INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT IN Volume-8,Issue-4,(Oct-17)

TECHNOLOGY ISSN (O) :- 2349-3585

A REVIEW STUDY ON ARCHITECTURE OF HINDU

ABSTRACT : Hinduism is the predominant religion of the and even the traditional arts make their appearances in
Indian subcontinent. Dating back to the Iron Age , it is often many sculptures of Hindu origin. Sculpture is inextricably
called the oldest living religion in the world. Hinduism has linked with architecture in Hindu temples, which are usually
no single founder and is a conglomeration of diverse devoted to a number of different deities. The Hindu temple
traditions and philosophies rather than a rigid set of beliefs. style reflects a synthesis of arts, the ideals of dharma ,
Most Hindus believe in a single supreme God who appears beliefs, values , and the way of life cherished under
in many different manifestations as devas (celestial beings or Hinduism. Elaborately ornamented with sculpture
deities), and they may worship specific devas as individual throughout, these temples are a network of art, pillars with
facets of the same God. Hindu art reflects this plurality of carvings, and statues that display and celebrate the four
beliefs, and Hindu temples, in which architecture and important and necessary principles of human life under
sculpture are inextricably connected, are usually devoted to Hinduism—the pursuit of artha (prosperity, wealth), the
different deities. Deities commonly worshiped include Shiva pursuit of kama (pleasure, sex), the pursuit of dharma
the Destroyer; Vishnu in his incarnations as Rama and (virtues, ethical life), and the pursuit of moksha (release,
Krishna; Ganesha, the elephant god of prosperity; and self-knowledge).
different forms of the goddess Shakti (literally meaning KEYWORDS:SCULPTURE,VASTUPURUSH,ARCHEOLO
“power”), the primordial feminine creative principle. These GY , PILGRIMS , ANCIENT , DEITIES , LAYOUT .
deities are often portrayed with multiple limbs and heads,
demonstrating the extent of the god’s power and ability.
Hindu art is also characterized by a number of recurring
holy symbols, including the om , an invocation of the divine
consciousness of God; the swastika, a symbol of
auspiciousness; and the lotus flower, a symbol of purity,
beauty, fertility, and transcendence.Sculpture is inextricably
linked with architecture in Hindu temples, which are usually
devoted to a number of different deities. Hinduism is a
conglomeration of diverse traditions and philosophies rather
than a rigid set of beliefs. Most Hindus believe in a single
supreme God who appears in many different manifestations
as devas (celestial beings or deities), and they may worship
specific devas as individual facets of the same God. Hindu
Fig.1 Major Temple in India
sculpture, as seen in other forms of Hindu art, reflects this
INTRODUCTION :
plurality of beliefs. Because religion and culture are
Temple architecture of high standard developed in almost all
inseparable with Hinduism, recurring symbols such as the
regions during ancient India. The distinct architectural style of
gods and their reincarnations, the lotus flower, extra limbs,

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Paper Title:-A REVIEW STUDY ON ARCHITECTURE OF HINDU TEMPLE

