Chapter 16

Ergonomics and work study

16.1 Introduction
In the earlier chapters, we have seen how method study involves the study of
the methods of operations to reduce the operational times. Similarly, ergo-
nomics involves the study of the operations with reference to the working
conditions to reduce the strain in the body of the operator. It is a scientific
study of people at work and the workplace with reference to the movement
of the human body. It looks at what kind of work that is done, the tools used
and the whole job environment including the posture of the body, the move-
ments necessitating the human effort and the physical strain the operator is
subjected to.
Ergonomics is concerned with many disciplines in its study of humans
and their environments, including
(i) Anthropometry,
(ii) Biomechanics,
(iii) Kinesiology,
(iv) Physiology,
(v) Cognitive psychology,
(vi) Industrial and organizational psychology, and
(vii) Space psychology.
and this knowledge is very much essential for the engineers, especially,
industrial engineers, Industrial designers, and information designers.

16.2 Aims of ergonomics

1. The goal of ergonomics is to make the job to suit the operator with lesser
muscle fatigue, and to reduce the number and severity of work-related
Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSDs), caused by stress as well as injuries
and disorders associated with the overuse of soft tissues like muscles or
tendons, awkward posture caused by repeated tasks. These are among the
most frequently reported causes, resulting in almost 33% of lost or
restricted work time

Work Organization and Methods Engineering for Productivity.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819956-5.00016-9 219
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220 Work Organization and Methods Engineering for Productivity

2. A well-designed and implemented ergonomics reduces the above strains

and plays an important role in performance improvement. This is
achieved by designing tasks, work spaces, controls, displays, tools, light-
ing, and equipment to fit the employee’s physical capabilities and limita-
tions, as professed by the Centre for Disease control and Prevention.
3. In addition to reduce the job stresses, ergonomics aims to create safe,
comfortable and productive workspaces by designing the work place to
suit human abilities and limitations including the individual’s body size,
strength, skill, speed, sensory abilities (vision, hearing), and even
attitudes.
4. By improvement of workplace layout and by reduction of worker strain,
engineering ergonomics reduces waste, improves process flow and pro-
duction metrics, and reduces injury and risk exposure.
5. Manufacturing industries can benefit from ergonomic interventions and
innovations, from machine design to process improvement.

16.3 History of ergonomics

The term ergonomics comes from the Greek word, (pronounced as ergon
nomos), ‘ergon’ meaning work, and ‘nomos’ meaning natural law. It is
reported that Greek civilization in the 5th century BC used ergonomic princi-
ples in the design of their tools, jobs, and workplaces and the Greek philoso-
pher. Hippocrates gave a description of how a surgeon’s workplace should
be designed and how the tools he uses should be arranged. Similar evidences
are found in other ancient civilizations like Indian, Egyptian and Chinese.
However in the era of scientific management this term Ergonomics was
first used by the Polish scientist in his 1857 paper ‘The Outline of
Ergonomics; i.e. Science of Work, Based on the Truths Taken from the
Natural Science’. It entered into English dictionaries after the British psy-
chologist Hywel Murrell used this term at the 1949 meeting of UKs
Admiralty, which finally led to the foundation of The Ergonomics Society
which is later came to be known as The Chartered Institute of Ergonomics
and Human Factors, but subsequently renamed as the Institute of
Ergonomics and Human Factors. In USA, the Human Factors and
Ergonomics Society (HFES) was founded in 1957. The International
Ergonomics Association (IEA) is a federation of ergonomics and human fac-
tors societies from around the world.
During the post-world war II era the concept of ergonomic had widely
become popular resulting in its becoming the essential requirement for the
work study engineers in their projects of redesigning the work places. The
Americans replaced the term by ‘human factors’ (on the lighter side, the
Americans prefer to call the lift as an elevator and the flat as an apartment!)
emphasizing its applications in non-work-related situations also.
 Ergonomics and work study Chapter | 16 221

16.4 Definitions on ergonomics

Ergonomics is the application of human biological sciences to achieve opti-
mum mutual adjustment of human and his work the benefits resulting in the
increase of efficiency and wellbeing.
I.L.O.

Ergonomics is the scientific discipline concerned with the understanding of

interactions among humans and other elements of a system, and the profession
that applies theory, principles, data and methods to design in order to optimize
human well-being and overall system performance.
International Ergonomics Association.

Ergonomics is an applied science concerned with designing and arranging

things people use so that the people and things interact most efficiently and
safely, called also biotechnology, human engineering, human factors.
Merriam Webster.

Ergonomics is a science-based discipline that brings together knowledge from

other subjects such as anatomy and physiology, psychology, engineering and
statistics to ensure that designs complement the strengths and abilities of peo-
ple and minimize the effects of their limitations.
Chartered Institute of Ergonomics & Human Factors.

