Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Arinto, P.B.
Arinto, P.B.
Patricia B. Arinto
January 2013
2
Abstract
I hereby declare that, except where explicit attribution is made, the work
presented in this thesis is entirely my own.
Table of Contents
Abstract 2
Declaration and Word Count 3
Statement 8
Chapter 1. Introduction 12
1.1 The broad context: evolution of course design in distance education 12
1.2 The research focus 14
1.3 Definition of terms 15
1.4 The institutional context 17
1.5 Significance of the study 21
1.6 Structure of the thesis 23
Chapter 3. Methodology 56
3.1 The research participants 56
3.2 Data collection 58
3.2.1 Selecting the method 58
3.2.2 Developing the interview schedule 61
3.2.3 Conducting the interviews 63
3.3 Data analysis 68
3.4 Ethical considerations 69
References 136
Appendices
Appendix 1. Interview Schedule 149
Appendix 2. Questionnaire 150
List of Tables
Table 2-1. Types of media use in education
Table 2-2. Media types and the learning tasks that they support
Table 2-3. Dimensions delimiting conceptions of online teaching
Table 3-1. Participant profile
Table 3-2. Question map
Table 3-3. Sample specific questions and follow-up questions
Table 4-1. Web technologies used by the research participants
Table 4-2. Reasons for using Web resources
Table 4-3. Reasons for using Web tools
Table 4-4. Web technologies used by the faculty classified by media type
Table 5-1. Summary of changes in participants' course design practice
Table 5-2. Distribution of faculty responses in terms of area and focus of change
in course design practice
Table 5-3. Issues and challenges in personal ODeL course design practice
Table 6-1. ODeL teaching skills framework
List of Figures
Figure 2-1. Laurillard's Conversational Framework
Figure 2-2. The Community of Inquiry model
7
Statement
The paper "Going the Distance: Towards a new professionalism for full-time distance education
faculty at the University of the Philippines" was published in Volume 8 Number 3 (November 2007) of
the International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning.
9
evaluation was based on a framework derived from a review of the literature on the
design, development, and evaluation of interactive multimedia educational materials.
Finally, for the Specialist Course in International Education I wrote a critical analysis
of national policy directions in ICT integration in Philippine schools from a human
development perspective, which eschews a narrow technology-centred approach to
ICT integration in favour of a "people-centred" capacity-building approach. In the
conclusion to this paper, which I presented at a national conference2, I recommended
that national policy on ICT integration focus on the use of ICTs to broaden access to
education, teacher professional development in ICT integration, and the development
of digital content resources in the local languages.
In the next stage of the EdD programme, namely, the institution-focused study
(IFS), I continued with the line of enquiry that I had pursued in my assignments for
the second, third, and fourth taught courses, namely, how teaching and learning with
computer technologies in public secondary schools might be improved. At this point,
however, I began to focus on teacher professionalism as a research interest. For my
IFS I undertook a qualitative study of dimensions of and factors influencing the
development of the technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK or, more
recently, TPACK) (Mishra & Koehler, 2006) of four teacher educators from the
Philippines. Through the study I hoped to contribute to the formulation of appropriate
models of teacher professional development (TPD) in ICT integration in the
Philippines based on a framework derived from theories and empirical findings on
teacher knowledge, teacher learning, and the dynamics between technology and
pedagogy. Thus, I presented the theoretical framework and key findings from my IFS
at several national and regional conferences3. More recently, a national assessment of
ICT integration in public secondary schools in the Philippines undertaken by a group
of researchers of which I was team leader produced further empirical evidence of the
critical importance of TPD in ICT integration, among others. The national assessment
also points to the relevance of the TPACK framework in the design of such a TPD
programme.
2 The paper "Reflections on ICTs in Basic Education Policy and Practice in the Philippines" was
presented at the 2nd National ICTs in Basic Education Conference held on 6-7 September 2006 at
Waterfront Hotel, Lahug, Cebu City, Philippines.
3 These included the National Intel Teach Pre-service Conference held on 8-11 February 2009 at
Tagbilaran City, Philippines; the 3'd National ICTs in Basic Education Congress held on 10-11
September 2008 at Cebu City, Philippines; the 5th International Conference on Teacher Education held
on 24-26 July 2008 at Manila, Philippines; and the Asia Policy Forum on ICT Integration in Education
held on 19-20 September 2007 at Pasig City, Philippines.
10
Soon after completing the IFS but before I had formulated my thesis proposal,
I returned to teaching full-time at UPOU. Almost immediately after my return, I
became involved in program administration, this time of the Master of Distance
Education program that I had helped to conceptualise a few years earlier, and faculty
development in teaching online for UPOU's full-time and affiliate faculty. But in
contrast to my approach to administrative work prior to commencing the EdD
programme, this time my appreciation of academic issues and my recommendations
for how to address them were informed by a research-based perspective and the
theoretical grounding that I had acquired during my work in the taught courses of the
EdD, and the IFS. For example, I designed a workshop on rapid instructional design
for faculty members based on concepts and principles derived from Anderson's
(2008c) conceptualisation of the roles of the online teacher, and a framework for
designing online courses derived from Anderson's (2008a) attributes of effective
online DE, Beetham's (2007, 2009) approach to e-learning activity design, and
Thiagi's (1999, 2008) rapid instructional design methodology.
