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Language and Literacy Development of Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Children:

Successes and Challenges

Article  in  Developmental Psychology · July 2012

DOI: 10.1037/a0029558 · Source: PubMed

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Developmental Psychology
Language and Literacy Development of Deaf and
Hard-of-Hearing Children: Successes and Challenges
Amy R. Lederberg, Brenda Schick, and Patricia E. Spencer
Online First Publication, July 30, 2012. doi: 10.1037/a0029558

CITATION
Lederberg, A. R., Schick, B., & Spencer, P. E. (2012, July 30). Language and Literacy
Development of Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Children: Successes and Challenges.
Developmental Psychology. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1037/a0029558
Developmental Psychology © 2012 American Psychological Association
2012, Vol. ●●, No. ●, 000 – 000 0012-1649/12/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/a0029558

Language and Literacy Development of Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing

Children: Successes and Challenges

Amy R. Lederberg Brenda Schick

Georgia State University University of Colorado–Boulder

Patricia E. Spencer
Rockport, Texas

Childhood hearing loss presents challenges to language development, especially spoken language. In this
article, we review existing literature on deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) children’s patterns and
trajectories of language as well as development of theory of mind and literacy. Individual trajectories
vary significantly, reflecting access to early identification/intervention, advanced technologies (e.g.,
cochlear implants), and perceptually accessible language models. DHH children develop sign language
in a similar manner as hearing children develop spoken language, provided they are in a language-rich
environment. This occurs naturally for DHH children of deaf parents, who constitute 5% of the deaf
population. For DHH children of hearing parents, sign language development depends on the age that
they are exposed to a perceptually accessible 1st language as well as the richness of input. Most DHH
children are born to hearing families who have spoken language as a goal, and such development is now
feasible for many children. Some DHH children develop spoken language in bilingual (sign-spoken
language) contexts. For the majority of DHH children, spoken language development occurs in either
auditory-only contexts or with sign supports. Although developmental trajectories of DHH children with
hearing parents have improved with early identification and appropriate interventions, the majority of
children are still delayed compared with hearing children. These DHH children show particular weak-
nesses in the development of grammar. Language deficits and differences have cascading effects in
language-related areas of development, such as theory of mind and literacy development.

Keywords: deaf, hearing loss, cochlear implants, language development, literacy

In this article, we discuss developmental trajectories of children Even with amplification, children with moderately-severe to pro-
with hearing loss. Language development has long been recog- found hearing loss do not perceive speech in the same way as
nized as the most important area affected by hearing loss. Al- hearing people (Harkins & Bakke, 2011). Our focus in this article
though the relation between the degree of hearing loss and an is on this latter group, who make up about half the population of
individual’s access to spoken language is complex, hearing loss is children with hearing loss in the United States (Gallaudet Research
often categorized as mild, moderate, moderately-severe, severe, Institute, 2008). Except for those with deaf parents, these children
severe-profound, or profound. Children with milder losses typi- require significant intervention to acquire language. Cognitive and
cally achieve access to speech when fitted with hearing aids; academic domains are also affected, as evidenced by problems in
however, any degree of loss raises the risk of language delays the development of theory of mind and literacy.
(Moeller, Tomblin, Yoshinaga-Itano, Connor, & Jerger, 2007). The issue of whether deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) children’s
developmental trajectory is more appropriately considered merely
different or actually deficient compared to that of hearing children
remains controversial (Lane, Hoffmeister, & Behan, 1996). Chil-
Amy R. Lederberg, Educational Psychology and Special Education,
dren with hearing loss are classified by school and medical sys-
Georgia State University; Brenda Schick, Speech, Language, and Hearing
Sciences, University of Colorado–Boulder; Patricia E. Spencer, Rockport,
tems as having a disability or hearing impairment. However, many
Texas. deaf people reject the notion that decreased hearing or the inability
The authors contributed equally and are listed in alphabetic order. The to acquire spoken language is a disability and dislike the term
opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not represent views of impairment because it suggests that hearing loss is a deficiency.
the Institute of Education Sciences or the U.S. Department of Education. Instead, they prefer the term deaf or (for less severe losses) hard
Portions of this article were supported by Institute of Education Sciences, of hearing (Lane et al., 1996).
U.S. Department of Education Grants R324E060035 and R324A110101 to
Historically, speech has been erroneously equated with lan-
the Georgia State University Research Foundation.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Amy R.
guage. Even Furth (1966), who argued that deaf persons can
Lederberg, Educational Psychology and Special Education, Georgia State develop logical thinking skills, assumed that they did not have
University, P.O. Box 3979, Atlanta, GA 30302-3979. E-mail: language skills. He, and others, failed to recognize that the vast
[email protected] majority of deaf people readily develop language—namely sign

