Chapter Four Methodological Aspects PDF
Chapter Four Methodological Aspects PDF
indepth interview
observation methods
document review
The following link provides more information on the above three methods. .
http://www.worldbank.org/poverty/impact/methods/qualitative.htm#indepth
Education
Education is one of the most powerful instruments for reducing poverty and
inequality and lays a foundation for sustained economic growth. The World
Bank compiles data on education inputs, participation, efficiency, and
outcomes. Data on education are compiled by the United Nations Educational,
Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Institute for Statistics from
official responses to surveys and from reports provided by education authorities
in each country.
Featured indicators
Different ways of collecting evaluation data are useful for different purposes,
and each has advantages and disadvantages. Various factors will influence
your choice of a data collection method: the questions you want to investigate,
resources available to you, your timeline, and more.
(http://dmc.umn.edu/evaluation/data.shtml
Qualitative data collection methods is very important for impact evaluation as it
provides useful information in order to understand the processes previously
observed, the results; and assess changes in people’s perceptions of their well-
being. Additionally, qualitative methods are widely used to improve the quality of
survey-based quantitative evaluations by helping generate evaluation
hypothesis; strengthening the design of survey questionnaires and expanding or
clarifying quantitative evaluation findings. These methods are characterized by
the following attributes:
Data Preparation
Data Preparation involves checking or logging the data in; checking the data for
accuracy; entering the data into the computer; transforming the data; and
developing and documenting a database structure that integrates the various
measures.
Logging the Data
In any research project you may have data coming from a number of different
sources at different times:
•observational data
In all but the simplest of studies, you need to set up a procedure for logging the
information and keeping track of it until you are ready to do a comprehensive
data analysis. Different researchers differ in how they prefer to keep track of
incoming data. In most cases, you will want to set up a database that enables
you to assess at any time what data is already in and what is still outstanding.
You could do this with any standard computerized database program (e.g.,
Microsoft Access, Claris Filmmaker), although this requires familiarity with such
programs. Or, you can accomplish these using standard statistical programs
(e.g., SPSS, SAS, Minitab, Data desk) and running simple descriptive analyses
to get reports on data status. It is also critical that the data analyst retain the
original data records for a reasonable period of time -- returned surveys, field
notes, test protocols, and so on. Most professional researchers will retain such
records for at least 5-7 years. For important or expensive studies, the original
data might be stored in a data archive. The data analyst should always be able
to trace a result from a data analysis back to the original forms on which the
data was collected. A database for logging incoming data is a critical
component in good research record-keeping.
Checking the Data for Accuracy
As soon as data is received you should screen it for accuracy. In some
circumstances doing this right away will allow you to go back to the sample to
clarify any problems or errors. There are several questions you should ask as
part of this initial data screening:
variable name
variable description
instrument/method of collection
date collected
respondent or group
notes
The codebook is an indispensable tool for the analysis team. Together with the
database, it should provide comprehensive documentation that enables other
researchers who might subsequently want to analyze the data to do so without
any additional information.
Entering the Data into the Computer
There are a wide variety of ways to enter the data into the computer for
analysis. Probably the easiest is to just type the data in directly. In order to
assure a high level of data accuracy, the analyst should use a procedure called
double entry. In this procedure you enter the data once. Then, you use a special
program that allows you to enter the data a second time and checks each
second entry against the first. If there is a discrepancy, the program notifies the
user and allows the user to determine the correct entry. This double entry
procedure significantly reduces entry errors. However, these double entry
programs are not widely available and require some training. An alternative is to
enter the data once and set up a procedure for checking the data for accuracy.
For instance, you might spot check records on a random basis. Once the data
have been entered, you will use various programs to summarize the data that
allow you to check that all the data are within acceptable limits and boundaries.
For instance, such summaries will enable you to easily spot whether there are
persons whose age is 601 or who have a 7 entered where you expect a 1-to-5
response.
Survey Research
Survey research is one of the most important areas of measurement in applied
social research. The broad area of survey research encompasses any
measurement procedures that involve asking questions of respondents. A
"survey" can be anything forms a short paper-and-pencil feedback form to an
intensive one-on-one in-depth interview.
These are roughly divided into two broad areas: Questionnaires and Interviews.
The researcher has to select the survey method that is best for your situation.
Once the researcher(s) selected the survey method, he/she has to construct the
survey itself. Here, we there are a number of issues including: the different
types of questions; decisions; decisions about questions wording; decisions
about response format; and, question placement and sequence in your
instrument. It will also be considered some of the special issues involved in
administering a personal interview. Finally, it is considered some of the
advantages and disadvantages of survey methods.
Findings
Relative rates of mention of issues
CC = Cross Cutting Issue; EI = Emerging Issues & Supplementary
Programmes;
ME = Macroeconomic Stability and Structural Reforms; NP = Non-PRSP;
PS = Priority Sector
Types of Surveys
Surveys can be divided into two broad categories: the questionnaire and the
interview. Questionnaires are usually paper-and-pencil instruments that the
respondent completes. Interviews are completed by the interviewer based on
the respondent says. Sometimes, it's hard to tell the difference between a
questionnaire and an interview. For instance, some people think that
questionnaires always ask short closed-ended questions while interviews
always ask broad open-ended ones. But you will see questionnaires with open-
ended questions (although they do tend to be shorter than in interviews) and
there will often be a series of closed-ended questions asked in an interview.
Survey research has changed dramatically in the last ten years. It has been
automated telephone surveys that use random dialing methods. There are
computerized kiosks in public places that allow people to ask for input. A whole
new variation of group interview has evolved as focus group methodology.
Increasingly, survey research is tightly integrated with the delivery of service.
Your hotel room has a survey on the desk. Your waiter presents a short
customer satisfaction survey with your check. You get a call for an interview
several days after your last call to a computer company for technical assistance.
You're asked to complete a short survey when you visit a web site. Here, it is
described the major types of questionnaires and interviews, keeping in mind
that technology is leading to rapid evolution of methods. It will be discussed the
relative advantages and disadvantages of these different survey types in
advantages and disadvantages of survey methods.
Questionnaires
When most people think of questionnaires, they think of the mail survey. All of
us have, at one time or another received a questionnaire in the mail. There are
many advantages to mail surveys. They are relatively inexpensive to administer.
The researcher(s) can send the exact same instrument to a wide number of
people. They allow the respondent to fill it out at their own convenience. But
there are some disadvantages as well. Response rates from mail surveys are
often very low. And, mail questionnaires are not the best vehicles for asking for
detailed written responses.
A second type is the group administered questionnaire. A sample of
respondents is brought together and asked to respond to a structured sequence
of questions. Traditionally, questionnaires were administered in group settings
for convenience. The researcher could give the questionnaire to those who
were present and be fairly sure that there would be a high response rate. If the
respondents were unclear about the meaning of a question they could ask for
clarification. And, there were often organizational settings where it was relatively
easy to assemble the group (in a company or business, for instance).
What's the difference between an administered group questionnaire and a
group interview or focus group? In the group administered questionnaire, each
respondent is handed an instrument and asked to complete it while in the room.
Each respondent completes an instrument. In the group interview or focus
group, the interviewer facilitates the session. People work as a group, listening
to each other's comments and answering the questions. Someone takes notes
for the entire group -- people don't complete an interview individually.
A less familiar type of questionnaire is the household drop-off survey. In this
approach, a researcher goes to the respondent's home or business and hands
the respondent the instrument. In some cases, the respondent is asked to mail
it back or the interview returns to pick it up. This approach attempts to blend the
advantages of the mail survey and the group administered questionnaire. Like
the mail survey, the respondent can work on the instrument in private, when it's
convenient. Like the group administered questionnaire, the interviewer makes
personal contact with the respondent -- they don't just send an impersonal
survey instrument. And, the respondent can ask questions about the study and
get clarification on what is to be done. Generally, this would be expected to
increase the percent of people who are willing to respond.
Survey: Popular opinions about language learning and teaching
1. Languages are learned mainly through imitation (2006).
strongly agree …../…../…../…../…../….. strongly disagree
2. Parents usually correct young children when they make grammatical errors.
strongly agree …../…../…../…../…../….. strongly disagree
3. Highly intelligent people are good language learners.
strongly agree …../…../…../…../…../….. strongly disagree
4. The most important predictor of success in second language acquisition is
motivation.
strongly agree …../…../…../…../…../….. strongly disagree
5. The earlier a second language is introduced in school programs, the greater
the likelihood of success in learning.
strongly agree …../…../…../…../…../….. strongly disagree
6. Most of the mistakes that second language learners make are due to
interference from the first language.
strongly agree …../…../…../…../…../….. strongly disagree
7. The best way to learn new vocabulary is through reading.
strongly agree …../…../…../…../…../….. strongly disagree
8. It is essential for learners to be able to pronounce all the individual sounds in
the second language.
strongly agree …../…../…../…../…../….. strongly disagree
9. Once learners know roughly 1000 words and the basic structure of a
language, they can participate in conversation with native speakers.
strongly agree …../…../…../…../…../….. strongly disagree
10. Teachers should present familiar rules one at a time and learners should
practice examples of each one before going on to another.
strongly agree …../…../…../…../…../….. strongly disagree
11. Teachers should teach simple language structures before complex ones.
strongly agree …../…../…../…../…../….. strongly disagree
12. Learner’s errors should be corrected as soon as they are made in order to
prevent the formation of bad habits.
strongly agree …../…../…../…../…../….. strongly disagree
13. Teachers should use materials that expose students to only those language
structures they have already been taught.
strongly agree …../…../…../…../…../….. strongly disagree
14. When learners are allowed to interact freely (for example, in group or pair
activities), they copy each other’s mistakes.
strongly agree …../…../…../…../…../….. strongly disagree
15. Students learn what they are taught.
strongly agree …../…../…../…../…../….. strongly disagree
16. Teachers should respond to students by correctly rephrasing what they
have said rather than by explicitly pointing out the error.
strongly agree …../…../…../…../…../….. strongly disagree
17. Students can learn both language and academic content (for example,
science and history) simultaneously in classes where the subject matter is
taught in their second language.
strongly agree …../…../…../…../…../….. strongly disagree
Instructor Survey Beliefs about Foreign Language Learning Step 1: Read the
following statements about language learning. Step 2: Circle the answer that
most closely resembles your belief. Step 3: Answer, as best you can, the final
question. Step 4: Hand in your completed survey when finished.
1. Languages are learned mainly through imitation
Strongly Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
2. Parents usually correct young children when they make grammatical errors.
Strongly Disagree DisagreeAgree Strongly Agree
3. Highly intelligent people are good language learners.
Strongly Disagree DisagreeAgree Strongly Agree
4. the most important predictor of success in second language acquisition is
motivation.
Strongly Disagree DisagreeAgree Strongly Agree
5. The earlier a second language is introduced in school programs, the greater
the likelihood of success in learning.
Strongly Disagree DisagreeAgree Strongly Agree
6. Most of the mistakes that second language learners make are due to
interference from the first language.
Strongly Disagree DisagreeAgree Strongly Agree
7. The best way to learn new vocabulary is through reading.
Strongly Disagree DisagreeAgree Strongly Agree
8.It is essential for learners to be able to pronounce all the individual sounds in
the second language.
Strongly Disagree DisagreeAgree Strongly Agree
9. Once learners know roughly 1000 words and the basic structure of a
language, they can participate in conversation with native speakers.
Strongly Disagree DisagreeAgree Strongly Agree
10. Teachers should present familiar rules one at a time and learners should
practice examples of each one before going on to another.
Strongly Disagree DisagreeAgree Strongly Agree
11. Teachers should teach simple language structures before complex ones.
Strongly Disagree DisagreeAgree Strongly Agree
12. Learner’s errors should be corrected as soon as they are made in order to
prevent the formation of bad habits.
Strongly Disagree DisagreeAgree Strongly Agree
13. Teachers should use materials that expose students to only those language
structures they have already been taught.
Strongly Disagree DisagreeAgree Strongly Agree
14. When learners are allowed to interact freely (for example, in group or pair
activities), they copy each other’s mistakes.
