Velocity
Vendor data
Vernier calipers
Vernier scales
Vertex of angle
Vertical angles
Vertical axis
Vertical fins
Vibration
Vickers hardness test
Views, in drawings
Vinyls
Viscosity
drag and
Viscosity index
Visible outline
Volume
measurement of
of sound
Vortex generators
Wake turbulence
Walk-around inspections
Warp
Washers
Washin
Washout
Water:
for extinguishing fires
in fuel
Watt
Wave formations, in supersonic high-speed flight
Wave motion:
in coiled spring
in liquid
of sound
in supersonic high-speed flight
Wavelength, of sound
Weathervane effect
Web, of drills
Weft
Weighing point
Weight
of aircraft
balance and
computer-calculated
drawings and
of helicopters
lift and
Weight-and-balance loading form
Weight-and-balance manual
Weight-and-balance record
Weight-and-balance report
Weight density
Weight-shift control (WSC)
Wet particles
Whole numbers
Wide lines
Windows, cleaning of
Wing area
Wing fences
Wing flaps
lift and
slots with
Wing loading
Wing planforms
for high-speed flight
Winglets
Wingtips, drooped
Wingtip vortices
Wire
Wiring, inspection of
Wiring diagrams
manual
Witness line. See Extension line
Wood
as aircraft material
Work
Work hardening
Working drawings
Worm-gear arrangement
Wrenches
Wrought aluminum
Wrought aluminum code
Wrought products
Wrought steel
WSC. See Weight-shift control
X-ray inspection
X-wing aircraft
Yaw
Yawing moments
Yield point/stress
Zinc
FIGURE 4-52 X-38 NASA lifting body.