1
2 LEDERBERG, SCHICK, AND SPENCER

language—if they are exposed to it. Numerous researchers have Parents of DHH children and the professionals advising them
now established that sign languages not only provide a valid way typically choose among several language-learning approaches that
to communicate but are, in fact, true languages with all the prop- are based on different assumptions about language learning. Phil-
erties of spoken languages (e.g., Friedmann & Szterman, 2011; osophical opinions of professionals, the family, and both hearing
Stokoe, Casterline, & Croneberg, 1965). Research emphasizing and DHH acquaintances influence decisions about types of lan-
similarities between sign and spoken languages has helped coun- guage input to be provided. Underlying these decisions, for many,
teract the “deficit” view of deaf individuals (Wilbur, 2011). is belief about the extent to which spoken language is necessary for
Until the late 1990s, the vast majority of children with profound a child to fit into a mainstream hearing world versus belief that
hearing loss lacked sufficient access to sound to acquire spoken hearing loss is a difference to be embraced, in part by using sign
language (Moores, 2010). Many professionals concluded that most language. This dichotomy, of course, over-simplifies what are
DHH children with this degree of hearing loss would acquire only complex decisions. Many other child and family factors should be
visually-based language (P. E. Spencer & Lederberg, 1997). How- and often are considered. But it is also true that for many profes-
ever, two major advances have diversified possible linguistic tra- sionals, parents, and DHH adults, their philosophical stance rather
jectories. First, new technologies allow identification of hearing than characteristics of an individual child drives decisions.
loss at birth (Harkins & Bakke, 2011), whereas in the 1990s,
average age of identification in the United States was around 24 Models of Language Learning Environments
months (Culpepper, 2003). Except for DHH children with deaf
parents, late identification meant years of language deprivation. The following three models exemplify common approaches to
Researchers have documented dramatic improvements in language providing DHH children access to language.
outcomes (whether signed or spoken) with neonatal identification
of hearing loss and intervention implemented by 6 months of age Sign Language
(Yoshinaga-Itano & Sedey, 1998). Almost all industrialized coun-
tries have adopted policies for universal neonatal hearing screen- One model focuses on development in the context of a culturally
ing (National Center for Hearing Assessment and Management, deaf community that uses a sign language that has developed
2011) and provide early intervention promoting access to visual naturally over time (Wilbur, 2011). In this context, DHH children
and/or spoken language. While intervention before 6 months is not are expected to acquire sign language through participating in
always achieved, the average age of intervention has decreased early, naturally-occurring social activities. Various sign languages
dramatically (Niparko et al., 2010). have developed in deaf communities around the world, but all use
Second, technological improvements have increased many DHH visible manual actions. Because of varying perceptual and motor
children’s ability to perceive auditory information and acquire requirements, a natural sign language and a spoken language
spoken language (Harkins & Bakke, 2011). Hearing aids, using cannot be produced simultaneously.
digital processes that accommodate individual hearing profiles, Sign languages express meaning through manual signs, body
deliver higher quality auditory signals to children with mild to movements and postures, and linguistically-specific facial expres-
severe losses. Cochlear implants (CIs) allow many (albeit not all) sions that are as attuned to the characteristics of visual and gestural
children with profound hearing loss access to spoken language. CIs processing as spoken languages are to the demands of auditory and
are surgically-implanted devices that convert auditory information oral-motor processing (Fischer & van der Hulst, 2011; Wilbur,
into electronic signals that are delivered directly to the auditory 2011). American Sign Language (ASL), for example, uses
nerve. Time and intervention is required for most users to utilize visually-based complex inflectional and derivational systems to
the information provided. Earlier age of implantation tends to encode aspect, spatial relationships, pronominal agreement, adver-
improve outcomes. Even so, auditory input from CIs and hearing bial markers, and in some cases form class. ASL’s classifiers are
aids is not as detailed as that received by hearing children, and polymorphic constructions in which handshape, location, and
these technologies do not result in DHH children becoming “just movement represent properties of nouns, adjectives, and verbs
like” hearing children. In fact, there is a wide range of benefits, and (Schembri, 2003; Schick, 1990a). Multiple morpho-syntactic fea-
some children do not gain access to speech. In addition, cochlear tures may be simultaneously represented on the hands, the face, in
implants cannot be used with DHH children with certain abnor- space, in different types of movement, rather than in sequential
malities of the cochlea or auditory nerve. They are also less order typical of spoken languages (Klima & Bellugi, 1979; Wilbur,
effective for children with multiple disabilities (Pyman, Blamey, 2011). Prosody is represented through facial expression, speed and
Lacy, Clark, & Dowell, 2000; P. E. Spencer, 2004), who are movement of signs, and body movements conveying the complex
estimated to comprise up to 40% of children in the United States range of functions that pitch, duration, and loudness do in spoken
with hearing loss (Mitchell & Karchmer, 2004). languages (Nicodemus, 2008; Schick, Marschark, & Spencer,
Characteristics of children’s language learning environment also 2006).
affect development. About 5% of DHH children have signing deaf An important component of the natural sign language model is
parents (DoDP) and are typically surrounded by deaf adults and the presence of numerous deaf adults and children in the children’s
children who use sign language (Mitchell & Karchmer, 2004). environment (Lane et al., 1996). For DoDP children, this occurs
These children thus learn (sign) language at typical rates and naturally without intervention, but in the United States, deaf chil-
through natural interactive experiences. In contrast, about 95% of dren of hearing parents (DoHP) often only learn sign language
DHH children have hearing parents who require various kinds of through early intervention or when they enroll in special classes/
supports to provide their children with accessible visual or spoken schools (Moores, 2010). In contrast, other countries (e.g., Norway,
language. Netherlands, Sweden) have national policies stating that all deaf
 LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDREN WITH HEARING LOSS 3

children have the right, and therefore early opportunities, to learn ular, with hearing aids or CIs being an essential component. Use of
sign language as their first language (Arnesen et al., 2008; Moores, this model is based on the assumption, despite lack of supporting
2010). evidence and even the presence of opposing evidence, that expo-
Bilingualism is almost always a part of this model, although the sure to sign in any form will interfere with development of spoken
type of bilingualism varies by communities. In the United States, language (P. E. Spencer & Marschark, 2010).
sign bilingualism includes the assumptions that (1) ASL should be
DHH children’s first language and the sole language of routine Development of Children in the Three Models
daily communication, (2) print rather than speech should be the
primary vehicle for learning spoken language, and (3) English- In the United States, the proportion of DHH children educated
based sign systems should not be used (Moores, 2010). In other within the three models has changed over recent decades. One
countries (e.g., Sweden, Norway, Australia), sign bilingualism national survey found that 52% of children with mild to profound
includes more emphasis on speech and simultaneous communica- hearing loss were in classes with spoken language alone, 35% with
tion (see below) to promote spoken language as a second language SimCom, and 11% with sign alone (Gallaudet Research Institute,
(Arnesen et al., 2008; Preisler, Tvingstedt, & Ahlström, 2002; 2008). Comparison with past survey data (Gallaudet Research
Svartholm, 2010). Institute, 2001) indicates the proportion of children instructed with
SimCom decreased by 15%, while spoken-only and sign-only
Simultaneous Communication increased 7% and 5%, respectively. This may reflect the increase
in the proportion of DHH children with functional hearing as well
A second model was developed by educators in the 1960s and as evidence that sign language is a better model for language
1970s to capitalize on DHH children’s relative ease of acquiring development than sign systems. Researchers in Sweden and the
sign. Sign systems were developed to provide visually accessible Netherlands (as well as the United States) report a decrease in sign
models of semantic and syntactic structures of spoken languages bilingualism and increase in DHH children being mainstreamed
(e.g., English, Swedish). These systems combine signs from nat- with their hearing peers as the use of CIs increases (Hermans,
ural sign languages with newly-created signs to represent gram- Ormel, & Knoors, 2010; Moores, 2010), and benefits of early
matical morphemes of spoken language. Signs are produced based intervention allow more age-appropriate language development.
on spoken word order. Sign lexicons are related to spoken lexicons Our review has contextualized DHH children’s language devel-
(e.g., the same sign for run would be used in both she runs fast and opment within these models because of the differences in input
my car runs well). they provide. However, it is important to stress that the models as
Because of these modifications, these created sign systems can described are idealized and oversimplify variations in individuals’
at least theoretically be produced simultaneously with speech. experiences. Programs, teachers, parents, and others demonstrate a
When this occurs, the result is termed Simultaneous Communica- wide range of fidelity to the target model, and children are exposed
tion (SimCom). However, speaking and signing simultaneously is to more than one model over time and in different contexts.
highly challenging, because the duration of signs is longer than In addition, the nature of language development within each
that of spoken words, and it is difficult to represent prosody in both context is not solely the result of that context. Models are con-
modalities simultaneously (Wilbur, 2011). founded with (among other factors) parent hearing status and
The distinction between sign systems and sign languages is children’s functional hearing. Consistent with their own primary
important because they involve differences in the input children languages, deaf parents typically choose natural sign or sign-
receive. For DHH children with functional hearing, language input bilingual approaches, while hearing parents are more likely to
from SimCom will be bimodal. For those without functional hear- choose an oral approach. Parent fluency and the presence of other
ing, the input will be predominately visual, but will follow the adults and children who use the system clearly influence rate and
structure of a spoken language. Finally, the production of sign patterns of learning. Children’s functional hearing also correlates
systems by hearing adults varies considerably, and omissions and with their language learning context and their ability to learn from
mis-signings are not infrequent; thus, R. Johnson, Liddell, and it. Analysis for the current article of data from a recent study
Erting (1989) suggest that SimCom is more accurately described (Easterbrooks, Lederberg, Miller, Bergeron, & Connor, 2008)
as Sign Supported Speech, with the most complete model usually found that 95% of DHH children in oral programs had good speech
presented through the auditory mode. perception skills, compared with 60% of children in SimCom and
40% in bilingual programs. This undoubtedly reflects matching the
Spoken Language characteristics of children to the appropriate program (with those
with more functional hearing tending to be in programs empha-
The third model is one in which the goal is for DHH children to sizing spoken language) and is therefore a predictor rather than
become as much like hearing children as possible in their language outcome of the primary language-learning context.
and literacy behaviors. In this model, DHH children are exposed to DHH children vary on additional factors that mediate language
spoken language only, with approaches varying in the degree to learning success: age of identification; if/when the family begins
which use of gestures and speech reading are encouraged. From receiving support from professionals, other families, and other
the 1900s to 1960s, auditory-oral approaches were dominant in individuals with hearing loss; the ability of family members to
most countries, and the majority of DHH children were given learn sign language; and access to professional services and tech-
access to sign language only after they failed to acquire spoken nology. In truth, the list of factors is much longer. Childhood
language, typically in late childhood or early adolescence (Moores, hearing loss occurs within the context of the family, community,
2010). Oral-only approaches are again becoming increasingly pop- culture, and educational system. Not surprisingly, DHH children’s
4 LEDERBERG, SCHICK, AND SPENCER