Strongly Disagree DisagreeAgree Strongly Agree
15. Students learn what they are taught.
Strongly Disagree DisagreeAgree Strongly Agree
16. Teachers should respond to students by correctly rephrasing what they
have said rather than by explicitly pointing out the error.
Strongly Disagree DisagreeAgree Strongly Agree
17. Students can learn both language and academic content (for example,
science and history) simultaneously in classes where the subject matter is
taught in their second language.
Strongly Agree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
18. Do you have any other belief(s) about second language learning that have
not been suggested within this survey?
Strongly Agree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
Data Interpretation questions are very widely used to assessing candidates for
graduate and management level jobs. Many people who have been out of the
education system for a while or who don’t use interpret graphs, pie charts,
scatter diagrams and tables of data on a day-to-day basis may feel overawed
by these types of question. The important thing to remember is that you don’t
need to have studied mathematics to a high level to succeed. These questions
are primarily tests of interpretation and the math needed is invariably
straightforward.
You will usually be allowed to use a calculator for these types of question and
investing in one which can handle fractions and percentages is a good idea.
You should also try to work through a few numerical computation practice
papers to get back into swing of these types of calculation.
Results Fig. Pre: Pre-Test Results Instructors Student Group 1 Students Group
2
3.0/ 3.1/ 2.9
3.2
3.3
Fig.1: Instructor & Student Results/ Popular opinions about language learning
and teaching
Item #.
Statement
Instructors
School 1.
School 2.
School 3.
1.
Languages are learned mainly through imitation
2.7
3.4
2.9
3.5
2.
Parents usually correct young children when they make grammatical errors
3.0
3.0
2.3
3.0
3.
Highly intelligent people are good language learners
2.5
2.8
2.8
2.4
4.
The most important predictor of success in second language acquisition is
motivation
3.5
2.8
2.9
3.0
5.
The earlier a second language is introduced in school programs, the greater the
likelihood of success in learning
3.8
3.1
2.7
3.5
6.
Most of the mistakes that second language learners make are due to
interference from the first language
2.8
3.0
2.8
3.3
7.
The best way to learn new vocabulary is through reading
2.7
3.2
2.8
2.7
8.
It is essential for learners to be able to pronounce all the individual sounds in
the second language
2.8
3.7
3.6
3.9
9.
Once learners know roughly 1000 words and the basic structure of a language,
they can participate in conversation with native speaker
2.8
2.6
2.6
3.1
10
Teachers should present familiar rules one at a time and learners should
practice examples of each one before going on to another
3.0
2.7
3.0
2.8
11.
Teachers should teach simple language structures before complex ones
3.3
3.0
3.2
3.3
12.
Learner’s errors should be corrected as soon as they are made in order to
prevent the formation of bad habits
3.5
3.3
2.7
3.4
13.
Teachers should use materials that expose students to only those language
structures they have already been taught
2.5
2.0
2.0
2.4
14.
When learners are allowed to interact freely (for example, in group or pair
activities), they copy each other’s mistak
2.8
3.4
2.9
2.9
15.
Students learn what they are taught
2.2
3.5
2.9
2.9
16.
Teachers should respond to students by correctly rephrasing what they have
said rather than by explicitly pointing out the error
2.8
3.4
3.2
3.3
17.
Students can learn both language and academic content (for example, science
and history) simultaneously in classes where the subject matter is taught in their
second language
3.0
3.2
2.4
2.9
Fig 1-a: Student Mean Scores/ Popular opinions about language learning and
teaching
Item #.
Statement
School 1.
School 2.
School 3.
1.
Languages are learned mainly through imitation
3.4
2.9
3.5
2.
Parents usually correct young children when they make grammatical errors
3.0
2.3
3.0
3.
Highly intelligent people are good language learners
2.8
2.8
2.4
4.
The most important predictor of success in second language acquisition is
motivation
2.8
2.9
3.0
104
5.
The earlier a second language is introduced in school programs, the greater the
likelihood of success in learning
3.1
2.7
3.5
6.
Most of the mistakes that second language learners make are due to
interference from the first language
3.0
2.8
3.3
7.
The best way to learn new vocabulary is through reading
3.2
2.8
2.7
8.
It is essential for learners to be able to pronounce all the individual sounds in
the second language
3.7
3.6
3.9
9.
Once learners know roughly 1000 words and the basic structure of a language,
they can participate in conversation with native speaker
2.6
2.6
3.1
10
Teachers should present familiar rules one at a time and learners should
practice examples of each one before going on to another
2.7
3.0
2.8
11.
Teachers should teach simple language structures before complex ones
3.0
3.2
3.3
12.
Learner’s errors should be corrected as soon as they are made in order to
prevent the formation of bad habits
3.3
2.7
3.4
13.
Teachers should use materials that expose students to only those language
structures they have already been taught
2.0
2.0
2.4
14.
When learners are allowed to interact freely (for example, in group or pair
activities), they copy each other’s mistak
3.4
2.9
2.9
15.
Students learn what they are taught
3.5
2.9
2.9
16.
Teachers should respond to students by correctly rephrasing what they have
said rather than by explicitly pointing out the error
3.4
3.2
3.3
17.
Students can learn both language and academic content (for example, science
and history) simultaneously in classes where the subject matter is taught in their
second languag
3.2
2.4
2.9
Figure 2-a: Instructor mean Scores/ Popular opinions about language learning
and teaching.
Item #.
Statement
Instructors
1.
Languages are learned mainly through imitation
2.7
2.
Parents usually correct young children when they make grammatical errors
3.0
3.
Highly intelligent people are good language learners
2.5
4.
The most important predictor of success in second language acquisition is
motivation
3.5
5.
The earlier a second language is introduced in school programs, the greater the
likelihood of success in learning
3.8
6.
Most of the mistakes that second language learners make are due to
interference from the first language
2.8
7.
The best way to learn new vocabulary is through reading
2.7
8.
It is essential for learners to be able to pronounce all the individual sounds in
the second language
2.8
9.
Once learners know roughly 1000 words and the basic structure of a language,
they can participate in conversation with native speaker
2.8
10
Teachers should present familiar rules one at a time and learners should
practice examples of each one before going on to another
3.0
11.
Teachers should teach simple language structures before complex ones
3.3
12.
Learner’s errors should be corrected as soon as they are made in order to
prevent the formation of bad habits
3.5
13.
Teachers should use materials that expose students to only those language
structures they have already been taught
2.5
14.
When learners are allowed to interact freely (for example, in group or pair
activities), they copy each other’s mistak
2.8
15.
Students learn what they are taught
2.2
16.
Teachers should respond to students by correctly rephrasing what they have
said rather than by explicitly pointing out the error
2.8
17.
Students can learn both language and academic content (for example, science
and history) simultaneously in classes where the subject matter is taught in their
second languag
3.0
Fig 2-b: Native speaker data Native Speakers (N=6) Instructors Years employed
Type of Education Type of Visa in S. Korea degree ( B.A, MA etc.)
Instructor 1
7
MA History + TESOL
F2
Instructor 2
5
B.A. Economics
F2
Instructor 3
6
B.A. Sociology
F2
Instructor 4
6
B.A. (Eng) Lit+ TESOL
E2
106
Instructor 5
9
B.A. Geography
E2
Instructor 6
8
MA Ed. MA(Eng)Lit
E1
Fig.2-c: Interview Questions
Question 1
Were you told what to teach or how to teach by your institute?
Question 2
Do you believe you are helping Korean students learn English as a second
language? If so, what feedback, if any, do you receive?
Question 3
How does your knowledge of second language acquisition complement your
school’s second language curriculum?
Question 4
Do you have any specific examples from your past where you felt your
instruction or lesson plan was correct for the class level but, when you
attempted to teach the lesson, it just didn’t work out or, subsequently, it became
difficult or awkward to follow your plan?
Fig. 3-a: Mean and Standard Deviation Instructors School 1 School 2 School 3
Mean
2.9
3.1
2.8
3.1
SD
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
Fig. 3-b: All item Mean/Instructor and Students Instructors Students
Mean
2.9
3.0
Fig. 3-c: P values/instructors & schools Instructors and School 1 Instructors and
School 2 Instructors and School 3
P value
0.38
0.31
0.35
Fig. 3-d: P values between schools School 1 & School 2 School 1 & School 3
School 2 & School 3
P value
0.051
0.97
0.05
Fig. 4-a: GR1: Behaviorist/ mean scores Instructors School 1 School 2 School 3
2. Languages are learned mainly through imitation
2.7
3.4
2.9
3.5
12. Learner’s errors should be corrected as soon as they are made in order to
prevent the formation of bad habits
3.5
3.3
2.7
3.4
Fig. 4-b: GR2: Bilingualism/ mean scores Instructors School 1 School 2 School
3
5. The earlier a second language is introduced in school programs, the greater
the likelihood of success in learning
3.8
3.1
2.7
3.5
6. Most of the mistakes that second language learners make are due to
interference from the first language
2.8
3.0
2.8
3.3
17. Students can learn both language and academic content (for example,
science and history) simultaneously in classes where the subject matter is
taught in their second language
3.0
3.2
2.4
2.9
Fig. 4-c: GR3: Grammar/ mean scores Instructors School 1 School 2 School 3
10. Teachers should present familiar rules one at a time and learners should
practice examples of each one before going on to another
3.00
2.7
3.0
2.8
11. Teachers should teach simple language structures before complex ones
3.3
3.0
3.2
3.3
Fig. 4-d: GR4: Teaching method and pedagogy/ mean scores Instructors
School 1 School 2 School 3
7. The best way to learn new vocabulary is through reading
2.7
3.2
2.8
2.7
8. It is essential for learners to be able to pronounce all the individual sounds in
the second language
2.8
3.7
3.6
3.9
13. Teachers should use materials that expose students to only those language
structures they have already been taught
2.5
2.0
2.0
2.4
15. Students learn what they are taught
2.2
3.5
2.9
2.9
16. Teachers should respond to students by correctly rephrasing what they
have said rather than by explicitly pointing out the error
2.8
3.4
3.2
3.3
Fig. 4-e: GR5: Socio-cultural/ mean scores Instructors School 1 School 2
School 3
2. Parents usually correct young children when they make grammatical errors
3.0
3.0
2.3
3.0
14. When learners are allowed to interact freely (for example, in group or pair
activities), they copy each other’s mistakes
2.8
3.4
2.9
2.9
Fig. 4-f: GR6: Motivation/ mean scores Instructors School 1 School 2 School 3
4. The most important predictor of success in second language acquisition is
motivation….
3.5
2.8
2.9
3.0
Fig. 4-g: GR7: Intelligence/ mean scores Instructors School 1 School 2 School 3
3. Highly intelligent people are good language learners
2.5
2.8
2.8
2.4
9. Once learners know roughly 1000 words and the basic structure of a
language, they can participate in conversation with native speakers
2.8
2.6
2.6
3.1
Fig. h: Statements of Agreement and Disagreement Agreement Disagreement
GR 1
1s
School 1, School 3
Instructors, School 2
12
Instructors, School 1, School 3
School 2,
GR 2
5
Instructors, School 1, School 3
School 2
6s
School 1, School 3
Instructors, School 2
17 s
Instructors, School 1
School 2, School 3
GR 3
10 s
Instructors, School 2
School 1, School 3
11
Instructors, School 1, School 2, School 3
GR 4
7
School 1
Instructors, School 2, School 3
8
School 1, School 2, School 3
Instructors,
13
Instructors, School 1, School 2, School 3
15
School 1
Instructors, School 2, School 3
16
School 1, School 2, School 3
Instructors
GR 5
2
Instructors, School 1, School 3
School 2
14
School 1
Instructors, School 2, School 3
GR 6
4
Instructors, School 1, School 3
School 2
GR 7
3
Instructors, School 1, School 2, School 3
9
School 3
Instructors, School 1, School 2
Total Agreement: Statement 11 Agreement 3-1: Statements 2, 5, 8, 12, 16.