As I found myself once again preoccupied with academic and administrative
issues specific to DE, I realised that my thesis would have to be on an aspect of my
work at UPOU. Hence my thesis focus on the course design practices of 10 colleagues
at UPOU in a context characterised by a shift from print-based DE to Web-based DE
— a shift that appears to have taken place at UPOU while I was on study leave. This
thesis topic emerged from my concern that the rapid adoption of new Web
technologies could have a negative impact on DE philosophy and practice at UPOU. I
found this possibility alarming, and I became overly critical of colleagues whom I
thought were buying into the e-learning 'hype' (Conole, 2004). However, following a
review of the related literature, I understood that I was/am witnessing a development
in DE that was/is not unique to my institution, and it is important to ground our
practice and theorising of online DE in "the accumulated body of distance education
theory and research" (Calvert, 2005, p. 227). Thus, in choosing what I perceived to be
a key issue within my own institutional and professional context as the focus of my
thesis, I would be drawing from, as well as contributing to, the international/global
scholarly discourses on online learning, DE, and open learning.
It was in the process of conceptualising the thesis and writing the thesis report
that I began to consciously establish connections between, and weave together,
insights derived from my research on TPD in ICT integration in schools on the one
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hand, and faculty development in e-learning and DE in higher education on the other
hand. While these fields are not unrelated, I had not until then attempted to theorise
the linkages between my work as an academic developer in a DE institution and my
`other' work of designing TPD programs in ICT integration in public schools. More
specifically, I realised that the TPACK framework which I had applied in my IFS was
not irrelevant to my analysis (in the thesis) of the factors that influence course design
practices in online DE and the corollary issues and challenges in helping academics to
become skilled and reflexive practitioners of online teaching in DE contexts.
One of the contributions of the thesis is a TPACK-based ODeL (open and
distance e-learning) teaching skills framework for DE faculty. I intend to publish this
framework for scrutiny by DE scholars, and to test and refine it as the basis of a
blended design for faculty development in ODeL that I have proposed as part of a
programme of research in the University of the Philippines System with the aim of
improving the academic performance of units based on findings from the 2012
internal academic assessment. As for the recommendations for institutional policy
development and organisational restructuring that I outline in the concluding chapter
of my thesis, I feel that it is important for me to share these with colleagues at UPOU
when opportunities to do so present themselves. One of the latter is a series of
roundtable discussions on UPOU's 'openness' (or lack of it) as an open and DE
university in a digital age that we started a few months ago and which shall culminate
with the publication of policy papers at the end of the academic year (i.e., in March
2013). As I participate in these discussions, I find myself once again reflecting on and
making connections between what I have learned from my readings and the research I
have undertaken in the EdD programme, and what I have learned from my
professional practice as a DE practitioner, academic developer, teacher 'trainer', and
advocate of effective teaching with technology. And so my development as a scholar
and practitioner continues.
Patricia B. Arinto
(December 2012)
12
CHAPTER 1 — INTRODUCTION
4 The first three generations of distance education in Taylor's five-generation scheme are: 1) the
correspondence model using print media; 2) the multi-media model using multiple, one-way media;
and 3) telelearning model using audio and video conferencing, as well as broadcast radio and
television.
5 Anderson and Elloumi also refer to five generations of distance education, with the first three
generations making use of correspondence study, mass media, and synchronous technologies.
13
circumstances (Bates; 2008; Haughey et al., 2008; Tait, 2010). The use of an online
portal and VLE6 further enables DE institutions to support both independent learning
and collaborative learning through "increasingly complex pedagogical structures"
(Haughey et al., 2008, p. 15).
Flexibility and adaptability of design are said to distinguish 21st century DE
from older forms of DE (Garrison, 2000; Haughey et al., 2008; Tait, 2010). Industrial
era DE deployed "standardised, normalised and formalised procedures for design and
delivery" (Peters, quoted in Burge & Polec, 2008, p. 238). In contrast, in online DE
the boundary between course development and course delivery is increasingly blurred
and "former course development roles... are being deconstructed and reinvented"
(Abrioux, 2001, p. 1) as the role of teachers in the design of pedagogically effective
learning environments receives renewed emphasis (Anderson, 2008; Bennett et al.,
2009). Moreover, DE course designs are increasingly 'resource-based' (Calvert, 2005;
Naidu, 2007) — i.e., featuring online learning activities organised around Web-based
resources (Jara & Fitri, 2007) — and, in some cases, 'integrated' (Mason, 1998) or
`online discussion-based' (Jara & Fitri, 2007), where the course contents are "more
fluid and dynamic" because they are created during synchronous and asynchronous
online collaborative activities (Mason, 1998).