Ergonomics is the study of the relationship between workers and their environ-
ment, esp the equipment they use.
http://www.dictionary.com.

Ergonomics (also known as human factors engineering), is the science of refin-

ing the design of products to optimize them for human use.
https://www.humanscale.com.

Ergonomics is the science of designing the workplace, keeping in mind the

capabilities and limitations of the worker.
Ergonomics Plus.

Ergonomics is the process of designing or arranging workplaces, products and

systems so that they fit the people who use them.
Dohrmann Consulting.

16.5 Operative’s posture at work

All international travelers in flights of duration longer than 8 hours must
have experienced the cramps while sitting in one position during the flight.
222 Work Organization and Methods Engineering for Productivity

This is called the static posture of a person which should be avoided.

Ergonomics minimizes such unnecessary static work in the workplaces and
reduces the forces acting on the body by adhering to the following ergo-
nomic principles:
G All work activities should permit the worker to adopt several different,
but equally healthy and safe postures.
G Where muscular force has to be exerted it should be done by the largest
appropriate muscle groups available.
G Work activities should be performed with the joints at about midpoint of
their range of movement. This applies particularly to the head, trunk, and
upper limbs

16.6 The three major domains of ergonomics

The activities of ergonomics can be broadly classified based on their applica-
tions, into
G Physical ergonomics,
G Cognitive ergonomics and
G Organizational ergonomics.
Physical ergonomics is based on human anatomy. Some of the anthropo-
metric, physiological and bio mechanical characteristics as related to physi-
cal activity are Considered. It analyzes the Work-related musculoskeletal
disorders (WRMSDs) and attempts to minimize them.
Cognitive ergonomics is based on mental processes involving human
responses like mental workload, decision-making, skilled performance, work
stress, etc. which affect interactions among humans and other elements of a
system.
Organizational ergonomics is based on the socio-technical systems,
involving the organizational structures, Management policies, communica-
tions, human relations, teamwork, community ergonomics, cooperative work,
new work programs, etc.

16.7 Man-machine system

Man-machine system is a system in which the functions of a human operator
(or a group of operators) and a machine are integrated for a coordinated
effort between them, that are complementary to each other. This is also com-
monly referred to as Human-Machine Interaction (HMI), focusing on the
design and location of machine controls, by observing the ways in which
humans interact with the machine controls as represented by Fig. 16.1.
 Ergonomics and work study Chapter | 16 223

FIGURE 16.1 Man-machine

system - human physiology.

The Human-Machine Interaction basically falls into three categories.

Manual systems like assembly operations or using portable drills, etc.
Here the operator uses his physical energy with less or no ergonomic aids.
Mechanical systems, like semi automatic machines, where the machine is
designed to take the load off the operator. But the location of the displays,
use of machine controls and related body movements, call for good ergo-
nomic design of the control and display units.
Automated systems, including today’s smart machines, where the
machines perform all the operations and controls without human interven-
tion, except for emergency situations. The human intervention is required
only in planning, designing, programming and maintaining of the system,
which anyway is done elsewhere by computer programming. This system
requires low need for operator oriented ergonomic design.
The above concept can also be represented by Fig. 16.2 which shows
how the man reacts to the displays and operates the controls.
224 Work Organization and Methods Engineering for Productivity

FIGURE 16.2 Man-

machine system - how the
operator reacts to the
displays.

16.8 Ergonomic design of the work place

With regards to the design of workplaces, we can consider four postures of
operative’s postures.
1. Machine operating posture
2. Small assembly operations while sitting before a work bench, as illus-
trated in Fig. 16.4
3. Office desk sitting posture
4. Computer operating posture, same as desk work, except that the eye
focus or hand stretching is almost constant causing fatigue.

16.9 Ergonomic design of machine controls

This is basically a standing posture with the hands stretched to reach the
machine levers and controls. That is why the levers of a machine shall be
located nearer to the hands and visual displays should be at the eye level as
illustrated in Fig. 16.3 and further detailed below.
G Hand controls like levers, turning wheels should be at the waist level, at
a distance not less than 6 and not more than 12 in. from the body position
of the operator.
G Push buttons, knobs, toggle switches, etc., should be at the chest level at
not less than 6 and not more than 12 in. from the body position of the
operator.
G Foot pedals etc. which are used for fast action control with high loading
capacity should be located close to the feet location without involving
the movement of other parts of the body.
G Visual display units like dials and warning lamps should be at the eye
level at not less than 12and not more than 24 in. from the body position
of the operator.
 Ergonomics and work study Chapter | 16 225

FIGURE 16.3 Man-machine system -location of levers, and controls on the machine.