Split: 2-2: Statements: 1, 4, 6, 10, 17. Disagreement: Statements 3-1: 7, 9, 14,
15. Total Disagreement: Statements: 3, 13
Interviews
Interviews are a far more personal form of research than questionnaires. In the
personal interview, the interviewer works directly with the respondent. Unlike
with mail surveys, the interviewer has the opportunity to probe or ask follow-up
questions. And, interviews are generally easier for the respondent, especially if
what are sought are opinions or impressions. Interviews can be very time
consuming and they are resource intensive. The interviewer is considered a
part of the measurement instrument and interviewers have to be well trained in
how to respond to any contingency.
Almost everyone is familiar with the telephone interview. Telephone interviews
enable a researcher to gather information rapidly. Most of the major public
opinion polls that are reported were based on telephone interviews. Like
personal interviews, they allow for some personal contact between the
interviewer and the respondent. And, they allow the interviewer to ask follow-up
questions. But they also have some major disadvantages. Many people don't
have publicly-listed telephone numbers. Some don't have telephones. People
often don't like the intrusion of a call to their homes. And, telephone interviews
have to be relatively short or people will feel imposed upon.
Selecting the Survey Method
Selecting the type of survey you are going to use is one of the most critical
decisions in many social research contexts. The researcher will see that there
are very few simple rules that will make the decision for him/her – he/she has to
use his/her judgment to balance the advantages and disadvantages of different
survey types. Here are a number of questions researchers might ask that can
help guide their decision.
Population Issues
The first sets of considerations have to do with the population and its
accessibility.
costs
Cost is often the major determining factor in selecting survey type. You might
prefer to do personal interviews, but can't justify the high cost of training and
paying for the interviewers. A researcher may prefer to send out an extensive
mailing but can't afford the postage to do so.
facilities
Does the researcher have the facilities (or access to them) to process and
manage his/her study? In phone interviews, does he/she has well-equipped
phone surveying facilities? For focus groups, does he/she have a comfortable
and accessible room to host the group? Does he/she have the equipment
needed to record and transcribe responses?
time
Some types of surveys take longer than others. Does the researcher need
responses immediately (as in an overnight public opinion poll)? Have you
budgeted enough time for the study to send out mail surveys and follow-up
reminders, and to get the responses back by mail? Has he/she allowed for
enough time to get enough personal interviews to justify that approach?
personnel
Different types of surveys make different demands of personnel. Interviews
require interviewers who are motivated and well-trained. Group administered
surveys require people who are trained in group facilitation. Some studies may
be in a technical area that requires some degree of expertise in the interviewer.
Clearly, there are lots of issues to consider when a researcher is selecting
which type of survey he/she wishes to use in his/her study. And there is no clear
and easy way to make this decision in many contexts. There may not be one
approach which is clearly the best. The researcher may have to make tradeoffs
of advantages and disadvantages. There is judgment involved. Two expert
researchers may, for the very same problem or issue, select entirely different
survey methods. But, if they select a method that isn't appropriate or doesn't fit
the context, he/she can doom a study before he/she even begin designing the
instruments or questions themselves.
Constructing the Survey
Constructing a survey instrument is an art in itself. There are numerous small
decisions that must be made -- about content, wording, format, placement --
that can have important consequences for your entire study. While there's no
one perfect way to accomplish this job, we do have lots of advice to offer that
might increase your chances of developing a better final product.
First of all you'll learn about the two major types of surveys that exist, the
questionnaire and the interview and the different varieties of each. Then you'll
see how to write questions for surveys. There are three areas involved in writing
a question:
choosing the response format that you use for collecting information from
the respondent
figuring out how to word the question to get at the issue of interest
Finally, once you have your questions written, there is the issue of how best to
place them in your survey.
You'll see that although there are many aspects of survey construction that are
just common sense, if you are not careful you can make critical errors that have
dramatic effects on your results.
Types of Questions
Survey questions can be divided into two broad types: structured and
unstructured. From an instrument design point of view, the structured questions
pose the greater difficulties. From a content perspective, it may actually be
more difficult to write good unstructured questions. Here, it is discussed the
variety of structured questions a researcher can consider for his/her survey.
Dichotomous Questions
When a question has two possible responses, we consider it dichotomous.
Surveys often use dichotomous questions that ask for a Yes/No, True/False or
Agree/Disagree response. There are a variety of ways to lay these questions
out on a questionnaire:
Questions Based on Level of Measurement
Researchers can also classify questions in terms of their level of measurement.
For instance, it might measure occupation using a nominal question. Here, the
number next to each response has no meaning except as a placeholder for that
response. The choice of a "2" for a lawyer and a "1" for a truck driver is arbitrary
-- from the numbering system used we can't infer that a lawyer is "twice"
something that a truck driver is.
Researchers might ask respondents to rank order their preferences for
presidential candidates using an ordinal question:
The researcher in this case, wants the respondent to put a 1, 2, 3 or 4 next to
the candidate, where 1 is the respondent's first choice. Note that this could get
confusing. We might want to state the prompt more explicitly so the respondent
knows we want a number from one to 4 (the respondent might check their
favorite candidate, or assign higher numbers to candidates they prefer more
instead of understanding that we want rank ordering).
Researchers can also construct survey questions that attempt to measure on an
interval level. One of the most common of these types is the traditional 1-to-5
rating (or 1-to-7, or 1-to-9, etc.). This is sometimes referred to as a Likert
response scale. Here, it is seen how researchers might ask an opinion question
on a 1-to-5 bipolar scale (it's called bipolar because there is a neutral point and
the two ends of the scale are at opposite positions of the opinion):
Another interval question uses an approach called the semantic differential.
Here, an object is assessed by the respondent on a set of bipolar adjective
pairs (using 5-point rating scale):
Finally, researchers can also get at interval measures by using what is called a
cumulative or Guttmann scale. Here, the respondent checks each item with
which they agree. The items themselves are constructed so that they are
cumulative -- if you agree to one, you probably agree to all of the ones above it
in the list:
Filter or Contingency Questions
Sometimes a researcher has to ask the respondent one question in order to
determine if they are qualified or experienced enough to answer a subsequent
one. This requires using a filter or contingency question. For instance, you may
want to ask one question if the respondent has ever smoked marijuana and a
different question if they have not. In this case, the researcher would have to
construct a filter question to determine whether they've ever smoked marijuana:
if only two levels, use graphic to jump (e.g., arrow and box)
The example above shows how a researcher can make effective use of an
arrow and box to help direct the respondent to the correct subsequent question.
Does the researcher need the age of each child or just the number of
children under 16?
In this example, the respondent writes a number in each blank. Notice that here,
we expect the respondent to place a number on every blank, whereas in the
previous example, we expect to respondent to choose only one. Then, of
course, there's the classic:
NAME: ________________________
And here's the same fill-in-the-blank response item in web format:
NAME:
Of course, there's always the classic fill-in-the-blank test item:
One of President Lincoln's most famous speeches, the Address, only lasted a
few minutes when delivered.
Check The Answer. The respondent places a check next to the response(s).
The simplest form would be the example given above where we ask the person
to indicate their gender. Sometimes, we supply a box that the person can fill in
with an 'X' (which is sort of a variation on the check mark. Here's a web version
of the checkbox:
Please check if you have the following item on the computer you use most:
Modem
printer
CD-ROM drive
joystick
scanner
Notice that in this example, it is possible for you to check more than one
response. By convention, we usually use the checkmark format when we want
to allow the respondent to select multiple items.
We sometimes refer to this as a multi-option variable. You have to be careful
when you analyze data from a multi-option variable. Because the respondent
can select any of the options, you have to treat this type of variable in your
analysis as though each option is a separate variable. For instance, for each
option we would normally enter either a '0' if the respondent did not check it or a
'1' if the respondent did check it. For the example above, if the respondent had
only a modem and CD-ROM drive, we would enter the sequence 1, 0, 1, 0, 0.
There is a very important reason why you should code this variable as either 0
or 1 when you enter the data. If you do, and you want to determine what
percent of your sample has a modem, all you have to do is compute the
average of the 0's and 1's for the modem variable. For instance, if you have 10
respondents and only 3 have a modem, the average would be 3/10 = .30 or
30%, which is the percent who checked that item.
The example above is also a good example of a checklist item. Whenever you
use a checklist, you want to be sure that you ask the following questions:
Are you personally satisfied with working conditions in the plant where
you work?
The first question is stated from a fairly detached, objective viewpoint. The
second asks how you "feel." The last asks whether you are "personally
satisfied." Be sure the questions in your survey are at an appropriate level for
your context. And, be sure there is consistency in this across questions in your
survey.
Is the wording too direct?
There are times when asking a question too directly may be too threatening or
disturbing for respondents. For instance, consider a study where you want to
discuss battlefield experiences with former soldiers who experienced trauma.
Examine the following three question options:
Explain supervision
In most interview studies, the interviewers will work under the direction of a
supervisor. In some contexts, the supervisor may be a faculty advisor; in others,
they may be the "boss." In order to assure the quality of the responses, the
supervisor may have to observe a subsample of interviews, listen in on phone
interviews, or conduct follow-up assessments of interviews with the
respondents. This can be very threatening to the interviewers. You need to
develop an atmosphere where everyone on the research team -- interviewers
and supervisors -- feels like they're working together towards a common end.
Explain scheduling
The interviewers have to understand the demands being made on their
schedules and why these are important to the study. In some studies it will be
imperative to conduct the entire set of interviews within a certain time period. In
most studies, it's important to have the interviewers available when it's
convenient for the respondents, not necessarily the interviewer.
The Interviewer's Kit
It's important that interviewers have all of the materials they need to do a
professional job. Usually, you will want to assemble an interviewer kit that can
be easily carried and includes all of the important materials such as:
a "professional-looking" 3-ring notebook (this might even have the logo of
the company or organization conducting the interviews)
maps
sufficient copies of the survey instrument
official identification (preferable a picture ID)
a cover letter from the Principal Investigator or Sponsor
a phone number the respondent can call to verify the interviewer's
authenticity
The Interview
So all the preparation is complete, if the training done, the interviewers are
ready to precede, and their "kits" are in hand. It's finally time to do an actual
interview. Each interview is unique, like a small work of art (and sometimes the
art may not be very good). Each interview has its own ebb and flow -- its own
pace. To the outsider, an interview looks like a fairly standard, simple, prosaic
effort. But to the interviewer, it can be filled with special nuances and
interpretations that aren't often immediately apparent. Every interview includes
some common components. There's the opening, where the interviewer gains
entry and establishes the rapport and tone for what follows. There's the middle
game, the heart of the process that consists of the protocol of questions and the
improvisations of the probe. And finally, there's the endgame, the wrap-up,
where the interviewer and respondent establish a sense of closure. Whether it's
a two-minute phone interview or a personal interview that spans hours, the
interview is a bit of theater, a mini-drama that involves real lives in real time.
Opening Remarks
In many ways, the interviewer has the same initial problem that a salesperson
has. You have to get the respondent's attention initially for a long enough
periods that you can sell them on the idea of participating in the study. Many of
the remarks here assume an interview that is being conducted at a respondent's
residence. But the analogies to other interview contexts should be
straightforward.
Gaining entry
The first thing the interviewer must do is gain entry. Several factors can
enhance the prospects. Probably the most important factor is your initial
appearance. The interviewer needs to dress professionally and in a manner that
will be comfortable to the respondent. In some contexts a business suit and
briefcase may be appropriate. In others, it may intimidate. The way the
interviewer appears initially to the respondent has to communicate some simple
messages -- that you're trustworthy, honest, and non-threatening. Cultivating a
manner of professional confidence, the sense that the respondent has nothing
to worry about because you know what you're doing -- is a difficult skill to teach
and an indispensable skill for achieving initial entry.
Doorstep technique
You're standing on the doorstep and someone has opened the door, even if
only halfway. You need to smile. You need to be brief. State why you are there
and suggest what you would like the respondent to do. Don't ask -- suggest
what you want. Instead of saying "May I come in to do an interview?” you might
try a more imperative approach like “I’d like to take a few minutes of your time to
interview you for a very important study."