language development is also influenced by factors associated with articulatory errors (Conlin, Mirus, Mauk, & Meier, 2000) reflect-
hearing children’s language development, including parental in- ing (like hearing children’s early words) phonological complexity
volvement, socio-economic status, access to quality early child- (Szameitat & Schick, 2010). For example, the ASL sign for mother
hood education, and support from the community and extended is commonly misarticulated by infants and toddlers using a point-
family. ing index finger instead of the canonical “number 5” handshape
Complex interactions among these factors challenge descrip- (Meadow-Orlans et al., 2004).
tions of DHH children’s language development trajectories. In Vocabulary development of DoDP children appears very similar
addition, the low incidence of hearing loss often limits sample to that of hearing children. Using an ASL-adaptation of the Mac-
sizes. Small, heterogeneous samples as well as recent changes in Arthur Communicative Development Inventory (CDI; Fenson,
age of identification/intervention and use of advanced technologies Dale, Reznick, & Bates, 1994), Anderson and Reilly (2002) col-
further restrict generalization of previous findings to current co- lected parent-report data on expressive vocabulary for 69 DoDP
horts. P. E. Spencer and Marschark (2010) argue, however, that children from 8 to 36 months, with longitudinal data collected for
cautious comparisons of available research findings over time, 34 children. Average lexical size of DoDP children actually ex-
across cohorts, and varied methods could provide trustworthy ceeded the average reported for the hearing normative sample
overall indicators of the developmental progress of DHH children. before the age of 18 months, with hearing children catching up to
With these caveats in mind, the following summarizes research the DoDP children by 24 months. Using a British Sign Language
findings about children’s development in the three types of envi- (BSL) adaptation of the CDI, Woolfe, Herman, Roy, and Woll
ronments described above. (2010) found that a substantial proportion of 29 DoDP children
had a sudden increase in vocabulary acquisition when lexical size
reached 50 signs (at about 16 –19 months of age). In addition, these
Development of Children Learning a Natural Sign
studies found the content of DoDP children’s lexicons similar to
Language that typically reported for hearing children, although the former
The development of DHH children with deaf parents (DoDP) group had a slightly larger proportion of action, adverbs, and
not surprisingly differs in important ways from that of DHH personal-social words.
children with hearing parents (DoHP), even when a natural sign There are similar parallels in grammatical development. Pro-
language like ASL is expected to be the first language for both duction of single signs is followed in the early to mid-second year
groups. Most DoDP children are immersed in a fluent-signing of life by production of signs combined with pointing gestures and
environment and therefore learn sign language easily and natu- soon afterward by expressions containing two actual signs (Mor-
rally; DoHP children, however, usually experience delays in lan- genstern, Caët, Collombel-Leroy, Limousin, & Blondel, 2010;
guage because of their decreased (and typically later) exposure to Schick, 2002). Gestures such as pointing continue to accompany
persons who provide fluent models (P. E. Spencer & Marschark, multi-unit expressions just as they do in spoken language. In ASL,
2010). however, points eventually also become a part of the linguistic
DHH children with deaf parents who are fluent signers. system and take on the role of pronouns by around 17–20 months
Most DoDP children experience an environment in which sign (Bailes et al., 2009; Petitto, 1987; Pizzuto, 1990). Verb agreement
language is available from birth and in which being deaf is seen as emerges around ages 2–2;6 (years; months) (Morgan, Herman,
normative (P. E. Spencer & Harris, 2006). Early communication of Barriere, & Woll, 2008; Schick, 2011), but agreement with ab-
signing deaf parents and their infants is similar along many di- stract and absent referents does not appear to fully develop until 5
mensions to that of hearing parents and infants, but deaf mothers years of age and may still be problematic in complex narratives
use even more touch and visual communication (Meadow-Orlans, (Schick, 2011). Similarly, classifiers emerge as early as 2 years of
Spencer, & Koester, 2004). Deaf mothers adapt to the specific age but have a prolonged developmental timetable, with mastery
processing demands of visual language and children’s developing around ages 6 – 8 years of age (Bailes et al., 2009; Schick, 1990b;
abilities by producing child-directed forms which tend to be short T. Supalla, 1986).
and repetitive (Holzrichter & Meier, 2000; Meadow-Orlans et al., The unique properties of ASL and other sign languages are
2004; P. E. Spencer & Harris, 2006). They also use tactile signals learned readily and through typical interactive experiences by
to sensitively direct or redirect attention, position their hands and DoDP children. Thus, being deaf does not lead inevitably to
bodies to produce signs within the infant’s field of vision, and/or language deficits.
time sign production to occur while children are looking at them. DoHP children learning a natural sign language. Research
As children’s visual attention matures, mothers decrease use of on development of natural sign languages by DHH children with
special visual attention strategies and begin to sign longer utter- hearing parents is surprisingly scant. One body of research focuses
ances in typical signing space (Bailes, Erting, Erting, & Thumann- on effects of late or restricted exposure to sign language, and
Prezioso, 2009; Waxman & Spencer, 1997). provides evidence of a critical period for acquisition of a first
With provision of rich sign language models and the adaptations language. Deaf communities include individuals who initially ex-
described above, the rate and pattern of DoDP children’s early perienced oral-only language environments but did not success-
ASL development parallels early spoken language development fully acquire spoken language. They were thus often not exposed
(Meadow-Orlans et al., 2004; Meier & Newport, 1990). For ex- to an accessible (sign) language until they were beyond typical
ample, prior to producing signs, deaf infants produce manual language-learning ages. Mayberry and colleagues (see Mayberry,
babble (Meier & Willerman, 1995; Petitto, Holowka, Sergio, & 2010, for a review) conducted a series of studies that showed that
Ostry, 2001). As actual signs emerge, children make systematic such adults, even after 20 – 40 years of experience using ASL as
 LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDREN WITH HEARING LOSS 5

