Chapter 8 PDF
Chapter 8 PDF
Chapter 8 PDF
I n this chapter we will discuss some aspects of steady flow in pressure conduits.
We shall limit our discussion to incompressible fluids, that is, to those that
have p = constant. This includes all liquids. When gases flow with very small
pressure changes we can consider them incompressible, for then p = constant.
In this chapter we will assume isothermal conditions so as to eliminate thermo-
dynamic effects, some of which we discuss in Chap. 13.
For water at 59°F (l5°C), using Eqs. (8.1) and (8.2) we find:
Transi~iori Turbulent
when D = 1 in (25 mm), ~rit = 0.30 fps (0.091 mis)
:
V and when V = 3 fps (0.91 mis), Dcrit = 0.10 in (2.5 mm)
Figure 8.1 We seldom encounter velocities or pipe diameters as small as these with water
Log-l?g plot for fiow in a uniform pipe (n = 2.00, rough-wall pipe; n = 1.75, smooth- flowing in practical engineering, though they may occur in certain laboratory .
wall pipe). instruments. Therefore, for such fluids as water and air, practically all cases of
engineering importance are in the turbulent-flow region. But if tfie fluid is a vis-
the diameter D, and thus from Eq. (7.6) cous oil, laminar flow often occurs.
DV '\:¥"A."'~~:-as"'t::~~~,:,..-1 1 :-v..--".M1.t~•~~•·~u--....,~,c"'fr,:!r.s.rc~~,,~vr,<""'~~~..:..1o,L•.li'Q.-.)lff'.:,-.C"M'~~1.1 ¥ . i " . J . ~ ~ ; . . ' \ " l ' . Q l . ' I " ~ ~ : ! . : " - ' - " ~ ~.•· ~
1 Some~imes we find it convenient to use a "hybrid" set of units and compensate with a
EXERCISES
correction factor. Thus, by substituting V = Q/A and V = m/pA from Eq. ( 4.6) into Eq.
(8.1), we get . 8.2.1 Oil with a kinematic viscosity of 0.00015 ft2/sec is flowing through a 3-in-diameter
R = 1.273Q/vD = 1.273m/µ,D, pipe. Below what velocity will the flow be laminar?
wher~ Q and _m are the v~lum_e flow rate and the mass flow rate, respectively. The last 8.2.2 Oil with a kinematic viscosity of 0.185 St is flowing through a 150-mm-diameter
f~rm is especially convement m ~he case of gases; it shows that in a pipe of uniform pipe. Below what velocity will the flow be laminar?
di~meter the Reynol?s number is constant along the pipe, even for a compressible 8.2.3 Oil with a kinematic viscosity of 0.0035 ft 2/sec flows through a 4-in-diameter pipe
flmd, where the density and velocity vary, if there is no appreciable variation in with a velocity of 15 fps . Is the flow laminar or turbulent?
temperature to alter the viscosity of the gas.
8.4 Friction Head Loss in Conduits of Constant Cross Section 259
258 CHAPTER 8: Steady Incompressible Flow in Pressure Conduits
(8.3)
where A is the cross-sectional area of the flowing fluid, and P is the wetted Datum
perimeter, that portion of the perimeter of the cross section where the fluid con-
tacts the solid boundary, and therefore where friction resistance is exerted on Figure 8.2
the flowing fluid . For a circular pipe flowing full,
n?- r D summation of forces acting on any fluid element must be equal to zero (i.e.,
Full-pipe flow: Rh= - (8.4)
2nr 2 4 L F = ma = 0). Thus, in the direction of flow,
Thus Rh is not the radius of the pipe, and so the term "radius" is misleading. If a (8.5)
circular pipe is exactly half full, both the area and the wetted perimeter are half
the preceding values; so R1i is r/2, the same as if it were full. But if the depth of where we define r0, the average s/zear stress (average shear force per unit area)
flow in a circular pipe is 0.8 times the diameter, for example, A = 0.674D 2 and at the conduit wall, by
P = 2.2lD, then R 11 = 0.304D, or 0.608r. We discuss part-full pipe flow further in
Sec. 10.7. (8.6)
The hydraulic radius is a convenient means for expressing the shape as well
as the size of a conduit, since, for the same cross-sectional area, the value of Rh
will vary with the shape. in which r 0 is the local shear stress 2 acting over a small incremental portion dP
In evaluating the Reynolds number for flow in a noncircular conduit of the wetted perimeter.
(Sec. 8.6), customarily we substitute 4Rh for Din Eq. (8.1). , Noting that sin a = (z 2 - z1 )/L and dividing each term in Eq. (8.5) by -yA
Workers in some engineering fields define 4Rh to be the hydraulic diameter gives
Dh. Then, for a pipe, Dh = D, which is fine, but Dh = 4Rh, which seems strange.
(8.7)
EXERCISES From the left-hand sketch of Fig. 8.2, we can see that the head loss due to fric-
8.3.1 What is the hydraulic radius of a 12 in by 16 in rectangular air duct? tion at the wetted perimeter is
8.3.2 What is the percentage difference between the hydraulic radii of a
300-mm-diameter duct and a 300-mm-square duct? h =
f
(z + P1) _(z
l '}' 2
+ P2)
'}'
'
This equation indicates that hf depends only on the values of z and p on the cen-
terline, and so it is the same regardless of the size of the cross-sectional area A.
8.4 FRICTION HEAD Loss IN CONDUITS Substituting hf for the right-hand side of this expression and replacing A/P in
OF CONSTANT CROSS SECTION
This discussion applies to either laminar or turbulent flow and to any shape of 2 The local shear stress varies from point to point around the perimeter of all conduits
cross section. (regardless of whether the wall is smooth or rough), except for the case of a circular
Consider steady flow in a conduit of uniform cross section A, not necessar- pipe flowing full where the shear stress at the wall is the same at all points on the
ily circular (Fig. 8.2). The pressures at sections 1 and 2 are Pi and p 2, respectively. perimeter.
The distance between the sections is L. For equilibrium in · steady flow, the
260 CHAPTER 8: Steady l11conzpressible Flow in Pressure Conduits 8.5 Friction in Cjrcular Conduits 261
Eq. (8.7) by Rh from Eq. (8.3), we get equation, we_may easily obtain an expression for the slope of the energy line,
- L
I1-J = To - (8.8) s = -
h1 ct v2
= --
Rhy
(8.12)
L Rh 2g
This equation is applicable to any shape of uniform cross section, regardless of ·
which we also know as the energy gradient.·
whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. Its derivation is very similar to that in
Later, in Sec. 8.12, we shall see that Eqs. (8.11) and (8.12) also apply to
Sec. 5.3, in which the conduit cross section was not constant, however.
rough-walled conduits.
F~r a smooth-walle~ conduit, where we can neglect wall roughness ( dis-
cussed m Sec. 8.10) , we might assume that the average fluid shear stress r at the
wall is some function of p, J..i , and V and some characteristic linear dim~nsion 8.5 FRICTION IN CIRCULAR CONDUITS
which we will here take as the hydraulic radius R1z. Thus '
In Sec. 8.3 we saw that for a circular pipe flowing full Rh = D/4. Substituting this
To = f(p , µ , V , Rh) (8.9) value into Eqs. (8.11) and (8.12), we obtain_(for both smooth-walled and rough-
Using the pi theorem of dimensional analysis (Sec. 7.7) to better determine the walled conduits) the well-known equ.a tion for pipe-friction head loss,
form of this relationship, we choose p, Rh, and Vas primary variables, so that
Circular pipe,
fI 1 = µpa 1R~1v c1 · flowing full L V2
(laminar or
h
f
=J--
D 2g
(8.13)
Il2 = 'fopa2Rt2v c2
turbulent flow):
With the dimensions of the variables being ML - 1 y - 1 for µ, ML - 1 y - 2 for T
3
ML - for p, L for Rh , and LT- 1 for V, the dimensions for IT 1 are 0 ht f v
s=- -
2
' .a nd = (8.14)
L D 2g
For M: 0 = 1 + a1
For L: where f = 4C1 = 8</>(R) (8.15)
0 = -1 - 3a 1 + b1 + c 1
For T: 0 = -1 - c 1 Equation (8.13) is known as the pipe-friction equation, and as the Darcy-
Weisbach equation. 3 Like the coefficient c1, the friction factor f ( also some-
The solution of these three simultaneous equations is a1 = b 1 = c = -1 from times called the Darcy friction factor) is dimensionless and some function of
1
which . '
Reynolds number. Much research has gone into determining how /varies with R
and also with pipe roughness (see Sec. 8.12). The pipe-friction equation states
rr 1-- _µ_ -- R - 1
that the head lost in friction in a given pipe is proportional to the velocity head.
pRhV
The equation is dimensionally homogeneous, and we may use it with any con-
_':h~re Rh Vp/µ is a Reynolds number with Rh as the characteristic length. In a sistent system of units. .
similar manner, we obtain Dimensional analysis gives us the prope,r form for an equation, but does
To not yield a numerical result, since it does not deal with abstract numerical fac-
Il2 = - tors. It also shows that Eq. (8.13) is a rational expression for pipe friction. But
pV2
we must determine the exact form of <f>(R) and numerical values for C1 and f by
Accor~ing to Sec. 7.7, step 7, we can write Il 2 = <f>(Il 11 ), which results in r = experiment or other means. ·
2
pV ¢(R). Setting the dimensionless term <f>(R) = ½C1 , this yields
0 For a circular pipe flowing full, by substituting Rh = r 0 /2, where r 0 is the ra- .
dius of the pipe, we can write Eq. (8.8) as ·
v2
CfpT (8.10) ht = To_f_ = 2roL (8.16)
Rh y 'oY
Inserting this value of r0 into Eq. (8.8), and noting from Eq. (2.l)·that y = pg, where the local shear stress at the wall, r 0, is equal to the average shear stress T0
because of symmetry.
L V2
h
f -
-C --
f Rh 2g (8.11)
3
In a slightly different form where the hydraulic radius Rh replaces D, so that/ changes,
which we can apply to any shape of smooth-walled cross section. From this Eq. (8.13) is known as the Fanning equation, which chemical engineers use widely.
8.6 Friction in Noncircular Conduits . 263
262 CHAPTER 8: Steady Incompressible Flow in Pressure Conduits
- I I 8.6
-1
- - - I
I
I
Most closed conduits we use in engineering practice are of circular cross section;.
--- '" I
...... however, we do occasionally use rectangular ducts and cross sections of other
Yc _,,..
.'
~.,,I geometry. We can modify many of the equations in this chapter for application
- - I
I
to noncircular sections by using the concept of hydraulic radius.
In Sec. 8.3 we defined the hydraulic radius as Rh = A/P, where A is the
- - I ,.,.,,, I
I
cross-sectional area and Pis the wetted perimeter. Some equations include Rh,
I
- -v
1- -: - -i
Umax - - - - - - - - - - 1
as in Sec. 8.18, in which case we can simply determine R 11 for that conduit. But,
because circular pipes are so common, many more equations instead use the
Figure 8.3 pipe diameter, D. If the conduit of interest is not circular, we hav.e· no diameter
Velocity profile in laminar flow, and distribution of shear stress. to use in such equations, but we can find its hydraulic radius, R1i. Then we notice
for a circular pipe flowing full, that
· For a cylindrical fluid body of radius r concentric with the pipe, if we follow D (8.20)
a development similar to that of Eqs. (8.5)-(8 .8) and note that A = n? and p = 4
2nr, we can show that
(8.21)
h = 2TL (8.17) or
f ry
where r is the shear stress in the fluid at radius r; this also follows from This provides us with an equivalent diameter, which we can substitute into
Eq. (5.12). Since h is the same for all r (Sec. 8.4), equating the right sides of Eq. (8.13) for ex mple to yield
1
Eqs. (8.16) and (8.17) yields L V2 (8.22)
r = ro ,
r
(8.18) ht= f 4R~ 2g
0
and into Eq. (8.1) for Reynolds number to give
or t?e shear str~ss is zero at the center of the pipe and increases linearly with the
radms to a maximum value r 0 at the wall as in Fig. 8.3. This is true regardless of (4R i)Vp (4Rh)V (8.23) .
Pipe flow:
R = -1- - = - - -
whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. }.L V
From Eqs. (8.8) and (8.13) and substituting Rh= D/4 for a circular pipe we
obtain · · ' and into any other pipe flow equations and charts that use D instead of Rh. We
will meet many such equations and an important such chart later in this chapter,
t v
ro = - p -
2
t v2
-y- (8.19) and there are more in Chap. 13.
4 2 4 2g This approach gives reasonably accurate results for turbulent flow, but the
results are poor for laminar flow, because in such flow viscous action causes fric-
tional phenomena throughout the body of the fluid, while in turbulent flow the
With this equation, we can compute r 0 for flow in a circular pipe for any experi-
frictional effect occurs largely in the region close to the wall; i.e., it depends on
mentally determined value off.
the wetted perimeter.
EXERCISES
EXERCISES
8.5.1 Steam with _a specifi~ wei¥ht ?f 0.32 lb/ft3 is flowing with a velocity of 94 fps
through a circular pipe with J = 0.0171. What is the shear stress at the pipe wall? 8.6.1 When fluid of specific weight 46 lb/ft 3 flows in a 8-in-diameter pipe, the frictional
2
stress between the fluid and the pipe wall is 0.65 lb/ft . Calculate the friction head
8.5.2 Steam with a specific weight of 38 N/m3 is flowing with a velocity of 35 m/s loss per foot of pipe. If the flow rate is 1.8 cfs, hew much power is lost per foot of
through a circular pipe with f = 0.0154. What is the shear stress at the pipe wall?
pipe?
8.5.3 Oil (s = 0,?3) of viscosity 0.004 ft 2/sec flows in a 4-in-diameter pipe ~ta rate of 8.6.2 When fluid of specific weight 8.2 kN/m3 flows in a 150-mm-diameter pipe, the
2
6.5 gpm. Fmd the head loss per unit length. frictional stress between the fluid and the pipe wall is 25 N/m . Calculate the,
8.5.4 Oil (s = 0.92~ of viscosity 0.00038 m2/s flows in a 100-mm-diameter pipe at a rate friction head loss per meter of pipe. If the flow rate is 42 Lis, how much power rs
of 0.64 Lis. Fmd the head loss per unit length. lost per meter of pipe?
264 CHAPTER 8: Steady Incompressible Flow in Pressure Conduits 8.8 Entrance Conditions in Laminar Flow 265
From this last equation, noting that y = gp and µ,/p = v, the loss of head due to
8.7 LAMINAR FLOW IN CIRCULAR PIPES
friction is
In Sec. 2.11 we noted that for laminar flow r = µ,du/dy, where u is the value of
the velocity at a distance y from the boundary. As y = r0 - r, we also see that Laminar fL L L
flow:
h1 = 32--V = 32v-V (8.28)
r = -µ, du/dr; in other words, the minus sign indicates that u decreases as r in- 'Y D2 gD2
creases. The coefficient of viscosity µ, is a constant for any particular fluid at a
constant temperature, and therefore if the shear varies from zero at the center which is the Hagen-Poiseuille law for laminar flow in tubes. G. Hagen, a German
of the pipe to a maximum at the wall, it follows that the velocity profile must engineer, experimented with water flowing through small brass tubes, and pub-
have a zero slope at the center and have a continuously steeper velocity gradient lished his results in 1839. J. L. Poiseuille, a French scientist, experimented with
approaching the wall. water flowing through capillary tubes in order to determine the laws of flow of
To determine the velocity profile for laminar flow in a circular pipe, we blood through the veins of the body, and published his studies in 1840.
substitute the expression r = µ,du/dy into Eq. (8.17). Thus From Eq. (8.28) we see that in laminar flow the loss of head is proportional
2rL du 2L du 2L to the first power of the velocity. This is verified by experiment, as shown in
hf = ry = fL dy ry = - fL dr ry Fig. 8.1. The striking feature of this equation is that it involves no empirical co-
efficients or experimental factors of any kind, except for the physical properties
h(Y of the fluid such as viscosity and density (or specific weight). From this, it would
From this, du ---rdr appear that in laminar flow the friction is independent of the roughness of the
2µ,L
pipe wall. Experiments also bear out that this is true.
