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3.15. Mountain Areas
3.15. Mountain Areas
• The ‘ideal world’ of mountain areas is Important Mountain Features in the European
now threatened by socio-economic shifts, context illustrated by a qualitative estimation
Figure 3.15.1
increasing tourism and traffic impacts,
and changes in land use. In the Acces- Source: EEA
sion Countries more mountain areas Focus of Mountains
must be expected to become endange Population
red through rapid economic develop- 100
100
EU countries
Accession countries
Other European countries
80
40
20
0
Liechtenstein
Russian Federation
Czech Republic
Slovak Republic
Greece
Serbia Montenegro
United Kingdom
France
Iceland
Slovenia
Austria
Switzerland
Armenia
Turkey
Albania
Azerbaijan
Poland
Germany
Georgia
Andorra
FYROM
Spain
Bulgaria
Sweden
Ukraine
Romania
Italy
Portugal
Ireland
San Marino
Monaco
Cyprus
Norway
Croatia
Mountains are widely recognized as impor- Interactions in mountain areas Figure 3.15.5
tant and sensitive ecosystems, but little
progress has been made in developing
comprehensive policies, particularly at EU
level, to build upon the good intentions set
out in mountain charters. Although Euro- Drivers/ State/Impact
pean policies were first applied to mountains Pressures
in the 1970s (under the Less Favored Area,
Population Water resources
LFA, framework) and mountain areas are
now subject to numerous EU, national and
Traffic Natural heritage
regional policies, there remains a lack of
coordination between measures at different Tourism and recreation Soil
levels relating to various sectors.
Changes in land use Natural hazards
Mountains are probably the most prominent
examples where multifunctional land uses
have partly still survived, but are now at risk. Response
For mountain areas it is crucial to adopt a road pricing
comprehensive, spatially integrated policy
which is able to reflect and support the guidelines for definition of new management of
sustainable urban-mountain catchment areas
multifunctionality which has been the tourism relation
sustainable concept in mountains for many
generations. new tasks protection of
tourism species and
agro-environment landscapes
renewable energy
forestry
2. How can the environment of remote
mountains be threatened?
Fragile environmental conditions have Adapting the DPSIR framework to the special needs of spatial issues, some relevant relations
in mountain areas may be highlighted by this simplified model. In general every policy action
brought about highly adapted and sophisti- should bear in mind the network of direct and indirect interactions which is affected by the
cated land uses. Demographic and economic relevant policy.
changes (and particularly the growth of
Source: EEA
tourism) have complex effects which call for
holistic responses (Figure 3.15.5).
lowland regions. In 1990 the vertical distri-
2.1. What makes population, traffic, tourism bution of total alpine population concen-
and land use change the main driving forces trated 93% below 1 000 m above sea level
and pressures in mountains? (a.s.l.), 53% below 500 m a.s.l., and only 7%
above 1 000 m (Bätzing, 1997). Another
2.1.1. Population is outmigrating and overageing aspect of population density is a significant
Many mountain areas have declining and variation with seasonal or daily peaks, i.e.
ageing populations due to outmigration of summer and winter tourism inside moun-
workers, the use of residences as second tains, international holidays or short week-
homes, and inward migration of pensioners. end trips from surrounding city dwellers.
Loss of population might reduce the capabi-
lity for upkeeping the landscape and means The shift and migration within mountain
an additional burden for suburban areas into countries can be illustrated by some Alpine
which people are moving. Mountains also countries. In the period from 1870 to 1990
become subject of exploitation as a natural the Alps experienced a total population
resource for urban consumption from low- increase from 7 million up to 11 million
land regions. There are at least 38 cities above people, but the proportion living in moun-
250 000 inhabitants close to mountain ranges tain areas dropped from 7.4% to 5.8%.