At the University of the Philippines – Open University (UPOU, described in
section 1.4), resource-based course development has been encouraged since 2003. It
became the main course development model in 2007 when the university shifted to
Moodie, an open source VLE which allows for the creation of courses featuring
digital resources and online activities directly on the Moodle system. New courses are
being developed under a resource-based course development contract, and faculty
assigned to teach (called faculty-in-charge or FICs) already developed courses are
encouraged to supplement the print modules (or replace them altogether, if warranted)
with open educational resources (OER). FICs are also encouraged to integrate online
discussion forums, and they are free to use open source Web tools, such as media
sharing sites and Web-based conferencing applications, to enhance course delivery.
These changes in course design and delivery have led UPOU's current
administrators, most notably the Chancellor', to coin the term 'open and distance e-
6 A VLE is "a collection of integrated tools enabling the management of online learning, providing a
delivery mechanism, student tracking, assessment and access to resources" (DISC Infokit, 2012).
7 The Chancellor is the equivalent of a Rector or Vice-Chancellor in the UK system.
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learning' (ODeL, defined in section 1.3) to refer to UPOU's DE practice8. This study
focuses on the ODeL course design practice of a group of UPOU faculty who are
integrating in their courses various types of Web resources and experimenting with
learning activities using various Web applications. These faculty members stand in
sharp contrast to other UPOU academics whose use of Moodle is rudimentary9 but
who are also not utilising other Web tools and resources in their teaching. The study
seeks to understand the pedagogical rationales for the faculty's use of Web
technologies, and their approaches to and perspectives on ODeL course design, as
well as the implications of these for faculty development. The study is underpinned
by the assumption that understanding their ODeL design practice can provide insights
into how innovative practice in online DE can be fostered across the institution (see
section 1.5).
8 In February 2012, UPOU organised the 1st International Conference on Open and Distance e-
Learning. More than 200 participants from 20 countries participated. The conference website is at
http://icodel.upou.edu.ph/
9 For example, such faculty members post few if any learning resources, create poorly designed
discussion forums (e.g. it is not clear how the forum might help learners achieve the learning
objectives; the discussion topics are not well formulated; there is no teaching presence to facilitate the
discussion when necessary), and do not utilise the quiz, chat, and wiki features of the VLE. In one
Faculty, about 15 per cent of the courses taught in one semester did not use the VLE, with the FICs
providing minimal online support using email and relying on occasional face-to-face tutorial sessions.
15
construct personal meaning, and to grow from the learning experience" (p. 17).
Online learning may be a component of conventional on-campus education, as in
blended learning, or the sole mode of educational delivery, as in DE.
Distance education (DE) is "planned learning that normally occurs in a
different place from teaching and as a result requires special techniques of course
design, special instructional techniques, special methods of communication by
electronic and other technology, as well as special organisational and administrative
arrangements" (Moore & Kearsley, 2004, p. 2).
Online distance education (or online DE) is a term used in this study to
distinguish DE conducted via the Internet from other forms of DE, such as
correspondence study and radio- and television-based DE. The term also distinguishes
online learning where learners and teachers are geographically separated, from online
learning in blended learning contexts (cf. Forsyth et al., 2010).
Open and distance e-learning (ODeL) refers to "forms of education
provision that use contemporary technologies to enable varied combinations of
synchronous and asynchronous communication among learners and educators who are
physically separated from one another for part or all of the educational experience"
(Alfonso, 2012, n.p.). It may be considered an expansion of the term 'open and
distance learning' or ODL, which refers to "[a] learning system that combines open
learning characteristics with distance delivery" (Abrioux, 2006b, p, 10), to include the
adoption of e-learning or online learning methodologies. In this study, ODeL is used
synonymously with online DE to refer to the mode of DE used at UPOU.
Teaching with the Web refers to the use of Web-based technologies for
instruction. One can teach with the Web in blended learning contexts or in DE
contexts. In the current study, 'teaching with the Web' is used synonymously with
`online teaching' or 'teaching online'.
Web technologies is used in this study to refer both to 'new' or more recent
Web applications — also known as 'Web 2.0'10 — and 'older' or more established
'° Synonyms for 'Web 2.0' that are used in the literature on Web technologies in higher education
include 'social software' (Anderson, 2007; Minocha, 2008; Mason & Rennie, 2010) and 'social media'
(Conole & Alevizou, 2010). It includes the following tools and services: media sharing, media
manipulation and data/web mash ups, social networking, blogging, social bookmarking, recommender
systems, wikis and collaborative editing tools, and syndication. These tools enable user participation in
the creation of digital artefacts and their publication and distribution over the Internet (Conole &
Alevizou, 2010; Mason & Rennie, 2010). In addition, they support "pervasive and multiple formats of
communication" and patterns of interconnectedness that support groups, networks, and collectives or
aggregated users (Anderson, 2008b, p. 225). It is important to note, however, that these affordances
17
Web applications, such as hypertext. It is used here synonymously with the term
`technologies for online learning' which McGreal & Elliot (2008) use to refer to Web
technologies that are "opening up different opportunities for educators" in DE (p.
143)". In higher education these Web applications may be used either in conjunction
with or as part of (bundled into) a VLE or learning management system (LMS).