Introduction
If you've gotten this far without having the door slammed in your face, chances
are you will be able to get an interview. Without waiting for the respondent to
ask questions, you should move to introducing yourself. You should have this
part of the process memorized so you can deliver the essential information in
20-30 seconds at most. State your name and the name of the organization you
represent. Show your identification badge and the letter that introduces you.
You want to have as legitimate an appearance as possible. If you have a three-
ring binder or clipboard with the logo of your organization, you should have it
out and visible. You should assume that the respondent will be interested in
participating in your important study -- assume that you will be doing an
interview here.
Explaining the study
At this point, you've been invited to come in (After all, you're standing there in
the cold, holding an assortment of materials, clearly displaying your credentials,
and offering the respondent the chance to participate in an interview -- to many
respondents, it's a rare and exciting event. They hardly ever get asked their
views about anything, and yet they know that important decisions are made all
the time based on input from others.). Or, the respondent has continued to
listen long enough that you need to move onto explaining the study. There are
three rules to this critical explanation: 1) Keep it short; 2) Keep it short; and 3)
Keep it short! The respondent doesn't have to or want to know all of the neat
nuances of this study, how it came about, how you convinced your thesis
committee to buy into it, and so on. You should have a one or two sentence
description of the study memorized. No big words. No jargon. No detail. There
will be more than enough time for that later (and you should bring some written
materials you can leave at the end for that purpose). This is the "25 words or
less" description. What you should spend some time on is assuring the
respondent that you are interviewing them confidentially, and that their
participation is voluntary.
Asking the Questions
You've gotten in. The respondent has asked you to sit down and make yourself
comfortable. It may be that the respondent was in the middle of doing
something when you arrived and you may need to allow them a few minutes to
finish the phone call or send the kids off to do homework. Now, you're ready to
begin the interview itself.
Use questionnaire carefully, but informally
The questionnaire is your friend. It was developed with a lot of care and
thoughtfulness. While you have to be ready to adapt to the needs of the setting,
your first instinct should always be to trust the instrument that was designed.
But you also need to establish a rapport with the respondent. If you have your
face in the instrument and you read the questions, you'll appear unprofessional
and disinterested. Even though you may be nervous, you need to recognize that
your respondent is most likely even more nervous. If you memorize the first few
questions, you can refer to the instrument only occasionally, using eye contact
and a confident manner to set the tone for the interview and help the
respondent get comfortable.
Ask questions exactly as written
Sometimes an interviewer will think that they could improve on the tone of a
question by altering a few words to make it simpler or more "friendly." DON'T.
You should ask the questions as they are on the instrument. If you had a
problem with a question, the time to raise it was during the training and
rehearsals, not during the actual interview. It is important that the interview be
as standardized as possible across respondents (this is true except in certain
types of exploratory or interpretive research where the explicit goal is to avoid
any standardizing). You may think the change you made was inconsequential
when, in fact, it may change the entire meaning of the question or response.
Follow the order given
Once you know an interview well, you may see a respondent bring up a topic
that you know will come up later in the interview. You may be tempted to jump
to that section of the interview while you're on the topic. DON'T. You are more
likely to lose your place. You may omit questions that build a foundation for later
questions.
Ask every question
Sometimes you'll be tempted to omit a question because you thought you
already heard what the respondent will say. Don't assume that. For example,
let's say you were conducting an interview with college age women about the
topic of date rape. In an earlier question, the respondent mentioned that she
knew of a woman on her dormitory floor who had been raped on a date within
the past year. A few questions later, you are supposed to ask "Do you know of
anyone personally who was raped on a date?" You figure you already know that
the answer is yes, so you decide to skip the question. Instead, you might say
something like "I know you may have already mentioned this, but do you know
of anyone personally who was raped on a date?" At this point, the respondent
may say something like "Well, in addition to the woman who lived down the hall
in my dorm, I know of a friend from high school who experienced date rape." If
you hadn't asked the question, you would never have discovered this detail.
Don't finish sentences
I don't know about you, but I'm one of those people who just hate to be left
hanging. I like to keep a conversation moving. Once I know where a sentence
seems to be heading, I'm aching to get to the next sentence. I finish people's
sentences all the time. If you're like me, you should practice the art of patience
(and silence) before doing any interviewing. As you'll see below, silence is one
of the most effective devices for encouraging a respondent to talk. If you finish
their sentence for them, you imply that what they had to say is transparent or
obvious, or that you don't want to give them the time to express themselves in
their own language.
Obtaining Adequate Responses - The Probe
OK, you've asked a question. The respondent gives a brief, cursory answer.
How do you elicit a more thoughtful, thorough response? You probe.
Silent probe
The most effective way to encourage someone to elaborate is to do nothing at
all - just pause and wait. This is referred to as the "silent" probe. It works (at
least in certain cultures) because the respondent is uncomfortable with pauses
or silence. It suggests to the respondent that you are waiting, listening for what
they will say next.
Overt encouragement
At times, you can encourage the respondent directly. Try to do so in a way that
does not imply approval or disapproval of what they said (that could bias their
subsequent results). Overt encouragement could be as simple as saying "Uh-
huh" or "OK" after the respondent completes a thought.
Elaboration
You can encourage more information by asking for elaboration. For instance, it
is appropriate to ask questions like "Would you like to elaborate on that?" or "Is
there anything else you would like to add?"
Ask for clarification
Sometimes, you can elicit greater detail by asking the respondent to clarify
something that was said earlier. You might say, "A minute ago you were talking
about the experience you had in high school. Could you tell me more about
that?"
Repetition
This is the old psychotherapist trick. You say something without really saying
anything new. For instance, the respondent just described a traumatic
experience they had in childhood. You might say "What I'm hearing you say is
that you found that experience very traumatic." Then, you should pause. The
respondent is likely to say something like "Well, yes, and it affected the rest of
my family as well. In fact, my younger sister..."
Recording the Response
Although we have the capability to record a respondent in audio and/or video,
most interview methodologists don't think it's a good idea. Respondents are
often uncomfortable when they know their remarks will be recorded word-for-
word. They may strain to only say things in a socially acceptable way. Although
you would get a more detailed and accurate record, it is likely to be distorted by
the very process of obtaining it. This may be more of a problem in some
situations than in others. It is increasingly common to be told that your
conversation may be recorded during a phone interview. And most focus group
methodologies use unobtrusive recording equipment to capture what's being
said. But, in general, personal interviews are still best when recorded by the
interviewer using pen and paper. Here, I assume the paper-and-pencil
approach.
Record responses immediately
The interviewer should record responses as they are being stated. This conveys
the idea that you are interested enough in what the respondent is saying to
write it down. You don't have to write down every single word -- you're not
taking stenography. But you may want to record certain key phrases or quotes
verbatim. You need to develop a system for distinguishing what the respondent
says verbatim from what you are characterizing (how about quotations, for
instance!).
Include all probes
You need to indicate every single probe that you use. Develop shorthand for
different standard probes. Use a clear form for writing them in (e.g., place
probes in the left margin).
Use abbreviations where possible
Abbreviations will help you to capture more of the discussion. Develop a
standardized system (e.g., R=respondent; DK=don't know). If you create an
abbreviation on the fly, have a way of indicating its origin. For instance, if you
decide to abbreviate Spouse with an 'S', you might make a notation in the right
margin saying "S=Spouse."
Concluding the Interview
When you've gone through the entire interview, you need to bring the interview
to closure. Some important things to remember:
Thank the respondent
Don't forget to do this. Even if the respondent was troublesome or
uninformative, it is important for you to be polite and thank them for their time.
Tell them when you expect to send results
I hate it when people conduct interviews and then don't send results and
summaries to the people who they get the information from. You owe it to your
respondent to show them what you learned. Now, they may not want your entire
300-page dissertation. It's common practice to prepare a short, readable,
jargon-free summary of interviews that you can send to the respondents.
Don't be brusque or hasty
Allow for a few minutes of winding down conversation. The respondent may
want to know a little bit about you or how much you like doing this kind of work.
They may be interested in how the results will be used. Use these kinds of
interests as a way to wrap up the conversation. As you're putting away your
materials and packing up to go, engage the respondent. You don't want the
respondent to feel as though you completed the interview and then rushed out
on them -- they may wonder what they said that was wrong. On the other hand,
you have to be careful here. Some respondents may want to keep on talking
long after the interview is over. You have to find a way to politely cut off the
conversation and make your exit.
Immediately after leaving -- write down any notes about how the
interview went
Sometimes you will have observations about the interview that you didn't want
to write down while you were with the respondent. You may have noticed them
get upset at a question, or you may have detected hostility in a response.
Immediately after the interview you should go over your notes and make any
other comments and observations -- but be sure to distinguish these from the
notes made during the interview (you might use a different color pen, for
instance).
Plus & Minus of Survey Methods
It's hard to compare the advantages and disadvantages of the major different
survey types. Even though each type has some general advantages and
disadvantages, there are exceptions to almost every rule. Here's my general
assessment. Perhaps you would differ in your ratings here or there, but I think
you'll generally agree.
d. Observational Schedules
i. Since many standard observational schedules have already been developed
by researchers in education and other fields, it may be possible and desirable to
use one of them instead of developing one
ii. If standard observational schedules do include all the variables that you are
interested in measuring, it may be possible to use only the part of the schedule
that is needed (keeping in mind that previously reported reliability and validity
data will not apply if only part of the instrument is used)
e. Selecting and Training Observers
i. Selecting and training observers is critically important since careless or
unmotivated observers can destroy the most carefully planned study
ii. Observers who produce the most reliable data tend to be persons of above-
average intelligence and verbal fluency who are highly motivated to do a good
job
iii. Observers must be thoroughly trained and practiced in aspects of their tasks
iv. During training, watch observers to see if there are still deficiencies in the
observational form
v. If observational data gathering is to extend for more than 1 week, observers
should be checked frequently, and a weekly refresher training session should
be held for the observers to maintain the reliability of the observations
f. Reliability and Validity
i. Today, unlike in the past, reliability and validity are viewed as significant for
observational recording as for any other data-gathering measure
ii. Reliability: refers to the dependability, consistency, predictability and stability
of the data
iii. Validity: refers to the ability of the data to reflect the underlying attribute of
interest
iv. In the literature concerning psychometrics of behavioral observation, validity
does not receive much attention
1) Partly due to widespread belief that observational data are inherently valid
because of the minimal amount of inferences required on the part of the
observers
2) This belief is justified for some behaviors but not for others, depending on the
degree of complexity
Infor. 2 Source2
Source1 Infor. 1 Data
Infor. 3 Source1
The idea of design taken in a larger and looser sense, using it to identify those
elements of order, system, and consistency of procedures did exhibit, the study
had a design. “We can say what this was by describing our original view of the
problem, our theoretical and methodological commitments, and the way these
affected our research and were affected by it as we proceeded”. (p. 17)
For these reasons, “the model of design that I present here, which I call an
interactive model, consists of the components of a research study and the ways
in which these components may affect and be affected by one another. It does
not presuppose any particular order for these components, or any necessary
directionality of influence”.
The model thus resembles the more general definition of design employed
outside research: “An underlying scheme that governs functioning, developing,
or unfolding” and “the arrangement of elements or details in a product or work of
art” (Frederick et al., 1993). A good design, one in which the components work
harmoniously together, promotes efficient and successful functioning; a flawed
design leads to poor operation or failure.
This model of research design has five components, each of which addresses a
different set of issues that are essential to the coherence of a study:
5. Validity: How might your results and conclusions be wrong? What are
the plausible alternative interpretations and validity threats to these, and how
will you deal with these? How can the data that you have, or that you could
potentially collect, support or challenge your ideas about what’s going on? Why
should we believe your results?
These components are not substantially different from the ones presented
inmany other discussions of qualitative or applied research design (e.g.,
LeCompte&Preissle, 1993; Lincoln &Guba, 1985; Miles &Huberman, 1994;
Robson, 2002). What is innovative is the way the relationships among the
components are conceptualized. In this model, the different parts of a design
form an integrated and interacting whole, with each component closely tied to
several others, rather than being linked in a linear or cyclic sequence. The most
important relationships among these five components are displayed in Figure
7.1.