in the EU and Accession Countries, such as
Milan, Geneva, Birmingham, Rome, Granada Population changes are connected to
and Thessaloniki (Map 3.15.1). changes of employment opportunities and
structures. The shift from a traditional multi-
Population density varies considerably with functional and multi-sectoral way of living of
altitude, so that some mountain areas are mountain people to external employment
extremely sparsely populated, and compara- and enterprises is, besides insufficient
ble to Arctic regions, while the densely infrastructure, a main reason for population
inhabited valleys have similarities with changes. This means in general terms a shift
380 Environmental issues
o o o o o o o
Urban centres 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
around the Alps Karlsruhe Stuttgart
Nancy Wien Bratislava
0 100 km Augsburg
Strasbourg München o
o 48
48
Urban centres
Roads
o
o
46
46 Ljubljana
Lyon Trieste
Map 3.15.1 Venezia
Urban settlements around Milano Verona Padova
Grenoble Golfo
mountains; the example of
the Alps Torino di Venezia
Bologna
Source: EEA, GISCO – o
44
Eurostat 44
o Genova
Ad
Nice Firenze
ri a
Grasse Ligurian cS
ti
Marseille Sea ea
Golfe Toulon
du Lion o o o o o o
6 8 10 12 14 16
from the primary to the tertiary sector. This sion Countries. Tourism and recreation
trend has special significance in mountain facilities exert pressure on the environment
areas, where often traditional and sustain- through land-use development and in-
able activities are substituted by pure eco- creased road traffic. Additionally, many
nomically orientated activities. For example outdoor sports affect the more undisturbed
formerly multi-skilled mountain people and nearly inaccessible areas such as gorges
working in agriculture, forestry, pastoralism or rock faces (Garcia-Ruiz, Lasanta-Martinez,
or dairy farming are now employed in the 1993; Lichtenberger, 1979).
tourist business or industry. Thus agriculture
alone is no longer an economic pillar for The economic importance of mountain
mountain towns. tourism is illustrated by a Greek study which
estimated that the recreational value of
These changes in employment may be mountain areas is 10 times greater than the
highlighted by the area of Aletsch in Switzer- value of forest timber (Vakrou, 1998 quoted
land. Here the primary sector dropped from in EOMF, 1998).
about 70% in 1950 to 12% in 1980, tourist
accommodation increased from about 65 Tourism development varies considerably. In
beds in 1940 up to 7 250 beds in the 1980s. the Alps, for instance, only 10% of all Alpine
About 900 local residents now cater for communes have large monostructured
about 700 000 overnight stays per year tourist infrastructure and 40% have no
(Messerli, 1989). tourism (Bätzing, 1997), and since the mid-
1980s figures for tourism have been stagnat-
2.1.2. Tourism and recreation in mountains: a ing or decreasing in some Alpine regions,
double-edged sword after several decades of steady growth
Promoted as an economic incentive for (Elsasser/Frösch/Finsterle, 1990; Bätzing,
remote areas, tourism has in some mountain 1990; Romano, 1995). Nevertheless, there
regions evolved monostructured, vulnerable are plans for further tourist facilities, such as
economies, and generated pressures on the ski runs in the Pyrenees and developments
environment. Notwithstanding the vogue for to cater for new recreation activities, particu-
‘green tourism’, intensive, environmentally larly in the Accession Countries where
threatening tourism continues to develop; a tourism is important as a source of foreign
similar trend can also be expected in Acces- exchange.
Mountain areas 381
2.1.3. Traffic networks are governed by needs Trans-European Network (roads and railways) in
Figure 3.15.6
outside mountains mountainous countries
Transport infrastructure development (Figure
3.15.6) has often facilitated outmigration or
commuting to urban centres and increased million km2 million km2
transit and tourist traffic, particularly day 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 5 10 15 20 25
tourism in the catchment areas of big cities. Austria
France
For instance nearly 150 million people a year Germany
are crossing the Alps, 83% by road and 17% Greece
by railway (Figure 3.15.7). A rapid increase Ireland
in long-distance traffic crossing the Alps is
Italy
expected at a rate of 100% for freight and
Portugal
50% for passenger transport within the next
Spain
20 years (European Commission, 1994;
CIPRA, 1998). Sweden
Switzerland
Traffic network impacts are concentrated in United Kingdom
valleys where people live. It is therefore not Existing railway Existing road
surprising that two-thirds of the Alps’ popula- Planned railway Planned road
tion suffers from traffic noise. In Tyrol 87% of Average of total railway Average of total roads
high ozone levels are caused by traffic and in
the 1980s lead concentration in mother’s milk Here an index of meters of road/railway per km2 of mountain area shows where increases of
close to the Brenner motorway exceeded infrastructure and changes of modal split exist and are planned.