Integrating and determining the constant of integration from the fact that Dimensional analysis shows that we may express the friction loss by
u = umax when r = 0, we obtain Eq. (8.13). Equating (8.13) and (8.28) and solving for the friction factor f, we
obtain for laminar flow under pressure in a circular pipe,
h1Y 2
U = llmax - 4µ,Lr = llmax - kr2 (8.24)
Laminar
flow: (8.29)
From this equation we see that the velocity profile is a parabola, as shown in
Fig. 8.3. Note that k = h1y/4µ,L. . ..
At the wall we have the no-shp boundary condition (Sec. 2.11) that u = 0 Thus, if R is less than 2000, we may use Eq. (8.28) tp find pip~ friction)lead loss,
when r = r0 . £ubstituting this into the second expression of Eq. (8.24) and no.t- or we may use the pipe-friction equation (8.13). with the value off as given by
ing tha~ umax = ~, the centerline velocity, we find k = ~/r5. Thus we can express Eq. (8.29).
Eq. (8.24) as
EXERCISES
(8.25)
8.7.1 An oil with kinematic viscosity of 0.004 ft 2/sec weighs 62 lb/ft 3. What will be its
flow rate and head loss in a 2750-ft length of a 3-in-diameter pipe when the
Reynolds number is 950?
Combining Eqs. (8.24) and (8.25), we get an expression for the centerline veloc-
ity as follows 8.7.2 With laminar flow in a circular pipe, at what distance from the centerline (in
terms of the pipe radius) does the average velocity occur?
h1Y h1Y 2
1,
Ve = Umax =
--?=--D
4µ,L O 16µ,L
(8.26) 8.7.3 For laminar flow in a two-dimensional passage, find the relation between the
average and maximum velocities.
We can multiplyEq. (8.24) by a differential area dA = 2nrdr and integrate
the product from r = Oto r = r0 to find the rate of dis~harge. From Eq. (4.3), t~e 8.8 ENTRANCE CONDITIONS IN LAMINAR FLOW
rate of discharge is equivalent to the volume of a solid bounded by the velocity
profile. In this case the solid is a paraboloid with a ~aximu~ height of umax· The In the case of a pipe leading from a reservoir, if the entrance is rounded so as
mean height of a paraboloid is one-half the maximum height, and hence the to avoid any initial disturbance of the entering stream, all particles will start to
mean velocity Vis O.Sumax· Thus flow with the same velocity, except for a very thin film in contact with the wall.
Particles in contact with the wall have zero velocity (the no-slip boundary
V = -h1Y
- D2 (
8.27 ) condition, Sec. 2.11), but the velocity gradient there is extremely steep, and, with
32µ,L this slight exception, the velocity is uniform across the diameter, as shown in
266 CHAPTER 8: Steady Incompressible Flow in Pressure Conduits
8.8 Entrance Conditions in Laminar Flow 267
~deal, originated in 1904 with Ludwig Prandtl (1875-1953) G ·
,.,,-- Rounded entrance · ,,,.- Inviscid core Fully developed mg profe p h h . 'a erman engmeer-
I from tank /
A parabolic profile . _th· ssor. e! aps ~ e smgle most significant contribution to fluid mecha
1cs,th is _cosncept is particularly important with turbulent flow; we will discuss~;
f ur er m ecs. 8.10-8.12 and Chap. 9.
As ~e saw in Sample Prob. 5.1 for a circular pipe the kinetic ene a
stream with a parabolic velocity profile is 2V3/2g (becau~e rv - 2) h . rvb~ ofl a
Boundary layer B mean vel ·t At th . ~ - , w e1e Is t 1e
-- Entrance length, Le _ _ ____ ___ .., dia t oci y. f e entrance to the pipe the velocity is uniformly V across the
me er, excel_)t or an extremely thin layer next to the wall Thus at th
-------.-- - - - Unestablished flow, entrance flow - - -- ---Established flow trance to the th k · · · e en-
the ct· t z1~e ~. metic_ energy_ per unit weight is practically V3/2g. So in
IS ance e t ere IS a contmuous mcrease in kinetic ener accom ·
Figure 8.4
a correspo~ding d~crease in press_ure head. Therefore, at a ctf!tance L p~:I:dtt~
Velocity profiles and development of the boundary layer along a pipe in laminar flow.
:::rr:~~~v::~~~f ~~/~g
~~:; r:i:~70:~~;~ i~e~~:~::::0t~~n the stati~ value in ~~:
Fig. 8.4. As the fluid progresses along the pipe, friction originating from the wall W~ have dealt _with laminar flow rather fully, not merel because it i .
ft;:~:i:~ ~r~i~~~s ~n~olving fluids of very high viscosity, but ~specially bee:~~
0
slows down the streamlines in the vicinity of the wall, but since Q is constant for
successive sections, the velocity in the center must accelerate, until the final veloc-
ity profile is a parabola, as shown in Fig. 8.3. Theoretically, this requires an infinite also help with the stu~y
rigid mathematical treatment is impossible.
il~~:::~e:~tA~~lw~:;~s~~n!~~swns i
general approach will
are so complex that
distance, but both theory and observation have established that the maximum
velocity in the center of the pipe will reach 99% of its ultimate value in a distance4
• ~.t:\ ~~s:x.::.-;..'\iJ.L,...,,,. , _ _
,. "'.!_..?J:·.,....~~-o\r,! :.;..c.: ....J:;,c:~!f""':~.: .....tC\:r~r;.;
Le = 0.058RD (8.30) , •... "1"' ,,...it~• ~ c.:;. ,...,:,~..,,_. ~ -:ic«rc
4 H.L. Langhaar, Steady Flow in the Transition Length of a Straight Tube, J Appl.
L = f D 2g
0.000374 mlm
= 0 1810
0.10 m 2(9.81 2) mls
ANS
Mech., Vol. 10, p. 55, 1942. ·
268 CHAPTER 8: Steady Incompressible Flow in Pressure Conduits 8.9 Turbulent Flow 269
merge into adjacent eddies. Thus there is a continuous mixing of particles, with
EXERCISES a consequent transfer of momentum. Viscosity dissipates mechanical energy,
8.8.1 In Exer. 8.2.3 what will be the approximate distance from the pipe entrance to the generating small amounts of heat.
first point at which the flow is established?
8.8.2 In Exer. 8.5.4 what will be the approximate distance from the pipe entrance to the -First Expression
first point at which the flow is established?
In the modern conception of turbulent flow, we assume a mechanism similar to
that just described for laminar flow. However, we replace the molecules by
minute but finite masses or eddies (Fig. 8.5c ). So, by analogy, for turbulent flow
8.9 TURBULENT FLOW
we may define the shear stress along the plane through ab in Fig. 8.5 as
In Sec. 4.2 we saw that in lamina1:. flow the fluid particles move in straight l~nes
while in turbulent flow they follow random paths. Consider the case of lammar du
Turbulent shear stress = 17- (8.31)
flow shown in Figs. 8.. 5(a, b), where the velocity u_increases)Yith y. Even though dy
the fluid particles are moving horizontally to the nght, becau~e of molecular mo-
tion, molecules will cross line ab and transport momen~um w~th them. On _the a:- But unlikeµ.,, the eddy viscosity 1J (eta) is not a constant for a given fluid at a given
erage, the velocities of the molecule_s in th~ slower-movmg flu~d below the lme will temperature, but it depends on the turbulence of the flow. We may view it as a co-
be less than those of the faster-movmg flmd above; the result 1s t~at th_e m~lecules efficient of momentum transfer, expressing the transfer of momentum from points
that cross from below tend to slow down the faster-moving flmd. L1kew1se, ~he where the velocity is low to points where it is higher, and vice versa. Its magnitude
molecules that cross the line ab from above tend to speed up the slower-m~vmg may range from zero to many thousand times the value ofµ.,. However, its numer-
fluid below. The result is a shear stress r (tau) along the surface wh~se trace 1s ab. ical value is of less interest than its physical concept. In dealing with turbulent flow
As given in Sec. 2.11, r = µ,du/dy. This equat~o1:1- is applicable to lammar flow onlr it is sometimes convenient to use kinematic eddy viscosity e ( epsilon) = 17/p,
Let us examine some of the charactenstics of turb~~ent flo":' to_ see how 1t which is a property of the flow alone, analogous to kinematic viscosity.
differs .from- laminar flow. In turbulent flow the velocity at a-p01!:t m the flow In general, the total shear stress in turbulent flow is the sum of the laminar
field fluctuates in 60th magnitude and direction. 5 We may observe th~se fluctu- shear stress plus the turbulent shear stress, i.e.,
ations in accurate velocity measurements (Sec. 11.4), and ":'e commonly see
du du du
their effects on pressure gages and manometers. Th~ fluctuations result fron~ a r = µ.,- + 17- = p(v + e)- (8.32)
multitude of small eddies (Sec. 4.2), created by the viscous shear bet~een ~dJa- dy dy dy
cent particles. These eddies grow in size and .then disappear as their particles With turbulent flow the second term of this equation is usually many times
larger than the first term.
5 We can best visualize the velocity at a point in a so-called "steady" turbulent flo~ as a For turbulent flow we saw in Sec. 4.5 and Fig. 4.6 that the local axial veloc-
vector that fluctuates in both direction and magnitude. The mean temporal velocity at ity has fluctuations of plus and minus u', and there are also fluctuations of plus
that point corresponds to the "average" of those vectors. and minus v' and w' normal to u as shown in Fig. 8.6b. As it is obvious that there
y
u + du
lib
! +v'
u + Liu Jy ~ cj jdy
a--rrTrr- d
u'
T ll Mean velocity u
~ b b +u'
L1y a- du
J_ u
- -0- - - -0-- - - -O- -
a~
Velocity profile
I I
lu'I ( +w'', ,'
--O-D--0 -v'
du li71
dy e Velocity at a particular instant =
Second Expression This eq~ation ex~ress:s ~erms that we can measure. Thus in any experiment that
We can obtain another expression for turbulent shear stress that is different
r
determmes the pipe ~nct10n loss , we can compute 0 from Eq. (8.8), and then we
from Eq. (8.31). In Fig. 8.5a, if a mass m of fluid below ab, where the temporal c~n find r a~ an_Y radms from E_q. (8.18). A traverse of the_velocity across a pipe
dia~eter will give u at any radms, and the velocity profile will give du/dy at any
mean axial velocity is u, moves upward into a zone where the temporal mean
r~dms.1:'hus Eq. (8.34) allows us to find the mixing length eas a function of the
axial velocity is u + Liu, its initial momentum in the axial direction must increase
pipe radms. ~he purpo~e of all of this is to help us develop theoretical equations
by mL1u. Conversely, when a mass m moves from the upper zone to the lower its
for_ the veloc_ity profile m turbulent flow, and from this in turn to develop theo-
axial momentum will decrease by mL1u. So this transfer of momentum back and retical equat10ns for f, the friction coefficient.
forth across ab will produce a shear in the plane through ab proportional to L'.lu.
This shear is possible only because of the velocity profile shown. If the latter
· were vertical Liu would be zero and there could be no shear. EXERCISES
If the distance L1y in Fig. 8.Sa is chosen so that the average value of +u' in
the upper zone over a time period long enough to include many velocity fl~ctu- 8.9.1 Tests on 70°F water flowing through a 9-in-diameter pipe showed that when
ations is equal to Liu, i.e., Liu = lu' I, the distance between the two streams wi!l be V = 13 fps, f = 0.0162. (a) I!, at a distance of 3 in from the center of the pipe,
what is known as the mixing .length f, which we will discuss shortly. Consider, r = 0.38_8 psf, and t~e velocity profile gives a value for du/dy of 6.971sec, find at
over a short time interval, a mass moving upward from below ab. with a veloc- that radms (a) the VISCOUS shear, (b) the turbulent shear, and ( C) the mixing
length f.
ity v'; it will transport into the upper zone, where the velocity is u + u', a
momentum per unit time which is on the average equal to p(v'dA)(u). Th_e 8.9.2 Wate~ at 20°C flows through a 240-mm-diameter pipe. Tests have determined that
slower-moving mass from below ab will tend to retard the flow above ab; this at a distance o~ 60 mm from the pipe centerline the mixing length f·is 19.8 mm and
creates a shear force along the plane of ab. We can find this force by applying the from the velocity pr~file ~u/dy = 5.33 s- 1. Find at that radius (a) the total shear
momentum principle, Eq. ( 6.6), stress, (b) the eddy v1scos1ty, (c) the viscous shear, and (d) the turbulent shear.
F = rdA = pQ(L1V) = p(v'dA)(u + u' - u) = pu'v'dA
So, over a period of time sufficiently long to include a large number of velocity 8.10 Viscous SUBLAYER IN TURBULENT FLOW
fluctuations, the shear stress is given by
I~ Fig. 8.4 we saw that, for laniinar flow, if the fluid enters a pipe with no initial
r = F/dA -pu'v' (8.33) ?isturb~nce, the velocity is uniform across the diameter except for an exceed-
where u'v' is the temporal average of the product of u' and v'. This is an alter- m_gly thu~ ~lm at the wall, because the velocity touching any wall is zero (the no-
nate form for Eq. (8.31), and .in modern turbulence theory -pu'v' is known as slip condit10n, Sec. 2.11). But as flow proceeds down the pipe, the velocity pro-
the Reynolds stress. _ file _changes because of the growth of a laminar boundary layer, which continues
The minus sign appears in Eq. (8.33) because the product u'v' on the aver- until ~he boundary_ layers from opposite sides meet at the pipe axis and then
age is negative. By inspecting Fig. 8.Sa, we can see that +v' is associated with there 1s fully developed ( or established) laminar flow.
-u' values more than with +u' values. The opposite is true for -v'. Even
though the temporal mean values of u' and v' are individually equal to zero, the 6
H. Schlichting, Boundary Layer Theory, 7th ed., McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1987, p. 605.
272 CHAPTER 8: Steady Incompressible Flow in Pressure Conduits
Figure 8.7
D evelo pment of boundary layer in a pipe where full y d eveloped fl ow is turbulent
(scales much di storted).
If the Reynolds number is above the critical value (Sec. 8.2) , so that the de- zone
veloped flow is turbulent, the initial condition is much like that in Fig. 8.4. But as
the laminar boundary layer increases in thickness, at a certain point a transition ,..__----...u
occurs and the boundary layer becomes turbulent (Fig. 8.7).·This transition oc- Figure 8.8
curs where the length xc of the laminar portion of the boundary layer is about Velo~ity pro~le ~ear a·solid wall (vertical scale greatly exaggerated). Theoretical
equal to 50b 1000v/V, where Vis the uniform velocity (i.e. , where Rx = Ux/v = relat10ns (sohd Imes) are compared with experimental data (small circles).