temple construction in different parts was a result of Hinduism. It is a link between man, deities, and the Universal
geographical, climatic, ethnic, racial, historical and linguistic Purusa in a sacred space.
diversities. Ancient Indian temples are classified in three DESIGN :
broad types. This classification is based on different The very essence of a Hindu temple is believed to have
architectural styles, employed in the construction of the developed from the ideology that all things are one and
temples. Three main style of temple architecture are the everything is associated. The four essential and significant
Nagara or the Northern style, the Dravida or the Southern style principles which are also aims of human life according to
and the Vesara or Mixed style. But at the same time, there are Indian philosophy are the quests for artha - wealth and
also some regional styles of Bengal, Kerala and the Himalayan prosperity; kama - sex and pleasure; dharma - moral life and
areas.One important part of the ancient Indian temples was virtues; and moksha - self knowledge and realisation. The
their decoration. It is reflected in the multitude details of mathematically structured spaces, intricate artworks, decorated
figured sculpture as well as in the architectural elements. and carved pillars and statues of Hindu temples illustrate and
Another important component of Indian temples was the revere such philosophies. A hollow space without any
garbha-griha or the womb chamber, housing the deity of the embellishments situated at the centre of the temple, usually
temple. The garbha-griha was provided with a below the deity, may also be at the side or above the deity
circumambulation passage around. However, there are also symbolises the complex concept of Purusha or Purusa
many subsidiary shrines within temple complexes, more meaning the Universal principle, Consciousness, the cosmic
common in the South Indian temple.In the initial stages of its man or self without any form, however, omnipresent and
evolution, the temples of North and South India were associates all things. The Hindu temples suggest
distinguished on the basis of some specific features like contemplations, encouragement and further purification of
sikhara and gateways. In the north Indian temples, the sikhara mind and prompt the process of self-realisation in devotees;
remained the most prominent component while the gateway however the preferred process is left to the convention of
was generally unassuming. The most prominent features of individual devotees.
South Indian temples were enclosures around the temples and SITE :
the Gopurams (huge gateways). The Gopurams led the The areas of Hindu temple sites are usually vast with many of
devotees into the sacred courtyard. There were many common them built near water bodies, in the lap of nature. This is
features in the Northern and the Southern styles. These probably because according to ancient Sanskrit texts the most
included the ground plan, positioning of stone-carved deities suitable site for a Hindu temple referred as „Mandir‟ is at close
on the outside walls and the interior, and the range of proximity to water bodies and gardens where flowers blossom,
decorative elements. The Hindu temple architecture is an chirping of birds and sounds of ducks and swans can be heard
open, symmetry-driven structure, with many variations, on a and animals can rest without any fear. These places exhibiting
square grid of padas, depicting perfect geometric shapes such peace and tranquillity are recommended by the texts for
as circles and squares. A Hindu temple consists of an inner building Hindu temples elucidating that Gods reside in such
sanctum, the garbhagriha or womb-chamber, where the places. Although, leading Hindu temples are suggested near
primary Murti or the image of a deity is housed along with natural water bodies like confluence of rivers, river banks,
Purusa. The garbhagriha is crowned by a tower-like Shikhara, seashores and lakes, according to the „Puranas‟ and „Bharat
also called the Vimana. The architecture includes an Samhita‟, Mandirs can even be constructed in sites devoid of
ambulatory for parikrama (circumambulation), a congregation natural water bodies. However, such suggestions include
hall, and sometimes an antechamber and porch.The Hindu building up of a pond with water gardens in front of the
temple architecture reflects a synthesis of arts, the ideals of „Mandir‟ or towards left. In the absence of both natural and
dharma, beliefs, values and the way of life cherished under man-made water bodies, water remains typically