other regions by seven times (Rhomberg,
Source: EEA, European Commission (TEN)
1998). Other traffic-caused impacts are
fragmentation of untouched areas, deteriora-
tion of recreation areas, and socio-economic, Forest areas extend through natural re-
double-edged effects such as better accessibi- growth on abandoned farmland or afforesta-
lity to mountains or changing competition tion (Figure 3.15.8). Forests are, of course,
between mountains and lowlands. While often the main natural land cover in moun-
transport network density is higher in the tains. Depending on the new forest type,
Alps than in other European mountain local conditions and existing biotopes,
ranges, rapid increases may be expected for changes may positively or adversely affect
Accession Countries’ mountains. species diversity, landscape attractiveness and
tourism.
There have been calls in mountain areas for
better integration of transport and compen- In the eastern and central European coun-
sation for environmental disbenefits, and tries, changes are driven in particular by the
protests by local populations have resulted in transition towards a market economy.
highway blockades, for example on the
Brenner Pass (between Austria and Italy) or
the 1994 plebiscite in Switzerland on freight Freight transport in the Alps (1970-1996) Figure 3.15.7
transport.
The trend of freight
2.1.4. The sustainability of land uses is set at risk 100 transport per year through
Mountain agriculture has responded to 90
the inner Alpine arch,
economic pressures in two ways (Box 3.15.2). between Mont Cenis/Fréjus
80 and Brenner shows an
One reaction is intensification, in the valleys overproportional shift
Million net tonnes
Box 3.15.2 Evolution and change of land use in the Alps (after Bätzing, 1990)
Over time different, highly adapted land-use environment, in which land mismanagement can
systems slowly evolved the Swiss Alps, under the have disastrous consequences.
harsh and hostile conditions of the mountain
16th/17th century Boom time of cheese and cattle Population increase causes
production; wealthy overgrazing and degradation of
communes. pastures.
20th century From 1920 beginning of tourism Tourism, ski tourism in particular;
in belle-epoque hotels; from 1950s forest degradation through air
broad tourism trend. emissions; land set-aside; cause
increasing erosion.
Generally Alpine land-use systems followed Similar systems are reported also for the
principles which maintained a sustainable cultural Pyrénées, Vosges, Black Forest, Scandinavian
landscape and probably achieved in modern Mountains and Dinaric Alps.
terms ‘sustainable development’. Guidelines
included careful site selection, examination of the The traditional knowledge of land management,
suitability for land uses, and a high proportion of still a living example of sustainable development,
land restoration and maintenance, requiring is rarely taken seriously, more appreciated as a
responsibility and high human labour input. touristic attraction and at risk of disappearing;
for economic reasons, intensive land uses, such
Certain environmentally relevant measures were as mass tourism, do not favour sustainable
defined, such as forest protection to prevent rock development.
falls and avalanches (e.g. in Andermatt,
Switzerland, 1397); definition of number and type In future it seems likely that polarisation within
of livestock for pastures at different altitudes and mountain areas between very intensively
limitation to areas available for winter fodder in developed, economically prosperous regions
the valleys. Permanent restoration such as and remote, marginalised ones will continue.
collecting rocks from pastures, removal of forest Certainly there are some promising attempts
regrowth, seeding of open soil patches and to promote new, multi-functional land-use
fertilizing were practised. models, but it remains questionable whether
these will succeed as widespread solutions.