FIGURE 16.4 Ergonomic design of

assembly work place. From
Principles of Wokstudy, ILO.

16.10 Ergonomic design of assembly work place

Fig. 16.4 from ILOs 1969 book on Work Study illustrates how the assembly
work place layout should be organized for simple and logical movement of
the hands so as to reduce unnecessary strain on the hand movements.

16.11 Ergonomic design of bins for picking up small

components (fig. 16.5)
226 Work Organization and Methods Engineering for Productivity

FIGURE 16.5 The positioning of the bin involving frequent picking up on small parts.

16.12 Ergonomics at office work (fig. 16.6)

The office work table shall be so designed that all desk work materials
are located at the normal work area as illustrate in Fig. 16.4, Reference may
also be made to paragraph 13.3.2 of Chapter 13 on Principles of Motion
Economy, which emphasizes on the ergonomic design of the workplace to
achieve maximum motion economy.

16.13 Ergonomics for computer operation

The rapidly changing technology has increased the use of computers in the
modern workplace. Unlike the popular concept that Ergonomics is applicable
in industrial workplaces only, the increased use of computers and the result-
ing deskwork has greatly increased the need for ergonomics in the desk
work. Though a similar desk as above can be used for computer work, since
this involves more of finger movements and eye movements than movement
of other parts of the body, the chair must be specially designed for height
adjustment, as illustrated in Fig. 16.7.
(i) The computer desk should be ergonomically designed, with provision
for CPU and a sliding rack for the keyboard etc. Adjust the position of
the computer to prevent Carpal Tunnel Syndrome, as explained in the
previous paragraph.
 Ergonomics and work study Chapter | 16 227

FIGURE 16.6 Ergonomics at office work.

(ii) Even the chairs, monitors and keyboards should be ergonomically

designed to make sure that the heights of the desk and chair suit the
operative’s body stature.
(iii) For computer operators who normally use bifocal spectacles for dis-
tance vision, special spectacles with intermediate vision for 3 4 feet to
comfortably view the computer screen shall be provided.
(iv) Ensure that the height of the desk chair allows the feet to rest flat on
floor
(v) Learn the right way to lift heavy objects to prevent back injuries
(vi) Use handle coatings or special gloves to suppress vibrations from
power tool
(vii) The lighting system, the types, design and location of desks, chairs,
monitors, keyboards, etc., need to be considered in the workspace,
whether it is at the office or at home. The aim is to find the best fit
between the operator and his job conditions.
WikiHow puts forward the following 13 principles of ergonomic design
of work place for computer operators.
1. Adjust chair height so that your feet are flat on the floor. It is better to
adjust the chair height for the correct position of the arms and hands, as
most desks are of fixed height. Then, if necessary, provide support for
the feet so that the underside of the thighs are just supported at the edge
of the seat.
228 Work Organization and Methods Engineering for Productivity
FIGURE 16.7 Ergonomics of computer operation.
 Ergonomics and work study Chapter | 16 229

2. Keep your wrist position neutral.

3. Change your posture regularly.
G Sit upright.
G Sit reclined.
4. Make sure the other adjustments on your chair are correct for you, as
well.
5. Adjust the monitor so that the center is at eye level,
6. Adjust the brightness and contrast of your monitor so that you can see
clearly and without unnecessary strain.
7. Use a docking station to plug a laptop into a real monitor, keyboard,
and mouse.
8. Place your keyboard so that your upper arms hang vertically.
9. Keep your keyboard at the right height.
10. Place the mouse near the keyboard.
11. Manage cables.
12. Arrange items within sight and reach.
13. Get a phone headset.

16.14 Display panels on machinery

Fig. 16.8 illustrates how the controls and the display panels are to be located
at ergonomically appropriate levels.

FIGURE 16.8 Location of display panels and control wheels on a machine.

230 Work Organization and Methods Engineering for Productivity

16.15 Management responsibility for optimal ergonomics

Employers are responsible for providing a safe and healthful workplace for
their workers. The meticulous application of ergonomic principles would
reduce the MSDs due to overexertion of the operatives and subsequently the
management is the gainer by way of reduced cost of production.
Especially in high-risk industries like construction, food processing, fire
fighting, office jobs, healthcare, transportation and warehousing, the design-
ing of ergonomic process would certainly reduce the risk of developing
MSDs. The following are important elements of an ergonomic process:
1. Define the purpose, goals and accountability
2. Provide management support
3. Involve the operative fully in identifying and discussing about hazards
in their workplaces and suggesting how to reduce exposure to risk fac-
tors. Subsequently the changes made can be assessed form ergonomic
point of view. Plan for job rotation for specified jobs, where
appropriate.
4. Provide training
5. Identify problems
6. Encourage early reporting of MSD symptoms
7. Develop metrics for accurate and easily understood reporting
8. Maintain documentation and proof of effective application of ergonomic
principles.
9. Implement solutions to control hazards.
10. Evaluate progress
The ergonomic training program addresses MSD hazards and should be
continuous ongoing process that is incorporated into the daily operations,
rather than as an individual project undertaken as a post-mortem.