CONCEPTUAL
GOALS
FRAMEWORK
RESEARCH
QUESTIONS
METHODS
METHODS VALIDITY
Let´s look at every tradition in qualitative research design. The term design
takes another different meaning within the quantitative approach, particularly
because qualitative research is not planned in detail and is subject to the
circumstances of each particular environment or scenario. In the qualitative
approach, design refers to "approach" that we will generally use in the research
process. Alvarez-Gayou (2003) calls interpretive framework.
The design, like the sample, data collection and analysis, are emerging from the
problem statement to the initial immersion and field work and, of course, is
undergoing modifications, even if it is rather one way to approach the
phenomenon of interest. Within the framework of the activities are design
mentioned so far: initial immersion! deep in the context of the research, a stay in
the field, data collection, data analysis and theory generation.
Grounded theory arose in 1967, was proposed by Barney Glaser and Anselm
Strauss in his book The Discovery of Grounded Theory, which is based
primarily on symbolic interactionism (Sandin, 2003). Over time other authors
have developed in different directions.
Creswell (2009) states that grounded theory is especially useful when the
available theories do not explain the phenomenon or problem statement, or
when do not cover the participants or a sample of interest.
SYSTEMATIC DESIGN
This design enhances the use of certain steps in the data analysis and it is
based on procedures Corbin and Strauss (2007) as seen in Figure 15.1.
Let's look at each of the basic elements from the open coding.
Systematic design process
Open coding
Axial coding
From all the categories coded openly, the researcher selects what he considers
most important and positioned in the center of the process that is in exploration
(this category is called central or key phenomenon). Subsequently, he relates to
the core category with other categories. They may have different roles in the
process:
Of course, not all research based on grounded theory roles derive all of the
categories. Axial coding concludes with an outline of a diagram or model called
"coded paradigm" that shows the relationships between all elements (causal
conditions, key category, intervening conditions, etc.).
Preliminary
First interview categories
Refined
categories
Second interview
More refined
categories
Saturation
Third interview
Contextual
conditions
Causal conditions
Category 1 Central Actions and
Category 2 category interactions
Category 3
Intervenient Consequences
conditions
intervinientes
Strauss and Corbin (1998) agree with Creswell (2005) finding that the central
category or keyword:
2 all or most of the other categories should be linked with it. In fact, regularly t is
the category with the highest number of links to other categories.
3. it must occur frequently in data (in most cases).
5. his relationship with the other categories should be logical and consistent, the
data should not be forced.
6. The name or phrase that identifies the class should be abstract enough.
Selective coding
Once generated the schema, the researcher returns to the units or segments
and compares them to substantiate their emerging scheme. The comparison
also arise hypothesis (theoretical proposals) that establish the relationships
between categories or themes. So, you get the sense of understanding. Finally,
write a story or narrative linking the categories and describing the process or
phenomenon. The typical qualitative analysis tools (maps, matrices, etc.)are
usually used. As mentioned above, the resulting theory is medium range
(usually your application is not wide) but has high explanatory power for all the
data collected. In grounded theory is common to use "live code" (which
remember are labels for categories consist of passages, phrases or exact
words of the participants or observation notes, rather than the researcher's
preconceived language). Examples of live codes would be as shown in Table
15.2.
The analytical memos play an important role in the development of the theory.
These are generated to document major decisions and developments
(categorization, selection of the core category, causal conditions, intervening,
etc..; sequences, links, thoughts, new sources of data, ideas, etc..). They can
be long or short, more general or specific, but always around the evolution of
the theory and its foundation.
Emerging design
In both designs, the preferred type of sampling is theoretical, that is, the
collection of data and theory that is "sprouting" will indicate the composition of
the sample. As noted by Martens (2005), the researcher should be very
sensitive to the emerging theory. The researcher must provide enough detail so
that who reviewed the study can see in the result reports, how evolved the
conceptual development and induction of relations between categories or
themes.
The field of educational psychology present this example, and those who are
not familiar with the terms of this field that we ask institutions to ignore the
important thing is: a) visualize how the initial categories become issues, b) how
to establish causation (that qualitative research is conceptual, not based on
statistical analysis as in quantitative studies), c) how it is positioned in a central
category scheme (which in this case is at the end of the resulting schema). The
central category is sometimes located at the beginning of the diagram, among
other times and in some cases ultimately its position is determined by the
researcher based on the emergent data and insights.
a) give too much importance to the other strategies that the teacher
drew (besides the intervention) to deal with the student (above
causes confusion in the latter).
b) b) Too much knowledge and interference of the strategies of other
staff (leading to tension between individuals that address the
problem).
c) In this case, the grounded theory model of the primary causes
(codes or categories obtained in primary open coding) to the
central category and shows the complexity that can capture this
qualitative research design.
In summary, the intervention work. Miller (2004), besides the model shown in
Figure 15-3, (which refers only to the "other members staff"), it generated a
broader, showing subsystems that integrate the psychosocial context of the
school (system). This is shown in Figure 15-4.
Figure 15-4 conceptual model of the psychosocialcontext of the student problematic behavior
Grounded theory, as we can see, is similar to the revised coding system in the
previous chapter, because in fact, such a system is a contribution of this design.
ETHNOGRAPHIC DESIGNS
For example, it is curious, the fans of Junior in Barranquilla, or at least the ones
that belong to the “Brave barras” such as the FrenteRojiblanco or the Cuervos
(thecrows), every time the team is defeated make demonstrations along the
nearby areas to the Metropolitan stadium and make disaster in commercial
stores, malls etc. Even though, it is a depressed area with a lot of problems
such as public services, education and health. Normally in these aspects
nobody protects in the same way as they do when the team is defeated.
The researcher is usually a fully participant observer (he lives with the group or
he lives in a typical house of the community) and he spends long periods
immersed in the context or field. He must go gradually becoming a member of it
(eat the same as everyone, living in a typical house in the community, he buys
where the majority do, etc.). He also uses various tools to collect their cultural
data: observation, interviews, focus groups, life histories, obtaining documents,
materials and artifacts, semantic networks, projective techniques and self-
reflection. He is interpreting what he sees, feels and lives. His initial observation
is general and then begins to focus on certain cultural aspects He offers
detailed descriptions of the site, members of the group or community, its
structures and processes, and the categories and cultural issues. Actually there
is no a single process to implement ethnographic research, but some of the
actions that undoubtedly are performed are presented in Figure 15-5 on the
next page.
NARRATIVE DESIGNS
In narrative designs the researcher collects data on the life histories and
experiences of certain people to describe and analyze them. They are of
interest the individuals themselves and their environment, including, of course,
other people.
Creswell (2005) notes that on several occasions narrative design is an outline of
research, but also a form of intervention, as the storytelling helps to process
issues that were not clear or conscious previously. It is often used when the
objective is to evaluate a sequence of events. It also provides an analytical
micro framework.
The data are obtained from autobiographies, biographies, interviews,
documents, artifacts and personal materials, and testimony (which are
sometimes found in letters, diaries, newspaper articles, radio and television
recordings, etc.).
The narrative designs can refer to: a) the entire life history of an individual or
group, b) a passage or time of such life history or c) one or more episodes. An
example of how can be a narrative study'' (without containing the
systematization of a true design of this type), it would be a series Band of
Brothers (Band or brothers clique), 2001, directed by David Frankel and Tom
Janks, based on the book by Stephen E. Ambrose, who narrates the
experiences of a group of U.S. soldiers from the company "Easy" (Parachute
Infantry Regiment No. 506), during World War I.
In these designs, rather than a theoretical framework, it is being used an
approach that provides ICT framework for understanding the individual or group
and it writes the narrative (the time and place where the person or group lived,
or where the events or experiences happened, are contextualized). Likewise,
the documents and oral histories provide "raw" data to be analyzed by the
researcher and returned to tell the research report.
The researcher examines various issues: the life story, passage or event (s)
itself, the environment (time and place) in which the person or group lived, or
the events occurred, the interactions, the sequence of events and results. In this
process, the researcher reconstructs the history of the individual or the chain of
events (it is usually in chronological order: the first ones made in the past), then
the narrative continues under their optical and it describes (on the basis of
available evidence) and emerging categories and themes that are identified in
the narrative data (derived from the stories told by the participants, documents,
materials and the researcher's own narration).
The key element of the narrative data is personal experiences, and social
group of actors or participants (each participant must tell their story).
The narrative should include a timeline of experiences and events (past,
present and future perspectives, although sometimes only cover past
events and their aftermath). To Mertens (2005) it is very important to the
evolution of events up to the present.
The context is located according to the statement of the problem (it can
cover several facets of the participants and their family, work, hobbies,
different scenarios).
The life stories, when obtained by interview, are narrated in the first
person. "The investigator reviews memories recorded in documents
(books, letters, archival records, articles in the press, etc.) And
recordings, also interviews the actors (collects data in the very language
of the participants about the significant experiences related with an event
or life).
To review the events is important to have multiple data sources. For
example: if we do an investigation to document an event, say a case of
extreme violence in a school as was the killing of twenty seven people (20
small children, six teachers, and his mother dead)occurred in December
16th 2012, at a school in Newtown (Connecticut) (USA), by a 20-year-old
Adam Lanza, we must contemplate the event and data sources.
The killer’s aunt, Marsha Lanza, said: “She was stockpiling food. We talked about prepping a lot. She was getting ready for the economic collapse. I think
she had the guns for self-defense because she lived alone.”
Journalists broke the news of the massacre to Lanza’s father who now lives in Stamford, Connecticut, with a new wife.
Peter Lanza's father In a statement last night he said: “Our hearts go out to the families and friends who lost loved ones and to all those who were
injured. Our family is grieving along with all those who have been affected by this enormous tragedy. No words can truly express how heartbroken we
are. We are in a state of disbelief and trying to find whatever answers we can.
“We too are asking why. We have cooperated fully with law enforcement and will continue to do so.
“Like so many of you, we are saddened, but struggling to make sense of what has transpired.”
Federal officials are now investigating whether the maniac is the same individual who had an “altercation” with staff members at the school 24 hours
before the shootings. Three of the four teachers involved were killed. The fourth was not in school on Friday and is being interviewed by federal agents.
Last night heavily armed Swat teams evacuated a Roman Catholic Church in Newtown where mourners had gathered in the wake of the shootings.
Officers had received a threat, but the call is believed to have been a fake.
Worshippers left screaming, saying they had been told there was a bomb threat. At least a dozen police carrying machine guns arrived at the St Rose of
Lima Church.
Taken from: http://www.express.co.uk/posts/view/365190/Killer-Adam-Lanza-obsessed-with-
violent-video-games
Figure 15.7 Example of diagram in a study of violent event (case of a school of Newtown (Connecticut)
(USA)).
The narrative sequence would be as shown in figure 15.8
Characterizations Actions
• Participants in the • Movement of the Problem
story or event. participants in the • Questions to
• Descriptions of story or event, to be answered or
Context
participants: illustrate his central
• Place.
archetypes, styles, characterizations, phenomenon to
• Time.
behaviors, patterns, thoughts and be described
• Characteristics.
etc. behaviors. and explained.
Resolution
• Answers to
questions.
• Explanations.
Continuity
Interactions of the participant • Past
• Staff ("himself"): internal • Present
conditions, feelings, emotions, • Future
desires, expectations, values. Memories of the past, the
• With other relationship between participants
with the past, presentand future
sequels over time and future
expectations.
NARRATIVE
Situation
• Physicalenvironment.
• Social environment (cultural, economic, political, religious, etc.).
• Perception of the situation (perspective characterizations).
The most important invalidation sources of stories are false data, distorted
events, exaggerations and omissions caused by trauma or age. Again, the
solution lies in the triangulation of data sources.
A classic example of a narrative study is Lewis (1961), who explored the culture
of poverty in five families in Mexico City and the Mexican province. Another
case is the research of Davis (2006), who investigated the life and history of a
family with children whose abilities were different (disabilities) and people who
were helping them (discussed the meanings of 'believing in each other "and
empathy in a context of marginalization).
