QUESTION # 1

How to find the research topic? Find out appropriate topic to address
problem in educational system?

Selecting a topic
The ability to develop a good research topic is an important skill. An instructor may assign
you a specific topic, but most often instructors require you to select your own topic of interest.
When deciding on a topic, there are a few things that you will need to do:

 brainstorm for ideas

 choose a topic that will enable you to read and understand the literature
 ensure that the topic is manageable and that material is available
 make a list of key words
 be flexible
 define your topic as a focused research question
 research and read more about your topic
 formulate a thesis statement

Be aware that selecting a good topic may not be easy. It must be narrow and focused enough
to be interesting, yet broad enough to find adequate information. Before selecting your topic,
make sure you know what your final project should look like. Each class or instructor will likely
require a different format or style of research project.

Use the steps below to guide you through the process of selecting a research topic.

Step 1: Brainstorm for ideas

Choose a topic that interests you. Use the following questions to help generate topic ideas.

 Do you have a strong opinion on a current social or political controversy

 Did you read or see a news story recently that has piqued your interest or made you angry
or anxious?
 Do you have a personal issue, problem or interest that you would like to know more
about?
 Do you have a research paper due for a class this semester?

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Step 2: Read General Background Information

 Read a general encyclopedia article on the top two or three topics you are considering.
Reading a broad summary enables you to get an overview of the topic and see how your
idea relates to broader, narrower, and related issues. It also provides a great source for
finding words commonly used to describe the topic. These keywords may be very useful
to your later research. If you cant find an article on your topic, try using broader terms
and ask for help from a librarian.

For example, the Encyclopedia Britannica Online (or the printed version of this

encyclopedia, in Thompson Library's Reference Collection on Reference Table 1) may not have
an article on Social and Political Implications of Jackie Robinsons Breaking of the Color Barrier
in Major League Baseball but there will be articles on baseball history and on Jackie Robinson.

Browse the Encyclopedia Americana for information on your topic ideas. Notice that both
online encyclopedias provide links to magazine articles and Web sites. These are listed in the
left or the right margins.

 Use periodical indexes to scan current magazine, journal or newspaper articles on your

topic. Ask a librarian if they can help you to browse articles on your topics of interest.
 Use Web search engines. Google and Bing are currently considered to be two of the best
search engines to find web sites on the topic.

Step 3: Focus on Your Topic

A topic will be very difficult to research if it is too broad or narrow. One way to narrow a
broad topic such as "the environment" is to limit your topic. Some common ways to limit a topic
are:

 by geographical area e.g What environmental issues are most important in the
Southwestern United States

 by culture.e.g How does the environment fit into the Navajo world view?

 by time frame e.g What are the most prominent environmental issues of the last 10 years?

 by discipline, e.g How does environmental awareness effect business practices today?

 by population group.e.g What are the effects of air pollution on senior citizens?

Remember that a topic may be too difficult to research if it is too:

 

 Locally confined - Topics this specific may only be covered in these (local) newspapers,
if at all.

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  Recent - If a topic is quite recent, books or journal articles may not be available, but
newspaper or magazine articles may. Also, Web sites related to the topic may or may not
be available.
 Broadly interdisciplinary - You could be overwhelmed with superficial information.

 Popular - You will only find very popular articles about some topics such as sports
figures and high-profile celebrities and musicians.

If you have any difficulties or questions with focusing your topic,discuss the topic with your
instructor, or with a librarian

 Step 4: Make a List of Useful Keywords

Keep track of the words that are used to describe your topic.

Look for words that best describe your topic

 Look for them in when reading encyclopedia articles and background and general
information
 Find broader and narrower terms, synonyms, key concepts for key words to widen your
search capability

Step 5: Be Flexible
It is common to modify your topic during the research process. You can never be sure of
what you may find. You may find too much and need to narrow your focus, or too little and need
to broaden your focus. This is a normal part of the research process. When researching, you may
not wish to change your topic, but you may decide that some other aspect of the topic is more
interesting or manageable. 