Course design is used in this study synonymously with 'educational design'
and 'design for learning'. The latter is "the process by which teachers — and others
involved in the support of learning — arrive at a plan or structure or design for a
learning situation," which could be "as small as a single task or as large as a degree
course" (Beetham & Sharpe, 2007, pp. 7-8). In this study, the level of course design
referred to is the design of learning activities and the learning environment within a
course (as opposed to a programme) that individual faculty members engage in when
they are assigned to teach a course.
"are not necessarily the preserve of 'Web 2.0', but are, in fact, direct or indirect reflections of the power
of the network: the strange effects and topologies at the micro and macro level that a billion Internet
users produce" (Anderson, 2007, p. 14). As Conole & Alevizou (2010) state, the functional
characteristics of Web 2.0 should be seen "within the context of computer-mediated communication
and networked digital media" (p. 9).
11 These technologies include: interactive multimedia resources, streaming audio and streaming video,
audio chats and voice over Internet protocol, web conferencing, instant messaging, mobile computing
using handheld and wireless technologies, peer-to-peer file sharing, blogs, RSS and atom feeds, wikis,
virtual worlds, computer games, and learning objects.
12 A state-funded institution, UP receives a third of the budget for public higher education in the
Philippines (consisting of more than 600 state colleges and universities) while accepting only the top
two per cent of Filipino high school graduates into its programs. The university marked its centennial
in 2008.
18
communication, and public administration. The full list of programme offerings is available at
http://www2.upou.edu.ph/academic-programs.
14 The Philippine population is estimated to be more than 90 million. The estimated number of
Bachelor's programme, the Bachelor of Education Studies, was approved for institution in June 2011.
The institution of a new programme requires approval not only by UPOU academic committees and the
University Council but also by other units of the UP System with similar or related programmes, the
Academic Affairs Committee chaired by the Vice-President for Academic Affairs, and the President's
Advisory Council which includes the Chancellors of all constituent universities of the UP System.
16 This would be the equivalent of Senior Lecturers and Readers in the UK system of academic ranks.
17 Affiliate faculty are regular faculty of the other UP campuses handling a course at UPOU on top of
their normal teaching load in their own campus. Part-time faculty who are not from the other UP units,
or who comes from organisations outside of the UP System, are called adjunct faculty.
19
18 The OU UK is credited with major contributions to the theory and practice of distance education, and
its educational model has been highly influential among other DE providers around the world (Dron,
2002; Keegan, 1996; Kirkwood & Price, 2006; Moore & Kearsley, 1996).
19 Brigham (1992) calls the author with assistant approach the 'author/editor model', and the unassisted
author approach the 'intuition model'.
20
course design appears to be more 'ad hoc' rather than 'planned' or 'centralised'
(Davis, 2001, p. 10). Aside from using the Moodle VLE and older online
communication tools such as instant messaging services, some of UPOU's full-time
faculty are constructing course blog sites and experimenting with Web-based
conferencing systems and social networking services. For already developed courses,
the old printed course modules have not been phased out. However, FICs are expected
to update the modules by supplementing them with relevant resources and by
introducing new learning activities and assignments.
In general, the DE model at UPOU is one where students (i) engage in guided
independent study of mostly text-based course packages; (ii) participate in computer-
mediated discussion and collaborative learning activities conducted asynchronously
through a Moodle-based VLE; (iii) submit assignments; and (iv) for most courses, sit
for a proctored final examination at a UPOU learning centre or testing centre20. But as
subject matter experts and as members of an institution (UP) where faculty members
enjoy a high degree of 'academic freedom', FICs have a great deal of latitude
regarding what learning resources to include, what learning activities to implement,
and what assignments to require. They are also given the same teaching assignments
each year, which provides opportunities for course enhancement and redesign.
This study focuses on one group of UPOU faculty and examines their
pedagogical rationales for integrating various Web tools and resources in the courses
that they teach. It looks at the factors that influence their ODeL course design
practice, and the policy and practical implications.
20 Some FICs administer online examinations using the quiz feature on Moodle or via email.
21
separation of teachers and students and all that this implies. Thompson (2007) notes
that there are advocates of e-learning who reject the term 'distance education' in the
belief that e-learning makes distance a non-issue, as both on-campus and remote
learners share equal access to the virtual classroom.