their primary means of communication, had significant language after 15 years of age. Although the parents used ASL daily, they
deficits compared to native DoDP signers (see also Newport, continued to perform below adult native-signer levels with fre-
1990). The extent of linguistic deficits, furthermore, was highly quent production inconsistencies and morphological errors. De-
correlated with the age of their initial exposure to ASL, suggesting spite deficiencies in his ASL input, the child developed ASL that
a critical period for acquiring a natural sign language as a first was more regular than his parents’ and was, in many aspects,
language. In contrast, Mayberry (1993) studied adults who lost comparable to that of a similarly-aged group of native-signing
hearing in late childhood (having previously acquired spoken children whose parents signed ASL fluently. This suggests that a
English) and acquired ASL as a second language during adoles- less than perfect model of natural sign language, when used
cence. These adults became fluent in ASL and did not show the frequently and in naturally-occurring interactions, can stimulate
types of partial learning and ASL errors seen in those who had language-learning mechanisms that support effective systematiza-
been language-deprived during early childhood. She concluded tion and building of rule-governed language. Similarly, researchers
that there is a critical period only for acquiring a first language. have documented emergence of a sign language in Nicaragua,
Similar to hearing children’s acquisition of a second language, it where early generations of DHH children have received input best
may be that ASL can be fully acquired as a second language after characterized as a pidgin language. The sign language developed
the timely acquisition of any fluent first language, even if it is was more systematic and more linguistically complex than their
spoken. At least historically, this is something that DHH children input and closely resembles other sign languages (Senghas &
rarely have been able to do. Coppola, 2001).
Conducting and interpreting research on sign language devel- In summary, DoHP individuals whose first language is sign and
opment of DoHP children is challenging because of the small who do not have early exposure to sign show a clear difference
number of these children in fluent signing environments and the from typical developmental trajectories. However, some research
lack of standardized assessment instruments (Hermans, Ormel, & suggests DoHP children develop grammatically-correct sign lan-
Knoors, 2010). This research suggests DoHP children in sign guage with early access to sign models, even when the sign model
language environments are, on average, very language-delayed
is imperfect. More research is needed to better understand the
compared to DoDP children, with more heterogeneity among the
conditions necessary to support fluent and complete development.
former group (Hermans, Knoors, & Verhoeven, 2010; Maller,
DHH children and sign bilingualism. Sign language devel-
Singleton, Supalla, & Wix, 1999; Musselman & Akamatsu, 1999).
opment almost always occurs under bilingual conditions, in that all
For example, Prinz and Strong (1998) found that ASL scores of
DHH children are learning a spoken language (either through print
DoHP children in bilingual programs, ages 8 –15 years, were
or through speech) in addition to sign language. However, with the
significantly below those of DoDP peers. On the other hand,
exception of research on literacy skills (described below), only a
Musselman and Akamatsu (1999) found about 84% of DoHP
few researchers have examined DHH children’s bilingual devel-
adolescents in their study were rated intermediate or above in their
opment. These studies suggest that DHH children can attain bilin-
ability to communicate when conversing in ASL, indicating they
gual competencies. Musselman and Akamatsu (1999) rated 51
were able to converse fluently about everyday topics. More recent
DHH adolescents’ proficiency when participating in spoken only,
research shows improved ASL development in DoHP children
(Schick, de Villiers, de Villiers, & Hoffmeister, 2007). The more SimCom English, and ASL conversations. There was a significant
proficient DoHP children in Schick et al.’s (2007) study may have correlation (r ⫽ .51) between SimCom English and ASL skills.
benefited from early intervention and may have experienced Forty-nine percent were equally proficient in ASL and SimCom
higher quality home and school language learning environments English. An additional 26% scored highest in ASL, 16% in Sim-
than previous cohorts. Com, and 10% in spoken English. DoDP children scored higher
DoHP children’s sign language ability relates to parents’ signing than DoHP in both ASL and SimCom competence. Hoffmeister
ability (Meadow-Orlans et al., 2004; Meronen & Ahonen, 2008). (2000) also found a moderate correlation between ASL and Sim-
Unfortunately, research suggests many hearing parents do not Com English.
learn to sign fluently. For example, DeLana, Genry, and Andrews When DHH children have functional hearing, there is emerging
(2007) found that half of the hearing parents with children in evidence that they can acquire both signed and spoken languages
sign-bilingual programs in the United States did not sign; half when input includes both. Hermans, Ormel, and Knoors (2010)
reported intermediate to advanced skills. Similarly, while 63% of studied vocabulary and morphosyntactic skills in Sign Language
Norwegian parents stated knowledge of sign language was impor- of the Netherlands (SLN) and spoken Dutch in 75 children (46
tant for their DHH children, only 27% reported using sign to with cochlear implants) from bilingual programs. Children were
communicate with them (Arnesen et al., 2008). This same study split into two age groups: younger (mean age ⫽ 4.8 years) and
found that many hearing teachers also reported lack of fluency in older (mean age ⫽ 7.0 years). Average scores on all tests increased
sign language, with self-ratings at the midpoint of a rating scale. with age, suggesting children within these programs were devel-
While it is true that many hearing parents and professionals do oping both signed and spoken language. Older DHH children’s
not attain fluency in natural sign language, there is some evidence scores on vocabulary and morphosyntax in SLN were moderately
that children can learn it from less than optimal input. Singleton correlated with scores in spoken Dutch but this was not the case for
and Newport (2004) reported on a 7-year-old deaf child who the younger children. Hermans, Ormel, and Knoors (2010) suggest
attended a school using Manually-Coded English. The child’s only that increased time in the bilingual education environment pro-
model of ASL use was provided by his deaf parents, who had been moted the acquisition of both languages, especially when children
educated using only spoken English and did not learn ASL until had some functional auditory access.
6 LEDERBERG, SCHICK, AND SPENCER