500,000). After the transition , the t(!,rbulelit boundary layei· generally increases
in thickness much more rapidly. So the length of the inviscid core, to where the
two opposite layers meet , is relatively shorter. viscous effect becomes negligible, but the turbulent shear is then large. Between
The development of turbulent flow is considerably more complex than that the two,_ ther_e must be a transition zone where both types of shear are signifi-
of laminar flow (Sec. 8.8). Although the length of the inviscid core is relatively cant. It 1s evident _that there cannot be sharp lines of demarcation separating
short with turbulent flow, it takes about four times this length for the velocity these three zon~s, mstead one must merge gradually into the other.
profile lo become fully developed, and 8 to 12 times this length for the detailed _By p~otting o~e velocity profile from the wall on the assumption that the
structure of the turbulence to become fully developed. Only when all these as- flow is_ entirely lammar (Sec. 8.7) and plotting another velocity profile on the as-
pects are complete do we have fully developed turbulent flow. These various de- sumption that the flow is entirely turbulent (Sec. 8.11), the two will intersect as
velopments depend on a variety of features, including the entrance conditions sh?wn _in Fi~. 8.8. It i_s obvious that there can be no abrupt change in profil~ at
(Sec. 8.21) and the wall roughness (Secs. 8.10-8.12); as a result no single equation t~1s pomt of !ntersect10n, but that one curve must merge gradually into the other
exists to predict the entrance length for turbulent flow, i.e., the length over which w:1t~ some km? of transition, which is in fact what happens as shown by the ex-
the flow is developing. But as an approximate guide, we may observe that the ve- penmental pomts.
locity profile is generally fully developed within 20 to 40 pipe diameters. When studying sue~ velocity profiles, we find that th_e quantity ~ fre-
In all that now follows we shall consider only fully developed turbulent 9uently occurs. Because 1t has the dimensions of velocity, scientists have named
flow. it the shea_r-stress velocity (or friction velocity) u*' although it is not actually a
As v' must be zero at a smooth wall, turbulence there is inhibited so that a flow velocity. · ·
laminar-like sublayer occurs immediately next to the wall. However, the adja- ~hen the flow in a circular pipe is entirely laminar, we have seen that the
cent turbulent flow does repeatedly induce random transi~nt effects that mo- velocity profile is a parabola (Fig. 8.3). But when there is only an extremely thin
mentarily disrupt this sublayer, even though they fade rapidly. Because it is fil1!1 closest to ~he wall w~e~e viscous shear dominates, we can scarcely distin-
therefore not a true laminar layer, and. because shear in this layer is predomi- gmsh t~e ve~oc1t~ pr_ofile m 1t from a straight line. If we ignore the momentary
nantly due to viscosity alone , we call it a viscous sublayer (see Fig. 8.7). This vis- fluctuations m this viscous sublayer, with such a linear velocity profile Eq. (2.9)
cous sublayer is extremely thin , usually only a few hundredths of a millimeter, at the wall becomes
but its effect is great because of the very steep velocity gradient within it and
because r = µ.,du/dy in that region. At a greater distance from the wall the u To vu
ro = µ- or
y p y
8: Steady Incompressible Flow in Pressure Conduits
8.10 Viscous Sublayer in Turbulent Flow 275
274 CHAPTER
But from the definition of u*, we have u; = 1:0/p, so, by eliminating r 0/p, we
obtain
vu
= u*2 (a)
y
u yu* (8.35)
or 1)
u*
which is known as a law of the wall. This linear relation for u(~) _appro~imates (b)
experimental data well in the range O ~ yu*/v ~ 5. If_we call this;m~recise, b~t Figure 8.9
commonly accepted, upper limiting value of y the thickness oft e viscous su - Turbulent flow near a boundary. (a) Low R, 8v > e; the pipe behaves as a smooth pipe.
(b) Relatively high R, 8v < e; if 8v < -Ae, the pipe behaves as a fully rough pipe.
layer, 81,, then
(8.36)
The transition zone appears to extend from a to c in Fig. 8.~. For the l~tter surface roughness, the roughness has no effect on friction, and the pipe is hy-
point, the value of y seems t~ be ab_o~t ?Ov/u* or 148v. Beyond this, the flow is so draulically smooth. If eu,)v > 70 ( or e > 148J, the pipe will behave as fully
turbulent that viscous shear 1s negligible. rough. In the region between these values, i.e., when the roughness projections
Noting from Eq. (8.19) that are such that 5 ~ eu*/v ~ 70 (or 8v ~ e ~ l48v), the pipe will behave in a transi-
tional mode, neither hydraulically smooth nor fully rough. Most engineering
pipe flows fall in this range.
u = {¼=V[l_ (8.37)
* \J-;; \Js Because the thickness of the viscous sublayer in a given pipe decreases
with an increase in Reynolds number, we see that the same pipe may be hy-
draulically smooth at low Reynolds numbers and rough at high Reynolds num-
and that the Reynolds number R = DV/v, we see that when yu*/v = 5, or Y = 0v, bers. Thus even a relatively smooth pipe may behave as a rough pipe if the
Reynolds number is high enough. It is also apparent that, with increasing
14.14v 14.14D (8.38) Reynolds number, there is a gradual transition from smooth to rough-pipe flow.
8v = Vv} RVf Figure 8.9 depicts these concepts schematically. '
From this, we see that the higher the velocity or t?e lower the ki~ema~ic viscosity,
the thinner is the viscous sublayer. Thus, for a given constant pipe drn~eter, the EXERCISES
thickness of the viscous sublayer decreases as the Reynolds number mc~easel~-
8.10.1 Compute 8v for the data of Sample Prob. 8.3.
N ow we can consider what is meant by a smooth wall and a roug _wa ·
There is no such thing in reality as a mathematically smooth surface. But if the 8.10.2 Water in a pipe (f = 0.018) is at a temperature of 70°F. (a) If the mean velocity
irregularities on any actual surface are small enough that_ the effects of t~e pr~- is 14 fps, what is the nominal thickness 8i, of the viscous sublayer? (b) What will
.ections do not pierce through the viscous ~ubl~yer (~ig. 8.8), the sur ace is 8v be if we increase the velocity to 24 fps and f does not change?
j1
ydraulically smooth from the fluid-mechamcs _v1ewpomt: If the effects o~ t~e 8.10.3 Water in a pipe(/= 0.012) is at a temperature of 15°C. (a) If the mean velocity
ro ·ections extend beyond the sublayer, the lammar layer is broken up ~n . t e is 3.2 mis, what is the nominal thickness ov of the viscous sublayer? (b) What will
;uriace is no longer hydraulically smooth. If the sur!~ce rough~e~s pro1ectwns 8v be if we increase the velocity to 5.5 mis and f does riot change?
are laroe enough to protrude right through the trans1t1on layer, 1t 1s totally ~ro- 8.10.4 For the data of Exer. 8.10.2(a), what is the distance from the wall to the assumed
0
ken up The resulting flow is completely turbulent, known asfully ~ough (-piP_e) limit of the transition region where true turbulent flow begins?
flow a~d friction is independent of Reynolds number. We shall discuss the_ s1g- 8.10.5 For the data in Exer. 8.10.3(a), what is the distance from the wall to the assumed
nifi;ance of this in Sec. 8.11. If the roughness projections protrude only parti~lly limit of the transition region where true turbulent flow begins?
into the transition layer, we say the flow is transitionally rough, and there 1s a
8.10.6 Water at 50°C flows in a 150-mm-diameter pipe with V = 6.5 mis and
moderate Reynolds number effect. . . _ e = 0.14 mm. Head loss measurements indicate thatf = 0.020. (a) What is the
To be more specific, if e is the equivalent height of the roughness ~roJeC
thickness of the viscous sublayer? (b) Is the pipe behaving as a fully rough pipe?
· h f / < 5 (or e < 8 ) the viscous sublayer completely bunes the
t1ons t en or eu* v v
276 CHAPTER 8: Steady Incompressible Flow in Pressure Conduits
8.11 Velocity Profile in Turbulent Flow 277
8.11 VELOCITY PROFILE IN TURBULENT FLOW However, this discrepancy is well wjthin the c .
Prandtl (Secs. 8.8 and 8.9) reasoned that turbulent flow in a pipe is strongly in- wh~re the equation is not supposed to a 1 , o;1111es of the viscous sublayer,
fluenced by the flow phenomena near the wall. In the vicinity of the wall, r = the mtervening transition or overlap zon~p/ ' a~ where we have_ Eq. (8.35). In
bulent shear are important invest" rt h( ig. .8), where both viscous and tur-
r 0 . He assumed that the mixing length f (Sec. 8.9) near the wall was propor-
profile data follow a logariihmic r;f:ti~~ ave found that experimental velocity
tional to the distc\nce from the wall, that is, f = Ky. Experiments have con-
firmed this , and have determined that K = 0.40. Using this relationship in Eq.
(8.34), we get
-u = 2.5111 (yu)
-* + 5.0
r = r0 = pc (!;J
2
= pK
2
y2(!;)
2 U* V
si:nan areas mentioned, where it is still close Sy ts t e data exc~pt for the two
or du= ~ft:=~; discharge Q with a high deg
E
f . owe can determme the rate of
ree o accuracy by ·
q. (8.40) and integrating over the area of th
h
. usmg t e value of u given by
e pipe. Thus
Integrating, and inserting 0.4 for K, we obtain
u = 2.Su*lny + C
Q = fudA = 2nfurdr
0
We can evaluate the constant C by noting that u = umax = the centerline veloc- ~ubstituting from the first expression of E (8 4 . .
mg by the pipe area n,2 the mean 1 ·t q. 7 . 0) for u, mtegratmg and divid-
ity when y = r 0 = the pipe radius. Substituting the expression for C, we get . 0, ve OCI y IS
Umax -
--- =
U ro
2.5ln- (8.39) V -_ umax - 2.Su* [ lnro - r6 lro
2 o rln(ro - r)dr ]
u* y
Makino0 use of Eq · (8 · 37) , th·is equat10n
. reduces to
This is known as the velocity defect law, because we call ( umax - u) the velocity
defect. Replacing y by r0 ~ r, and changing the base e logarithm (ln) to a base 10
V=u max _3
2X
25
= l •326V"'VT
lrf (8.42)
logarithm (log), the equation becomes · U*, U max -
Although this equation is derived by assuming certain relations very near to the
wall, it holds almost as far out as the pipe axis.
Pipe factor = V 1
1 + 1.326\lj (8.43)
Starting with the derivation of Eq. (8.34), this entire development is open
to argument at nearly every step. But the fact remains that Eq. (8.40) agrees Using Eq. (8.43) to eliminate u fr E ( .
very closely with actual measurements of velocity profiles for both smooth and nate Lt *' the resu It 1s
· . max om q. 8 .40) and usmoo Eq · (8 •37) to e 1·1m1-
·
rough pipes. However, there are two zones in which the equation is defective. At
the axis of the pipe, du/dy must be zero. But Eq. (8.40) is logarithmic and does
not have a zero slope at r = 0, and hence the equation gives a velocity profile
with a sharp point ( or cusp) at the axis, whereas in reality it is rounded at the
u = (l + l.326Vf)V - 2.04VfVlog-ro_
ro - r (8.44)
axis. This discrepancy affects only a very small area and causes only a very slight
error when computing the rate of discharge using Eq. (8.40).
Equation (8.40) is also not applicable very close to the wall. In fact, it indi-
cates that when r = r 0 , the value of u is minus infinity. The equation indicates 7 The _integral results in indeterminate values at r - r
equat10n for u does not really a 1 1 - o, as we should expect. since the
that u = 0, not at the wall, but at a small distance from it, shown as y1 in Fig. 8.8. PP Yc ose to the wall How f .
purposes, these reduce to neglio1'ble t· . . ever, or a11 practical
e, quan 1ties.
278 CHAPTER 8: Steady Incompressible Flow in Pressure Conduits
8.11 Velocity Profile in Turbulent Flow 279
r~--
: S:\-M~LE PROBLEM 8.3 . The pipe friction head loss in 200 ft of 6-in-diameter
• pipe 1s 2_5 ft· lb/lb when 011 (s = 0.90) of viscosity 0.0008 lb·sec/ft 2 flows at 2.0 cfs.
-- ·- -·-·-·-·-· -, --·
I
I Determn:-e the c_enterline velocity, the shear stress at the wall of the pipe, and
the velocity at 2 m from the centerline.
t Solution
Rough pipe I First determine whether the flow is laminar or turbulent: ·
R= 107.f =0.04 e
I Eq. (4.7):
4
V = Q2 =
4 2
( 0) = 10 19 fps
I'
~ nD n(0.5) 2 •
which enables us to plot a velocity profile for any mean velocity and any value of
I From Eq. ( 8 .l3): f = hrD(2g) = 25(0.5)2(32.2)
0.0388
! L V2 200(10.19) 2
fin turbulent flow. In Fig. 8.10 profiles for both a smooth and a rough pipe are
plotted from this equation. The only noticeable difference between these and
measured profiles is that the latter are more rounded at the axis of the pipe. 8 Of
l
~
I
From Eq. (8.43), um,, = 10.19(1 + l.326\10.0388) = 12.85 fps ANS
course, the measured turbulent profiles also exhibit turbulent fluctuations
~ E
2
( )· = fp v _ o.0388(0.9 x 1.940)(10.19) 2
everywhere except near the walls. . q. 8 .19 . To 8 - 8 0.878 lb/ft 2 ANS
Comparing the turbulent-flow velocity profiles with the laminar-flow
velocity profile in Fig. 8.10 we see the turbulent-flow profiles are much flatter
near the central portion of the pipe and steeper near the wall. We also notice that
the turbulent profile for the smooth pipe is flatter near the center (i.e., blunter)
Ii Eq. (8.37): u* = V-y{J8 = 10.19
✓0.0388
- -
8
= 0.709 fps
than for the rough pipe. In contrast, the velocity profile in laminar flow is inde- i Finally, from Eq. (8.40),
pendent of pipe roughness.
As we have now derived a theoretical equation for the velocity profile for !i U2in = Umax - 5.76(0.709)1ogf = 12.85 - 1.948 = 10.90 fps ANS
turbulent flow in circular pipes, we can also derive equations for the kinetic-
energy- and momentum-correction factors (Secs. 5.1 and 6.3) using mean veloc- Note: umaxlV = 12.85/10.19 = 1.261. If the flow had been laminar the velocity
ities. Respectively, these equations are 9 ; profile would have been parabolic and umaxlV would have been 2 (Sec. 8.7).
~
~
a - 1 + 2.7f (8.45a)
f3 1. + 0.98f (8.45b)
EXERCISES
8 Although 8.11.1 In a 1.00-m-diameter pipe velocities are measured as 5.35 mis on the centerline
the preceding theory agrees very well with experimental data, it is not
and 4.91 mis at r = 70 mm. Approximately what is the flow rate?
absolutely correct throughout the entire range from the axis to the pipe wall, and
some slight shifts in the numerical constants could improve agreement with test 8.11.2 For turbulent flow in a circular pipe, find r/r0 at the radial distance from the
data. Thus in Eqs. (8.43) and (8.44) we can replace the 1.326 by 1.44, and in centerline where the mean velocity occurs.
Eq. (8.44) although many writers use 2 instead of 2.04, a better practical value seems 8.11.3 Oil (s = 0.92) with a viscosity of0.00065 lb·seclft2 flows at a rate of 6 cfs
to be 2.15.
9 through a 4-in-diameter pipe having f = 0.040. Find the friction head loss.
L. F. Moody, Some Pipe Characteristics of Engineering Interest, Houille Blanche,
Determine the shear stress at the pipe wall and the velocity at 1.5 in from the
May-June, 1950. centerline.
280 CHAPTER 8: Steady Incompressible Flow in Pressure Conduits 8.12 Pipe Roughness 281
Because of the way that f appears in two places in Eq. (8.46), it is implicit
8.12 PIPE ROUGHNESS inf (see Appendix B) and hard to solve; we must use either iteration or a graph
Unfortunately, there is as yet no scientific way of measuring or specifying the of fversus R. However, as suggested by Colebrook, 10 we can approximate it by
roughness of commercial pipes. Several experimenters have worked with pipes the explicit equation
with artificial roughness produced by various means so that the roughness could
be measured and described by geometric factors, aI?-d they have proved that the
friction depends not only on the size and shape of the projections, but also on Smooth-pipe flow: (8.47)
their distribution or spacing. We have much more to do before we completely
solve this problem.