Pastures are enlarged by the cutting of be also indirect effects on human populati-
subalpine forests and shrubs, notably in ons and ecosystems in adjacent plains,
Albania, Bulgaria, Romania, Slovenia, particularly arid and semi-arid regions with
Slovakia and the Ukraine. Hunting tourism irrigated agriculture dependent on water
causes the overgrazing of some forests by supplied from mountain areas (Price/Barry,
deer (Price, 1995). 1997). For Swiss mountains an accelerated
structural change in mountain farming is
2.2. The environmental state of sensitive expected with threats to the survival of small
mountain areas is a valuable indicator for mountain communities, due to comparative
the whole of Europe disadvantages of mountains relative to valleys
(Jeker, 1996; Flückiger, 1996). But effects of
2.2.1. Mountains are the first to be hit by climate climate change depend on interaction with
change other factors and can be worsened or eased
The prospect of climate change (see Chap- by human action. The extent of environmen-
ter 3.1) has significant implications for tal and economic damage will depend on
mountain environments. There are likely to the resilience of mountain landscapes to
Mountain areas 383
buffer the expected extreme weather events. Forest shares inside and outside mountains Figure 3.15.8
This can be achieved through good land-
scape maintenance such as through moun-
tain forestry and pastoralism (Breiling/ United
Charamza/Skage, 1997). Kingdom In non-mountain areas
In mountain areas
Ireland
Mountain areas represent within a relatively
small area different climatic belts linked to Greece
altitude, and are therefore highly sensitive to
any climate change (Figure 3.15.9). With an Portugal
anticipated global warming of about 2-3°C by
2100, higher-altitude ecosystems probably Spain
would suffer the greatest impact of global
warming through eliminating the entire Italy
alpine belt, including the nival zone. An
impoverishment of (present endemic) France
species and biotope fragmentation would be
Austria
the result of this process. Temperature
increases and changes in precipitation
Germany
patterns would cause changes in snow cover
and water reserves, soil instability through 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
reduction of permafrost soils, and also % of land surface
influence the frequency of natural pheno- Source: EEA and FAO data
farming systems (Petit et al., 1998) e.g. alpine Illustration of land-use intensity in mountains Figure 3.15.11
and subalpine pastures, arctic and alpine
dwarf shrubs, or transhumant grazing, which
Relation of agricultural and
disappeared completely in the Pyrénées
semi-natural areas inside
(Garcia-Ruiz; Lasanta-Martinez, 1993). and outside mountains,
are in
in
as
-m tura eas
tain reas
are reas
considering the relevant
nonmi-na in ar
area.
oun l a
ain al a
as
as
Mountains also house a large number of
Se ounta in
Sem in aren
i
-m ure
unt ure
unt tur
ecosystems, species and genetic variety. They Source: EEA
mo i-na
non ricult
mo ricult
a
have the highest concentration of habitats of
Ag
Ag
most significance for conservation in the EU EU countries
(Zingari, 1994), with almost 25% of habitats Austria
of European interest – of 169 habitat types Belgium
(defined in Annex I of the Habitats Direc- Denmark
tive), 42 occur only in mountain areas France
(Hopkins, 1998). Natural and semi-natural Germany
habitats cover a large percentage of Europe’s Greece
mountain area, while intensive agriculture Ireland
Italy
accounts for only a small proportion (Figure
Luxembourg
3.15.11). In Accession Countries, coverage of
Netherlands
semi-natural and natural habitats in mountain
Portugal
regions is generally lower than in the EU.
Spain
Accession countries
Although biological diversity increased in Bulgaria
the last century in Europe, this trend has Czech Republic
been reversed in recent years, due to Hungary
changes in traditional land use: in the Alps a Poland
tremendous reduction of species and habi- Romania
tats use is reported (Brugger and Messerli in Slovak Republic
Zingari/Dubost, 1996). Other countries
Andorra
Mountain areas in particular have become a San Marino
retreat for species originally distributed in 0 0
larger areas such as brown bears, wolves, lynx 1-20% 1-20%
21-40% 21-40%
and wild reindeer. The re-immigration of 41-60% 41-60%
bears since the 1970s from southern Slovenia 60-80% 61-80%
into the Alps has been confirmed and
demonstrates the eligibility of mountains as
interlinking ecological networks. Eight of
the 35 mammal species listed under the EU
Habitat Directive occur predominantly or
entirely in mountains (Hopkins, 1998) – Number of vascular plant species in European
Figure 3.15.12
information concerning species diversity in mountains
mountain areas is mainly available for higher
plants (Figure 3.15.12) and mammals. Mountains are inhabited by
Isolation of populations during ice ages has a remarkable proportion of
14
caused evolution of endemic species, when European species of vascular
Number of species/1000
Greece*
Carpathians
European Union
Mt. Olympus
Pyrenees
disturbance of gene pools also occurs in annual outflow from Switzerland (Mountain
mountains, such as with the chamois subspe- Agenda, 1998). In spring and summer the
cies cartusiana of the French Alps hybriding discharge of mountain rivers supplements
with the common, introduced chamois the earlier high flows of the lowland section
subspecies rupicapra, or hybriding between which occur in winter and autumn.
wild and domesticated reindeer in Norway.