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presesentduring consecration of the deity or the Mandir. Part the ambulatory. The devotees circumambulate clockwise to
III of Chapter 93 of the Hindu text VishnudharmottaraPurana perform Parikrama in the Manusha Padas with Devika Padas
also recommends building of temples within caves and in the inner side and the Paishachika Padas, symbolising facets
chiselled out stones; atop hills amidst spectacular and serene of Asuras and evils, on the outer side forming the last
views; within hermitages and forests; beside gardens; and at concentric square. The three outer Padas in larger temples
the upper end of a street of a town. generally adorn inspirational paintings, carvings and images
LAYOUT : with the wall reliefs and images of different temples depicting
Layout of a Hindu temple pursues a geometrical design known legends from different Hindu Epics and Vedic stories.
as vastu-purusha-mandala, the name of which is derived from Illustrations of artha, kama, dharma and moksha can be found
the three vital components of the design namely Vastu in the embellished carvings and images adorning the walls,
meaning Vaas or a place of dwelling; Purusha, meaning the ceiling and pillars of the temples.
Universal principle; and Mandala meaning circle. ELEMENTS OF HINDU TEMPLE :
Vastupurushamandala is a mystical diagram referred in The Hindu temples adopted a definite structure in the later half
Sanskrit as a Yantra. The symmetrical and self-repeating of the 7th century [9]. The common elements of the Hindu
model of a Hindu temple demonstrated in the design is derived temples in their original Sanskrit terms are as follows .The
from the primary convictions, traditions, myths, main compound of the temple is known as Vimana which
fundamentality and mathematical standards. According to comprises of two parts. The top portion of the Vimana is
Vastupurushamandala, the most sacred and typical template known as Sikhara and the lower portion which lies inside the
for a Hindu temple is the 8x8 (64) grid Manduka Hindu Vimana is called Garbhagriha (cella or inner chamber).
Temple Floor Plan also referred as Bhekapada and Ajira. The
layout displays a vivid saffron centre with intersecting
diagonals which according to Hindu philosophy symbolises
the Purusha. The axis of the Mandir is created with the aid of
the four fundamentally significant directions and thus, a
perfect square is created around the axis within the available
space. This square which is circumscribed by the Mandala
circle and divided into perfect square grids is held sacred. On
the other hand, the circle is regarded as human and worldly
that can be perceived or noticed in daily life such as the Sun,
Moon, rainbow, horizon or water drops. Both the square and
the circle support each other. The model is usually seen in Fig.2 Element of Hindu Temples
large temples while an 81 sub-square grid is observed in 1] " Sikhara‟ refers to the spire or the tower. It is shaped as
ceremonial temple superstructures.Each square within the pyramidical and tapering representing the mythological Meru
main square referred as „Pada‟ symbolise a specific element or the highest mountain peak.
that can be in the form of a deity, an apsara or a spirit. The 2] "Garbhagriha‟ refers to the womb chamber which is the
primary or the innermost square/s of the 64 grid model called innermost chamber of any temple where the deity resides. It is
Brahma Padas is dedicated to Brahman. The Garbhagruha or mainly square in layout and is entered through eastern side.
centre of the house situated in the Brahma Padas houses the 3] "PradakshinaPatha‟ refers to the ambulatory passageway
main deity. The outer concentric layer to Brahma Padas is the for circumambulation and comprises of enclosed corridor
Devika Padas signifying facets of Devas or Gods which is outside the garbhagriha. The devotees walk around the deity in
again surrounded by the next layer, the Manusha Padas, with clockwise direction, paying their respect to the deity.

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Paper Title:-A REVIEW STUDY ON ARCHITECTURE OF HINDU TEMPLE

4] "Mandapa‟ is the pillared hall in front of the garbhagriha, with permutation and combination became the base for the
used as assembling point by devotees for chant; rituals development of more complex temple compound.
meditate or observe the priests perform the rituals. Sometimes,
"Natamandira‟ is also provided in some temples which mean
the hall for dancing. In some early temple structures, the
mandapa was isolated and separate structure from the
sanctuary.
5] "Antarala‟ refers to the intermediate chamber which joins
the main sanctuary and the pillared hall of the temple
premises.
6] "Ardhamandapa‟ refers to the front porch in the main
entrance of the temple which leads to the main temple Some
other essential structural elements found in the Hindu temples
are Mainly found in the south Indian temples,
7] "Gopurams‟ are the monumental and ornate entrance to the
temple premises. Fig.3 Vastupurush
8] "Pitha‟ or the plinths of the main temple. The gateways SCULPTURES,ICONOGRAPHYANDORNAMENTATI
typical to north Indian temples are "Toranas‟. ON :
9] "Amalaka‟ is the fluted disc like stone placed at the Iconography is a branch of art history which studies the
pinnacle of sikhara images of deities.It consists of identification of image based
THE GEOMETRY OF HINDU TEMPLE : on certain symbols and mythology associated with them.Even
The Hindu architecture was among the first ones that though the fundamental myth and meaning of the deity may
established a relationship between human figure and the remain the same for centuries, its specific usage at a spot can
system of proportion which was later studied by Leonardo da be a response to its local or immediate social, political or
Vinci and Le Corbusieer in modular system of measurement. geographical context.Every region and period produce its own
It is based on the geometry of Vastupurashamandala in which distinct style of images with its regional variations in
the form of Purasha was made to fit the abstract idea of square iconography.The temple is covered with elaborate sculptures
as the highest geometric form .The basic form of and ornament that form a fundamental part of its
Vastupurashamandala is the square which represents the earth conception.The placement of an image in a temple is carefully
and the circle represents the universe suggesting timelessness planned: for instance, river goddesses (Ganga and Yamuna)
and infinity The mandala is actually a square divided into are visually found at the entrances in a Nagara temple,
smaller squares arranged in the form of a grid. Each smaller Dwarapalas are usually found on the gateway or gopurams of
square depicts the area of the respective Gods. The most Dravida temples, similarly mithunas (erotic images),
commonly used mandala is the square subdivided into 64 and navagrahas ( the 9 auspicious planets) and Yakshas are also
81 squares. Thus, the Vastupurashamandala was the basis of placed at the entrances to guard them. Various forms or
the ground floor plan for all Hindu temples. The basic shape aspects of the main divinity are to be found on the outer walls
of the temple plan was : the outermost ring of square of the of the sanctum.Theashtadikpalas (deities of direction) face
mandala from thickness of walls of main shrine, the central 4 eight key directions on the outer walls of the sanctum and/or
squares was reserved for the main deity, the inner ring of 12 on the outer walls of the temple
square form the walls of the garbhagriha and the next 16 to 28 CLASSIFICATION OF INDIAN TEMPLES :
forms the pradkshinapatha. These simple divisions of square Indian temples can be classified into two broad orders as , 1 ]