16.16 Benefits of an optimized ergonomic process

Performance
G Improves productivity
G Improves quality
G Improves process flow
G Improves associate engagement, commitment, and Morale
Cost
G Reduces waste
G Reduces errors
G Reduces & prevents injuries
G Reduces turnover
G Reduces absenteeism and presentism
 Ergonomics and work study Chapter | 16 231

16.17 Limitations of ergonomics

While most of the design features for ergonomics are as discussed in the pre-
vious paragraphs, the actual application and the usage of these locations
depends upon the learning capacity on how to use the interface. The other
limitations include
1. Ergonomic design discussed earlier may not suit equally to all operatives,
in view of different body measurements of operatives, and frequent
adjustments may be needed.
2. Take more time and resources increasing the overall costs for short rum
operations.
3. Needs very high effort in planning, recruiting, and executing.
4. Requires much longer study periods and therefore requires much good-
will among the participants

16.18 Software for ergonomics

G Ergopoints from Humantechs, Inc. is an online solution for managing
ergonomics
G Medgate’s Ergonomics Software - http://www.medgate.com/software/
ergonomics/
G Intelex Ergonomics Analysis software - https://www.intelex.com/pro-
ducts/applications/ergonomics-analysis
G JET Ergonomic Assessment Software ‘https://ergoweb.com/software/jet/
G 3DSSPP Software from Centre for Ergonomics at the University of
Michigan College of Engineering which predicts static strength require-
ments for tasks such as lifts.
G Ergoweb EnterpriseSM, a New Ergonomic Software System, being
released in June 2017, as a service (SaaS) management system for physi-
cally demanding work environments.
Benefits of Ergonomic software
The website www.cority.com/ehsqsoftware/ergonomics suggests the fol-
lowing benefits of the above software.
1. Manage organization-wide ergonomic audies and inspections, as well as
individual ergonomic assessments.
2. They can effectively reduce ergonomic risks, which could normally be
overlooked by us.
3. Provide data base for risk assessment tools, inspection checklists, and
self-assessment questionnaires.
4. Consolidate ergonomic findings & actions together in one logical interface.
5. Effectively manage the implementation of ergonomic risk controls.
6. Provide audit reports as per Safety and Occupational Health
requirements.
232 Work Organization and Methods Engineering for Productivity

16.19 Conclusion
Understanding or applying Ergonomics is not difficult or complicated, but is
mostly guided by common sense. But it is the practical, day-to-day applica-
tion of these principles that is challenging for many organizations. In a nut-
shell ergonomics is an essential tool for the sustainability of an organization.

Criteria questions
1. Cite some of the biological sciences that have direct bearing on the opera-
tives at work. (16.1)
2. What is ergonomics and how does it affect the performance of an operative?
(16.2)
3. What are the three major domains of Ergonomics? (16.6)
4. Discuss how the control levers should be ergonomically located on the
machine. (16.7)
5. What do you understand by Human-Machine Interaction? Explain it’s the
three variants. (16.7)
6. Illustrate the Ergonomic layout of an assembly work place. (16.10)
7. Illustrate the Ergonomic layout of a computer work table and chair for com-
puter operations. (16.13)
8. It is said that the computer operator should Change the posture regularly.
What do you mean by this and why? (16.13)
9. What are the Management Responsibilities for optimal Ergonomics? (16.15)
10. List some of the benefits of an Optimized Ergonomic Process. (16.16)
11. Cite some of the computer Software used for ergonomic layout for the work-
place. (16.18)
12. What are the benefits of computer Software used for ergonomics? (16.18)

Further reading
1. International Labour Organisation. Introduction to work study. 3rd ed. ILO.
2. Edwards DW. http://www.azquotes.com/quote/873755.
3. Ohno T. http://www.azquotes.com/quote/1411460.
4. Kiran DR. Production planning and control - a comprehensive approach. BSP; 2014.
5. Kiran DR, editor. Proceedings of the work study seminar. University of Dar Es Salaam;
1983.
6. Kiran DR. Proceedings of the general management seminar for the transport sector. Dar
Es Salaam: National Institute of Transport; 1984.
7. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_factors_and_ergonomics.
8. https://www.osha.gov/SLTC/ergonomics/.
9. http://ergo-plus.com/workplace-ergonomics/.
10. http://www.cority.com/ehsq-software/ergonomics.
11. https://theergonomicexpert.
12. https://piedmontelectric.