Relatively unpolluted rivers, in terms of
2.2.3. Mountains are the watertowers of the chemical and biological quality, generally are
lowlands situated in catchments in mountainous and
The water resources of mountains cover the forested regions where the population
most vital functions of mountain and lowland density is low. Lakes in mountains also
people (Figure 3.15.13). Notable functions represent some of the least nutrient-polluted
are the provision of high-quality freshwater, freshwater in Europe. However, high-altitude
irrigation water for food production, the lakes are known to be subject to acidification
economic value of hydropower generation, (Stanners, Bourdeau, 1995).
and water supply for natural wetlands in
plains. But these benefits of mountain waters Pollution of mountain rivers occurs through
are threatened by degradation of water waste-water discharge, or water abstraction.
quantity and quality, and discontinuity of flow. Other impacts work indirectly such as
The growing demand for water, mainly in accelerated surface runoff caused by surface
eastern and southern European countries, as sealing for infrastructure, soil changes
shown in Chapter 3.5, will make the preserva- through land-use abandonment, less water
tion of these functions of paramount impor- storage through deforestation or air-pollu-
tance in future. tion induced forest damages. Natural ex-
treme rainfalls then become extreme strong
Mountain height enables water to flow to far runoffs, which are linked to natural hazards
distant areas and to serve as a source even discussed later in this chapter. But higher
for semi-arid areas, while seasonal differ- runoff rates do not only change the quantity
ences in the flow regime of rivers are attenu- but also may worsen the quality of water by
ated by the temporal distribution of moun- diluting sediments and eroded soil.
tain water. The rainfall in high mountains
may be stored in ice, snow or mountain Runoff rates are also affected by river
lakes; for instance in Switzerland 136 km3 of channelisation for flood control of towns or
rainfall are stored in lakes and reservoirs and protection of farmland in valleys, damming
74 km3 in glaciers – five times the total for water storage or hydroenergy generation.
The change in water flow will be followed by
alterations in physical, chemical and biologi-
Importance of the Alps for the water flow in
cal parameters, such as sediment discharge,
Figure 3.15.13 bank erosion and reduced or altered bio-
Europe
diversity of riparian zones, for example if fish
spawning areas are destroyed. The effects of
In the Alps precipitation is
higher and evaporation is 100 these changes on the hydrological system
lower than in the average of 90 call for a common watershed management
Europe. Therefore the Alps framework for mountains and lowlands.
produce higher runoff rates. 80
As a result, small mountain
70
areas are responsible for an From a technical viewpoint mountain valleys
overproportional flow of 3500 60 are well suited for hydro-energy and water-
rivers in lowlands as shown
% Flow
Agenda, 1998
ments; however, there is often a noticeable
1500 20
environmental cost (Figure 3.15.14).
1000 10
500 0 Reservoir construction involves the loss of
Rhine
(Swiss section)
Rhone
Po
(excluding Alps)
Europe
nation, eutrophication, difficulties of fauna Natural sections in Alpine rivers Figure 3.15.14
migration, sediment trapping, water-level
variations and a loss of biological biodiversity
According to the criteria of
(Kristensen, Hansen, 1994); Leonard,
pristine water quality and a
Crouzet, 1998). Assessments by the Euro- Slovenia nearly untouched river flow,
pean Topic Centre for Inland Waters suggest the example of Alpine rivers
that reservoir construction in Europe is Germany highlight the loss of natural
sections. Only 10% of Alpine
stagnant after a period of strong increase Switzerland rivers, which is about 900
mainly in southern European countries. km, may be regarded as
France natural rivers, mainly due to
the absence of hydropower.