Noteworthy efforts in this direction were made in 1933 by a German engi- which differs from Eq. (8.35) by less than ±1.5% for 4000 ~ R ~ 108•
neer, J. Nikuradse, a student of Prandtl's. He coated several different sizes of Blasius 11 has shown that for Reynolds numbers between 3000 and 105 we
pipe with sand grains that he had sorted by sieving into different grain sizes of can approximately express the friction factor for a smooth pipe as
reasonably uniform diameters. Let us represent the diameters of the sand grains
bye, which is known as the absolute roughness. In Sec. 8.4 dimensional analysis Blasius, smooth pipe,
of pipe flow showed that for a smooth-walled pipe the friction factor f is a func- 3000 ~ R ~ 105: (8.48)
tion of Reynolds number. A more general approach, including e as a parameter,
reveals that f = </>(R, e/D). The term e/D is known as the relative roughness. Sometimes we can use this very conveniently to simplify equations. Blasius also
In his experimental work Nikuradse had values pf e/D ranging from 0.000985 found that over the same range of Reynolds numbers, the velocity profile in a
to 0.0333. smooth pipe closely agrees with the expression
In the case of artificial roughness such as this, the roughness is uniform,
whereas in commercial pipes it is irregular both in size and in distribution. How- Blasius, smooth pipe,
ever, we may describe the irregular roughness of commercial pipe by a single e 3000 ~ R ~ 105: (8.49)
value, if we understand this means that the pipe has the same value off at a high
Reynolds number that it would have for a smooth pipe coated with sand grains where y = r0 - r, the distance from the pipe wall. We call this equation the
of uniform size e. This "equivalent" grain size e must be close to the mean size seventh-root law for turbulent-velocity distribution. Though it is not absolutely
of the irregular roughness elements. accurate, it is useful because it is easy to work with mathematically. At Reynolds
Investigators working with pipes have found that if the thickness of the vis- numbers above 105 we must use an exponent somewhat smaller than ~ to give
cous sublayer 8v > e (i.e., eu*/v < 5), the viscous sublayer completely submerges good results.
the effect of e (see Sec. 8.10). Prandtl (Secs. 8.8 and 8.11), using information At high Reynolds numbers 8v becomes much smaller, and the roughness
from Eq. (8.40) and data from Nikuradse's experiments, developed an equation elements protrude through the viscous sublayer as in Fig. 8.9b. If 8v < t;ie (i.e.,
for the friction factor for such a case: eu,/v > 70), investigators have found that the flow behaves asfully-rough-pipe
flow, i.e., the friction factor is independent of the Reynolds number. For such a
Smooth-pipe flow: 1
Vf = 2log
(RV[)
2.51 (8.46)
case von Karman found that we can express the friction factor as
"<t
range, for e = 0 the Colebrook equation reduces to the smooth-pipe equation 0
0 '. ;1
- / -
0 ~ -- ·-f------f-:---- -- / - C'?
(8.46), and for large R it reduces to the fully-rough-pipe equation (8.50). Thus it 0
"<t' I
I
applies to all turbulent flow conditions. Values of friction factor f that it predicts
' '. I
C\J
0 : :! /
0 I
are generally accurate to within 10-15% of experimental data. This equation is 0
C\J 0 I
I
,...
so useful that engineers have long used it as the accepted design formula for tur- 0
0
0
~
0 0 - / - ----:-· CX)
bulent flow; however, it has one major disadvantage. Like Eq. (8.46), it is im- (/)
0
0
- --- I ·-- ---~---- ---- C\I
plicit inf (Appendix B), which makes it inconvenient to use to manually evalu- .e- T"""
~ <D
U')
E
~
.S E o
ate f. More recently, in 1983 Haaland 13 combined Eqs. (8.47) and (8.50) to -2:-
C
·-
O
0
--- "<t
~
·u 0
0 -2:- "<t" (l) . I
C'? E
provide another approximation, 0
Q) "<t' ·u (.) ' ~
> 0
Q)
0
0
-s
a5 -- +-! C\I E
X > ~
-1 -l.8log [(e/D)1.1
1 0
Turbulent flow, all ...a ! Q
+ -6.9]
0
= - (8.52)
(/)
Q) C\J
X
2 ' 'f:, 0
pipes (Haaland): vJ 3.7 R
.c
(.)
.S 0
E o
E
-------
8 ---
----,----- a> --
__ ,______ Q) CX) g
0 .S - ... ,..... - ci - --
.S (0 ~
Q) Q) E" U') ,:t=
- - 0 - ·--
which has the advantage of being expllcit inf; it has the same asymptotic behav- Q) 0 Q)
0 0 "<t ~
ior as Eq. (8.51), from which it differs by less than ±1.5% for 4000 ~ R ~ 10 •
8 co E
E 0
co 0
co
'.2-
"<t"
C'? .e-ui
'.2- "<t'
C\J ~
LL 0 0
0 U) 0 ~
C\I
<D 0
EXERCISES C\J 9.
°'
Lt)
8.12.1 Using the implicit equation (8.46), the approximate equation (8.47), and Blasius' °'
Q) Q) 0
0
0 ~
$:-
Q
equation (8.48), solve for the smooth-pipe friction factor fusing Reynolds
numbers of (a) 4000, (b) 20,000, and (c) 105 • (d) For which of these three values
°'
3
.E
0
co °'
3
.2 0
<D
ex:,
~ II
~
do the equations show the most variation inf? s:-
<D
s:- 0
"<t"
"<t
Q)
"
8,
"<t' 8, C'? ..0
E
8.12.2 Substitute into Eq. (8.51) the given and computed data of Sample Prob. 8.5a. 0 0 C\I ~
0 (/) C\J
How well does the right-hand side of the equation agree with the left-hand side? (/)
C\J
Q)
:::,
(/)
-0
Q)
:::, 0
8.12.3 Repeat Exer. 8.12.2 using Eq. (8.52). ci5 ~ 0
C
>,
> co £
CX)
(0
<D U')
<D
8.13 CHART FOR FRICTION FACTOR 0 "<t"
"<t
"<t'
The preceding equations for f have been very inconvenient to use in a number 0
of circumstances, which we will discuss further in coming sections, and this C\I
C\I
was especially true before Haaland's equation appeared. The inconvenience was 0
largely overcome by reading numerical values from a chart (Fig. 8.11), prepared
0
by Moodyl--l in 1944. The chart, often called the Moody diagram,1 is based on
5
8.14 SINGLE-PIPE FLOW: SOLUTION BASICS
the best information available, and was plotted with the aid of Eqs. (8.29) and The methods of _solut_ion we will use for single-pipe flow are extensions of the
(8.51). All the quantities involved are dimensionless, so the chart may be used method summar~zed m Sec. 5.14. We recommend that yot,1, .review that section
for both BG and SI unit systems. For convenience, BG values of DV ( diameter pow, to?ether w1_th Secs. 5.11 and 5.13, which discuss the energy line and the
tinfos ·velocity) for water at 60°F and similar SI values for water at l5 °C are hydrauhc grade hne.
gi\!e'rfatr·oss the 'tbp of the chart to save the need to compute Reynolds number
for those common cases. Governing Equations
The Moody chart, and the various flow conditions that it represents, di-
vides into four zones: the laminar-flow zone; a critical zone where values are Four simultaneous _equations govern flow at a point in a single pipe. Three of
uncertain because the flow might be either laminar or turbulent; a transition these are the equat10ns of continuity, energy loss, and the Reynolds number:
wne, where f is a function of both Reynolds number and relative pipe rough-
ness; and a zone of complete turbulence (fully-rough-pipe flow), where the value
i -
1 -
4Q
(4.7); hr= f--
L v2 (8.13); (8.1)
nD 2 D 2g V
off is independent of Reynolds number and depends solely upon the relative
roughness, e/D. If the flow is turbulent, as is most common, the fourth is the Colebrook Eq. (8.51)
There is no sharp line of demarcation between the transition zone and the or the H~alan~ Eq. (8.~2) _for the friction factor, as just presented in Sec. 8.12; if
zone of complete turbulence. The dashed line of Fig. 8.11 that separates the two the flow 1s lammar, which 1s more rare, the friction factor is instead given by J =
zones was suggested by R. J. S. Pigott; the equation of this line is R = 3500/ 61/R: Eq. (8.~9). T~e f?ur unknowns are Hsually f, R, D or hr, and Q or V. If the
(e/D). On the right-hand side of the chart the given values of e/D correspond pipelme is umform m size, shape, and roughness, then these equations will yield
to the curves and not to the grid. Note how their spacing varies. The lowest of the same results at all points along it.
the curves in the transition zone is the smooth-pipe ( e = 0) curve given by In some c_as~s we will need hf as a known quantity, and if it is not given we
Eqs. (8.47) and (8.48); notice how many of the other curves blend asymptotically can often obtam 1t by rearranging energy Eq. (5.28) to first find the total head
into the smooth-pipe curve. loss hL as follows:
hL = H1 - H2 = (r + z + v2) - (r + z + v2)
'}' 2g L '}' 2g 2
)
pute /from Eq. (8.52) or by trial and error from Colebrook Eq. (8.51). With this 1 SAMPLE PROBLEM 8.4 A 20-in-diameter galyanized iron pipe 2 miles long
value off, we can directly compute the friction head loss h1 from Eq. (8.13). carries 4 cfs of water at 60°F. Find the friction head loss: (a) using Fig. 8.11 and
In Type 2 and Type 3 problems, because either V or D is unknown, the the Reynolds number; (b) using Fig. 8.11 and its D"V scale; (c) using only a basic
Reynolds number R is not known at the outset and so a direct solution is not scientific calculator,17 without Fig. 8.11.
possible. However, we notice in Fig. 8.11 that the value off changes very slowly
Solution . .
with large changes in R. So we can usually solve the problem quite effectively by
assuming an initial value off, and then obtaining the final solution by successive This is a Type 1 problem, to find h_r- From Table 8.1 for galvanized iron:
trials (trial and error; see Sample Prob. 3.5). If D is known (Type 2) , the fully- e = 0.0005 ft: so e/D = 0.0005(12)/20 == 0.0003
rough-pipe f value Umin) given on the right-hand side of Fig. 8.11 or by Eq. (8.54)
provides a good starting point. If Dis not known (Type 3), a value near the mid- L = 2 mi(5280 ft/mi) - 10,560 ft
dle of the /range on Fig. 8.11 , such as 0.03, makes a good start. Each succeeding
trial is started with the f value obtained from the previous trial. The value off 4Q 4(4)
can be considered close enough when the first three significant figures of the re-
Eq. (4.7): v-- -ftD -
2 - n(20/12) 2
1.833 fps
quired answer (Q, V, or D) no longer change. Note that if we assume values of
some other variable besides f , convergence is usually much slower. Table Al for water at 60°F: v = 1.217 x 10- 5 ft 2/sec
For Type 2 problems (to find V or Q), we rearrange Eq. (8.13) into the
form V = K/Vj, where K = -V2gDh/L is known. Assuming an f (as just dis- DV (20/12)1.833
cussed) therefore yields a V, which enables us to calculate R and enter the R = 2.51 x 105 (> Rcrit, i.e.•, flow is turbulent)
l) 1.217 X 10 - 5 .
diagram or to use Eq. (8.51) or (8.52) to obtain an improved value of J. If this is
different from the assumed f, we must repeat the procedure assuming the just- (a) Enter Fig. 8~11 at the right-hand side with e/D = 0.0003, by interpolating
obtained value, and successively repeat it until the two values converge. This between 0.0002 and 0.0004; note that the e/D spacing varies. Follow this
usually only requires two or three trials, by which time all the values are correct, (unplotted) e/D curve to the left until it crosses a vertical line at R = 2.51 x 105
including the required value of V. (c;FZution: this is between 105 and 106 ). For this operating point, reading hori-
For Type 3 problems, since the D to be found is unknown, neither e/D nor zontally to the left, f = 0.0172.
Rare known initially. We substitute V = 4Q/(nD 2 ) into Eq. (8.13) and rearrange
it to obtain D = (JK)115 , where K = 8LQ3/(n2gh1) is known. Then assuming an f L V2 . . (10,560) _l.833 2
Eq. (8.1)): ht = f D 2g = O.Ol 72 (20/12) 2(32.2) 5.69 ft ANS
( as previously discussed) yields a D, which enables us to proceed with repetition
in a manner similar to that used for Type 2.
Experience has shown that new users of the Moody diagram frequently (b) D"V = 20(1.833) = 3(j.7. Find this value on the scale across the top of
misread it. This most probably occurs because none of the scales are linear, and Fig. 8.11; note that this scale is varying. Find where the (interpolated) curve for
because the intervals between grid lines and chart curves keep changing. So take e/D = 0.0003 crosses the vertical line at D"V = 36.7. From this point, read hori-
special care in reading the chart, and confirm any interpolated values by com- zontally to the left, to find/= 0.0172. Compute h_r as for part (a).
paring them with nearby grid values or curves in both directions. 16 Note: From the operating point on Fig. 8.11 , we see that flow conditions are in
the transition zone of turbulent flow, which is typical.
16
Charts involving the same functional relations have been plotted with different
coordinates from those in Fig. 8.11 and may be more convenient for certain specific
purposes, but we believe that the form shown is best both for purposes of instruction t 7 We define a basic scientific calculator as one that is not programmable and does not
and for general use. have automatic equation solving capabilities .
290 CHAPTER 8: Steady Incompressible Flow in. Pressure Conduits 8.15. Single-Pipe Flow: Solution by Trials 291
1 0.0003)1.ll 6.9 ] (b) Eq. (8.54) for e/D = 0.000092: fmin = 0.01179. Calculate V and Ras m (a), ,
(c) Eq. (8.41): -l.8log [( 3:/ + 2.51 x 10s = 7.65 then obtain an improved f from Eq. (8.52). Use the obtained /for the next trial.
vJ Tabulating all the trials:
from which f = 0.01709
Tryf V,m/s R Obtained!
10,560 (1.883) 2
ANS 0.01179 2.23 1.114 X 106 0.01309 Try again
Eq. (8.10): ht = O.Ol 7 09 (20/l 2 ) 2 ( 32 _2 ) = 5.65 ft
Note: This differs from answer (a) by only 0.04 ft, or 0.70%.
~
I 0.01309
Q =
2.12
AV =
1.057 X 106
ANS
Converged!
""'11•
•
!r.,
..; ,;-;
~<I:
,-,.:
,,..,_
v-.-:.. -,,...:-1,~'41,.."'!:;'
-~... .1.--i:•~"I:
Jlo:W':;\~-,11'!"... -t.~,•.\"': ....
:S.~""~ •• ..----....ci·
-.u ...... -,.'="""'-"'-.1 ·-
'...xi-....::it'J'- ...~·.:1~~....-;:"lo·.'(-...,...
"·""'
::~.i L_ - -~-
i
SAMPLE PROBLEM Water at 20°C flows in a 500-mm-diameter welded- ~
8.5 r~~,.
steel pipe. If the friction loss gradient is 0.006, determine the flow rate: (a) using ~
~~ " . r . ' \ ' . " ~ ~ i A " " . ~ . r J l e " \ . ~ . f " - " . ~ ~ ~ . T , - , ' a , ~....».Y»~s~.:.....'"";:;.t;.~.u,,o....,,u··,..""1~T.. ~~I'~~-~~~ ,»1:/K::f:.flr.~
~
Fig. 8.11; (b) using only a basic scientific calculator, 17 without Fig. 8.11. SAMPLE PROBLEM 8.6 A plvanized iron pipe 18,000 ft long must. convey
ethyl alcohol (11 = 2.3 x 10- 5 ft /sec) at a rate of 135 gpm. If the friction head loss
Solution must be 215 ft, determine the pipe size theoretically required: (a) using Fig. 8.11;
This is a Type 2 problem, to find Q. (b) using only a basic scientific calculator, without Fig. 8.11.
Table 8.1 for welded steel: e = 0.046 mm; e/D = 0.046/500 = 0.000092
Solution
Table A.1 at 20°C: 11 = l.003 x 10- m 2/s; 6
htfL = 0.006 is given This is a Type 3 problem, to find D.
_ ht _ j_ V 2 • fV
2 Q = 135 gpm(2.23 cfs/1000 gpm) = 0.301 cfs
Eq. (8.14): S - L - D g, 1.e., 0.006 = O.S( 2 )9 _81
2 Table 8.1 for galvanized iron: e = 0.0005 ft.
from which = 0.243/j112.
V e 0.0005
D D
(a) Fig. 8.11 for e/D = 0.000092: fmin = 0.0118.