Development of Children in Simultaneous development of 118 DHH children who were identified early and
Communication Environments had moderate to profound hearing losses. A subgroup of 80 had
CIs. At 24 months and 30 months, DHH children whose mothers
A primary goal of SimCom input, in which sign and speech are used SimCom (about a third of the total sample) had larger
produced near-simultaneously, is to enable children to acquire the vocabularies than those whose mothers used only spoken lan-
semantics and syntax of spoken language and to provide them with guage. These children’s 24-month expressive vocabulary included
visual support for learning. For children with limited functional both signed (44%) and spoken words (56%). Mothers and children
hearing, the primary input they receive is the visual signing system decreased use of sign as the children’s spoken language developed,
(e.g., signed English). Two challenges confront these children. and after 30 months of age, effects of communication mode
First, some researchers have argued that the grammatical structure disappeared.
of spoken languages cannot successfully be acquired through Syntax. DHH children show more delays and differences in
signed systems (e.g., Gee & Mounty, 1991; Wilbur, 2011) because syntax than in other areas of language. Severe delays and differ-
they are not naturally adapted to the visual-gestural modality. ences have been reported for children who have little functional
Second, children acquiring signed systems usually have hearing hearing and therefore must rely solely on signed input. Problems
parents and have received less than optimal signing input from with morphosyntax (Schick & Moeller, 1992) and word order are
parents (Lederberg & Everhart, 1998; P. E. Spencer & Harris, reported into adolescence (Singleton, Supalla, Litchfiled, & Sch-
2006). Recent national survey results indicate that this remains the ley, 1998). S. J. Supalla (1991) found that DHH 9- to11-year-olds
case in the United States, with only half of DHH children in in a SimCom environment varied in their ability to use standard
signing school environments having family members who sign English Subject–Verb–Object word order (42%–100% correct),
regularly with them (Gallaudet Research Institute, 2008). Given using non-English word orders in up to 32% of sentences. Better
relations between frequency of parent sign and children’s language knowledge of syntax has been observed in classrooms in which
development (Lederberg & Everhart, 1998; Meadow-Orlans et al., teachers used SimCom more consistently, but grammatical mor-
2004; Musselman & Akamatsu, 1999) and teachers’ variability in pheme use continues to present special difficulties, even when
fluency and adherence to SimCom (Akamatsu & Stewart, 1998; children have some access to spoken English (Power et al., 2008;
Power, Hyde, & Leigh, 2008), the potential effects of SimCom Schick & Moeller, 1992). English syntactic development, although
(and of signing systems) may not have been effectively tested. delayed, does seem to improve with age and SimCom experience.
Vocabulary. Summarizing studies that preceded the advent For example, Akamatsu, Stewart, and Becker (2000) found evi-
of universal newborn screening and early intervention, Lederberg dence of continuing improvement in morphosyntax (e.g., articles,
and Beal-Alvarez (2011) concluded that vocabulary development plurals) during late elementary and even middle school years.
of DHH children in SimCom environments was severely delayed, DHH children with CIs show integration across modalities
with greater variability than in DoDP and hearing children. By the which results in improved syntactic development. L. J. Spencer,
end of preschool, average lexicons were more than two standard Tye-Murray, and Tomblin (1998) reported that students using CIs
deviations below those of hearing peers and differences increased in SimCom language environments acquired English grammatical
with age. Lederberg and Spencer (2009) found in studies of fast- morphemes. The students produced those morphemes primarily
mapping that lexical size is strongly related to children’s cognitive through speech but continued to sign (and also often speak) con-
strategies for vocabulary learning. Thus, language delays may lead tent words. As an example, a child may have signed “My Dad
to differences in language learning. work on farm” but said “My Dad works on a farm.” This pattern
Newborn screening and early intervention can result in im- demonstrates that, with access to sufficient auditory information,
proved vocabulary development. With identification of hearing students were able to synthesize visual and auditory input and
loss by 6 months of age, Mayne, Yoshinaga-Itano, Sedey, and produce morphemes in the sensory modality to which they are best
Carey (1999) found that DHH children’s average vocabulary de- suited.
velopment was between 5th and 25th percentiles on tests normed
for hearing children. Moeller (2000) found vocabulary levels Spoken Language Development of DHH Children
within the average range for some of a group of 112 5-year-old
DoHP children with hearing aids. These children, who had hearing Historically, only a small proportion of children with severe to
losses ranging from mild to profound, had been placed in either profound hearing loss were successful in acquiring spoken lan-
SimCom or oral-only language environments based on what was guage (Blamey et al., 2001). Early intervention—which includes
“most appropriate to meet the needs of the child and family” use of amplification (hearing aids) in the first year of life and,
(Moeller, 2000, p. 3). Level of family involvement and age of often, cochlear implantation before 2 years of age— has resulted in
identification of hearing loss had impact on vocabulary develop- better functional hearing and improved spoken language outcomes
ment but type of language environment did not. It is likely that for many DHH children. However, not all children with profound
quality of programming also affected the positive outcomes iden- loss are candidates for use of cochlear implants (Nicholas & Geers,
tified in both of these research efforts. 2006), and some children with cochlear implants do not appear to
Unlike past cohorts, DHH children with functional hearing gain significant functional hearing. For these children, spoken
promoted through early use of CIs or advanced hearing aid tech- language is rarely a viable goal.
nology can actually receive bimodal input in SimCom environ- Given the rapid changes over the last 20 years, our understand-
ments. Emerging research suggests that, despite theoretical argu- ing of spoken language development of DHH children is just
ments to the contrary (R. Johnson et al., 1989), DHH children can emerging, and the degree to which research on children who were
integrate bimodal input. Nittrouer (2010) examined the language implanted even 10 years ago will generalize to the current cohort
 LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDREN WITH HEARING LOSS 7

of children is unknown. Because of funding priorities aimed at earlier amplification, longer use of cochlear implants, greater re-
understanding the effect of innovative technology on spoken lan- sidual hearing (or shorter periods with hearing loss) prior to use of
guage development, most recent studies have focused exclusively the cochlear implants, and severity of hearing loss for children
on children with CIs. Researchers have just begun to include using hearing aids (Fitzpatrick, Crawford, Ni, & Durieux-Smith,
children with lesser losses in their studies of spoken language. 2011; Geers, 2006; Niparko et al., 2010). Because only children
Caution should be used in generalizing these results to the DHH with the most severe or profound hearing loss receive cochlear
population as a whole. Almost universally the studies have inclu- implants, severity of loss no longer relates linearly to spoken
sion criteria that result in a sample of children without multiple language outcomes for the DHH group as a whole. Leigh, Dett-
disabilities, and parents who speak only the school language (e.g., man, Dowell, and Sarant (2011) found that implanted children
English in the United States or United Kingdom) in the home and with severe to profound loss performed similarly on speech and
who have adopted a goal of spoken language for their DHH child. language tests to those with moderate losses who used hearing aids
The most effective language learning context for developing and better than children with severe to profound losses with
spoken language skills continues to be debated (P. E. Spencer & hearing aids.
Marschark, 2010). While some professionals argue that spoken Most researchers conclude that cochlear implantation by 2 years
language is best developed in exclusively oral environments, ex- may be critical to optimal language outcomes, though later im-
tensive research has failed to support this conclusion. Findings plantation still results in improved spoken language compared to
include (a) small but significant advantages for children in oral profoundly deaf children using only hearing aids (Dettman &
compared to SimCom programs (Geers, Moog, Biedenstein, Dowell, 2010; P. E. Spencer, Marschark, & Spencer, 2011). Re-
Brenner, & Hayes, 2009; Geers, Nicholas, & Sedey, 2003), (b) no searchers have proposed two reasons for this effect. First, for many
effect of communication modality (Niparko et al., 2010; Nittrouer, with profound loss, access to spoken language typically begins
2010), and (c) an advantage for SimCom for vocabulary growth when implantation occurs. Therefore, the later the implantation the
(Connor, Heiber, Arts, & Zwolan, 2000). Language input is typi- more delay has been experienced. Second, lengthy auditory depri-
cally confounded by initial characteristics of children and by vation can change auditory perception permanently, and thus can
families changing their DHH children’s language input based on compromise ongoing access to speech. Sharma, Nash, and Dorman
individual rates of spoken language development (Watson, Arch- (2009) found evidence that auditory deprivation leads to perma-
bold, & Nikolopoulos, 2006). For those in SimCom environments, nent change in auditory pathways, and that only cochlear implan-
researchers have reported that both hearing parents and their DHH tation before 3.5 years results in DHH children having cortical
children typically decrease their use of sign when (and if) spoken responses to auditory stimuli similar to those of hearing children.
language skills develop (Geers, Spehar, & Sedey, 2002; Nittrouer, Speech development. While not synonymous with language,
2010). P. E. Spencer and Marschark (2010) conclude that Sim- speech intelligibility is crucial to communication when DHH use
Com, at the very least, does not interfere with acquisition of spoken language. Children with early identification of hearing
speech. loss, lesser degrees of hearing loss, and those with earlier CI
National surveys in the United States track only what commu- implantation appear to have the best outcomes. Researchers have
nication mode is used in educational contexts and not what lan- found the early phases of prelinguistic development in early-
guage DHH children use to communicate. Therefore, we cannot identified children, whether using CIs or hearing aids, to be de-
know from these surveys what proportion of DHH children is layed but to follow similar steps as in hearing children. However,
actually acquiring fluent spoken language. One study of almost all there were subtle differences in production of more complex
DHH children in a large U.S. metropolitan area who were being babbles, and DHH children’s speech productions were generally
educated in special classes for children with hearing loss found more variable than those of hearing children (Ertmer & Goffman,
about 70% of children were able to identify the referent of spoken 2011; Moeller, Hoover, et al., 2007; Schauwers, Gillis, & Gov-
words (voice only) on a speech perception test, and thus appeared, aerts, 2008). Finding that complexity of prelinguistic babbles
at least to some extent, to be acquiring spoken language (Easter- correlated with later articulation scores, Moeller, Hoover, et al.
brooks et al., 2008). In an Australian study, Hyde and Punch (2007) concluded that the motor and phonetic foundations for
(2011) found 70% of children with CIs used speech alone as their spoken language are acquired through babbling. Thus, prelinguis-
preferred mode of communication and 30% used sign and speech. tic vocalizations appear to be an important indicator of infants’
There are a number of factors that have been found to have ability to learn spoken language. Unfortunately, researchers indi-
significant effects on spoken language development of children cate that articulation problems may continue to interfere with
who use CIs or have more moderate hearing losses. These factors communication experiences of many DHH preschoolers
account for 35%–50% of the variance in spoken language out- (Nittrouer, 2010; Tobey, Geers, Brenner, Altuna, & Gabbert,
comes (Geers et al., 2009; Geers & Sedey, 2011; Niparko et al., 2003). Fitzpatrick et al. (2011) found speech production the most
2010; Nittrouer, 2010). As has been true with language develop- impaired of all speech and language measures for a group of 4- and
ment in hearing children, the most significant factors predicting 5-year-olds, including those with CIs and those with less severe
spoken language include parental education, socio-economic sta- loss using hearing aids. Nittrouer (2010) concluded, “In general,
tus, ratings of parental sensitivity and stimulation, and parent (preschool) children with hearing loss were quite unintelligible,
involvement (Geers et al., 2009; Niparko et al., 2010). Children’s with listeners able to understand less than half of the words these
nonverbal cognitive skills also relate to language development in children said” (p. 181).
general and spoken language development specifically (Geers et Spoken language development. Many researchers report
al., 2009). Factors related to access to audition also relate to that DHH children’s lexicons are smaller than those of hearing
spoken language development. More positive outcomes occur with toddlers (Moeller, Hoover, et al., 2007; Nott, Cowan, Brown, &
8 LEDERBERG, SCHICK, AND SPENCER