2.2.4. Soils in mountains – demanding multi- Italy The ecological quality of
functionality Austria
river courses depends –
among other things – on the
In mountains soils at higher elevations are
diversity of river beds and
quite different in terms of temporal develop- Alps
minimum flow.
ment, stability, and thickness of topsoil from 0 5 10 15 20
Source: Fabrice, Dubost,
soils in lowlands (see also Chapter 3.6). natural rivers as % of all river sections 1992
These features make soils in mountains
more sensitive to degradation and require
specific adapted land-use patterns which are
often met by the traditional silvo-agro- material) through acidification and pollu-
pastoral land uses. tion (Stanners, Bourdeau, 1995). Mountain
soils are highly sensitive to erosion because
The development of soils in high mountains of the shallowness of soil layers, the long
shows certain characteristics different from time frame for their development (up to
lowland soils: 4 000 years for mature soil) and the risks of
natural hazards due to increasing soil ero-
• soils develop more slowly because of sion. As shown in the potential risk map in
lower temperatures, a short vegetation the Dobris report, mountain areas present a
period and frequent interruption by large proportion of the potential high-risk
erosion; consequently soils are not highly areas in Spain, Portugal, Greece and Italy
evolved types, such as lithosols, rankers (Stanners, Bourdeau, 1995). In areas with
and rendzinas which often consist of non-calcareous bedrock and abundant
only a shallow soil layer covering the coniferous forests or alpine shrubs, soils are
geological substrata; soil types often more exposed to natural acidification and
occur according to elevation belts; are thus particularly susceptible to artificial
• shallow soils allow land use mainly as acidification.
grassland or forestry;
• soil generation, predominantly by Steep slopes, frequent torrential rainfalls,
physical processes, causes the so-called and pressures such as unsustainable forestry,
‘catenas’ phenomenon in mountains, overgrazing, loss of traditional agriculture,
featuring different kinds of soils accord- land abandonment and fires are most
ing to the gradient (Ozenda, 1988). abundant in mountain areas. In addition to
Different geological layers and ice-age overgrazing due to increased livestock and
substrates serve as parent material for clear cutting, recent causes of soil erosion
soil generation, which produces complex and compaction include tourism and sport-
mosaics of different soils on a single ing and recreational activities (walking,
mountain slope (Ellenberg, 1982, skiing, mountain bikes, off-road vehicles,
Ozenda, 1988). These features contri- etc.). Indirectly, soil erosion may cause
bute to the considerable diversity of contamination of surface- and ground-water.
mountain ecosystems; Deposits of eroded materials in riverbeds,
• in humid climates leaching of nutrients lakes and water reservoirs might increase
into lower soil layers is frequent where flood risks and can damage infrastructures
the nutrients are no longer accessible for such as roads, railways and powerlines.
vegetation; in the alpine and sub-alpine
belt grazing, cutting and constant input 2.2.5. Living with risks – natural hazards in
of natural fertilizers balances the natural mountains
phenomenon of podzol-evolution The extreme environment makes mountain
(Messerli, 1989). areas prone to natural phenomena such as
landslides (Table 3.15.1), rockfalls, mudslides,
Mountain soils are mainly affected by degra- avalanches, floods and earthquakes (see also
dation through erosion and (on acid parent Chapter 3.8). The stability of the slopes is often
388 Environmental issues
Austria: Braz, Stubachtal, Lienz 3 landslides; rockfall; heavy rains; severe deaths: 3
storm;
injured: 17
riverbanks burst; bridge destroyed,
Intercity derailed; houses destroyed.
injured: 215
homeless:
40 000
130.4 M euro
modified by human activity through distur- areas, and often in Mediterranean and sub-
bance of vegetation (deforestation, Mediterranean climatic regimes. Earth-
overgrazing) and groundwater conditions or quakes and floods are predominant (60%)
the construction of infrastructure (see but the number and proportion of disasters
Camparia case study, Chapter 3.8). The factors identified with landslide and avalanche
which increase soil erosion (see above), may appear much greater (Hewitt, 1997; Moun-
also increase the risk of land slides. tain Agenda, 1992).
Nine out of ten earthquake disasters in Since 1970 the reported number of natural
Europe occur partly or wholly in mountain and man-made disasters has increased due to
Mountain areas 389
better information and higher concentra- Burnt areas in mountains Figure 3.15.15
tions of population and economic activity in
industrial countries (Schweizerische Rück-
Of the total burnt areas in a
versicherung, 1998). For a general overview country, mountains are
see Chapter 3.8. France
affected by about 15-39%.