0.0117 2.25 1.120 X 106 0.0131 Try again Tryf D, ft e/D R Chartf
6 Converged!
0.0131 2.12 1.059 X 10 0.0131
0.0300 0.356 0.001404 4.68 X 104 0.0253 Try again
4
The f values now agree, so we have the true operating poin_t. Convergence is 0.0253 0.344 0.001453 4.84 X 10 0.0253 Converged!
rapid!
3
Q = AV .= (n/4)D 2 V = (n/4)(0.5)22.12 = 0.416 m /s ANS Values off now agree, so \Ve have the true operating point. Convergence is rapid!
Caution: Take great care to read Fig. 8.11 correctly. D = 0.344 ft = 4.13 in ANS
292 CHAPTER 8: Steady Incompressible Flow in Pressure Conduits 8.16 Single-Pipe Flow: Direct Solutions 293
(b) · Start by assuming a mid-range value off. S:alcu~ate Vand R as befo~e, then 8.16 SINGLE-PIPE FLOW: DIRECT SOLUTIONS 18
obtain an improved f from Eq. (8.52) . .Tabulatmg tlus and subs~quent tnals:
With time and experience, engineers working on pipe-flow problems have devel-
oped some ingeneous ways to obtain direct solutions. These have the advantage
Try f D, ft e/D R Eq. (8.41)/ of avoiding the tedious trial and error described in Sec. 8.15, and in addition they
are more precise and reliable than reading off a chart that may easily be misread.
0.0300 0.356 0.001404 46,800 0.02501 Try again For people who do not have access to advanced programmable calculators
0.0250 0.343 0.001456 48.500 0.02504 Converged! or computers with mathematics software (Sec. 8.17), ways have been found to
solve each of the three types of pipe-flow problems mentioned in Sec. 8.15 with-
out iteration, so that we can evaluate them directly on a basic scientific calcula-
. D = 0.343 ft 4.1.2 in ANS
tor.19 This of course requires an explicit equation in the sought quantity (Ap-
pendix B). We describe these methods further below.
The Head-Loss Problem (Type 1). The Haaland equation (8.52) makes
As noted earlier, in practice there can be a considerable _a mount of uncer- possible a direct computation off, from which we can find h1 using Eq. (8.13).
tainty in the size of the absolute roughness e. So it is important to have some Section 8.15 and Sample Prob. 8.4 explain this more fully. For a faster solution
idea what effects changes in e will have on h1 , Q, and D. F:01?1 Eqs. (8._13) and we may eliminate f between Eqs. (8.13) and (8.52). ·
( 4.7), it follows that hf ex f, Q ex F 112 , and D ex (1 15 . _The vanatrnn off w1.th ewe
may see in Fig. 8.11 or Eq. (8.51). As an example, m Sample Prob. 8.4, if e had The Discharge Problem (Type 2). We can obtain a single equation for the
been 20% larger then the hf would have been 2.3% larger. This change in the velocity ( or discharge) as follows. First we rearrange Eq. (8.13) to obtain
head loss would be larger for larger f (or larger e/D), and vice versa. Changes in
Q and D will be smaller than those in ht _l__
vJ -
v) L
2gDhf
We can avoid the repetitious labor required for the trial-and-error proce-
dures just described by using direct methods and automated methods. We will Then, when we substitute this and R = DV/v into the Colebrook equation (8.51)
review these alternative solution methods in Secs. 8.16 and 8.17. and rearrange, we get
the loss in head per 1000 ft if the velocity were three times the value
in (a)?
18
Some users may omit this section because it is not required to understand the
8.15.3 Water at 50°F flowing through 80 ft of 4-in-diameter average cast-iron pipe governing equations and their relationships. Note, however, that the methods described
causes a friction head loss of 0.27 ft. Find the flow rate. here are of great benefit in Secs. 8.24 (single pipe with minor losses) and 8.26
8.15.4 When gasoline with a kinematic viscosity of 5 x 10- 7 m 2/s flows in a (branching pipes).
19
200-mm-diameter smooth pipe, the friction head loss is 0.43 m per 1-00 m. We define a basic scientific calculator to be one that is not programmable and does
Find the flow rate. not have automatic equation solving capabilities.
8.16 Single-Pipe Flow: Direct Solutions 295
CHAPTER 8: Steady Incompressible Flow in Pressure Conduits
294
Using Eq. (8.56), we can calculate Q or V directly with a basic scientific calcula- SA MPLbE ~RO~LE~ 8.7 Solve Sample Prob. 8.5 without trial and error using
tor. Remember to use Eq. (8.1) to confirm that R is in the turbulent range. If R on 1ya as1c sc1ent1fic calculator. '
turns out to be in the laminar range, i.e. , less than 2000. we must instead find V
Solution
or Q from Eq. (8.28) rearranged. ~his is a Type 2 problem, to find Q. As in Sample Prob. 8.5, D = 0.5 m
, htfL - 0.006, e/D = 0.000092, and v = 1.003 x 10- 6 mt!s. The quantity '
The Sizing Problem (Type 3). We can eliminate iteration by reformulating our
~
equations as follows. Substituting from Eqs. (8.13), (4.7), and (8.1) into the di-
= v'2(9.81)0.5(0.006) = 0.243 mis,
mensionless quantity
2
(D 4Q \5 = 12~g ht Q~
2
N = Rs = h1D2g (nD ) (8.57)
f L 4Q v nD 2 ) n:> L ., ,.:, so in turbulent-flow Eq. (8.56a):
1
N
2
- e: -~(fv) = ~(1):~
2
= :~ (8.58)
Check: R = DV =
V
0.5(2.11)
1.003 X 10- 6
= 1.050 x 106 . This is >
Now we can use N to eliminate ffrom laminar flow Eq. (8.29) to obtain
1 Q = AV = (n/~)D 2V = 0.25n(0.5) 2 2.11 = 0.414 m 3/s ANS
N1)0.2s
(8.59)
Laminar flow, R = ( --
64
Type 3:
and we can use N and N to eliminate f and e/D from the Colebrook equa- SA MPLbE ~RO~LE~fi1 8.8 Solve Sample Prob. 8.6 without trial and error using
1 2
tion (8.51) for turbulent flow to obtain 0 n 1ya as1c sc1ent1 c calculator.
N2R 2.51 l
R2·5 = -2N 01·S log ( - - + --- R ··
'i) (8.60) Solution
3.7 N~·) r _ This is a Type 3 problem, to find D. As in Sample Prob. 8.6, ht = 215 ft
L - 18,000 ft, Q = 0.301 cfs, e = 0.0005 ft, g = 32.2 ft/sec1, and v = 2.3 x 10-s ft2/sec'.
Here R occurs in three places, so thii; equation is strongly implicit (Appendix B),
3
and Eq. (8.60) appears to be not a very useful result. However, if we plot N 1 versus
Eq. (S.S?): Ni = 128(32.2) ( ~ ) (0.301 ) _ 6 71 21
R we find it collapses the various flow curves on the Moody chart into 0 a very nar- 7r 3 18,000 (2.3 X lQ - 5)5 - · X lQ
row band that is cloSeiy approximated by the formula R = l.43N1·' '. We can sub-
stitute this into tbe right -hand side of Eq. ( 8.60) to create the more useful equation: nev n(0.0005)2.3 x 10-s
1
Type 3: 2.59 N~·
Laminar flow Eq. (8.59): R = (N641)0.2s = 101,300 > R crit = 2000
We see that this reformulation has converted the Colebrook equation into an
explicit form.
Comparison of the two Reynolds numbers from Eqs. (8.59) and (8.61) with Turbulen~-flow Eq. (8.61):
R . = 2000 indicates which equation (laminar or turbulent) is applicable for a
cnt
given Type 3 problem. .
Finally, from Eq. (8.1) combined with Eq. (4.7), we have
R2.s = -2(6.73 x 1021)°-slog ~ 3.00 x 10-s(6.71 x 1021)°-208 +
l. 2.59
4.29
(6.71 X 1021)°'188
l
= 5.13 10 11
R = D: = ~(:;2) :?v =
X
J
(Appendixes Band C.1), whereas a number of software packages like Mathcad
turbulent, an - , · ' ,
and Excel can automatically solve a system of many nonlinear equations in an
4Q 4 3
(0. 0l) = 0.345 ft ANS . equal number of unknowns.
5
D = J[VR = n(2.3 x 1o- )48,300 Next we will discuss ways to use automated equation solvers with each of
. l O00055 ft or 0.16% from the accurate answers m the three principal types of single-pipe flow problem.
Note: This differs by on Y ·
Sample Prob. 8.9. w, ...., , ...... ~_... ....==-"'"- _.,,._..--..-- The Head-Loss Problem (Type 1). While equation solvers are not necessary
"1•'1 •' - - ~ . ~ ........':'"J.~'09
,.....<C'-'J: .......--· ..¥" ~-,u..r:.
for Type 1 problems, we can still use them, as described next for Types 2 and 3.
They are necessary if we want to use the implicit Colebrook equation (8.51).
~
ful form (heat energy).
Referring to Fig. 8.12, we·can see that, as fluid from the reservoir enters the pipe,
the streamlines continue to converge for a while, much as though this were a jet (a) k,. = o.04
issuing from a sharp-edged orifice (Sec. 11.6). As a result, we find a cross section
with maximum velocity and minimum pressure at B. This minimum flow area is Figure 8.13
known as the vena contracta. At B, surrounding the contracted flowing stream Entrance loss coefficients.
there is fluid in a state of turbulence but having very little forward motion. Be-
tween B and C the fluid is very disturbed because the stream expands (is less depends on how much the stream contracts as it enters the pipe. Thus it very
constrained) and the velocity decreases while the pressure rises. From C to D much depends on the conditions at the entrance to the pipe. Experiments have
the flow is normal. determined values of the entrance loss coefficients. If the entrance to the pipe is
We see that the loss of energy at entrance occurs over the length AC, a dis- well rounded or bell-mouthed (Fig. 8.13a), there is no contraction of the stream
tance of several diameters. The increased turbulence and vortex motion in this entering and the coefficient of loss is correspondingly small. For a flush or
portion of the pipe cause the friction loss to be much greater than in a corre- square-edged entrance, such as shown in Fig. 8.13b, ke has a value of about 0.5.
sponding length where the flow is normal, as we can see from the drop of the A reentrant tube, such as that shown in Fig. 8.13c, produces a maximum con-
total-energy line. Of this total loss, a small portion h1 would be due to the normal traction of the entering stream, because the streamlines come from around the
pipe friction (see Fig. 8.12). Hence the difference between this and the total, or outside wall of the pipe, as well as more directly from the fluid in front of the en-
h~, is the true value of the extra loss caused at entrance. , trance. The degree of the contraction depends upon how far the pipe may pro-
The loss of head at entrance we can express as ject within the reservoir and also upon how thick the pipe walls are, compared
with its diameter. With very thick walls, the conditions approach that of a
square-edged entrance. For these reasons, the loss coefficients for reentrant
(8.70)
tubes vary; for very thin tubes, ke = 0.8.
where Vis the mean velocity in the pipe, and ke is the loss coefficient, whose gen-
eral values are given in Fig. 8.13. 8.22 Loss OF HEAD AT SUBMERGED DISCHARGE 22
The entrance loss results primarily from the turbulence created by the en-
largement of the stream after it passes section B, and this enlargement in turn Discharge into Still Water
When a fluid with a velocity Vis discharged from the end of a pipe into a closed
tank or reservoir which is so large that the velocity within it is negligible, the en-
tire kinetic energy of the flow is dissipated. Thus the discharge loss is
EL
(8.71)
\12
2g
We can confirm that this is true by writing an energy equation between (a) and
(c) in Fig. 8.14. Taking the datum plane through (a) and recognizing that the
pr essure hea<l of the fluid at (a) is y, its depth below the surface, Ha = y + O +
2
V 1/2g and He = 0 + y + 0. Therefore we obtain ·
D
v2
h;, = Ha - He = -
2g
Figure 8.12 22
Conditions at entrance. We first discussed this topic in Sec. 5.12.
•
CHAPTER 8: Steady Incompressible Flow i-n Pressure Conduits
8.23 Loss Due to Contraction 305
304
For a general streamline such as ef in Fig. 8.15, from energy Eq. (5.28) we have
2 2
Pe
-+z .
+ V- ] -h 1 = [Pt -+z +-Yc ]
7\,____..__::.r.-.....--
I • .
[ Y e 2g d y f 2g
I
_y
l 1_
y2 Yc2
--- (8.74)
:t - (b)
.,
I ... - :: :: :: ::
2g · 2g
-+-
__:.....:;.----
_
(!12=====-=
. -----
Figure 8.14
Loss due to submerged This equation states that the discharge loss is equal to the difference between the
discharge into still water. discharge and ultimate velocity heads. Equation (8.71) is a special case of this
equation.
. . . k = 1 0 ·under all conditions; so the only wa~
Thus the discha~ge loss co~ffi~1en\educe. the magnitude of V by means of a di-
to reduce the discharge loss is to d' . . g draft tube that discharges the
verging tube. This is the reason for a ivergm EXERCISES
. flow from a reaction t~rbine (Sec. i6.8).note that discharge loss occurs after the 8.22.1 A 12-in-diameter pipe (f = 0.02) carries fluid at 8 fps b~tween two tanks. The
As contrast~d ~jth he_nltran~ean::,loss occurs· after the fluid enters the pipe. entrance and exit conditions to and from the pipe are square-eQged and flush
fluid leaves the pipe, w 1 e en r with the wall of the tank. Find the ratio of the minor losses divided by the pipe
friction loss·if the length of the pipe is (a) 4 ft; (b) 80 ft; (c) 1600 ft.
Discharge into Moving Water 8.22.2 A 375-mm-diameter pipe (f = 0.017) carries fluid at 3.6 mis between two tanks.
Let us no\: find th~ head loss lw
water movmg away ma channe 'sue
.
1e:
1 ·. a submerged discharge enters a body of
as from a culvert with a submerged outlet
. b. (S 16 8)
The entrance and exit conditions to and from the pipe are reentrant. Find the
ratio of the minor losses divided by the pipe friction- loss if the length of the pipe
·1 f react10n tur me ec. · · is (a) 2 m; (b) 50 m; (c) 1000 m.
(Sec. 10.23), or as_in the tai ra~_e o a t aight and parallel, so, as demonstrated
At the outlet, the str~~°: m~.s ar:c!iss it must be hydrostatic. Afte~ a suf~- 8.22.3 Water leaves a turbine at 18.5 fps and enters a tailrace having an average
in Sec. 5.A, the pressure disrnbut10n t· f i·n Fi·g 815 the streamlmes will velocity of 1.5 fps. (a) What is the submerged discharge head loss? (b) By what
..
cient _distance :om
f th utlet as at sec ion c
_e,_o . ' , ·u 1 d the flow ·velocity
· , .
will be practlc~lly
percentage is this loss reduced if tpe provision of a draft tube increases the
discharge flow area to six times the size? ·
again b_e essenti_all~ straight and pa~~ e ~:nso the pressure distribution at section
uniform(=:= -i-;;) over the f~~} c~~n;:reftre ~er Eq. (3.6) (using gage pressures) 8.22.4 A smooth 300-mm-diametei pipe is 90 m long and,has a flush entrance and a
submerged discharge. It carries 15°C water at a v~locity of 3 mis. What is the
cf must also be hydrosta~1e,_an .
total head loss?
Pe + Ze = Pt + Zf = Pc + Zc = 0 (8.72)
y y y 8.22.5 Oil with a kinematic viscosity of 0.001 ft 2/sec and a specific gravity of 0.92 flows
at 8 fps through a smooth 15-in-diameter pipe which is 400 ft long with a flush
entrance and submerged discharge. What is the head loss in feet of oil and in psi?