Wigglesworth, 2009), even with early intervention and use of ine the possible cascading effects of delayed language on two of
advanced technologies, although the overall difference is much these abilities, specifically children’s developing Theory of Mind
less than that of earlier cohorts (Mayne et al., 1999). On the other (ToM) and print literacy skills.
hand, some researchers have found average vocabulary growth
curves of children with early cochlear implantation equal or even Development of Theory of Mind
exceed those of hearing children (Connor & Zwolan, 2004; Dett-
man & Dowell, 2010; Nittrouer, 2010; Tomblin, Barker, Spencer, Hearing children’s language skills are strongly predictive of
Zhang, & Gantz, 2005). For children who received high quality ToM skills (specifically, false belief understanding), and the qual-
early intervention and preschool education, growth appears to be ity of language input facilitates and may be necessary to acquire
sufficient to result in about half the children entering school with ToM skills (Milligan, Astington, & Dack, 2007). It is not surpris-
close to age-appropriate vocabulary skills (Fitzpatrick et al., 2011; ing, therefore, that DHH children’s general language levels also
Geers et al., 2009; Hayes, Geers, Treiman, & Moog, 2009; associate with their performance on ToM tasks.
Nittrouer, 2010). In these studies, average vocabulary scores were Importantly, there is a robust set of findings that DoDP children
in the “low normal” range (i.e., standard score of around 85) by who are native signers and whose language development is gen-
4 –5 years of age. erally age-appropriate demonstrate ToM skills comparable to those
DHH children’s syntactic development shows a different pattern of their age-matched hearing peers (Courtin, 2000, in France;
from that of hearing children, and this pattern is consistent across Peterson, Wellman, & Liu, 2005, in Australia; Schick et al., 2007,
various spoken languages (P. E. Spencer & Marschark, 2010). in the United States; Woolfe, Want, & Siegal, 2002, in the United
Researchers have found slower growth in Mean Length of Utter- Kingdom). Having a visual (instead of auditory-based) language
ance (MLU) for children with CIs acquiring English, German, or does not affect acquisition of fundamental social cognitive skills.
Dutch and greater diversity in outcomes compared to hearing This is consistent with research that shows that hearing children’s
children (Schauwers, Gillis, & Govaerts, 2005). In addition, hear- ToM development is not affected by the specific (spoken) lan-
ing loss tends to affect syntax more than vocabulary (Edwards, guage being learned (Wellman, Cross, & Watson, 2001).
Figueras, Mellanby, & Langdon, 2011; Geers et al., 2009; Inscoe, In contrast, at least in the past, DoHP children typically showed
Odell, Archbold, & Nikolopoulos, 2009). a severe delay in ToM, with the minimum average delay reported
Perceptual salience plays a role in DHH children’s acquisition to be about 4 years (Courtin, 2000; Peterson et al., 2005; Schick et
of spoken grammatical morphemes (Koehlinger, Horne, & al., 2007; Woolfe et al., 2002). Like hearing children, DoHP
Moeller, 2011; Szagun, 2004). For example, Koehlinger et al. children’s language skills, regardless of modality or specific lan-
(2011) found that English-speaking children with hearing loss guage (e.g., spoken or signed English, or ASL), predict ToM
were more delayed in their acquisition of the difficult to hear –s performance (Moeller & Schick, 2006; Remmel & Peters, 2009;
morphemes (contracted is, plural –s, possessive –s) than syllabic Schick et al., 2007).
morphemes (uncontracted am, is, are, progressive –ing, a, and DoHP children’s average delay in ToM may also be related to
the). Similarly, Szagun (2004) found children with CIs showed characteristics of language input from their parents. Moeller and
more errors with the harder-to-hear aspects of the German article Schick (2006) compared SimCom input from hearing mothers to
system compared to hearing children who were matched on MLU. their DHH children (none with CIs) with that of hearing mothers
and their hearing children. Results showed that mothers of hearing
Summary of Spoken Language Development children used a greater diversity of mental state terms than mothers
of the DHH children. For both groups, the general quality of
In summary, a larger proportion of DHH children today than in language input and mothers’ use of mental state terms predicted
the past is acquiring spoken language within age ranges typical for their children’s ToM performance. This relation held for the DHH
hearing children. This is due to a combination of factors including children even after accounting for child age and level of language
earlier identification and intervention for hearing loss, use of skill. Mothers who used few mental state signs had DHH children
advanced technologies, and enhanced educational efforts. For with low ToM skills. The importance of the quality of language
hearing families, this means these children are able to participate input in the educational environment was suggested by results of a
more fully in conversations in their families’ native spoken lan- study of two groups of DoDP children (in Italy, Sweden, and
guage. However, there are still large numbers of DHH children Estonia). Those who were in sign-bilingual/bimodal programs had
who are significantly delayed in spoken language skills despite use ToM skills similar to (slightly younger) hearing peers; however,
of advanced technology like CIs. Like so many DHH children in DoDP children in oral programs showed delays in ToM (Meristo
the past, children who are experiencing delayed spoken language et al., 2007). Thus, access to language input in a variety of
development but are not given access to alternative models may be situations, as well as language levels attained, appear to influence
unable to develop language skills sufficient to support fluent the development of DHH children in ways similar to those docu-
communication or serve as a basis for further learning. mented for hearing children. As a result, many DoHP children
enter school unable to pass ToM tasks that are typically achieved
Impact of Hearing Loss on Language-Related at age four by hearing children, and this delay in understanding
Cognitive and Academic Skills cognitively-related situations may have far-reaching effects on the
children’s ability to learn in traditionally age-based educational
Questions have been raised about effects of the language devel- activities (Astington & Pelletier, 2005).
opment delays and differences of DHH children on their language- A more recent study found that DHH children with CIs who had
related cognitive and academic abilities. In this section, we exam- close to age-appropriate language levels performed similarly on
 LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDREN WITH HEARING LOSS 9