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Nagara (in North India) 2 ] Dravida (in South India) At times, Shikhara is used only for the crowning element at the top of
the Vesara style of temples as an independent style created the temple which is usually shaped like a small stupika or an
through the mixing of Nagara and Dravida orders. octagonal cupola (this is equivalent to the amalaka or kalasha
NAGARA ARCHITECTURE :- of north Indian temples). In north Indian temples, we can see
Nagara temples are found in northern part of india.Nagara is images such as Mithunas (erotic) and the river goddesses,
the style of temple architecture which became popular in Ganga and Yamuna guarding the temple. But in the Dravida
Northern India. It is common here to build an entire temple on style of temple architecture, instead of these sculptures, we
a stone platform with steps leading up to it. Unlike in south can see the sculptures of fierce dvarapalas or door keepers
India, it doesn‟t usually have elaborate boundary walls or guarding the temple. A large water reservoir or a temple tank
gateways. Earliest temples had only one shikhara (tower), but enclosed in the complex is general in south Indian temples.
in the later periods, multiple shikharas came. The garbhagriha THE CONSTRUCTION OF HINDU TEMPLE :
is always located directly under the tallest tower. Nagara
temples have two distinct features :In plan, the temple is a
square with a number of graduated projections in the middle
of each side giving a cruciform shape with a number of re-
entrant angles on each side. In elevation, a Shikhara, i.e.,
tower gradually inclines inwards in a convex curve, using a
concentric rotating-squares and circles principle. Temples
built between the 7th and the 14th centuries CE in the nagara
style had mandapas (pavilions) The projections in the plan are
also carried upwards to the top of the Shikhara and, thus, there
is strong emphasis on vertical lines in elevation. The Nagara
Fig.4 Temple Drawing
style is widely distributed over a greater part of India,
The available information of temple construction was
exhibiting distinct varieties and ramifications in lines of
collected from stone slabs, metal plates, palm leaves and
evolution and elaboration according to each locality. An
manuscripts. Primarily, both Dravidian and Nagara temple
example of Nagara architecture is the KandariyaMahadeva
construction followed same procedures up to construction of
Temple at khajuraho.
the temple. The slight variation occurred due to the variability
DRAVIDIAN ARCHITECTURE :-
of materials used for construction, the climate or the
Dravidian style temples consist almost invariably of the four
availability of manual labors for construction. It started with
following parts, differing only according to the age in which
the selection of team headed by chief architect (sompuras in
they were executed ,The principle part, the temple itself, is
the west, mahapatras in the east and sthpatis in the south).
called the Vimana (or vimana). It is always square in plan and
The construction team consisted of four classes:
surmounted by a pyramidal roof of one or more stories; it
1) Sthapati (Main architect versed in traditional science,
contains the cell where the image of the god or his emblem is
mathematics and Shilpashastras)
placed. Unlike the nagara temple, the Dravida temple is
2.) Sutragrahin who did the work assigned by sthapati
enclosed within a compound wall. The front wall has an
3.) Taksaka who did the carving and cutting of stone
entrance gateway in its centre, which is known as Gopura/
4.) Vardhakin is the mason or carpenter who assembled all
Gopuram.The shape of the main temple tower is known as
the pieces. The construction of temple was a long and
Vimana (shikhara in nagara style). The vimana is like a
tremendous process which sometimes used to last for years.
stepped pyramid that rises up geometrically rather than the
The first stage was the planning of the temple where the
curving shikhara of north India. In south India, the word
sthpati with the team did the selection of site, inspection of