The purpose of action research is to solve every day and immediate problems
(AIvarez-Gayo, 2003; Merriam, 2009) and improve specific practices. Its
fundamental purpose is focused on providing information to guide decision
making for programs, processes and structural reforms. Sandin (2003, p. 161)
notes that action research essentially seeks to "promote social change,
transforming reality and that people become more aware of their role in this
transformation process." Meanwhile, Elliot (1991) conceptualized action
research to the study of a social situation with a view to improving the quality of
action within it. To León and Montero (2002) action research is the study of a
social context where through a research process "spiral" steps, is being
investigated while intervenes
Most authors located in the interpretive and critical frames of reference (Sandin,
2003). McKernan (2001) based on the designs of action research on three
pillars:
Participants who are experiencing a problem are those who are better
able to address it in a naturalistic setting.
The behavior of these people is influenced significantly by the natural
environment in which they find themselves.
The qualitative methodology is best for the study of naturalistic
environments, since it is one of its epistemological pillars.
Action research builds knowledge through practice (Sandin, 2003). This same
author, with support from other colleagues, summarizes the characteristics of
the studies that concern this type of research, the main are:
1. The technical and scientific vision. This perspective was the first in
historical terms, as the founder of the research, Kurt Lewin. Their
model consists of a set of spiral decisions, which are based on
repeated cycles of analysis for conceptualizing and redefine the
problem again and again. Thus, action research is integrated with
action sequential phases: planning, identification of facts, analysis,
implementation and evaluation.
2. The deliberative view. The deliberative conception focuses
primarily on human interpretation, interactive communication,
deliberation, negotiation and detailed description. It has to do with
the results, but on the whole process of action research. John
Elliot proposed this vision as a reaction to the strong inclination of
educational research into positivism. Alvarez-Gayou highlights
that this author is the first to propose the concept of triangulation
in qualitative research
3. Emancipatory vision. Its purpose goes beyond solving problems or
developing improvements to a process, participants are intended
to generate a profound social change through research. The
design not only meets diagnostic functions and knowledge
production, but also creates awareness among individuals about
their social circumstances and the need to improve their quality of
life.
Creswell (2005) considers two basic designs of action research, which are
summarized in Figure 15-10.
Mertens (2003) points out that the design of participatory action research should
involve members of the group or community in the whole process of the study
(from the problem statement to the preparation of the report) and the
implementation of actions, product from inquiry. This type of research joints
expertice of the researcher with the practical knowledge, experience and skills
of the participants.
In the design of action research, the researcher and the participants need to
interact constantly with data
ACTION RESEARCH
Practical Participative
1
Figure 15.10 Basic Designs into action research
Carr and Kemmis (Carr &Kemmis 1986, pp. 162) describe action research as a
form of self-reflection. They use the following definition:
1
Base on Creswell (2005, p.552)
might find that as they progress they may end up redefining the problem based
on their experiences.
2. Decide what data should be collected, how they should be collected, and
how often.
4. Describe how your findings can be used and applied. You create your plan
for action based on your findings.
5. Report or share your findings and plan for action with others.
These steps do not always proceed in a linear fashion. They are done in a
different order depending on who is doing them and the research being
conducted (Johnson 20082).
The three essential phases of action research designs are seen (build an
outline of the problem and collect data), thinking (analysis and interpretation)
and act (solve problems and implement improvements), which occur on a
cyclical basis, a and again, until the problem is resolved, change or
improvement is achieved successfully introduced (Stringer, 1999).
As it can be seen in Figure 15.11, to raise the issue is necessary to know its
nature through immersion in the context or environment, whose purpose is to
understand why events happen and how they happen, achieving clarity about
the problem and the people who are linked thereto. The research problem can
be of various kinds as shown in Table 15.12 and does not necessarily mean a
lack of social background (the meaning of the word problem is as broad as it is
the language of research methodology in general).
Once the conceptual clarity achieved by immersing the problem, collecting data
on the problem. Stringer (1999) suggests interviewing key players associated
with the problem, the environment obseve sites, events and activities that relate
to the problem, in addition to reviewing documents, records and relevant
materials. Even some quantitative data will be (statistics on the problem). It is
appropriate to take notes on the dive and give collection, recording interviews,
filming events and perform all the activities of qualitative research. The data is
analyzed and generate categories and themes related to the problem. Stringer
(1999) reminds us of the range of techniques that can be used for analysis,
among them
2
Johnson, AP 2008, A short guide to Action Research, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education, USA.
• Concept maps (for example, linking the problem with different topics relating to
different groups or individuals with ei problem themes that integrate the
problem, etc.).
• Diagrams cause-elected.
• Analysis: Problem, background, consequences.
• Matrices (eg, categories of causes issues with categories or themes crossed
effects).
• Ranking of identifying themes or priorities.
• Organizational structure of the formal (string hierarchies) and informal.
• Network Analysis (groups and individuals).
• Conceptual networks
Once the data have been analyzed, a report is made to the diagnosis of the
problem, which introduces participants to add data, validate information and
confirm findings (categories, topics and hypotheses). Finally, there is the
problem of research and travels to the second cycle: the development of the
plan to implement solutions or introduce change or innovation.
In developing the plan, the researcher remains open to collect more data and
information that can be associated with the problem statement.The plan should
incorporate practical solutions to solve the problem or create change. According
to Stringer (1999) and Creswell (2005), the common elements of a plan are:
With the data collected are made permanently-on par with the participants, or at
least their leaders or key players-partial reports to assess the implementation of
the plan. On the basis of such reports are made relevant adjustments to the
plan, it redefines the problem and generate new hypotheses. At the end of the
introduction, is re-evaluated, which leads to the cycle of "feedback" which
means more adjustments to the plan and adapt to contingencies that arise. The
cycle repeats until the problem is resolved or change is achieved
The action research designs also represent a form of intervention and some
authors consider mixed designs because usually collect quantitative and
qualitative data, and simultaneously moving between inductive and deductive
scheme.
In Spain and Latin America, these designs are widely used to tackle challenges
in various fields of knowledge, and solve social issues. A well-known researcher
in the entire field of social sciences, Paulo Freire, made several studies based
on action research, until his death in 1997.
This type of design has been applied to a wide range of fields. For example,
education, as is the case of the study of Gomez Nieto (1991), which attempted
to find an alternative educational model for children under six years old with
special needs from birth, or that of Krogh (2001), which explored in Canberra,
Australia, how to use action research as a learning tool for students, educators,
business enterprises linked with educational institutions and service providers.
Also, Mendez Hernandez Sampieri and Cuevas (2009), who evaluated, among
other issues, the perceptual impact of social and infrastructural works
implemented by the government of Guanajuato with its own resources and the
World Bank, involving nearly two thousand inhabitants of communities from this
State.
It has even been used to study emotional intelligence of young children (three to
five years old) and how to increase, along with social skills (Kolb and Weede,
2001). Also to study the feasibility of operating medical centers threatened by:
a) changes in the U.S. health system, b) the rising costs of hospital practice, c)
reduced research budget and helps the poorest society (Mercer, 1995)3, or
solve a problem such as broken glass bottles in a bottling plant, which implied
losses for the company for more than three billion dollars a year (Hernandez
Sampieri, 1990.
OTHER DESIGNS
In addition to the revised designs in this chapter, some authors envision others,
for example, Mertens (2005) adds phenomenological designs that focus on
subjective individual experiences of the participants. In terms of Bogden and
Biklen (2003), it is to recognize the perceptions of people and the meaning of a
phenomenon or experience. The typical research question of a
phenomenological study is summarized in: what is the meaning, structure and
essence of the lived experience of a person (individual), group (grupa!) or
community (collective) for a phenomenon? (Patton, 2002). These designs are
3
The results of the action research process, in this case, suggested several measures to address the
crisis of medical centers considered, among them: administrative restructuring, worker strikes, mergers
and alliances between hospitals, doctors reduce hiring and modify the schemes of hospital
management.
similar to the rest of those who form the core of qualitative research and,
perhaps, what distinguishes them is that the one or more of the participant
experiences are the focus of the inquiry.
• The study aims to describe and understand the phenomena from the point of
view of each participant and collectively constructed perspective.
• The researcher contextualizes the experience in terms of its timing (time that
happened), space (which took place), corporeality (individuals who lived) and
the relational context (the bonds that were generated during the experience) .
• Interviews, focus groups, collecting documents and materials and life stories
are aimed at finding issues everyday and exceptional experiences.
• The collection focused get information from people who have experienced the
phenomenon under study.
ETHNOMETHODOLOGICAL APPROACH
In 1952 Garfinkel holds his doctoral thesis on The Perception of the other: A
Study in Social Order (Harvard University). In its early developments Garfinkel's
thought drew attention to their importance in the everyday knowledge of
scientific concepts definition. Some believed that these notions or concepts
obeyed to abstract methodological requirements when in fact commonsense
notions were elevated to the status of "essences". Garfinkel did not reproach
their opponents that fact, but rather he reminded them precisely these notions
had its own dynamics and were valid as long as keep the players experience
and connect to personal experience and verbal expressions of the actors.
Despite his efforts to fit the facts and to the word of the actors,
ethnomethodology created his own vocabulary. And among the main concepts
that have given importance are "practice" and "fulfillment". For Garfinkel's
ethnomethodology "is a subject of empirical study to practical activities, to
practical circumstances, the practical sociological reasoning. Attributing to the
mundane activities of daily life the same attention usually given to the
extraordinary events, they will seek to take them as “right mind facts”.
Ethnomethodology is empirical research methods used by individuals to make
sense while performing their daily activities: communication, decision making,
reasoning…
No wonder, then, that Garfinkel has criticized the great social scientists of the
time. Especially challenging approaches of Talcott Parsons and Emile Durkheim
who insisted on modeling studies of the social and psychological realities in
terms of experimental method or scientific paradigms drawn from the natural
sciences. Durkheim wrote at the beginning of the twentieth century his book La
méthodesociologique enunciated and explained that his great methodological
principle: "Social facts are things", in the sense that such things should be
approached in the same way that the objects of study of natural sciences are
things. Questioned more than once, Durkheim tried to defend himself by saying
that the word "things" did not mean that human actions were as natural objects,
but that the human sciences had to follow the model proposed by experimental
scientific research, after the cognitive revolution conducted from spectacular
experiences of science from the eighteenth century. For Durkheim, the model
was the "experimental method", that is, the exercise of knowledge based on a
definition of assumptions that should be validated with objective facts or
practices. Laboratory investigations are a good example of applying the
"experimental method".
The world of language and indexicality. “For the bare definitions I have just
remembered passes one important methodological choice: language as an
instrument which articulates the experience and the living of individuals”. In
other words, it is in the language which combines the expertise or experience
and explanation. The researcher collects the word of the actor because the
gesture or action is "hoarse".
.What Garfinkel sought is precisely this "living word" of the actor and he defined
in words the action. In that sense, they are central to the language of the actor's
words that aimed to give life to the context of the described gesture. Those
words or expressions are then "indexed", that is, placed in a context the fact
whether indicated or spoken. For example, the word "thing", "I", "we" ... "We
were ..." The indexicality is the group of words that help to determine a situation,
or a context.
The notion of "indexicality" does not come from the Social Sciences. It is
originated in linguistics and it appoints all words used in the characterization of
a fact. Because the words, that describe human practices, realize only a small
part of what the individual invests in action. And the language never fully
expresses what the gesture updates. In that sense, the indexicality does not
exhaust all the dimensions of the gesture. Therefore, it is important to gather
the greatest number of words so that they can account for the facts.