ToM tasks to (slightly younger) hearing children (Remmel & hearing develop some spoken phonological representation, these
Peters, 2009). Evidence that these DHH children, like DoDP alternative means do not result in many DHH children developing
children, had typical rates of ToM development supports the age-appropriate phonological awareness or reading skills.
premise that higher levels of language development (whether in Other theorists (Allen et al., 2009; Goldin-Meadow & May-
sign or speech) leads to better social-cognitive skills. berry, 2001) argue that reading does not require translation into
spoken phonemes, and alternative visually-based strategies can be
Development of Literacy employed to identify words. The most frequently suggested strat-
egy is the use of children’s sign language skills. For example, one
Print literacy, specifically the ability to read and write, is critical strategy that DHH readers use is to map a holistic printed word to
for full participation in education and employment situations. its meaning either directly or mediated by a related sign (Siedlecki,
Unfortunately, literacy has long been an area of difficulty for many Votaw, Bonvillian, & Jordan, 1990). While this may result in good
DHH children, and their average literacy outcomes have remained reading skills for some DHH readers (Koo, Crain, LaSasso, &
significantly below those of hearing children for many decades Eden, 2008; Morford, Wilkinson, Villwock, Pinar, & Kroll, 2011),
despite increased emphasis on their achievement and multiple the low literacy attainment suggests it is not an effective strategy
changes in educational interventions (P. E. Spencer & Marschark, for most DHH readers. Indeed, research with hearing children
2010). Throughout the 20th century, national surveys in the United suggests this sight word strategy would be ineffective for a ma-
States consistently found that the average DHH high school stu- jority of children (Rayner et al., 2001). Experimental research also
dent graduated reading at the fourth grade level, with only 10% indicates that learning new written words through associations
developing age-appropriate skills (Traxler, 2000). Similar results with sign can be a slow process for DHH children (Reitsma, 2009).
have been found across languages differing in orthography and Two visually-based strategies may help DHH children to de-
language learning contexts, including Spanish (Alvarado, Puente, velop a representational structure that can mediate word reading.
& Herrera, 2008), Dutch (Hermans, Ormel, & Knoors, 2010), and Fingerspelling, which consists of a manual alphabet representing
Chinese (Yang, 2008). Improved but still problematic results are orthography, is a natural part of sign languages, and when pro-
emerging about the current cohort of DHH children who benefit duced fluently may provide a non-auditory phonological system
from early intervention and use of advanced technologies (Geers &
that can be used to represent the internal structure of written words
Hayes, 2011; L. J. Spencer & Tomblin, 2009).
and aid decoding and memory (Alvarado et al., 2008; Haptonstall-
Although many skills and experiences contribute to acquisition
Nykaza & Schick, 2007; Hirsh-Pasek, 1987; Padden & Ramsey,
of literacy, two have received the most attention: general under-
2000). Fluent fingerspelling represents some syllable structure and
lying language abilities, and the ability to use spoken phonological
co-articulated chunking of frequently co-occurring letter se-
knowledge for decoding printed words. There is growing recog-
quences (Brentari, 1998; Wilcox, 1992). For example, consonantal
nition that these two abilities differ within the population of DHH
clusters (bl, sl, cl, str) or common affixes (–tion, –ness, pre–) are
children depending on their degree of functional hearing and
produced as smooth, co-articulated sequences, not distinct separate
access to the sound-based phonological system which is a foun-
letters. Strong correlations have been found between DHH chil-
dation of written language (Easterbrooks et al., 2008; Hermans,
dren’s fingerspelling skills and English reading vocabulary (Al-
Ormel, & Knoors, 2010).
Literacy skills of DHH children with limited functional varado et al., 2008; Haptonstall-Nykaza & Schick, 2007; Padden &
hearing. DHH children who sign (either signed systems or sign Ramsey, 2000). Training studies have shown that use of co-
language) and have poor access to speech are learning to read a articulated fingerspelling facilitated learning new print words, with
language that differs in many ways from their own. Indeed, they effects particularly strong for DoHP children (Haptonstall-Nykaza
must learn to identify words through means different from those of & Schick, 2007; Hirsh-Pasek, 1987). Fingerspelling in which each
hearing children or of DHH children who acquire spoken lan- letter is presented individually (and is less sign-like) did not
guage. Hearing children learn to identify written words in part by provide such facilitation (Haptonstall-Nykaza & Schick, 2007).
decoding or matching graphemes to an already stored spoken Some educators in sign-bilingual programs advocate incorporating
phonological representation (Rayner, Foorman, Perfetti, Pesetsky, fingerspelling in order to build multi-modal word representations:
& Seidenberg, 2001). In contrast, DHH children with limited presenting new words in chains of print, sign, and fingerspelling
functional hearing frequently have either weak or non-existent (Padden & Ramsey, 2000). Incorporation of fluent fingerspelling
spoken phonological representations of words and print does not in instruction is a promising technique that may lead to improved
correspond to the phonemes of their signs (e.g., handshape con- reading abilities, but its efficacy has not been rigorously tested.
figuration; Bochner & Bochner, 2009; Musselman, 2000). Other researchers suggest that explicit instruction on morphol-
Some theorists argue that reading by DHH and hearing children ogy can provide DHH children an additional sublexical basis for
is qualitatively similar and that visual and kinesthetic means must word identification and generation. Research suggests that most
be used to develop spoken phonological representations of printed DHH children have poor knowledge of the morphemic structure of
words (Wang, Trezek, Luckner, & Paul, 2008). Such knowledge the written language (Gaustad & Kelly, 2004) and that such
can be at least partially derived from lip-reading and speech knowledge makes a significant contribution to word identification
articulation (Harris & Moreno, 2006), and use of special tech- beyond the third grade for hearing children (Nunes, Burman,
niques developed for DHH children such as Visual Phonics and Evans, & Bell, 2010). Training studies show that signing DHH
Cued Speech (for reviews, see LaSasso, Crain, & Leybaert, 2010; children can improve their knowledge of the spoken/written lan-
Musselman, 2000; Perfetti & Sandak, 2000). These reviews indi- guage’s derivational and inflectional morphology (Nunes et al.,
cate that although some DHH children with limited functional 2010). Future research needs to explore whether programs that
10 LEDERBERG, SCHICK, AND SPENCER