Keep in mind the assigned length of the research paper, project, bibliography or other
research assignment. Be aware of the depth of coverage needed and the due date. These
important factors may help you decide how much and when you will modify your topic. You
instructor will probably provide specific requirements, if not the table below may provide a
rough guide:

 Step 6: Define Your Topic as a Focused Research Question

You will often begin with a word, develop a more focused interest in an aspect of
something relating to that word, and then begin to have questions about the topic. 

Step 7: Research and Read More About Your Topic

Use the key words you have gathered to research in the catalog, article databases, and
Internet search engines. Find more information to help you answer your research question.
You will need to do some research and reading before you select your final topic. Can you find
enough information to answer your research question? Remember, selecting a topic is an
important and complex part of the research process.

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 Step 8: Formulate a Thesis Statement
Write your topic as a thesis statement. This may be the answer to your research question
and/or a way to clearly state the purpose of your research. Your thesis statement will usually be
one or two sentences that states precisely what is to be answered, proven, or what you will
inform your audience about your topic.
The development of a thesis assumes there is sufficient evidence to support the thesis statement.

For example, a thesis statement could be: Frank Lloyd Wright's design principles,
including his use of ornamental detail and his sense of space and texture opened a new era of
American architecture. His work has influenced contemporary residential design. 

The title of your paper may not be exactly the same as your research question or your
thesis statement, but the title should clearly convey the focus, purpose and meaning of your
research

Problems in Education System

Following are the problems in education in Pakistan.
 
         1.    Education System is based on Unequal Lines
The educational system of Pakistan is based on unequal lines. Medium of education is
different in both, public and private sector. This creates a sort of disparity among people,
dividing them into two segments.

          2.    Regional Disparity

Regional disparity is also a major cause. The schools in Baluchistan (The Largest
Province Of Pakistan By Area) are not that much groomed as that of Punjab (The Largest
Province Of Pakistan By Population). In FATA, the literacy rate is deplorable constituting 29.5%
in males and 3% in females.

          3.     Ratio of Gender Discrimination

The ratio of gender discrimination is a cause which is projecting the primary school ratio
of boys & girls which is 10:4 respectively. For the last few years there has been an increase in
the growth of private schools. That not only harms the quality of education but creates a gap
among haves and has not.

4.    Lack of Technical Education

The lack of technical education is a biggest flaw in the educational policy that has never
been focused before. Therefore, less technical people mean less.

          5.    Funds
The allocation of funds for education is very low. It is only 1.5 to 2.0 percent of the total
GDP. It should be around 7% of the total GDP.

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          6.    Untrained Teachers
The teachers in government schools are not well trained. People who do not get job in
any other sector, they try their luck in educational system. They are not professionally trained
teachers so they are unable to train a nation.

          7.    Poverty
Poverty is also another factor that restricts the parents to send their children to public or private
schools. So, they prefer to send their children to madrassas where education is totally free.

Recently, minister of education announced a new Education policy for that next 10 years.
The interesting thing is that the previous educational policy from 1998 to 2010 is still not
expired. Although it is projected to give new plans and to make more promises with the nation. It
is said in this policy that all the public schools will be raised up to the level of private schools.
No plan of action have been discussed, yet a notice is issued to private schools to induct
government course in 5th and 8th class and these classes will bound to take board exams. This
disturbed the students of private sector also.

QUESTION # 2
Write down the types of Hypothesis?

Definition of a Hypothesis
As a researcher will be. Based on our hunch and curiosity, we will test it by collecting
information that will enable us to conclude whether our assumptions are right. Assumption based
on curiosity or a hunch is a hypothesis or an idea about a situation, phenomenon or relationship
that we do not know. Researchers call these factors hypotheses and they become the basis of an
inquiry. (a) Definition by Bailey (1978)
A hypothesis is a proposition in testable form and predicts a particular relationship
between two or more variables. If a researcher thinks that a relationship exists, he should first
state it as a hypothesis and then test the hypothesis in the field. (b) Definition by Grinnell (1988)
Hypothesis is written in such a way that it can be proven or disproven by valid and reliable data.