Power (2008), for example, refers to "distance education as a field...losing
impetus as online learning is gaining momentum" (p. 503). He proposes the 'blended
online learning design (BOLD)' as an alternative to traditional DE. BOLD combines
use of an LMS for asynchronous communication and a desktop conferencing
environment. Power (2008) claims that BOLD departs from "a classical DE design
and development-focused model" because it allows "students and faculty to interact in
a fashion quite similar to the on-campus experience while accessing powerful screen-
sharing and Web browsing functions" (p. 503), and it enables faculty to "utilise a
thoroughly socioconstructivist-oriented learning environment which would be in stark
contrast to the sorely criticized, behaviourist-associated, lock-step ID
model...implemented worldwide by open and DE universities" (p. 509). Power &
Gould-Morven (2011) also argue that BOLD allows DE institutions to balance the
often competing priorities of increasing accessibility, enhancing quality, and
improving cost-effectiveness.2'
Described thus, BOLD seems like an excellent option for DE institutions. It
even addresses the issue of reduced accessibility for learners who cannot participate
in webinars in real-time, through the recording of sessions, which is a standard feature
of Web conferencing applications. Nevertheless, key issues that require further
investigation remain. For one, the fact that DE students now include those
traditionally marginalised by geographic location and economic circumstances as well
as those who mix on-campus and distance learning to maximise flexibility (Calvert,
2005) calls for a mix of pedagogical approaches. There are important differences
between students in blended learning programmes and learners for whom DE is not
21 Thisis so because BOLD allows for the delivery of real-time online seminars (or `webinars') that are
accessible to off-campus students, "engaging and rewarding" for faculty and students because of the
increased level of dialogue, requiring less faculty time commitment and effort to design than
asynchronous online courses, and requiring "no substantial investment or costly incentive system" for
university administrators. The latter is because various Web tools for synchronous communication are
now available for use, reduced front-end design is cheaper, and faculty are more willing to participate
not only because the mode of delivery is something they are used to but also because issues about the
ownership of intellectual property are eliminated as the focus shifts from "products and costly didactic
material design and development" to designing and managing learning activities (Power & Gould-
Morven, 2011, pp. 31-33).
22
one option among many but the only option, and these differences should be
addressed in the design of online DE to ensure effective learning for all. Second,
Power (2008) proposed BOLD as an alternative for traditional universities adopting
DE as a means to broaden access to higher education and to increase enrolments at
little or no additional cost. Power & Gould-Morven (2011) present BOLD also as an
option for dual-mode DE institutions, or institutions offering both on-campus and DE
programmes. UPOU is neither a traditional nor a dual-mode university. Rather, it can
be more aptly described as a single-mode DE university within a traditional university
system, or 'a university within a university' (Abrioux, 2006).
Thus, instead of using the term BOLD, in this study I use the term ODeL to
characterise online DE as practised at UPOU. ODeL encompasses open learning and
DE as well as all variants of e-learning, including blended online learning. It is thus a
more inclusive term and may be used to characterise the full range of course design
practices that are possible in online DE. As Larreamendy-Joerns & Leinhardt (2006)
have noted, it is the diversity of 'online instruction' in terms of "subject matters,
technological means, learning styles, and implementation scenarios (e.g., stand-alone,
blended instruction, synchronous online teaching)... that ultimately will allow online
instruction to meet the expectations of a student population as diverse as that in
traditional higher education" (p. 595). These authors also remind us that online
instruction has inherited from DE the ideals of openness and democratisation of
access to higher education — an idea which the term ODeL communicates with its
inclusion of the term 'open' aside from 'distance' and 'e-learning'.
The study's empirical focus is whether the design of DE in one institution is
changing with the introduction of online learning, and what implications this might
have for the institution's DE policies and practices. How are DE faculty designing
their courses now that there is a wider range of Web tools and resources available to
them? Are their emerging course design practices grounded in and informed by DE
frameworks? What are the implications of emerging ODeL course design practices for
academic development of DE faculty? These are relevant questions to ask in the
changing context of DE today.
In focusing on the course design practices of academics who might be
described as 'proficient' and 'expert' online teaching practitioners (Compton, 2009),
the study heeds Kali et al.'s (2011) admonition that "technological innovation needs
to be accompanied — and probably guided — by good empirical studies of the design
23
practices and design thinking of those who develop these innovations" (p. 129). Such
studies could lead to the development of "plausible theories of how intended users
will come to take up new tools and resources" that would provide guidance on how
the faculty as a whole may be encouraged to "shift [their] attention towards the
upstream work of design" (p. 130). While design is a complex and highly contextual
activity and "neither the process of design nor the final solution could be accounted
for by one 'expert' practice" (Kali et al., 2011, p. 131), useful insights can
nevertheless be drawn from the design practice of these experts to guide novice ODeL
course designers, such as UPOU faculty members who are making limited use of the
VLE and other Web technologies in their courses.
In keeping with the concept of ODeL, which yokes together open learning,
distance education, and e-learning, in this chapter I review literature on course design
in open and distance learning contexts, as well as relevant research on online teaching
in mixed mode or blended higher education. Given the focus of the thesis, of
particular interest to this literature review are studies on the experience of teaching
online from the perspective of university teachers, including studies on conceptions of
and approaches to teaching online, design for/in online learning, and practitioner
development in teaching online.
The presentation is in four sections. Sections 2.1 and 2.2 review literature that
is relevant to my first research question, namely: What pedagogical perspectives and
priorities underpin the faculty's use of Web tools and resources? Addressing this
question requires: 1) a description of the pedagogical use of Web tools and resources;
and 2) an examination of the pedagogical perspectives and priorities influencing such
use. For the first task, I review some of the research on types of educational media
and approaches to teaching with technology. For the second task, I review studies on
the pedagogical factors that higher education faculty take into account when they
teach with technologies. Section 2.3 includes work that is relevant to my second
research question, namely, How does their use of Web-based tools and resources
impact the course design practices of these faculty members? Following Price &
Oliver (2007), I conceptualise 'impact' as 'change' and I review research on how
teaching with Web technologies may be changing how faculty design their courses.