systematically develop this type of knowledge result in improved With a randomized-field trial design, they found children in the
word identification skills across groups of children. intervention classes performed better on suffix spelling, reading
As for hearing children, there is an extensive database indicating comprehension, and writing tests than those in a control class.
that DHH children’s literacy outcomes are related to their under- Cannon, Easterbrooks, Gagne, and Beal-Alvarez (2011) also found
lying language skills. This association is found even when that that exposure to a computer-based language program, which fo-
language is a sign language or a signed system. In a meta-analysis cused on comprehension of written sentences, improved
of reading studies of DHH children, Mayberry, del Giudice, and elementary-school signing children’s written and expressive (in
Lieberman (2011) found that DHH children’s language abilities SimCom) knowledge of English morphosyntax.
(signed or spoken) predicted 35% of the variance in their reading Literacy skills of DHH children with functional hearing.
ability. Other researchers have found that expressive vocabulary Like hearing children, DHH children who have sufficient func-
significantly predicted DHH children’s reading achievement (East- tional hearing to acquire spoken language are learning a written
erbrooks et al., 2008; Hermans, Knoors, Ormel, & Verhoeven, form of the language they already know (Hermans, Ormel, &
2008; Kyle & Harris, 2006), but an important role is also played by Knoors, 2010; Mayer & Akamatsu, 2011). Although as reviewed
knowledge of English syntax (Kelly, 1996; Moores & Sweet, above, spoken language levels remain generally below those of
1990a, 1990b). same-age hearing children, research suggests that access to the
Sign-bilingual education programs in the United States are written language’s auditory phonological system provides signif-
based on the premise that a focus on improving sign language icant advantages (Easterbrooks et al., 2008; Geers & Hayes, 2011).
skills, thus promoting general language knowledge, will also lead With auditory access through CIs, advanced hearing amplification,
to better reading skills of the spoken language, with the latter or having a mild-to-moderate hearing loss, average reading skills
acquired as a second language via print. In fact, it is assumed that are somewhat delayed but much closer to levels of hearing peers
a fluent natural sign language can serve as the primary language of than has been found in the past for DHH children. Age-appropriate
instruction and be used to support learning (via comparison and reading skills are attained by many DHH elementary school chil-
contrast) of the second language. As reviewed above, current dren (Archbold et al., 2008; Briscoe, Bishop, & Norbury, 2001;
evidence suggests that DoHP children can acquire sign language in Easterbrooks et al., 2008; Gibbs, 2004) and high school adoles-
immersion programs, though their language is typically delayed cents (Geers & Hayes, 2011). However, Harris and Terlekski
compared to that of DoDP children. However, the degree to which (2011) found that DHH 12- to 16-year-old children with CIs or
these skills relate to reading is controversial. There are a number hearing aids on average had 3 years delay in reading; only 20%
of reports that stronger sign language skills correlate with stronger were mainstreamed with hearing children and relied solely on
reading skills (Chamberlain & Mayberry, 2008; Hermans et al., spoken language. Rather than being in conflict, these studies may
2008; Padden & Ramsey, 2000; Strong & Prinz, 1997). However, represent different parts of the distribution of DHH children. More
other researchers have failed to find such a relation (Mayer & research is needed before we know whether recent trends in early
Akamatsu, 2011; Moores & Sweet, 1990a, 1990b). In contrast to identification, digital hearing aids, and cochlear implants will
consistent differences in sign language skills, researchers have not result in improved literacy rates for the majority of DHH children.
found consistent differences in reading skills between DoHP and Researchers have consistently found that phonological aware-
DoDP students (Convertino, Marschark, Sapere, Sarchet, & Zu- ness and language correlate both concurrently and predictively
pan, 2009; DeLana et al., 2007). Finally, as Hermans, Ormel, and with reading for DHH children with functional hearing, suggesting
Knoors (2010) note, these studies have rarely examined DHH similar processes as hearing children. However, a more nuanced
children’s skills in the spoken or signed version of the written approach suggests there may be differences in how the two groups
language that is frequently correlated with sign language abilities of children learn to read. While phonological awareness skills
and may mediate the relations between sign language and reading. correlate with reading skills, DHH children (with CI or with
Theorists have suggested the original premise of the sign- moderate losses) show a more severe deficit in auditory-only
bilingual model—that sign language skills will directly transfer to phonological awareness compared to their reading scores on tests
understanding the written form of a different language—should be normed for hearing children (Ambrose, Fey, & Eisenberg, 2012;
modified (Hermans, Ormel, & Knoors, 2010; Mayer & Leigh, Colin, Magnan, Ecalle, & Leybaert, 2007; Easterbrooks et al.,
2010). Good language skills in a first language are a necessary but 2008; James, Rajput, Brinton, & Goswami, 2008; Moeller, Tom-
not sufficient condition to learn to read a second language. These blin, et al., 2007; L. J. Spencer & Tomblin, 2009; Webb &
researchers posit that transfer between sign and the written form of Lederberg, 2012). DHH children may rely on visual and kines-
a spoken language will occur only for the cognitive underpinnings thetic cues to phonology available in speech reading, articulation,
(e.g., conceptual knowledge, uses of language) and those linguistic and print itself to supplement partially-accessible (auditory) pho-
features the languages share. Hermans, Ormel, and Knoors (2010) nology as they learn to read (Beal-Alvarez, Lederberg, & Easter-
suggest that good sign language skills can serve as a mediator for brooks, 2012; C. Johnson & Goswami, 2010; Kyle & Harris,
learning to read a second language, but only when teachers ex- 2006).
plicitly cultivate that transfer. Such cultivated transfer might in- There is increasing recognition that phonological knowledge
clude emphasis of improving the second language through the and reading have a reciprocal relationship in both hearing and
signed and spoken medium (i.e., SimCom) while teaching literacy. DHH children. Phonics instruction (i.e., explicit instruction on
Two recent studies suggest explicit literacy instruction can how graphemes map onto phonemes) allows children to develop
result in improved English syntax (written, signed, and spoken) for more precise phonological representations of words (Castles &
DHH children. Nunes et al. (2010) trained elementary school Coltheart, 2004). Because graphemes provide visual support for
teachers to implement activities that focused on English grammar. only partially-available phonemes, phonics instruction may be
 LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDREN WITH HEARING LOSS 11

particularly well-suited to support phonological knowledge for frequent monitoring, rather than a static approach regarding lan-
DHH children with functional hearing (Beal-Alvarez et al., 2012; guage access or an a priori decision that does not consider the
Bergeron, Lederberg, Easterbrooks, Miller, & Connor, 2009). Re- myriad factors related to an individual child and family. Further-
searchers have also found knowledge of grapheme-phoneme cor- more, there is no evidence that children cannot learn language via
respondences and ability to blend and sound out pseudowords to multiple modalities or that using a visual language will hinder the
be better developed and more strongly related to reading than development of a spoken language, but there is strong evidence
traditional measures of auditory-only phonological awareness for that not having access to language has long term negative devel-
DHH children with functional hearing (Easterbrooks et al., 2008; opmental effects. While the ongoing challenges are clear, there is
Geers, 2003; L. J. Spencer & Tomblin, 2009). For children with also great hope for continued rapid progress in the development of
functional hearing, training studies suggest print can be used to DHH children when their individual needs and abilities to access
strengthen spoken phonological and morphological skills (Bow, fluent language input during naturally-occurring interactions early
Blamey, Paatsch, & Sarant, 2004; Most, Levin, & Sarsour, 2008). in life are met.
Vocabulary and syntactic abilities are even more strongly pre-
dictive of reading than phonological processing skills. In a longi-
tudinal study of children with CIs (Geers, 2003; Geers & Hayes,
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