The portion of burnt area
Portugal
must be estimated higher in
In the Mediterranean region, forest fires countries with larger
Spain
have the largest potential for altering the mountain areas.
ecosystem. Every year, some 45 000 forest Greece
Source: EEA
fires break out in Europe – most of them
Italy
caused by humans. Many fires are lighted
illegally but intentionally to gain sites for 0 50 100
grazing livestock, construction or tourist % of burnt area
facilities. The anticipated climate change
in mountain areas in non-mountain areas
might affect natural-fire frequency, spread
and their devastating effects (European
Commission, 1997a; Ghazi et al., 1997). The
area affected by fires has seen a downward NGOs’ perception of present policies on mountain
trend, however in Spain and Portugal fires Figure 3.15.16
issues in Europe
seize large areas (Figure 3.15.15).
Source: Mountain Agenda,
Major road and rail tunnels, high bridges 1997
and dams are concentrated in the moun- 80
tains, and are prone to widespread, frequent 70 At present
European
Institutions
United Nations
Regions
State
FAO
Other
Local
NGOS
Examples of how EU policy measures cover relevent mountaín issues as recognised in this chapter Table 3.15.2
Environment Policy
COM(97)88 I I
Regional Policy
Cohesion Fund D
INTERREG II D D D
REGIS II
PHARE, TACIS I I I I
LEADER II I I I
further development in sensitive zones, and mountain areas in the EU. These mountain
– more positively – stimulated development areas are individually and heterogeneously
of sustainable tourism. Over half of the defined by the Member States. It is reported
budget of the Community action plan to that agricultural income in mountain LFAs
support tourism is earmarked for sustainable lies 45% below the EU-average, but has
tourism projects (Figure 3.15.18). In Spain, increased slightly in the period 1987-1993 by
the Cohesion Fund programme includes 0.7%, while decreasing in other regions.
reduction of harmful tourism effects in Most of French mountain areas and some
national parks, while the development of Spanish and Italian areas are above this EU-
non-intensive tourism in the Aragon region average income, while the situation is wors-
has been co-financed under the Structural ening in nearly all areas of Greece and
Fund 5b objectives. Portugal (European Commission, 1997c).
3.2.3. Regarding land use changes, mainly from Agricultural labels of origin may play a
agriculture supportive role in encouraging farming
Land use changes and mountain agriculture activities which contribute to maintaining
are targeted by different measures in the fragile ecosystems like mountains. The
Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) such as ‘fromages d’alpage et d’estives’ are well-known
the Accompanying measures (agri-environ- examples of specific products linked to
ment, forestry) and Structural measures traditional practices.
(rural development, objectives 1 + 5b,
LEADER, etc.) and the regional policy, such Land use changes are also induced by the
as INTERREG II (Figure 3.15.19). A recent gravitation of urban agglomerations, and a
study of existing EU policies (Euromontana, balance is needed in the urban-mountain
1998) has concluded that small and multi- relationship. Therefore the general call in the
functional farms do not receive sufficient aid ESDP (European Commission, 1997b) for a
to compensate for natural handicaps, that new definition of the rural-urban relationship
agri-environment measures may delay has a particular focus on mountain areas;
adverse developments and repair some options include the balance between cities
damage but it is ‘highly unlikely’ that the and country, diversification of rural areas,
production-oriented systems can be conservation and creative management of
reoriented, and that other agricultural cultural landscapes. The benefits of an
measures are not focused on environmental attractive, environmentally healthy hinterland
benefits. The time-scale for significant policy have been recognised by cities but compensa-
changes has also been expressed as a major tion patterns for the provision of this steward-
concern of English nature-conservation ship are not developed. The example of
groups. Munich shows that the high recreation values
of lakes and mountains have helped the city
Under the Less Favored Areas Regulation to become a highly desired location for high-
about 20% of the total Utilized Agricultural technology industry.