Instead, the ethnomethodological perspective burdens the fact with all the
weight of the actor's elocution. Thus it becomes more and more individualized
and experiential. If, for example, the researcher wants to explain an incident in
the street, a collision between two cars, includes versions of the protagonists of
the facts and the testimonies of those who witnessed the accident. That fact
elevated to the court that has to get done within the defined framework by the
code in this kind of crime. For that to happen, the lawyer and the judge have to
give up an important part of the circumstances for the gesture or action fit the
criminal model. That is, the judicial system tries to universalize the case so that
it falls within the terms defined in the penal code. Therefore, where the legal or
criminal system generalizes the actor's individualized word and it becomes life
or vivid experience
Today research is not followed by rigid canons, and the instruments used by
social scientists know how to balance and sometimes employ various
techniques in an effort to understand the phenomena. It wil not surprise, then, to
see in the same research process, the psychologist or sociologist used the
interview technique or the autobiographical method and then develop a
questionnaire that it will allow to generalize some of the dimensions of the
phenomena studied. To the extent that this is possible in that research practice
it is posible it is convenient to use it because it gives to the scientific explanation
a dimension simultaneously experiential abstract or universal.
The criticisms that were made to the ethnomethodologist against traditional
methods used in human sciences have been widely reported and they were not
neglected by researchers. They were important to give the universe of the
Human Sciences Research experiential dimension, the presence of the word of
the actor. To retain it, the story of the researcher becomes simple means of
transmission and the instrument which guarantees the facts that are to explain
the realism and the "truth" of the gesture or action.
People act based on symbolic meanings they find within any given situation. We
thus interact with the symbols, forming relationships around them. The goals of
our interactions with one another are to create shared meaning.
• Meaning is created in the interactions we have with other people in sharing our
interpretations of symbols.
• Our social structures are worked out through the social interactions with
others.
For example, if Mary is attracted to Paul but Paul does not share these feelings,
the two will act differently toward each other. Mary will interpret Paul's actions
as possible signs that he likes her since she has assigned him the symbolic
meaning of being a potential boyfriend. Paul still sees Mary as only a friend and
acts this way toward her. If Mary were to admit her feelings to Paul, he might
see her differently and she would have affected the symbolic meaning he has
given her. This is a prime example of symbolic interactionism at work in
everyday life.
THE THEORY
Blumer came up with three core principles to his theory. They are meaning,
language, and thought. These core principles lead to conclusions about the
creation of a person's self and socialization into a larger community (Griffin,
1997)
The first core principle of meaning states that humans act toward people and
things based upon the meanings that they have given to those people or things.
Symbolic Interactionism holds the principal of meaning as central in human
behavior.
The third core principle is that of thought. Thought modifies each individual's
interpretation of symbols. Thought, based-on language, is a mental
conversation or dialogue that requires role taking, or imagining different points
of view.
THE CASE
Last week, I received an exciting e-mail from an old flame named Jeremy.
Jeremy and I have been getting to know each other again through the wonderful
world of cyberspace. I like e-mall because it doesn't have the nervous element
that phone calls do. Unfortunately, it doesn't have the personal touch of phone
calls either. The biggest downfall of e-mail is that non-verbal cues are
impossible to detect, because of the simple fact that e-mail is not verbal. It is
very easy for misunderstanding to arise. Well, Jeremy's e-mail to me on
Thursday said he was coming to Boulder the next day, and he was wondering if
I wanted "to go out?" I accepted his offer "to go out." With the help of my
friends, I picked out the perfect outfit for my date with Jeremy. The girls and I all
assumed Jeremy and I would do dinner and a movie because that is pretty
much standard date practice. The next night, Jeremy picked me up "to go out"
to the bars with him and three of his buddies. I got very angry and he couldn't
figure out why. After all, I told him we would "go out."
The first miscommunication that Jeremy and I had falls under the principal of
meaning. Jeremy and I acted differently toward one another because we had
different meanings of one another. Last year, Jeremy and I broke up under the
heading "we're just friends." Therefore, Jeremy assigns "friend" as the meaning
for me. For myself, however, when Jeremy and I started talking again, I
reevaluated my meaning for him as "potential boyfriend." Jeremy was treating
me like a friend, and I was treating him like a boyfriend because we act toward
people based on the meanings we assign to them.
While we ended up have a great time together, just the five of us, the focal point
of the problem between Jeremy and myself is that each of us had different
meanings with the same name which can account for our behavior.
CRITIQUE
The theory of Symbolic Interactionism is strong in that it provides a basis to
understand the establishment of meaning. As I understand it, Symbolic
Interactionism falls under the category of a Humanistic theory. It has creative
meaning - interaction gives humans meaning. It has free will - every human has
meanings which can change at any time. It has emancipation - individuals are
free to find their own meaning. It has rules for interpretation meaning, language,
and thought. And it uses a ethnography to find meaning.
Symbolic Interactionism also meets the five humanistic standards that make a
good theory. There is a new understanding of the people where we get
meaning. There is a clarification of values. Meaning comes from interaction, so
interaction is important to human society. There is aesthetic appeal - the theory
is in three, easy-to-understand parts. There is a community of agreement -
Blumer's ideas are adopted by people in the academic community. And there is
a reform of society - because meaning comes from interaction, interaction must
not be taken for granted.
Case study research is better than any other study, at bringing the researcher to
an understanding of a complex issue or object and can extend experience or
add strength to what is already known through previous research. Case studies
emphasize detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of events or
conditions and their relationships. Researchers have used the case study
research method for many years across a variety of disciplines. Social
scientists, in particular, have made wide use of this qualitative research method
to examine contemporary real-life situations and provide the basis for the
application of ideas and extension of methods. Researcher Robert K. Yin
defines the case study research method as an empirical inquiry that
investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context; when the
boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in
which multiple sources of evidence are used (Yin, 1984, p. 234).
The main benefit of conducting a case study lies in the particular details and
holistic understanding researchers gain from a specific case. Case studies allow
researchers to fully understand how an intervention worked, or why an
intervention had an effect in a particular case. In contrast, other forms of
4
Yin, R. (1984). Case study research: Design and methods (1st ed.). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publishing.
5
Yin, R. (1993). Applications of case study research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publishing.
research, such as experimental or quasi-experimental research, do not delve
into this type of detail, but rather aim to give information on whether or not an
intervention has a particular, predefined effect.
All studies attempt to maximize both their internal and external validity. Internal
validity addresses how valid it is to make causal inferences about the
intervention in the study. External validity addresses how generalizable those
inferences are to a larger population. Case studies tend to have very strong
internal validity, but are often criticized because of their extremely poor external
validity. Because case studies look at only one case at a time, and purposefully
choose cases that are atypical, external validity is a real concern.
Case studies attempt to examine the how and why questions associated with an
intervention. Case studies either describe or explain what happened in a
particular case, by giving a detailed, holistic account of a particular case and
allow researchers to see the product used in a natural setting. The general form
of a case study research question is “How did the [specific
program/intervention] work in a particular case?” Or “Why did the [specific
program/intervention] have a particular effect on a particular case?”
Many other forms of research may be more appropriate for your needs,
depending on your research question. For example, if one asked “What is the
effect of an intervention on a specific population?” or “What is the market
demand of x?”, a case study would not be ideal.
The time and cost of conducting a case study largely depends on the unit of
analysis. For example, conducting a case study on a single child’s experience
using a tele-therapy approach may only take a short period of time and minor
costs to gain all relevant information. However, examining how and why an
intervention worked within a whole school or within a large district would take
much longer and would be far more expensive to gather all relevant interviews,
focus groups, and other data. Before initiating a case study, you should be sure
that you have the required amount of time and resources to complete it.
Recruiting study participants or study sites is critical. First, it is important that
the study participants represent the population for which you hope your
intervention will be effective. Second, study participants and their
parents/guardians (if you are working with minors) must agree to be in the
study. This involves getting parent/guardian approval through signing consent
forms which describe the study and any risks and benefits that study
participants may be exposed to, and then separately asking participants to
consent to participate in the intervention. Because case studies examine how or
why an intervention worked in a particular case, rather than testing the effects of
an intervention, recruiting study participants may be much easier than with other
forms of research. Furthermore, since case studies focus on one individual or
group, there are fewer people who need to give consent. However, just getting
individuals to agree to participate is not enough. Any studies that are funded by
government agencies must have the study, data collection items, and even the
consent forms approved by an Institutional Review Board (IRB) before study
participant recruitment begins.
Case study research often does not keep the research participants’ identities
anonymous. Cases that are presented with video, still photos, audio tapes, or
other artifacts that are personally identifying offer compelling reasons to invite
the participants to be active members of the research team. Consent and
assent rules still apply, as does oversight by an IRB; however, these
participatory cases give voice to the participant and ask participants to help
interpret the findings.
It is critical that researchers conducting case studies collect as much data that
may be relevant to the intervention and the context as possible. Typically,
researchers will get qualitative data from interviews, focus groups, direct
observations, video and audio records, and any extant documents that may
pertain to the intervention and context in question. It is best to have developed
interview, focus group, and observation protocols beforehand to be sure you
capture the data you need to answer your study question.
Select the cases and determine data gathering and analysis techniques
6
Soy, Susan K. (1997).The case study as a research method. Unpublished paper, University of Texas at
Austin
Prepare the report
The first step in case study research is to establish a firm research focus to
which the researcher can refer over the course of study of a complex
phenomenon or ob about the situation or problem to be studied and determining
a purpose for the study. The research object in a case study is often a program,
an entity, a person, or a group of people. Each object is likely to be intricately
connected to political, social, historical, and personal issues, providing wide
ranging possibilities for questions and adding complexity to the case study. The
researcher investigates the object of the case study in depth using a variety of
data gathering methods to produce evidence that leads to understanding of the
case and answers the research questions.
Case study research generally answers one or more questions which begin with
"how" or "why." The questions are targeted to a limited number of events or
conditions and their inter-relationships. To assist in targeting and formulating
the questions, researchers conduct a literature review. This review establishes
what research has been previously conducted and leads to refined, insightful
questions about the problem. Careful definition of the questions at the start
pinpoints where to look for evidence and helps determine the methods of
analysis to be used in the study. The literature review, definition of the purpose
of the case study, and early determination of the potential audience for the final
report guide how the study will be designed, conducted, and publicly reported.
Step 2. Select the Cases and Determine Data Gathering and Analysis
Techniques
During the design phase of case study research, the researcher determines
what approaches to use in selecting single or multiple real-life cases to examine
in depth and which instruments and data gathering approaches to use. When
using multiple cases, each case is treated as a single case. Each case´s
conclusions can then be used as information contributing to the whole study,
but each case remains a single case. Exemplary case studies carefully select
cases and carefully examine the choices available from among many research
tools available in order to increase the validity of the study. Careful
discrimination at the point of selection also helps erect boundaries around the
case.
The researcher must determine whether to study cases which are unique in
some way or cases which are considered typical and may also select cases to
represent a variety of geographic regions, a variety of size parameters, or other
parameters. A useful step in the selection process is to repeatedly refer back to
the purpose of the study in order to focus attention on where to look for cases
and evidence that will satisfy the purpose of the study and answer the research
questions posed. Selecting multiple or single cases is a key element, but a case
study can include more than one unit of embedded analysis. For example, a
case study may involve study of a single industry and a firm participating in that
industry. This type of case study involves two levels of analysis and increases
the complexity and amount of data to be gathered and analyzed.
A key strength of the case study method involves using multiple sources and
techniques in the data gathering process. The researcher determines in
advance what evidence to gather and what analysis techniques to use with the
data to answer the research questions. Data gathered is normally largely
qualitative, but it may also be quantitative. Tools to collect data can include
surveys, interviews, documentation review, observation, and even the collection
of physical artifacts.
The researcher must use the designated data gathering tools systematically
and properly in collecting the evidence. Throughout the design phase,
researchers must ensure that the study is well constructed to ensure construct
validity, internal validity, external validity, and reliability. Construct validity
requires the researcher to use the correct measures for the concepts being
studied. Internal validity (especially important with explanatory or causal
studies) demonstrates that certain conditions lead to other conditions and
requires the use of multiple pieces of evidence from multiple sources to uncover
convergent lines of inquiry. The researcher strives to establish a chain of
evidence forward and backward. External validity reflects whether or not
findings are generalizable beyond the immediate case or cases; the more
variations in places, people, and procedures a case study can withstand and
still yield the same findings, the more external validity. A technique such as
cross-case examination and within-case examination along with literature
review helps ensure external validity. Reliability refers to the stability, accuracy,
and precision of measurement. Exemplary case study design ensures that the
procedures used are well documented and can be repeated with the same
results over and over again.