_ _ _ _. - - . be a major factor, greater accuracy is
23 In a short pipe, where the ~1scharge loss may lained in Sec. 5.1 (see also Eq. 8.45a).
obtained by using the correction factor a, as exp
8.23 Loss DUE TO CONTRACTION
__:;;:__....--t Datum (c
'::> . i
,Sudden Contraction
I
The phenomena accompanying the sudden contraction of a flow are shown in
) _. ~
Fig. 8.16. There is a marked drop in pressure due to the increase in velocity and
to the loss of energy in turbulence. Note that in the corner upstream at section
C there is a rise in pressure because the streamlines here are curving, so that the
centrifugal action causes a greater pressure at the pipe wall than in the center of
the stream. The dashed line indicates the pressure variation along the central
Figure 8.15 . · t streamline from sections B to C.
Loss due to submerged discharge mto movmg wa er.
306 CHAPTER 8: . 'bl e Flow in Pressure Conduits
Steady fncomp, .essr
8.24 Loss Due to Expansion 307
The nozzle at the end of a pipeline (see Fig. S8.l lb) is a special case of
gradual contraction. An equation like Eq. (8.75) also governs the head loss
through a nozzle at the end of a pipeline, where k, becomes the nozzle loss co-
kn whose value commonly ranges from 0.04 to 0.20 and V, = i-; is the jet
efficient24
-- El
velocity. However, we can not regard the head loss through a nozzle hn as a
minor loss, because the jet velocity head is usually quite large (see, e.g., Sample
Prob. 8.12). More details on the flow through nozzles is presented in Sec. 11.6.
The conditions at a sudden expansion are shown in Fig. 8.17. There is a rise in
pressure because of the decrease in velocity, but this rise would be even greater
Vz--+-- if there were not the loss in energy. There is excessive turbulence in the flow
F from C to F, beyond which the flow is normal. The drop in pressure just beyond
section C, wqich was measured by a piezometer not shown in the figure, is due
to the fact that the pressures at the wall of the pipe are in this case less th an those
Figure 8.16 . d l ) in the center of the-pjpe because of centrifugal effects.
Loss due to sudden contract10n. (Platte to sea e.
Figures 8.16 and 8.17 are both drawn to scale from test measurements for
the same diameter ratios and the same velocities, and they show that the loss
TABLE 8.2 Loss coefficients for sudden contraction due to sudden expansion is greater than the loss due to a corresponding con-
traction. This is so because of the inherent instability of flow in an expansion,
0.0 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 where diverging flow paths encourage the formation of eddies within the flow.
0.50 0.45 0.42 0.39 0.36 0.33 0.28 0.22 0.15 0.06 0.00 Moreover, separation of the flow from the wall of the conduit creates pockets of
24
See also Eq. (11.14).
. C ..
E the conditions . s1m1
are . ·1 ar to those described for
. entrance
b
8.21). Wetocan, represent t 11e 1oss o f head for a sudden contraction Y
(Sec. From
h'C (8.75)
G dual Contraction
--l_
l ___ ---~-~
wall
--™™""',1----.,i _____
ra . we should avoid abrupt changes of cross ~ ·~ ., ~ ::~_: .?~~'..-,---
In order to reduce the foreg~mg lo~es, ·n from one diameter to the other with
Vi--+-
section. We could achiev~ _this by c_ anthe ~rustrum of a cone. With a smoothly
a smoothly curved transition ~r with 11 0 05 is possible. For conical re-
..
curved trans1t1on, a 1oss c oeffic1enO.
t kc as sma
"ble as . 20-400 .
• · k f about O 1 1s possi , with a total cone angle of Figure 8.17
F
larger totaclocone ang ies result in higher values of kc
ducers, aorm1111mum
Smaller
Loss due to sudden enJargemen t. ( Plotted to scale. Velocity is the same as in F,g. 8.16.)
308 CHAPTER 8: Steady Incompressible Flow in Pressure Conduits
8.24 Loss Due to Expansion 309
We usually assume
den enlargement is that p ' -- P1, m
· wh ich
· case the loss of head due to sud-
Po
=P1- +V;
- -Vi
- Gradual Expansion
y y 2g 2g
To minimize the loss accompanyino a reduction in v 1 .
such as that shown in Fig 8 19 Th bd.ff e oc1ty, we can use a diffuser
If in the actual case, however, the pressure at section 2 is Pi, while the average b · · · e 1 usermayhave d ·
ea ~rustum of a cone (straight sided). In Fi 8 19 ha curve outlme, or it may
pressure on the annular ring is p' then, equating the resultant force on the body function of the angle of diver e d g. . t e loss of head will be some
of fluid betwe~n sections 1 and 2 to the time rate of change of momentum be- length of the diffuser being defe;~1n:~ byal:ho of tthe rati? of t?e two areas, the
tween sections 1 and 2 per Eq. (6.7a), we obtain I fl th ese wo vanables
n ow rough a diffuser we can c ·d h ·
components. One is the ordinary . pipe-fi~~~o~\~s:
, , twotha_ll
hoss
ic we canas made up of two
represent by
f v2
From this,
ht=
I --dL
D 2g
In order to integrate
as functions of L Fortheo fore goin g, we need t_o ~xpress the variables f, D' and V
P2 A1 P1 A2 - A1 p' A1 V; Vi
=- -+----+---- . ur present purpose, it is sufficient, however, merely to
y A2 Y A2 Y A2 g g
The loss of head is caused by friction, and so it is given by the difference between
the ideal and actual pressure heads ( or total heads) at section 2. Thus h_~ =
CPo - P2VY, and noting that
A1V1 = A2V2
and that A Vi2 = A 1V1Vi = A 2V2Vi, we obtain, from substituting the preceding
1
expressions for p 0 /y and p 2 /y into (p0 - P2)/y,
Figure 8.19
Loss due to gradual enlargement.
310 CHAPTER 8: Steady Incompressible Flow in Pressure Conduits
8.24 Loss Due to Expansion 311
0.3
\
\
\
\
' -
' ._..,,
/
/
I
I
I
I
1.2 ~ - - - - - --
1.0
- --~
I
J.
SAMPLE PRonm_1 8.10·- -~-~e:~::~~r:;~a~:S~-=~-d::::=
t? 200 mm diameter, what is tlie ~ead
100 fls. (a) If the pipe suddenly e~la~ges
0.2 0.8
r lohss. (b) If the same enlargement is via a diffuser with a total cone anole of 200
~
i w at 1s the head loss then? b ,
0 0 ~
<J)
~ 0.6 I Solution
Cl)
:J :J
ai co r Q 4Q 4(0.100)
> > (a) l7i =
0.1 0.4
A1
= = 5.66 mis
nDl n(0.15) 2
0.2 4(0.100)
½ n(0. 2 0) 2 = 3.18 mis
0 ""-------'------'--~-------' 0 ~--'----'----L-----'----'------'
0 4 8 12 0 20 40 60 90 120 180 (5.66 - 3.18) 2
Cone angle a Cone angle a h'X = = 0.312 m ANS
2(9.81)
(a) (b)
( b) Fig. 8.20 for a = 20°: k' = 0.38
Figure 8.20
Loss coefficient for conical diffusers. Eq. (8.78): h' = 0.38(0.312) = '0.1187 m ANS
note that the friction loss increases with the length of the cone. Hence, for given
values of D 1 and D2 , the larger the angle of the cone, the less its length and the EXERCISES
less the pipe friction, which we can see from the curve marked Fin Fig. 8.20a.
However, in flow through a diffuser there is an additional loss component, due 8.24.1 T\~O pipes w~th a diamete~ ratio of 1:2 are connected in series (Fig. X8.24.l).
, to turbulence set up by induced currents that produce a vortex motion over and
above that which normally exists. This additional turbulence loss will naturally
increase with the degree of divergence, as we can see from the curve marked T
With a velocity of 6:8 mis m the smaller pipe, find the Joss of head due to
(~) sudde1: contract10n; (b) sudden enlargement; (c) expansion in a conical
diffuser with a total angle of 30°, and of 10°.
in Fig. 8.20a, and if the rate of divergence is great enough then the flow may sep-
2D
arate from the walls with eddies flowing backward along the walls (see Sec. 9.6). -7.._£__ D 2D D . 2D
~ :::_------
The total loss in the diverging cone consists of the sum of these two losses, -... _.,..
----,__
------
....... 30°, 10°
marked k'. This has a minimum value at 6° for the particular case chosen, which __r--
is for a very smooth surface. If the surface were rougher, the value of the friction Figure XS.24.1 (a) (b) (c)
Fwould be larger. This increases the value of k', as in the dashed curve, and also
shifts the angle for minimum loss to 8°. Thus the best angle of divergence in- 8 24
- -2 A 5-in-diameter pip~(/= _0.033) 110 ft long connects two reservoirs whose
creases with the roughness of the surface. water-sur~ace elev~tions differ by 12 ft (Fig. X8.24.2). The pipe entrance is flush
We have seen that the loss due to a sudden enlargement is very nearly a~1d the discharge is s~bmerge_d. (a)_ Compute the flow rate. (b) If the last 10 ft of
equal to (i~ - ½)2/2g. The loss due to a gradual enlargement is pipe were replaced with a corneal diffuser with a cone angle of 10° compute th
flow rate. ' e
(½ - Yi)2
h' k'---- (8.78)
2g
Values of k' as a function of the cone angle a are given in Fig. 8.20b, for a wider
range than appears in Fig. 8.20a. Note, interestingly, that at an angle slightly ..._____(-'---h-'-)_D_=_S_in__:_,_
l _.-_- _..10
:._.:.:0:..:ft:..:__ _~
1
above 40° the loss is the same as that for a sudden enlargement, which is 180°, and 100
that between these two the loss is greater than for a sudden enlargement, being a
maximum at about 60°. This is a result of the induced currents that develop.
Figure XS.24.2
312 CHAPTER 8: Steady Incompressible Flow in Pressure Conduits
8.26 Loss in Bends and Elbows 313
8.25 Loss IN PIPE FITTINGS A
For pipe fittings we can express the loss of head as kV 2/2g , where Vis the veloc-
ity in a pipe of the nominal size of the fitting. Table 8.3 gives typical values of k.
As an alternative, we may account for the head loss due to a fitting by increasing
the pipe length by amounts given by L/D in the table. Howeve_r, we should rec-
ognize that these fittings create so much turbulence that the loss caused by them
is proportional to V 2 , and so we should restrict this latter method to cases where
the pipe friction itself is in the zone of complete turbulence (fully-rough-pipe
flow). For very smooth pipes it is better to use the k values when determining
the loss through fittings.
Fitting k L/D
Globe valve, wide open 10 350
Angle valve, wide open 5. 175
Close-return bend 2.2 75
T, through side outlet 1.8 67 Inside of bend
Short-radius elbow 0.9 32 I
Figure 8.22
25
Secondary flow in the bends of open channels is discussed in Sec. 10.21. Vaned elbow.
8: Steady Incompressible Flow in Pressure Conduits 8.27 Single-Pipe Flow with Minor Losses 315
314 CHAPTER
1.0 . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~
8.27 SINGLE-PIPE FLOW WITH MINOR LOSSES
0.8 We have examined the fundamental fluid mechanics associated with the fric-
tional loss of energy in single-pipe flow, caused by both the wall roughness of the
0 .6 pipes and by pipe fittings and the like that disturb the flow (minor losses). While
the interest of the scientist extends very little beyond this, it is the task of the en-
gineer to apply these fundamentals to various types of practical problems.
0.4
Specialists generally concede that for pipes longer than 1000 diameters, the
error from neglecting minor losses is less than that inherent in selecting a value
for the friction factor (f, n, or CHw). In applying this rule, one must of course use
common sense and recall that a valve, for example, is a minor loss only when it
is wide open; partially closed, it may be the most important loss in the system.
When minor losses are negligible, as they often are, we can solve pipe-flow prob-
lems by the methods of Secs. 8.13-8.19.
When we include minor losses, the total head hL loss between two points is
the sum of the pipe (wall) friction head loss h1 plus the mipor losses, or
2(32.2)260 (c) Using equation solving software such as Mathcad (Appendixes C.2-C.3 and
260
(a) Rearranging: = 1.5 + 6000.f' D.2- D.3); we es tablish ~ "so!ve block" containing four equations as in Sample
1.5 + 6000f Prob. _8.9b , except that m this case we rep!ace Eq. (8.13) by preceding energy
equatl~n (1). Also, we must cha~ge the "Fmd" statement to: Find (f, V, R, Q).
Fig. 8.11, right-hand side, for e/D = 0.00102: fmin = 0.0196 We_assign_ the seven know~ vanable~ the same values as in solution (b ), and
assign estimated values (without umts) to the four unknown variables, say
Try f = 0.0196: V2 = V 16,744/ [l.5 + 6000(0.0196)] 11.86 fps f = 0.030, V = 5 fps, R = 100,000, and Q = 10 cfs.
The program delivers the result:
D"V = 10(11.86) = 11 8.6
ij
f = 0.0201, V = 11.71 fps, R = 801,731, Q = 6.39 cfs ANS
i
Fig. 8.11 for e/D = 0.00102 and D"V = 11_8.6: f = 0_.020. Obtain_ed ~nd assumed
f values are different, so we must try agam. Tabulatmg all the tnals. . I Because this R is for turbulent flow, the equation (8.51) we used for f is valid
and so therefore is the answer we obtained for Q.
Note the simplicity and clarity of the Mathcad solution (c) in comparison to
'
the other two solutions.
Try f V , ft/s D"V Obtained/
r---~.~-_
/-·--: ·-
8.28 Pipeline with Pump or Turbine 321
Using continuity Eq. (4.17), ½/2g2
= (10/2.5)4v;2/2g =
•
v2
2
256½ /2g. Thus
V ~ k r
260 = (0.5 + 1.11
I
\7
In addition, H 2 = pJy + Vi/2g = 260 - (0.5 + 0.02 x 6000)0.643 = 182.58 ft, and y
t
___f V
the pressure head pJy = 182.58 - 0.643 = 181.93 ft. • .1
This example shows that the addition of the nozzle reduces the discharge D.f
from 6.40 to 3.51 cfs, but increases the jet velocity from 11.74 to 102.9 fps. The head
Figure XS.27.3
1
loss due to pipe friction is 77.1 ft and the head loss through the nozzle is 18.09 ft.
8.27.4 A horizontal 100-mm-diameter i e ( = 0 . .
below the surface (Fig X8 27 3)PCP fd .. 027) projects mto a body of water 1 m
• · · · • ons1 ermg all Ios fi d h
pomt 5 m from the end of the pipe if the veloc· . ses, n t e press~re at a
the body of water (b) out of th b d f ity is 4 m/s and the flow is (a) into
' e o yo water.
When solving Type 3 sizing problems, .in general, the diameter we obtain 8.27.5 A 450-ft-long pipeline runs between tw .
will not be a standard pipe size, and the size we select will usually be the next
largest commercially available size. In planning for the future, we must remem- th:
water, and the intake end is square-ed ~dr:~e;:01rs, b~th ~nds being under
between the water surface levels of t onp_roJ~ctmg. The difference
t~e discharge if the pipe diameter is 12 . wo ~ese~voirs is 150 ft. (a) What is
ber that scale deposits will increase the roughness and reduce the cross-sectional
area. For pipes in water service, the absolute roughness e of old pipes (20 years pipe is old, assume that the growth oft I~ an 1 f;
0.028? (b) When this same
11.25 in and that f = 0 06 Wh t ·11 h u ere es 1_as reduced the diameter to
and more) may increase over that of new pipes by three-fold for concrete or ce- . . a WI t e rate of discharge be then?
ment-lined steel, up to 20-fold for cast iron, and even to 40-fold for tuberculated 8.27.6 Solve Exer. 8.27.5a when f is unknown but aive - .
wrought-iron and steel pipe. Substituting V = 4Q/(nD 2) into Eq. (8.13) shows water temperature is 60oF Wh t h
·
. b n that e - 0.005 ft and that the
a , t en, IS the value off?
that for a constant value off, Q varies as D 512 • Hence for the case where minor
losses are negligible and f is constant, to achieve a 100% increase in flow, we
need to increase the diameter by only 32%. This amounts to a 74% increase in
cross-sectional area.