Section 2.4 includes literature that is relevant to the third research question, namely,
What are the issues and challenges in Web-based course design from the point of
view of these faculty members? The studies reviewed focus on perspectives on the
professional development and support needs of academics who are engaged in online
course design.
The chapter is not exhaustive in the sense of covering all of the studies
conducted in these areas. Rather, what is presented is a synthesis of the theoretical
and empirical literature that informs this study's conceptual and analytic framework.
25
Table 2-1. Types of media use in education (Source: Mason & Rennie, 2008, p. 45
Media Basic Intermediate Advanced
Text One-way One-way One-way
Print Web pages Blogs
Using technologies for presentation would qualify as one-way use in Mason &
Rennie's scheme, while using technologies to foster interaction, dialogue, and
generative activity would count as interactive use.
Laurillard (2002) classifies media forms according to the learning experiences
that they support (Table 2-2). Narrative media as described by Laurillard appear to
reflect one-way use of technology for learning, while interactive, adaptive,
communicative, and productive media reflect interactive use of technology. These
media types enable different degrees of learner activity and engagement. With
narrative media, learners tend to be positioned passively as recipients of information
presented by the teacher. With interactive media, students can act to achieve a task
goal (e.g., locate specific information) and they can modify their actions based on
feedback. Adaptive media support the goal-action-feedback cycle by enabling
repeated practice. With communicative media, learners are actively engaged in
discursive activity where they articulate their understanding, receive feedback, and re-
articulate what they understand. Finally, productive media enable learners to construct
or build new forms based on their understanding, and thus "engage with the subject
by directly experiencing its internal relationships" (Laurillard, p. 171).
Table 2-2.Media types and the learning tasks that they support (Adapted from Laurillard,
2002, p. 90 and Beetham, 2007, pp. 226-229)
Media type Learning task supported or Examples of Web tools and
mediated resources
Narrative Tasks where learners are expected to On-screen text, image, video files,
apprehend and/or assimilate PowerPoint slides, web pages,
information presented; the narrative animations
medium is used to present the subject
matter
Interactive Exploratory or investigative learning Hypermedia, search engines,
tasks; the interactive medium returns gateways and portals, interactive
information based on user input television
Adaptive Tasks involving experimentation and Virtual worlds, simulations, models,
practice; the medium continuously computer games, interactive tutorials
adapts to user input
Communicative Tasks involving communication Synchronous:
between individuals and groups Chat, video conferencing, instant
(e.g., discussion, debate) messaging
Asynchronous:
Email, discussion boards, video and
audio messages
27
Table 2-3. Dimensions delimiting conceptions of online teaching (Source: Gonzalez, 2009,
. 310
Use of the Web for Use of the Web for Use of the Web for
individual access to learning-based networked learning
learning materials and communication
information, and for
individual assessment
Teacher Provides structured Sets up spaces for Sets up spaces for
information/Directs discussion/facilitates communication,
students to selected dialogue discussion and knowledge
websites building/facilitates or
guides the process
Students Individually study Participate in online Share and build
materials provided discussions knowledge
Content Provided by the lecturer Provided by the lecturer Built by students using
but students can modify the space set up by the
or extend it through lecturer
online discussions
Knowledge Owned by the lecturer Discovered by students Built by students
within lecturer's
framework
courses, students use the VLE to access multiple resources and learning activities and
engage in some sharing and discussion. In online discussion-based courses, discussion
boards are "the primary tool for teaching and learning" (Jara & Fitri, p. 30). Like
Roberts and Gonzalez's typologies of conceptions of teaching with the Web, Mason
and Jara & Fitri's online DE course models are differentiated in terms of whether they
focus on access to resources and individual learning activities, or on discussion and
collaborative learning activities.
2.2 What factors influence how teachers use Web technologies in online
learning?
The discussion in section 2.1 suggests among others that a key factor in how
teachers use Web technologies is their appreciation of technology affordances,
defined by Beetham (2007) as "how [technologies] support the learning task and of
how they will be experienced by individual learners — the different 'possible
relationships' between task and learners that they might mediate" (p. 34). Other key
factors in how teachers use Web technologies that are noted in the literature are:
• The teacher's pedagogical orientation, which is usually based on her/his personal
experiences of learning (Leach & Moon, 2000; Banks et al., 2005)
• Curricular requirements, including learning goals, prerequisites, and subject
matter coverage (Conole & Fill, 2005), and approaches to the curriculum (Oliver,
2003) which might vary according to subject discipline (Armellini & Jones, 2009;
Ellaway, 2007; John, 2002; Jones, 2007)
• Learner-related factors, including learner contexts, needs, and capabilities
(Beetham, 2007; Shearer, 2007)
• Institutional or organisational contexts, inc luding the policy environment and the
availability of administrative and technical support (Becker, 2000; Masterman &
Vogel, 2007; Oliver, 2004; 2007)
22 Institutional and organisational context as a factor in online teaching is discussed in section 2.4.
30
technologies" (Pachler & Daly, 2011), these factors do not occur singly or in
isolation. Different pedagogical models and frameworks (see section 2.2.4) have been
proposed based on an understanding of how these factors might interact in practice.