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Paper Title:-A REVIEW STUDY ON ARCHITECTURE OF HINDU TEMPLE

site, orientation and layout of the site, selection of materials, later developed into corbelling techniques. This method was
quarrying and transportation of materials. The layout was done primarily used for wooden construction but later evolved for
on the basis of Indian Circle Method and with the help of stone construction.Even particular architectural elements and
instrument known as "shankuyantra‟. The nature of main deity decorative details which had originated long before in early
played a major role in determining the orientation of temple. timber and thatch buildings persisted for centuries in one form
The stone which was to be used for construction must have or another throughout the era of stone construction even
some quality features such as even color, hard and perfect and though the original purpose and context was lost. The
pleasing to touch. The second stage was the craving of horseshoe shaped window is a good example. Its origins lie in
different parts of the temples in which the takshaka directed the caitya arch doorway first seen in the third century B.C. at
the sculptors and shilpis to carve parts according to the the Lomas Rishi cave in the Barbar Hills. Later it was
drawings and specification. The cutting and carving the stone transformed into a dormer window known as a gavaksha; and
was done according to pre defined shape. The joining was also eventually it became an element in a purely decorative pattern
pre decided and rough joinery was created while cutting. The of interlaced forms seen time and time again on the towers of
tools required such as hammers, chisel were locally made and medieval temples. So, in its essence, Indian architecture is
sharpened regulary. The sketching was done either by charcoal extremely conservative. Likewise, the simplicity of building
piece or sharpened bamboo pieces. The polishing was done techniques like post and beam and corbelled vaulting were
using stone bars. The third and the final stage consisted of preferred not necessarily because of lack of knowledge or
tassembling of the parts of temple which consisted of the skill, but because of religious necessity and tradition. On the
actual construction of the temple. Ramps were constructed for other hand, the architect and sculptor were allowed a great
the easy placement of heavy materials. The major joinery deal of freedom in the embellishment and decoration of the
system used during the assembling of temple were mortise and prescribed underlying principles and formulae. The result was
tenon joint ( peg is fixed between the two mortise cut out in an overwhelming wealth of architectural elements, sculptural
two different stones and was used primarily used between two forms and decorative exuberance that is so characteristic of
courses of masonry to avoid movement due to lateral forces) Indian temple architecture and which has few parallels in the
and lap joint. The usual thickness of stone used for wall varied artistic expression of the entire world. It is not surprising that
form 800 mm to 1200 mm. The column consisted of 5 parts as the broad geographical, climatic, cultural, racial, historical and
two parts of base, one part as shaft and two as the capital of linguistic differences between the northern plains and the
column. Also, columns and beams were monolithic structure southern peninsula of India resulted, from early on, in distinct
architectural styles. The Shastras, the ancient texts on
architecture, classify temples into three different orders; the
Nagara or „northern‟ style, the Dravida or „southern „ style,
and the Vesara or hybrid style which is seen in the Deccan
between the other two. There are also dinsinct styles in
peripheral areas such as Bengal, Kerala and the Himalayan
valleys. But by far the most numerous buildings are in either
the Nagara or the Dravida styles and the earliest surviving
structural temples can already be seen as falling into the broad
classifications of either one or the other. In the early years the
Fig.5 element of temple most obvious difference between the two styles is the shape of
The tarbeated system or the post and lintel method was the their superstructures.Pillared outdoor halls or pavilions called
basic construction technique used in Hindu temples which was Mandapa meant for public rituals with the ones in the east