Types of Hypothesis
Generally, there is only one type of hypothesis, that is, research hypothesis. Research
hypothesis forms the basis of investigation for a researcher. However, recent conventions in the
scientific field and inquiries stated that hypothesis can be classified into two main categories ă
research hypothesis and alternate hypothesis. Alternate hypothesis is a convention among the
scientific community.
The main function of an alternate hypothesis is to explicitly specify the relationship that
will be considered true in case the research hypothesis proves to be wrong. We can see that in a
way, alternate hypothesis is the opposite of research hypothesis. As you may come across a null

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hypothesis, hypothesis of no differences, these are all formulated as alternate hypothesis. LetÊs
see an example
QUESTION # 3
Define the following in detail and mention their types? Probability sampling
and non-probability sampling.

 Probability Sampling 
A probability sampling method is any method of sampling that utilizes some form of
random selection. In order to have a random selection method, you must set up some process or
procedure that assures that the different units in your population have equal probabilities of
being chosen.
Types of Probability Samples
 Simple Random
 Systematic Random
 Stratified Random
 Random Cluster
 Stratified Cluster

Simple Random Sampling

Each element in the population has an equal probability of selection and each
combination of elements has an equal probability of selection
• Names drawn out of a hat
• Random numbers to select elements from an ordered list

Stratified Random Sampling

Divide population into groups that differ in important ways

• Basis for grouping must be known before sampling
• Select random sample from within each group

Systematic Random Sampling

Each element has an equal probability of selection, but combinations of elements have
different probabilities.

Random Cluster Sampling

Done correctly, this is a form of random sampling

• Population is divided into groups, usually geographic or organizational
• Some of the groups are randomly chosen

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• In pure cluster sampling, whole cluster is sampled
• In simple multistage cluster, there is random sampling within each randomly chosen cluster

Stratified Cluster Sampling

• Reduce the error in cluster sampling by creating strata of clusters

• Sample one cluster from each stratum
• The cost-savings of clustering with the error reduction of stratification Strata Stratified Cluster
Sampling
• Combines elements of stratification and clustering
• First you define the clusters
• Then you group the clusters into strata of clusters, putting similar clusters together in a stratum
• Then you randomly pick one (or more) cluster from each of the strata of clusters
• Then you sample the subjects within the sampled clusters (either all the subjects, or a simple
random sample of them)

Non-probability sampling 

Nonprobability sampling techniques cannot be used to infer from the sample to the general
population in statistical terms and thus answer "how many"-related research questions.

 Convenience, haphazard or accidental sampling - members of the population are

chosen based on their relative ease of access. To sample friends, co-workers, or shoppers at a
single mall, are all examples of convenience sampling. Such samples are biased because
researchers may unconsciously approach some kinds of respondents and avoid others (Lucas
2014a), and respondents who volunteer for a study may differ in unknown but important
ways from others (Wiederman 1999).
 Snowball sampling - The first respondent refers an acquaintance. The friend also refers a
friend, and so on. Such samples are biased because they give people with more social
connections an unknown but higher chance of selection (Berg 2006), but lead to higher
response rates.
 Judgmental sampling or purposive sampling - The researcher chooses the sample
based on who they think would be appropriate for the study. This is used primarily when
there is a limited number of people that have expertise in the area being researched, or when
the interest of the research is on a specific field or a small group. Different types of
purposive sampling include:

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 Deviant case - The researcher obtains cases that substantially differ from the dominant
pattern (a special type of purposive sample). The case is selected in order to obtain
information on unusual cases that can be specially problematic or specially good.
 Case study - The research is limited to one group, often with a similar characteristic or of
small size.
 Ad hoc quotas - A quota is established (e.g. 65% women) and researchers are free to
choose any respondent they wish as long as the quota is met.