23 With regard to interactivity, for example, Bain & McNaught observed that while mathemagenic
interaction might be assumed to be typical of an instructivist orientation and generative interaction is
usually thought to characterise constructivist orientations, both the 'learning facilitators' and 'situated
knowledge negotiators' in their study adopted mathemagenic interactions. The difference was that the
situated knowledge negotiators embedded mathemagenic computer-assisted learning components
within offline constructivist activities, thereby demonstrating an 'internal coherence' or consistency in
their teaching beliefs and practices.
31
different categories could involve the same types of CFLs, which means that it is not
the type of technology that accounts for category differences but the way technology
is used or deployed, and their impact on teaching and learning. Bain et al. (1998)
derived seven categories of CFL design forming a continuum from teacher-centred
perspectives to student-centred views.
Avoiding "dichotomous descriptions", JISC (2009) and Mayes & De Freitas
(2004) point out that most approaches to design for learning, including e-learning,
draw from three perspectives24 which analyse learning at different levels of
aggregation: the associative view analyses learning at the activity level, the cognitivist
view analyses learning in terms of structures and processes underpinning individual
performance, and the situative perspective analyses groups and communities of
learners. They state: "In any particular curriculum design it is very unlikely that there
would be one-to-one mapping between a single theoretical analysis and a set of TLAs
[teaching and learning activities] that are designed to achieve particular learning
outcomes" (p. 11).
24The associative perspective views learning as the gradual development of competence through
routines of organised activity broken down into component units that enable the building of
associations between concepts and skills. The component units have specific goals, provide immediate
feedback, and move progressively from simple to complex. Examples of associative e-learning designs
are computer-aided assessment and programmed instruction. The constructivist perspective views
learning as a process of understanding. Constructivism that focuses on the individual learner views
learning as the active construction of meaning from the interaction between new and previous
knowledge. This perspective calls for the design of interactive environments to enable knowledge-
building, and learning activities that encourage experimentation, discovery of principles, and reflection.
Constructivism with a social focus views learning as active construction of knowledge through social
collaboration and dialogue. Social constructivist designs for learning encourage collaboration and
shared expression of ideas, as well as reflection and peer review. A constructivist approach is evident
in activity-based designs where students explore a range of digital resources and utilise tools such as
online discussion forums. Finally, the situative perspective views learning as a process of participation
in communities of practice. Situative pedagogy includes the design of authentic activities through
which learners can develop learning skills and relationships. Examples are scenario-based learning and
design-based learning, and learning activities using social software. (Mayes & De Freitas, 2004)
32
up-to-date research data particularly useful. They also cited practitioner reports in a
Higher Education Academy symposium on mapping technology use to the disciplines
which showed that communication is valued most in the social sciences, problem
solving and interaction with data is considered crucial in the sciences, and working in
teams is considered critical in the health sciences. In a study of digital resource use by
teaching staff identified as innovators in their subject areas, Jones (2007) found that
learner access to journals and books and a supply of appropriate 'ephemeral sources'
such as news and government websites are important considerations in the design of
learning environments for social science subjects. Jones also noted that social and
situated views of learning and 'the cultural turn in the social sciences' dictate a
preference for computer-supported collaborative learning and networked learning
approaches.
More generally, some studies (e.g., Lindblom-Ylanne et al., 2006; Lueddeke,
2003; Postareff et al., 2008) have found that teaching approaches differ according to
disciplinary context, with teachers from 'hard' disciplines tending to be more teacher-
focused and inclined to use more mass lectures, and teachers from 'soft' disciplines
tending to be more student-focused and inclined to use more discussions and debates.
However, Bain & McNaught (2006) did not find any support for these 'discipline
stereotypes'. They noted instead what they call a 'discipline heterogeneity' in each of
the five belief-practice categories they derived from their interviews of teachers in 22
`computer-facilitated learning' projects. Similarly, in his study of lecturers teaching
postgraduate distance courses Gonzalez (2009) noted that while one teacher was
"using a 'content-centred' approach in a 'hard applied' discipline, the other lecturers
were teaching in 'hard applied' to 'soft applied' content areas and using mostly
`learning-centred' or 'intermediate' approaches' (p. 313).
Bain et al. (1998) cited studies by Bain (1998) and Quinlan (1997) of
academics from the same discipline with contrasting pedagogical beliefs and
approaches. Furthermore, it is possible for individual teachers to adopt different
teaching approaches in two different teaching contexts. Lindblom-Ylanne et al.
(2006) found that teachers adopted a more conceptual change/student-focused
approach in a "less usual" or less mainstream teaching context, and a more
information transfer/teacher-focused approach in their usual teaching context. The
researchers hypothesised that teachers may be more open to new methods in new or
33
unusual teaching contexts, and/or they may have smaller class sizes, which gives
them room to innovate.
teacher is essential to this dialogic process, the ideal form of which is the one-to-one
tutorial. But recognising that "the one-to-one tutorial is rarely feasible as a method in
a system of rapid expansion beyond a carefully selected elite" — as in the case of DE
with its aim of broadening access to education through the removal of space and time
barriers — Laurillard uses the conversational framework to arrive at a "pedagogical
classification" of media through which the dialogic process of teaching and learning
might be achieved. Accordingly, she classifies media into narrative, interactive,
adaptive, communicative, and productive forms25, and recommends that they be used
in combination in order to achieve the optimum balance for specific learning contexts.