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serving as waiting room for devotees adorns the large temples. by one or more minor deities carefully positioned along the
The Mandir‟s spire, usually a tapering conical or pyramidal path of approach to the main deity. Looking at these
superstructure with a dome designed adhering principles of structures, it is apparent that the temples were built to a certain
concentric squares and circles and referred in North India as pattern, certain understanding and purpose, catering to the
Shikhaa and Vimana in South India is symmetrically aligned needs of the individual and the society. Temples are located
exactly above the Brahma Pada or the central core of the strategically at a place where the positive energy is abundantly
Mandir. Compounds of many larger temples house smaller available from the magnetic and electric wave distributions of
temples and shrines that also follow fundamental aspects of north/south pole thrust. The main idol is placed in the core
grids, symmetry and mathematical perfection. Repetition and center of the temple. In fact, the temple structure is built after
mirroring of fractal-like design structure forms a significant the idol has been placed. The place of the deity is where
principle of Hindu temple designs.The manuals comprising of earth‟s magnetic waves are found to be maximum
Hindu temple layouts elucidates plans with squares in the REFERENCE :
count of 1, 4, 9, 16, 25 and thus, reaching up to 1024. Each 1] Prabhakar Shankar, “The VastuVidya of Vishvakarma”,
plan of different Padas has individual significance, for Studies in Indian architecture, Asia Publishing House,
instance in one pada plan the pada is regarded as the seat for a Mumbai, 1979.
devotee or hermit to perform yoga, meditation or offer Vedic 2] Michell, G. , "The Hindu temple: An Introduction to its
fire; a four Padas plan, also a meditative design represents a Meaning and Forms". Chicago and London: the University of
core at the center; and a nine Padas layout that generally forms Chicago Press.1988.
model of smallest temples has a divine surrounded centre. 3] ShwetaVardia and Paulo B Lourenco.”Building science of
Although the perfect square grid principle is primarily found Indian temple architecture”. In the proceedings: The
in different temples of India, some others hold exception such International conference on Rehabilitation and Restoration of
as the Teli-ka-mandir and the Naresar temple in Madhya Structures (ICI), IIT Madras, Chennai India. 12-16 February
Pradesh and the Nakti-Mata temple in Rajasthan, indicating 2013. Pp.167-178..
that Hinduism welcomed flexibility, creativity and aesthetic 4] Fletcher, Sir. Banister. 1992. The History of Architecture.
independence of artists. New Delhi: CBS Publishers and distributors
CONCLUSION : 5] Grover S., The Architecture of India: Buddhist and Hindu.
People have put aside any constraints of money and time to Ghaziabad: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., 1988.
erect inspiring structures built on faith, science and mystery. 6] Dagens, B., Mayamata: An Indian treatise on Housing
For most of us, the science of temples built on thousands of architecture and iconography, New delhi, SitaramBhartia
years of research and development has been lost…the Institute of Scientific Research, 1986.
understanding has been lost. By understanding the science of 7] Acharya P.K., “An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture”
Indian temples, we can experience the intelligence, power and London. Q.U.P., 1946
miracles that these structures were made from and for.A look 8] Surender Kumar, AshishDalal and SitenderChillar ,
into the ancient past of India and its temples reveals the "Building Science of Ancient Indian Temples" , National
fundamental science and purpose behind temple building. Far Conference on Innovative Developments in Science,
from being a place of prayer or worship, temples were created Technology & Management (NCIDSTM-2015) Organized by
as powerful spaces where an individual could imbibe the Ganga Technical Campus, Soldha, Bahadurgarh, Haryana
enshrined energies. Most temples were created to address a (India) March 1st 2015
particular aspect of life, and were thus consecrated to activate 9] Temple Architecture and Sculpture , " Introduction to
one or two particular chakras, the main energy centers within Indian Art " , NCERT Publications.
the human system. The main deity was often complemented

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