8.28
PIPELINE WITH PUMP OR TURBINE
In any case we can determine the total pumping head by writing the energy
equation between any point upstream from the · pump and any other point
downstream, as in Eq. (5.37). For example, if the upstream reservoir were at a
higher elevation than the downstream one, then the L1zs in the two foregoing
equations would have negative signs.
B The machine we use to convert flow energy into mechanical work we call a
turbine. In flowing from the upper tank in Fig. 8.26 to the lower, the fluid loses
potential energy head equivalent to L1z. Part of this energy is lost to hydraulic
F~ure8~ .
Pipeline with pump between two reservoirs. friction in the pipe, and the remainder reaches the turbine. Of that part which
reaches the turbine, part is lost in hydraulic friction within the turbine, and the
rest converts into mechanical work.
The power that reaches the turbine is the initial power minus the friction
same as if the pump lifted the fluid a height L1z + "2:hL. Hen~e the pow:r losses (pipe plus minor) in the pipeline, or yQ(& - 2,hL). The power the tur-
the pump delivers to the liquid is yQ(L1z + 'Ihi).1:he po~er;equired ~~~~~ta~ bine delivers is less than this, depending on both its hydraulic and mechanical
pump is greater than t~is, de~ending on the efficiency o t e pump. losses. The head under which the turbine operates is
pumping head hp for this case is
(8.85)
( (8.83)
Here "'i,hL is the loss of head in the supply line plus the submerged discharge loss
(pipe friction and minor losses), but it does not include the head loss in the draft
If the pump discharges a stream through a nozzle, a~ in ~ig. 8.25, not only
tube (DE in Fig. 8.26), since the draft tube is considered an integral part of the
does it lift the liquid a height L1z, but it also imparts a kinetic energy head of
turbine. A draft tube has a gradually increasing cross-sectional area, which re-
duces the velocity at discharge. This enhances the efficiency of the turbine be-
cause it reduces the head loss at discharge (Secs. 8.22 and 16.8). Note that the h,
of Eq. (8.85) represents the energy head the turbine removes from the fluid; this,
, ·· rr- ---!::1
EL: __ ~._:!_Jj of course, is the same as the energy head the fluid transfers to the turbine.
HGL
A
- --- --- ---·1-
l
!
i
i
Ii,
l
i
I
I
F
~ --· --·· --· --------·
Thus
Figure XS.28.2
which we cap rewrite as the cubic expression
8.28.3 A 250-mm-diameter pipeline (f = 0.025) is 4.7 km long (Fig. X8.28.2). When
2.48Q 3 - 23.8Q - 21.2 = 0
pumping 100 Lis of water through it, with a total actual lift of 10.5 m, how
much power is required? The pump efficiency is 75%.
8.28.4 If in Sample Prob. 8.13 the vapor pressure of the liquid is 1.9 psia and the
Hffi1: Programmed computing aids (Append_ix C) could help solve problems marked atmospheric pressure is 14.5 psia, what is the maximum theoretical flow rate?
with this icon.
326 CHAPTER 8: Steady Incompressible Flow in Pressure Conduits
8.29 Branching Pipes 327
8.28.5 In Fig. 8.26 assume the pipe diameter is 12 in,f = 0.021, BC= 200 ft, and L1z =
120 ft. The entrance to the pipe at the intake is flush with the wall , and discharge
losses are negligible. (a) If Q = 8 cfs of water, what head docs it supply to the
turbine? (b) What power does the turbine deliver if its efficiency is 75 %? A
8.28.6 In Fig. 8.26 assume the pipe diameter is 300 mm,f = 0.021, BC= 60 m, and Liz=
36.5 m. The entrance to the pipe at the intake is flush with the wall, and discharge
losses arc negligible. (a) If Q = 225 Us of water, what head docs it supply to the
turbine? (b) What power docs the turbine deliver if its efficiency is 75%?
8.28.7 A 12-in-diameter pipe 9200 ft long (f = 0.024) discharges freely into the air at
an elevation 18 ft below the surface of the water at intake (Fig. X8.28.7) . It is
necessary to double the flow by inserting a pump. lf the efficiency of the pump Figure 8.27
is 73% , how much power will be required? Branching pipes.
~
on o a pipes.) . '
A s there are no pum s the elevation of p ~ .
reservoirs A and C. If pis lev 1with th f st he b~tween the surfaces of
both zero. If pis above the surface of\:~:t::irofBrethservoir B then h2 and Q2 are
and Q - Q + Q If • en water must flow · t B
Figure XS.28. 7 B
out of -and O _;_- Q P~sQbel~wfthe shurf~ce o! reservoir B then the flow m1:~be
f~ ~1 • 2 3• o or t e s1tuat10n shown in Fig ~ w h h
yg gou@rR11+g--C.Qnd.it.ious: · · e ave t e
8.28.8 A 300-mm-diameter pipe 3400 m long (f = 0.022) discharges freely into the air
at an elevation 5.6 m below the surface of the water at intake (Fig. X8.28.7). It 1. Ql = Q2 + Q3, ~
is necessary to double the flow by inserting a pump. If the efficiency of the
pump is 76%, how much power will be required? 2. Elevation of pis common to all three pipes. AA f)" '
t.,f'v\~
8.28.9 Refer to Fig. 8.25. When the pump is delivering 1.2 cfs of water, a pressure gage at The diagram suggests several different r bl j ~
discuss ~ using different meth d pf o 1e~~n~} cases, three of which we will
D reads 25 psi, while a vacuum gage at C reads 10 inHg. The pressure gage at D is o so so ut10)
2 ft higher than the vacuum gage at C. The pipe diameters are 4 in for the suction
pipe and 3 in for the discharge pipe. Find the power delivered to the water. Rigorous Solutions
8.28.10 Refer to Fig. 8.25. When the pump is delivering 35 Lis of water, a pressure gage
at D reads 175 kPa, while a vacuum gage at C reads 250 mmHg. The pressure . When we know the pipe wall t . 1
gage at Dis 600 mm higher than the vacuum gage at C. The pipe diameters are and we know that the friction ~:c~~tJ we_ can ~~imate its e value (Table 8.1),
100 mm for the suction pipe and 75 mm for the discharge pipe. Find the power Reynolds number of the flow B vanes wit the e/D of the pipe and the
. ecause we are not consider· . 1
delivered to the water. can use the equations and methods f S m_g mmor asses, we
basic scientific calculator we can ol e~s. 81_.12-8.17. In particular, using only a
,
th e H aa1and equation (8.52) so ve pipe mes for h (Type 1 bl ) .
with E (8 B)· pro ems usmg
8.29 problems) using Eq (8 56)· d q. . 'we can solve for V or Q (Type 2
BRANCHING PIPES SkAWvl 1ems ) using Eqs. (8.57)-(8
· · , an more rarely we can sol f D (T
62) We f ' . ve or ype 3 prob-
For convenience,Qet us consider three pipes connected to three reservoirs as)in trial and error which can be . pr_e er these equat10ns because they avoid
. ' come qmte confusing when b.· d
Fig. 8.27 land connected together or branching at the common junction point J. tna1-and-error techniques needed t
Th .
1 f b .
o so ve or ranchmg flow
com me with other
Actually~e can consider that any of the pipes is connected to some other des- e followmg three cases illustrate some of h " . " .
tination than a reservoir by simply replacing the reservoir with a piezometer methods used to solve the different t f t e manual tnal-and-error
tube in which the water level is the same as th~ reservoir surface(We shall sup- case all the required pipe data (len t?pe~. o problems that ca_n occur. In each
pose that all the pipes are sufficiently long that we can neglect' minor losses and are known. g s, iameters, and matenals fore values)
velof~!Y heads, so hL = h1, which we shall designate ash )
'07e name the pipes and flows and corresponding fnction losses as in the di- Case 1. F'm d th e fl ow to or from two reserv . d .
agram. The continuity and energy equations require that the flow entering the one of these, given the other fl d Oir_s, an the surface elevat10n of
ow an two elevations and all the pipe data. . -
8.29 Branching Pipes 329
328 CHAPTER 8: Steady Incompressible Flow in Pressure Conduits
Q1 > Q?, then we must raise p to satisfy continuity atl caus· t .
60 1Elevation of P reservoir B , and we shall have Q = Q + Q . 'f Q ' mg wa er tto flow mto
3
satisfy continuity at J, causing w~ter t~ flow ~~t of ~s~:~:;~w:n~uS l~w~\; to
Q1 + Q2 = Q3, From here on the solution proceeds by adjusti~g p :ef~raCas:v2~
Case 3. Find the flow in each pipe, given the surface elevation of all three t
~
(a) Find the elevation of p by trial and error.
reservoirs· and all the pipe data.
This is the classic three-reservoir problem, and it differs from the foregoing I
~ Elevation of plies
turbulent flow. between 160 an d 250 f t. Calculate V from Eq. (8.56) assumin_g
Trials:
cases in that it is not immediately evident whether the flow is into or out of reser- r,.
voir B. We can readily determine this direction by first assuming no flow in pipe 2;
that is, assume the piezometer level P at the elevation of the surface of B. The
head losses h and h then determine the flows Q1 and Q3 via Eq. (8.56). If
1 3
'
~
~·
Elev. P h1
200
230
50
20
h3
40
70
Yi
6.444
4.013
½
4.481
5.984
662,000
412,000
R1 R2
245,000
328,000
Ql
7.907 1.564
4.925 2.088
Q3 LQ
+3.04 Up
0.463 Down
MoveP?
26Other approaches include (a) assuming distributions of the flows Q 1 and Q 3, knowing
that Q - Q = Q , and (b) by substituting for the h.~ in h 1 + h 3 = '1h 13 using Eq. (8.13)
3
with ½1 written
2
in terms of Q 3 , and ½ written in ten~ of Q 2 + Q 3 , and successively
fffiil: this
with Programmed
icon. computing a·d
1 s (A ppen d.ix C) could help solve problems marked
2
Q
A2
3.3
0.545 . '
D 2 V2
V: = - 2 = - - = 6055fps· R2 = - - = 416500
V '
I
! At I, LQ ~ inflow - outflow= 5.53 _ 2 09 = 3
B. ANS 3 '
.
I must be raised ( to reduce Q and increase .Q )· th .44 cfs. Thi_s must ?e zero, so p
t i en water will flow mto reservoir
All three R values are turbulent, so the use of Eq. (8.56) and these results are
(b) Trial 2. Raise P. 500 ft< Elev· p < 525 ft · Try p ate 1evatlon
. 510 ft:
valid.
Eq. (8.52):
Ji = 0.017 61; Eq. (8.13): h 2 = 18.05 ft
h, ft 15 10 80
Elev. B = Elev. P - h2 = 226.64 - 18.05 = 208.59 ft ANS V2gDh/L, fps 0.449 0.598 0.874
(b) Using equation solving software such as Excel or Mathcad (Appendixes C.2- V, fps (Eq. 8.56) 3.46 4.49 6.41
C.3), we note that there are 14 governing equations. Two of these are Check R 355,000 307,000 351,000
Q = AV, cfs 4.24 2.42 2.24
h + h 3 = 250 - 160 = 90, Q 1 = Q 2 + Q3
1
The remaining 12 equations are the four governing equations (Sec. 8.14) for · = -042
Atl, LQ = 4.24 - 2.42 - 224 · cfs. By mterpolation
. . (using Fig. 8.28),
each of the three pipes. 1,
The complete output for the Excel and Mathcad solutions is provided in i 510 - Elev. p 0.42
510 - 500 = 0.42 + 3.44 , Elev. P = 508.91 ft
IJ
Appendixes D.2 and D.3, respectively.
The solver provides values for the 14 unknowns (three values each for f, V, R ,
h, and two values for Q) from which it calculates
Elev. B = 208.53 ft ANS h, ft 16.1 8.9 78.9
Note: Observe how simple and clear the Mathcad solution is. Vr=-2g---:D=-=h-.,,/L-, fps 0.465 0.564 0.868
V, fps (Eq. 8.56) 3.59 4.19 6.36
Check R 339,000 287,000 348,000
Q = AV,cfs 4.40 2.28 2.22 ANS
SAMPLE PROBLEM 8.15 With the sizes, lengths, and material of pipes given in
Sample Prob. 8.14, suppose that the surface elevations of reservoirs A, B, and C
are 525 ft, 500 ft, and 430 ft, respectively. (a) Does water enter or leave reservoir
B? (b) Find the flow rates of 60°F water in each pipe. Use only a basic scientific
calculator.
Solution
This is a Case 3 problem. Find the elevation of P by trial and error.
6 2 Nonrigorous Solutions
Table A.1 for water at 60°F: v = 12.17 x 10- ft /sec.
If the ~alue of the friction factor ( constant f C . ' . .
each pipeline we must use th . ' mv, or Mannmg s n) is gzven for
Then, to solv~ the three cases -~s;o~ngorous head-loss equations of Sec. 8.19.
liffll: Programmed computing aids (Appendix C) could help solve problems marked for the rigorous solutions bu/ inst~:~us;ed: we hfollow e~actly the same steps as
, 0 usmg t e equations of Secs. 8.12-8.17
'
with this icon.
332 CHAPTER 8: Steady Incompressible Flow ill Pressure Conduits
8.30 Pipes in Series 333
we simply use Eqs. (8.65)-(8.69). Of course, we must first determine the appro-
priate Kand n value for each pipeline, and select accordingly from Eqs. (8.66)- AtJ, ~Q = 0.085~ - 0.058~ - 0.0450 = -0.0184 m3!s. This-must, be zero sow
mu~t lower P. By mterpolation (Fig. 8.28), ' e
(8.68). Notice; however, that we can easily solve Case 2 directly if n = 2 (Darcy-
Weisbach or Manning) by writing the known elevation difference '1h 13 = h 1 + 155 - Elev. P 0.0184
h3 = K 1Qf + K 3 Q} = K 1(Q 2 + Q 3)2 + K 3 Q}, which is a quadratic equation in Q 3, 155 - 150 0.0184 + 0.0822 ' Elev. p = 154.09 m
the only unknown.
Trial 3. Try Pat elevation 154 m:
,.
h,m 6 4 34
Q, m3ts (Eq. 8.69) 0.0938
SAMPLE PROBLEM 8.16In Fig. 8.27 pipe 1 is 300 mm diameter and 900 m 0.0518 0.0443 ANS
V, mis (Eq. 4.7) 1.327
long, pipe 2 is 200 mm diameter and 250 m long, and pip~ 3 is_ 150 mm diameter 1.649 2.51
and 700 m long. The Hazen-Williams coefficient for all pipes 1s 120. The su~face
elevations of reservoirs A, B, and Care 160 m, 150 m, and 120 m, respectively. AtJ, LQ = -0.0023 m3!s. This is close enough.
(a) Does water enter or leave reservoir B? (b) Find the flow rate in each pipe. All Vs are < 3 m:s (Sec. 8.18), so these solutions using Eq.· (8.67) are valid.
Use only a basic scientific calculator. Note: T~ese adJustments are very suitable for making on a spreadsheet
(Appendix C.2).
Solution
This is a Case 3 problem. Find the elevation of P by trial and error. Use the
Hazen-Williams form (8.67) of Eq. (8.65) in SI units:
h,m 5 5 35
Q, m3/s (Eq. 8.69) 0.0850 0.0584 0.0450
IHI: Programmed computing aids (Appendix C) could help solve problems marked Figure 8.29
with this icon. Pipes in series.
8.30 Pipes in Series 335
334 CHAPTER 8: Steady Incompressible Flow in Pressure Conduits
If we are given the total head loss hL and want to find the flow, the pro·01em Pipe: 1 2 3
is a little more involved. L,m 300 150 250
Using the nonrigorous equations, we again substitute Eq. (8.65) into Eq.