Area (UAA) is supported as less favoured
3.2.4. Forestry and renewable energies
Mountain areas are highly suitable for
renewable energy generation such as wind
Figure 3.15.18 EU support for mountain tourism and hydroelectric energy, which could offer
additional, sustainable revenues for moun-
Tourism projects have been
tain economies. However, strong opposition
supported in the Pyrenees 50 can be expected to further hydro-powersta-
and Bohemian Massif in tions (CIAPP, 1995).
particular. About 45% of 40
% EU INTERREG
Scandinavian
Southeast
Alps
mountains
European
mountains
Pyrenees
created and 300 000 ha of forest will be Interreg programme in mountains Figure 3.15.19
improved in the EU (European Commission,
1997c). This implementation, however, often
disregards the choice of tree species and the
impacts on soil, water, landscape and Bohemian Forest
Appenines 0.5%
biodiversity, and so it has not necessarily 0.5% Pyrenees
been environmentally beneficial Alps 1.9%
(Euromontana, 1998). Within objective 1 4.7% Scandinavia
0.1%
and 5b, development of forest functions in
terms of erosion limitation, water protection
and tourism promotion are supported. Southeast Europe
10.1%
Figure 3.15.20 LIFE Nature support in mountains ity assessments of soil, agro-forestry practices,
adjusted stocking levels, rotation farming
systems, and measures against forest fires.
Results from the Swiss MAB-research pro-
50 gramme confirm that the best soil protection
45
in mountains is constant, ecologically
adapted agriculture (Messerli, 1989).
40
35 3.3. In which direction is policy heading?
EU contribution to LIFE
30 NATURE projects in The most comprehensive changes for
mountain areas
25 mountains can be expected from the ap-
EU contribution to LIFE
20 NATURE projects in praisal of EU Regional development plans,
other areas the attention on rural development pro-
15
grammes as a new pillar in the CAP and the
10
promotion of direct environmental benefits
5 (European Commission, 1998). It has been
0 announced that the Structural Funds budget
1996 1997 will be increased to about one-third of the
brown bear Community budget which will make the
habitats and wolf
21% 20% funds a powerful instrument (European
other
other
Commission, 1997b).
species
3% species
10%
It can be assumed that while new regional
brown bear habitats objectives will be added through the needs
and wolf 70% in the Accession Countries, this will require
76%
cuts in expenditure on present objectives. It
is necessary to assess to what extent this will
affect mountain areas in the EU.
About 75% of the 1996 and 3.2.6. Natural phenomena can not be excluded
20% of the 1997 EU-LIFE- In the ESDP further fields of work have been
funding in mountain areas
was spent for conservation
Direct protection from natural hazards is distinguished which significantly meet the
of the brown bear and wolf; recognised to be far more efficiently pro- need for better analysis of mountain areas in
about 3% was spent for vided by mountain forests with a high particular, such as the development of
conservation of other
species.
proportion of natural vegetation than by indicators, criteria and a typology of areas,
artificial devices. Switzerland provided which could complement the efforts of
Source: European eloquent figures for the role of protection, regional development in Agenda 2000.
Commission, 1997
said to be worth up to SFR 3 billion (1.8
billion euros) per year to local communities New, economically based policy approaches
(EOMF, 1998). A risk-reducing agriculture- for balancing the stewardship of mountain
forestry combination which might find areas for lowlands have been proposed by
examples in former multi-functional land- the Mountain Agenda and include, for
use systems may claim to be one of the most instance, fees for the entrance to parks and
efficient and – in terms of cost-benefit ratio – buffer zones, for hunting and fishing, for
most successful approaches (Messerli, 1989). tour operating, for climbing peaks and for
using roads and passes.
As pointed out in Chapter 3.8 only five
countries in the EU provide land-use plan- 3.4. What could policy-makers require for
ning criteria for hazard prevention and five evolving mountain policy?
countries still have not developed hazard First there is a general need to recognise
arrangements at all. It must be strongly mountains as a distinct area and to evolve
emphasised that for mountain areas risk objective criteria for area definition. This
assessment and land-use planning are vital goes hand in hand with the identification of
instruments for hazard identification, indicators for sustainable land use.
avoidance and mitigation.
Furthermore better baseline information for
For soil protection also, the concept of decision-maker is necessary. This includes
multi-functionality, implemented by inte- monitoring of mountain environmental
grated land use planning, has been recom- conditions. Identification of mountain
mended for policy action. This should research needs the interaction of different
include ecological adaptation of land-use disciplines and the integration of traditional,
management by using suitability/vulnerabil- long-term experience of local people.
Mountain areas 395
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