QUESTION # 4
Write a note on Rating scales and other instruments e.g Nominal scale,
ordinal scale, interval scale and ratio scale?
A rating scale is a set of categories designed to elicit information about a quantitative or
a qualitative attribute. In the social sciences, particularly psychology, common examples are
the Likert response scale and 1-10 rating scales in which a person selects the number which is
considered to reflect the perceived quality of a product.
Let’s start with the easiest one to understand.
 Nominal scales are used for labeling variables, without any quantitative value.  “Nominal”
scales could simply be called “labels.”  Here are some examples, below.  Notice that all of these
scales are mutually exclusive (no overlap) and none of them has any numerical significance.  
A good way to remember all of this is that “nominal” sounds a lot like “name”
and nominal scales are kind of like “names” or labels.

Examples of Nominal Scales

A sub-type of nominal scale with only two categories (e.g. male/female) is called

“dichotomous.”  If you are a student, you can use that to impress your teacher.Continue reading
about types of data and measurement scales: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.

With ordinal scales, it is the order of the values is what’s important and significant, but the
differences between each one is not really known.  Take a look at the example below.  

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 In each case, we know that#4 is better than#3 or #2, but we don’t know–and cannot
quantify–how much better it is.
 For example, is the difference between “OK” and “Unhappy” the same as the
difference between “Very Happy” and “Happy?”  We can’t say. Ordinal scales are typically
measures of non-numeric concepts like satisfaction, happiness, discomfort, etc.
“Ordinal” is easy to remember because it sounds like “order” and that’s the key to
remember with “ordinal scales”–it is the order that matters, but that’s all you really get from
these.

Interval scales are numeric scales in which we know not only the order, but also the exact
differences between the values.  The classic example of an interval scale is Celsius temperature
because the difference between each value is the same.  

For example, the difference between 60 and 50 degrees is a measurable 10 degrees, as is

the difference between 80 and 70 degrees.  Time is another good example of an interval scale in
which the increments are known, consistent, and measurable.

Interval scales are nice because the realm of statistical analysis on these data sets opens
up.  For example, central tendency can be measured by mode, median, or mean; standard
deviation can also be calculated.

Ratio scales are the ultimate nirvana when it comes to measurement scales because they tell us
about the order, they tell us the exact value between units, AND they also have an absolute zero–
which allows for a wide range of both descriptive and inferential statistics to be applied.  At the
risk of repeating myself, everything above about interval data applies to ratio scales + ratio scales
have a clear definition of zero.  Good examples of ratio variables include height and weight.

Ratio scales provide a wealth of possibilities when it comes to statistical analysis.  These
variables can be meaningfully added, subtracted, multiplied, divided (ratios).

This Device Provides Two Examples of Ratio Scales (height and weight)

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QUESTION # 5
Mention the types of descriptive statistics in detail?
Types of Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics allow you to characterize your data based on its properties. There
are four major types of descriptive statistics:

1. Measures of Frequency:

* Count, Percent, Frequency

* Shows how often something occurs

* Use this when you want to show how often a response is given

2. Measures of Central Tendency

* Mean, Median, and Mode

* Locates the distribution by various points

* Use this when you want to show how an average or most commonly indicated response

3. Measures of Dispersion or Variation

* Range, Variance, Standard Deviation

* Identifies the spread of scores by stating intervals

* Range = High/Low points

* Variance or Standard Deviation = difference between observed score and mean

* Use this when you want to show how "spread out" the data are. It is helpful to know when your
data are so spread out that it affects the mean

4. Measures of Position

* Percentile Ranks, Quartile Ranks

* Describes how scores fall in relation to one another. Relies on standardized scores

* Use this when you need to compare scores to a normalized score (e.g., a national norm)

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