Because case study research generates a large amount of data from multiple
sources, systematic organization of the data is important to prevent the
researcher from becoming overwhelmed by the amount of data and to prevent
the researcher from losing sight of the original research purpose and questions.
Advance preparation assists in handling large amounts of data in a documented
and systematic fashion. Researchers prepare databases to assist with
categorizing, sorting, storing, and retrieving data for analysis.
After investigators are trained, the final advance preparation step is to select a
pilot site and conduct a pilot test using each data gathering method so that
problematic areas can be uncovered and corrected. Researchers need to
anticipate key problems and events, identify key people, prepare letters of
introduction, establish rules for confidentiality, and actively seek opportunities to
revisit and revise the research design in order to address and add to the original
set of research questions.
Exemplary case studies use field notes and databases to categorize and
reference data so that it is readily available for subsequent reinterpretation.
Field notes record feelings and intuitive hunches, pose questions, and
document the work in progress. They record testimonies, stories, and
illustrations which can be used in later reports. They may warn of impending
bias because of the detailed exposure of the client to special attention, or give
an early signal that a pattern is emerging. They assist in determining whether or
not the inquiry needs to be reformulated or redefined based on what is being
observed. Field notes should be kept separate from the data being collected
and stored for analysis.
Maintaining the relationship between the issue and the evidence is mandatory.
The researcher may enter some data into a database and physically store other
data, but the researcher documents, classifies, and cross-references all
evidence so that it can be efficiently recalled for sorting and examination over
the course of the study.
The researcher examines raw data using many interpretations in order to find
linkages between the research object and the outcomes with reference to the
original research questions. Throughout the evaluation and analysis process,
the researcher remains open to new opportunities and insights. The case study
method, with its use of multiple data collection methods and analysis
techniques, provides researchers with opportunities to triangulate data in order
to strengthen the research findings and conclusions.
Another technique, the cross-case search for patterns, keeps investigators from
reaching premature conclusions by requiring that investigators look at the data
in many different ways. Cross-case analysis divides the data by type across all
cases investigated. One researcher then examines the data of that type
thoroughly. When a pattern from one data type is corroborated by the evidence
from another, the finding is stronger. When evidence conflicts, deeper probing
of the differences is necessary to identify the cause or source of conflict. In all
cases, the researcher treats the evidence fairly to produce analytic conclusions
answering the original "how" and "why" research questions.
Exemplary case studies report the data in a way that transforms a complex
issue into one that can be understood, allowing the reader to question and
examine the study and reach an understanding independent of the researcher.
The goal of the written report is to portray a complex problem in a way that
conveys a vicarious experience to the reader. Case studies present data in very
publicly accessible ways and may lead the reader to apply the experience in his
or her own real-life situation. Researchers pay particular attention to displaying
sufficient evidence to gain the reader´s confidence that all avenues have been
explored, clearly communicating the boundaries of the case, and giving special
attention to conflicting propositions.
Techniques for composing the report can include handling each case as a
separate chapter or treating the case as a chronological recounting. Some
researchers report the case study as a story. During the report preparation
process, researchers critically examine the document looking for ways the
report is incomplete. The researcher uses representative audience groups to
review and comment on the draft document. Based on the comments, the
researcher rewrites and makes revisions. Some case study researchers
suggest that the document review audience include a journalist and some
suggest that the documents should be reviewed by the participants in the study.
http://www.nationaltechcenter.org/documents/NCTI_Report.doc
Our foreign or second language students have qualities that can enhance or
hold back their language learning process. But there again so does the
language itself. Think about all the following when teaching your FL students:
Age influences how quickly learning takes place. Brain plasticity and
critical age for learning mean younger children have an advantage over
mature students.
Personality also plays a part. Confident students will experiment with
language especially in the earlier stages of their learning. Practice and
production speed up the learning process.
A positive attitude towards the English language and culture raises the
students’ level of motivation to learn. Keen students look for ‘after class’
learning opportunities.
Anxiety can impede foreign language production and achievement. High
levels of hormones hinder the ability to process information and impede
language acquisition.
Certain teaching or studying methods and styles may be unknown to
some students; some prefer to work alone, others choose pair work or
groups.
Some students may possess an aptitude for learning languages.
The extent that the native language differs from English linguistically can
affect the speed of acquisition of the four basic language skills: speaking,
listening, reading, and writing.
The English language has irregularities, a complicated sound system,
difficult tense structure and more.
The greater the difference between the orthography of the native
language and that of the English language the harder it will be to acquire
the English writing and reading system
Since first language proficiency provides a foundation on which to
position other languages, check to make sure your students are fully
proficient in all aspects of their first language.
It is well known that difficulties in any areas of first language acquisition
will cause similar problems in the same skills during foreign language
learning.
Critics to the case study method think that the study of a small number of cases
can offer no grounds for establishing reliability or generality of findings. Others
believe that the intense exposure to study of the case biases the findings. Some
dismiss case study research as useful only as an exploratory tool. Yet
researchers continue to use the case study research method with success in
carefully planned and crafted studies of real-life situations, issues, and
problems. Reports on case studies from many disciplines are widely available in
the literature in every discipline.
The boundaries between qualitative designs are not really there. For example, a
study guided by grounded theory includes narrative and phenomenological
elements. An action research can generate axial coding (grounded theory)
when analyzing interviews with participants about some problem of interest.
Weit is believed that students should not worry so much about whether their
study is narrative or ethnographic, their attention needs more to focus on
research conduct in a comprehensive and thorough manner, and to respond to
the problem statement.
Reports of results of qualitative research process can acquire the same formats
as quantitative reports.The first thing the researcher must define is the type of
reporting that it is necessary to be developed, which depends on the following
points:
The report should provide an answer to the problem statement and identify the
strategies used to address it, as well as the data were collected, analyzed and
interpreted by the researcher.The reports are more flexible qualitative than
quantitative and there is only one way to present, but are developed through a
form and narrative scheme.The descriptions and narratives used colorful, fresh
and naturallanguage. The style is more personal.The language of the report
should not be discriminatory in any way.Before preparing the report should be
reviewed the full set of categories, topics and encoding rules.
The most common structure of the qualitative report is: cover, index (s),
abstract, main text (introduction, method, analysis, results and discussion),
references and appendices.The description of the environment must be
complete and detailed.Upon completion of the analysis and develop the
qualitative report, the researcher must link the results with previous
studies.Three aspects are important in the presentation of the results by the
report: the narrative, the support of the categories (with examples) and graphic
elements.
APA Style
What is APA Style?
The American Psychological Association has established its own style, APA
style, and it is fast becoming the norm for all social and behavioral sciences.
These sciences include psychology, sociology, anthropology, business,
education, and more. In APA style, the bibliography is referred to as the "list of
references".
List of references must begin on a separate page at the end of the paper, and
double spaced.
Page must be labeled References, with no formatting (underlining, quotation
marks, etc...) and centered at the top of the page.
List of references must include every source cited in the paper.
Author's names are presented with last name first, and listed alphabetically.
Multiple articles by the same author are listed in order by the year of publication.
Capitalize the first word of a title and subtitle when referring to any work that is
NOT a journal.
All major words in journal titles must be capitalized.
Journals, books, or other longer works must be italicized.
Do not italicize shorter works such as journal articles, short essays, etc...
APA Style Examples
Book by a Single Author/Editor
Arnheim, R. (1971). Art and visual perception. Berkeley: University of
California Press.
Book by Multiple Authors/Editors
– Festinger, L., Riecken, H., &Schachter, S. (1956). When prophecy fails.
Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Book by More than Six Authors/Editors
– Roeder, K., Howdeshell, J., Fulton, L., Lochhead, M., Craig, K., Peterson,
R., et.al. (1967). Nerve cells and insect behavior.Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.
Bibliography Reference:
APA Magazine
In order to cite a magazine in APA include:
Author(s) of the magazine article
Date published
Name of the magazine (in italics)
Name of article
Volume number (in italics)
Page numbers
Chapter or article in a book
In order to cite a chapter or article in a book in APA include:
Author's) of the chapter
Editor's) of the book
Chapter/Article name
Pages of the chapter
Book name (in italics)
Year of publication
Publisher
Place of publication
Dictionary Entry
In order to cite a dictionary in APA include:
Name of the dictionary
Editor(s) of the dictionary (if known)
Word defined
Year published
Volume number if citing a specific entry. Use total number of volumes if
citing the dictionary in general
Edition
Page numbers (if citing a specific entry)
Placed published
Publisher
Format
When citing a specific definition:
– Dictionary Entry. In B. Editor (Ed.), Name of Dictionary (Page numbers,
edition, volume). (Year). Place published: Publisher.
When citing a general dictionary:
– Editor, B. (Ed.). (Year).Name of Dictionary (Edition, Total Volumes).
Place published: Publisher.
ENCYCLOPEDIA ARTICLE
Author of encyclopedia article (if known)
Editor of encyclopedia (if known)
Name of the encyclopedia article
Year published
Volume number if citing a specific entry. Use total number of volumes if
citing the entire encyclopedia
Edition
Page numbers
Publication information
Format
Author, A. (Date).Name of Article. [In] A. Editor (Ed.), Name of Encyclopedia
(Edition, Volume, Page Numbers). Place Published: Publisher.
Examples
Example of citing an entire encyclopedia with and without an editor
– Taparia, N. (Ed.). (2000). Columbia Encyclopedia (2nd Edition, Vols. 1-
45). Chicago: Columbia Press.
– Columbia Encyclopedia (2nd Edition, Vols. 1-45). (2000). Chicago:
Columbia Press.
Example of a specific entry from an encyclopedia with an author, without
any known editors
– Smith, J. (2004). Martin Luther. In Encyclopedia of Science and Religion
(Vol. 4, p. 898). Cincinnati: Babson Press.
Newspaper
In order to cite a newspaper in APA include:
Author(s)
Date published
Name of the newspaper (in italics)
Name of article
Volume Number (in italics)
Page numbers
Format
Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day).Name of the Article.Name of Newspaper,
volume, page number(s).
Examples
Waldo, S. R., &Danedakar, V. (2004, August 4). Why Medical School?
New York Times, p. 34. 55
Web Site
When citing a website in APA include the following information:
The name of the website/article (in italics)
Author of the source
The day the website was created or when the particular online source
was published (if known)
Date the website was accessed
The website URL
Format
Author, A. (Date Published). Name of website/article. [Retrieved] Date, [from]
URL of Website
Examples
Iguchi, L. (2003, February 3). Japan Warfare. Retrieved March 11, 2004,
from http://book.edu/japan
Humdrums from Africa. Retrieved May 17, 2005, from
http://www.abcd.com/africa/b2k
Online Data base
Citing a source from an online database is very straightforward. Cite all
the information about the original source as you always would, and then cite
online information. This includes:
Name of the database
Date accessed
Format
Original Publication Information. [Retrieved] Month Day, Year, [from the]
Database Name [database].
Examples
Tutanka, O. (2001, January). Hot New Ferrari Modena.Car and Driver,
12. Retrieved April 8, 2005, from the ProQuest database.
Potter, H. (2002, May 17). Euthanasia and Society.Chicago
Tribune.Retrieved May 8, 2003, from the EBSCO database.
Journal
When citing a journal in APA include the following information:
Author(s) of the journal article
Date published
Name of the journal (in italics)
Name of journal article
Volume number (in italics)
Page numbers
Issue number (in italics and parenthesis), if pages numbers are restarted
with each issue
Format
Author, A. (Year).Name of Article.Name of Journal, Volume (Issue), and Page
number.
Examples
Hastalis, D. (2003, January). Effects of Prozac.New England Journal of
Medicine, 30.12-43.
Smith, T. J., &Weyers, J. Derivatives and other Securities. The Journal of
Economics, 8(2), 90-104