D,m 0.3 0.2 0.25
(8.87), to get e/D 0.000833 0.00125 0.00100
hL = hf = KiQ1 + K2Q2 + K 3Q'; + · · · fmin (Fig. 8.11) 0.019 0.021 0.020
But since all the Qs are equal from Eq. (8.86), this becomes
Assuming these friction factor values
(8.88) '
hL = (Ki+ K2 + K3 + · · ·)Qn = (~K)Qn
L1z = hL = ht = 10 = o.019(300)v;2 + o.021(150)½2 (250)½2
So, knowing the pipe information and which nonrigorous equation we must use, \ 0.3 2g 0.2 2g + 0.020 0.25 2g
we can solve for Q. Last, we must check that all velocities are in the required
ranges for the empirical equations to be valid (Sec. 8.18).
If we wish to use the more accurate, rigorous Darcy-Weisbach approach to From continuity, ~ = i (~J = i (~:~J 5 _06 ~: .
find Q, we must note that in Eq. (8.88) each K has now become a function of a dif-
ferent f. The preferred manual method of solution is similar to that just discussed, V32 = 2
and we call it the equivalent-velocity-head method. Substituting from Eq. (8.13) · Similarly, 2.07½
2g . 2g
into Eq. (8.87) and including minor losses if we wish (usually if L/D < 1000),
2
- + L k )Vi
)Vi2 + ( rL2
Li + L k - l O -_ ½ ( 0.019-
1000 + 0.021-5.06
750 1000 2 07)
+ 0.020--
h = f- - + ··· and thus
2g 1 1 1 ·
L ( J 1 D1 1 2g D2
J2 2 2g
Using continuity Eq. (4.17), we know Df V1 = Df½ = D~½, etc., from which we ½2
can express all the velocities in terms of one chosen velocity. So, by assuming from which g = 0.0713 m
2
reasonable values for eachf (e.g., from Eq. (8.54) or Fig. 8.11), for any pipeline,
however complex, we can write the total head loss as So Vi = V2(9.81 m/s 2)(0.0713 m) = 1.183 mis
hL =
v2
K- The c<?rresponding values of Rare 0.31 x 106 o 47 106
't~nd 0.37 x ~~ ; the
(8.89) 6
2g correspon~mg friction factors are only slightly diff~r~nt;
ass_umed, smce the flow occurs at Reynold b rom ose we ongmally
where Vis the chosen velocity. We can solve this equation for the chosen V, and pipe flow. So s num ers very close to fully-rough-
so can obtain the V and R and f values for each pipe. For better accuracy, we
should replace the assumed values off by the values just obtained, and obtain Q = Ai½ = ¼n-(0.30)21.183 = 0.0836 m 3/s ANS ;
an improved solution. When the f values converge V is correct, and we can
Note: We would have obtained greater a "f .
factors to match the pipe-friction ch ;curacy\ wel had adJusted the friction
calculate Q. culated them by Eq. (8.5 ) and .f a~ g1.ore cdose Y. (further trials) or cal-
Q = 0.0821 m3/s. 2 ' 1 we a me1u ed mmor losses. In that case
SAMPLE PROBLEM 8.17 Suppose in Fig. 8.29 the pipes 1, 2, and 3 are 300 m
of 300 mm diameter, 150 m of 200 mm diameter, and 250 m of 250 mm diameter,
respectively, of new cast iron and are conveying 15°C water. If .dz = 10 m, find
the rate of flow from A to B using only a basic scientific calculator. Neglect
We can avoid manual iteration for f b l · ·
minor losses.
and D.2-D 3) Th .
sir
using equation solving software like Mathc!ct v-l{1x~:/m(Aultane~~s eqCuations
ppenu1xes .2-C.3
Solution . ·.f . ere are the usual four equat10ns for each pipe (Sec 8 14) plus
Table 8.1 for cast-iron pipe:e = 0.25 mm = 0.00025 m. Eq · (8·87) , 1 necessary we may ·1 f . · · .,
6 2 loss equations with the form of E;a(~ ~O)c~~u~~ ~~ mm~r losses _by using head
Table A.1 for water at l5°C: V = 1.139 X 10- m /s . . ample, there are therefore 13 s· . It. . r e . ree p1p~s of Fig. 8.29, for ex-
the usual manner for 13 u k imu (aneot equations, which we may solve in
D.2-D.3) The n no~ns see ample Prob. 8.14b and Appendixes
three val~es eac~:;,~w~ ;e ed1thfer the flow rate or the total headJ_9ss, and
liffll: Programmed computing aids (Appendix C) could help solve problems marked L~ , , an ..
with this icon.
·bte Flow in Pressure Conduits
8.31 Pipes in Para.,/el 337
336 CHAPTER 8: Steady Jncompressi
function of a different f The preferred manual method of solution is similar to
the preceding. Writing Eq. (8.13) for each line, including minor losses if we wish,
8.31 PIPES IN PARALLEL ··
Inth e case of fl
ow through two or more parallel pipes, ~sin Fig. 8.30, conditions
. . d gy equations: L
L + ~k -
h = ( f-
D 2g
)V 2
+ + + ---
But since all the hr s(= hLs) are equal from Eq. (8.91), this becom;s 1/•
can precheck the likelihood of laminar flow occurring in any of the pipes by cal-
culating an "average" flow velocity from the total flow divided by the total area
of all the pipes, and using this velocity to obtain an indicator R for each pipe.
r _,-T?I ,__,,._ . _,___,..,....,,,_....,.,,..,,W,,.,,.,,._-=-..,.._..,.._,,....,,....,,_. ..,
-El. 200 ft
A
Figure S8.18
liffil: Programmed computing aids (Appendix C) could help solve problems marked
Figure 8.3._0 with this icon.
Pipes in parallel.
8.32 Pipe Networks 339
. . ·b/e Flmv in Pressure Conduits
CHAPTER 8: Steady Jncomp1 ess1 Pp Vt v,2
338 Check: 120 + - - 144- = 50 + ~
· . h . flow m
t will . each pi·pe . Find also the pressure. at 'Y 2g 2g
Find the rate at wh1c wa er h t than 1000 diameters, so neglect mmor
point P. All pipe lengths are muc grea er Pp ( 5.77) 2
145---70 5.01 ft
losses. 'Y 2(32.2)
Solution . ~2 4000 VJ Vc2 , So pp/'Y = 5.01 ft and PP= (62.4/144)5.01 = 2.17 psi. ANS
2000 ~ - 0 024-- - = 0 + 50 + 2g
Eq. (5.28): o + 200 + 0 - 0.020 6/12 2g · 8/12 2g Note: In this example we were given the values off for each pipe as known.
Actually f depends on R [Fig. 8.11 or Eq. (8.52)]. Usually we know or assume
v? VJ (1) the absolute roughness e of each pipe, and achieve an accurate solution by trial
150 = 80~ + 145-
2g 2g
and error until the fs and Rs for each pipe have converged.
i.e.,
¼_2 1. The flow into any junction must equal the flow out of it.
Eq. (5.28):
0 + 200 + 0 - 80-
2g
= PP
-'Y + 120 2. The flow in each pipe must satisfy the pipe-friction laws for flow in a
single pipe.
2 3. The algebraic sum of the head losses around any closed loop must be
PP (7 .77 ) = 5.01 ft
zero.
'Y = 80 - 80 2(32.2)
340 CHAPTER 8: Steady Incompressible Flow in Pressure Conduits
8.32 Pipe Networks 341
following determination of L1Q. For any pipe, we may write
Q = Qo + L1Q
~here Q is the correct discharge and Q 0 is the assumed discharge. Then, for each
pipe,
If L1Q is small compared with Q 0 , we may neglect the terms of the binomial se-
Figure 8.31 ries after the second one, so that
Pipe network.
hL = KQo + L1QKnQ3 - 1
Most pipe networks are too complicated to solve analytically by hand using
rigorous (variable f) equations, as _was possible in the simrler cases of parallel
For a loop, 2.hL = 2.KQn = 0, so because L1Q is the same for all pipes in that
loop, .
pipes (Sec. 8.31). Nowadays they are readily solved by specially developed com-
puter programs (Appendix C.5). However, in many case~ we ~annot ~r~dict the
capacity requirements of water distribution systems wit~ high prec1s~on, and
flows in them vary considerably throughout the day, so high ~ccuracy m c~lcu- As we must su~ _the corrections of head loss in all pipes arithmetically (treating
lating their flows is not important. As a result, the use of nonngorous equati~ns all terms as positive), we may solve this equation for L1Q,
(Secs. 8.18-8.19) are very acceptable for this purpose. The method of successive
approximations, due to Cross, 27 is such a method that was popular before t~e
advent of computers. We will review it here to help students underst~nd the flmd L1Q
mechanics of pipe networks and evaluate computer-generated solutions. It con- (8.96)
sists of the following elements, in order:
Step J: By careful inspection assume the most reasonable distribution of since, from Eq. (8.95), hJQ = KQn-i_ We emphasize again that we must sum
flows that satisfies condition 1. the numerator of Eq. (8._96) algebraically, with due account of each sign, while
Step 2: Write condition 2 for each pipe in the form we must s~m th~ denom_mator arithmetically. Note that the Q0 jQ0- 1j in the nu-
merator g1_ves_ this quantity the same sign as the head loss. The negative sign in
(8.95) Eq. (8.~6) 1~d1ca_tes that when there is an excess of head loss around a loop in the
where Kand n are constants for each pipe as described in Sec. 8.19. If minor ~lockw1se duection,_ we must subtract the L1Q from clockwise Q values and add
0
it to counterclock~1se ones. The reverse is true if there is a deficiency of head
losses are important include them as in Eq. (8.93), ':"h~ch yield_s K = l/C 2 and loss around a loop m the clockwise direction. .
n = 2 for constant f We may include minor losses w1thm any pipe or loop, but
must neglect them at the junction points. . Step 5: After we have given each loop a first correction, the losses will
shl! not balance, because of the interaction of one loop upon another (pipes
Step J: To investigate condition 3, compute the algebrafc sum of the head
which are common to two loops receive two independent corrections, one for
losses around each elementary loop, 22hL = 22KQn. Consider losses from clock-
each loop). So we repeat the procedure, arriving at a second correction and so
wise flows as positive, counterclockwise negative. Only by good luck will these on, until the corrections become negligible. '
add up to zero on the first trial.
We may use either form of Eq. (8.96) to find L1Q. As values of K appear in
Step 4: Adjust the flow in each loop by a correcti~n L1Q to b~lan~e the bot~ the numerator and denominator of the first form, we can use values pro-
head in that loop and give 22KQn = 0. The heart of this method hes m the por~10nal to the actual K to find the distribution. The second form is more con-
vement for use with pipe-friction diagrams for water pipes.
27 H.Cross, Analysis of Flow in Networks of Conduits or Conductors, Univ. III. Eng.
~n attractive feature of this approximation method is that errors in com-
Expt. Sta. Bull. 286, 1936.
putation have the same effect as errors in judgment and the process eventually
corrects them.
8: Steady Incompressible Flo,r in Pressure Conduits
8.33 Further Topics in Pipe Flow 343
342 CHAPTER
As noted earlier, varying demand rates usually make high solution accu-
racy unnecessary with pipe networks. However, if high manual accuracy is re-
SAMPLE PROBLEM 8.19 If the flow into and _out of a t~o-loop pipe system a~e
· p· S8 19 determine the flow m each pipe usmg _only a basic quired for some reason, we can first solve the problem in a similar manner to the
as s h own m 1g. • , df h · preceding example using the Darcy-Weisbach Kin Eq. (8.65) and constant f val-
scientific calculator. The K values for each pipe were calcu;ate ron2_ t e pipe
and minor loss characteristics and from an assumed value 0 f, and n - 2.
1 ues. Then we can use the resulting flows to adjust the f and K values, and repeat
the process (more than once if necessary) to refine the answers. The value of
such refinement is questionable, not only because of uncertainties in the de-
100 cfs 25 cfs mand flows, but also because of uncertainties in thee values (pipe roughness)
K=1 K=4 _/ we must use (see Sec. 8.15). Usually when we adjustfvalues they change by only
□□
II~
a few percent, but we can see in Fig. 8.11 that for smoother pipe it is possible for
f- ~ ~ them to change by as much as a factor of five.
~
We can solve simple networks without approximation and manual itera-
,.;, y / K=5 ' ~ tion by solving simultaneous equations using equation solving software like that
25 cfs 50 cfs in Mathcad and Excel (Appendixes C.2-C.3 and D.2-D.3). For networks con-
Figure S8.19
taining i pipes, Si equations are required if using the Darcy-Weisbach equation
with variable f, and 2i equations are required if using the, simplified Eq. (8.95)
1
Solutt,_; a first step, assume a flow •in e~~h pipe such that continuity holds at all with constant friction factors. These required equations include (a) the usual
·unctions. Take clockwise flows as positive. Calcul~te L1Q f~)f each loop, ma~e (condition 2) flow equations for each pipe (four or one per pipe, depending on
~orrections to the assumed Qs, and repeat several times until the L1Qs are qmte the equations used); (b) flow continuity equations (condition 1) at all but one of
small. the j nodes (as these imply continuity at the last node); (c) equations for the sum
of the head losses around i - j + 1 loops (condition 3). The unknowns we want
Right loop
Left loop 100 25 to find for each pipe are hv Q, V, R , and fusing the Darcy-Weisbach equation,
K = 1K =4 /
1 ~v~ N
nlKQo- 11 or only hL and Q using Eq. (8.95).
hL = KQ 0 n\KQ8 - \ ,r, 10 11 25 11
+~ :.::25 ~ 4 X 502 = 10,000) 4 X 2 X 50 = 400 The pipe-network problem lends itself well to solution by use of a digital
1 X 60 2 = 3,600) 1 X 2 X 60 = 120
2 25 2 = 1,250) 2 X 2 X 25 = 100 !
4 X 10 2 = 400) 4 X 2 X 10 = 80 ~tr /K = 5"-... X computer. Programming takes time and care, but once set up, there is great flex-
25 50
4 X 10 2 = 400 ; 4 X 2 X 10 = 80 ibility and it can save many hours of repetitive labor. Many software packages
3 X 40 2 = 4,800 J 3 X 2 X 40 = 240 First approximation 5 X 25 2 = 3, 125} 5 X 2 X 25 = 250 are now available to simulate water distribution networks; see Appendix C.
800} 440 7,725) 830
-(+7725)
-(-800) = 2) LlQ1 = 830 = 9'
.:1Ql = 440 8.33 FURTHER TOPICS IN PIPE FLOW
25
I The basics of steady incompressible flow in pressure conduits discussed in this
chapter are just an introduction to many more advanced subjects involving flow
After first correction
4X41 2 =6,724) 4 X 2 X 41 = 328 in conduits. Flow through submerged culverts is a special case discussed in
1 X 62 2 = 3,844) 1 X 2 X 62 = 124 2 X 2 X 16 = 64
2 X 162 = 512)
4 X 21 2 = 1,764) 4 X 2 X 21 = 168 Sec. 10.23. Where sewers must dip to flow under obstacles like streams, they
4 X 21 2 = 1,764} 4 X 2 X 21 = 168 flow full and are known as inverted siphons or sag pipes; turbulence, and there-
3 X 38 2 = 4,332} 3 X 2 X 38 = 228 5 X 34 2 = 5,780} 5 X 2 X 34 = 340
1,276) 520
308} 900 fore velocities, must remain adequate when flow rates vary in order to prevent
suspended solids from accumulating at such low points. Later in this text, we
-(+1276) discusss unsteady flow in pipes (Chap. 12), involving both moderate rates of
.:1Q2=~ = 2} change and the very rapid changes associated with water hammer. We often in-
After second correction
vestigate or simulate such flows using numerical methods, usually on a com-
Further corrections can be made if greater accuracy is desired. puter. In Chap. 13 we introduce the analysis of the flow of compressible fluids
(gases), and in Chap. 11 we describe methods ofjlow measurement in pipes.
When we inject a different fluid into a pipeline, the main flow transports it
(advection ), and it also mixes and spreads through the main fluid by the
processes of ionic and molecular diffusion, by which dissolved species move rel-
1ffii1: Programmed computing: aids (Appendix C) could help solve problems marked atively slowly from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower concentration,
with this icon.