Laurillard stresses that the optimum balance would vary according to subject, level
(i.e., undergraduate vs. graduate), and course design. But whatever the combination of
media, teacher-student dialogue is essential and should be provided for.
Colversmicad Framework
1 t 1 4
10. Adaptation 11 Reflection
ct
5 A dap ati on 12. Reflection on
of actions on concep
of task goal in learners actions
in light of in light c'
light of student's to modify
theory experlefire
description descriptions
goal and
feedback
I
— 6. Teacher sets goal _ob. I
Teacher's 4— 7. Students action
—10. Student's
constructed 8. Feedback
4
-- 9. Students
actions
environment
modified action
elements: social presence, teaching presence, and cognitive presence. Social presence
refers to 'the ability of learners to project themselves socially and emotionally and be
perceived as "real people" in mediated communication' (Garrison & Arbaugh, 2007,
p. 159). This sense of their online identity as members of a community of learners
enables students to engage in the social construction of meaning. The latter is the
focus of cognitive presence, defined as "the extent to which learners are able to
construct and confirm meaning through sustained reflection and discourse" (Garrison
& Arbaugh, p. 161). Cognitive presence is considered to be essential to the
development of critical thinking, which is widely accepted as the goal of higher
education (Anderson & Garrison, 2003; Garrison, Anderson & Archer, 2000).
Teaching presence is "the design, facilitation, and direction of cognitive and social
presences for the purposes of realising meaningful and educationally worthwhile
learning outcomes" (Garrison & Arbaugh, p. 163).
TEACHING PRESENCE
(Structure/Process)
Communication Medium
High levels of more than one of these three modes will likely provide a
more satisfying educational experience, though these experiences may
not be as cost or time effective as less interactive learning sequences.
(p. 4)
and participation in a learning community. Of this model Haughey et al. (2008) note
that "in placing the resources, materials and communications as the interface between
the instructor and the student, [Anderson] has broadened the notion of content",
making it inclusive of learner-teacher, learner-content, and learner-learner interaction
(p. 13). At the same time, Anderson's model "reflect[s] the diversity of actual and
potential practices [in online learning] rather than a single [pedagogical] orientation"
(p. 14).
■‘‘ /1,10,
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OTHER TEACHERS
In his gloss on the model, Anderson (2008) calls attention to two approaches
to online learning shown on the left and right sides — collaborative learning in a
community of inquiry and independent learning, respectively. The collaborative
approach uses synchronous and asynchronous communication technologies to enable
dialogue, collaboration, and the social construction of meaning. The independent
learning approach uses tools that enable learners to interact with, explore, and develop
a deep understanding of content. The elements of content, teacher, and learner are
present in both approaches. However, the interactions among these elements that are
foregrounded differ, with learner-learner interaction being more prominent in the
collaborative learning approach and learner-content interaction being more dominant
in the independent learning approach. Also, teacher-learner interaction appears to be
more direct in the collaborative learning approach (i.e., teacher and learner are shown
to interact directly in the community of inquiry), whereas it is mediated by content in
the independent learning approach (i.e., the teacher provides structured learning
resources that the student studies independently). Learner-content interaction is also
present in the collaborative learning approach in that the focus of the dialogue is the
course content. Similarly, there is the possibility of learner-learner interaction in the
independent learning approach, through the learner's interaction with family
members, colleagues in the workplace, and peers, including those whom they might
meet in online networks. According to Anderson, teachers and course designers using
his model of online learning need to decide which approach to take based on the
nature of the learning that is prescribed by the curriculum, among others.
Identify
Identifythe
+
the general approach to online DE —
i.e., whether collaborative online learning or
independent study — based on the faculty's
preferred forms of interaction and/or their
conceptualisation of the relationships among
he forms of interaction
Q
4,
i.
Explore variations in approaches to online --
DE in terms of differences in the faculty's
disciplinary contexts, curricular goals,
pedagogical orientations, and learner-related
considerations
9
Figure 2-4. An analytic approach to analysing pedagogical perspectives
and priorities in teaching with the Web
2.3 What is the impact of teaching with Web technologies on course design
practices in online learning?
The studies reviewed in section 2.2 provide insights into how pedagogical
perspectives and priorities influence how technologies are used for learning. In this
section, I consider some of the research on the reciprocal effect of technology
42
pedagogical design can be observed in the practice of individual faculty, and how do
these shifts take place?
Two trends are noted in the literature. The first is that contrary to expectations,
teaching approaches in e-learning contexts are not necessarily being transformed, or
changed for the better (Conole, 2004; Hedberg, 2006; Kirkwood, 2009; Natriello,
2005). Instead, there is a persistence of traditional modes of teaching and, in some
cases, outright resistance to educational innovation (Blin & Munro, 2008). The
second trend is that as faculty awareness of and skills in new ways of teaching and
learning with technology develop, there is a gradual shift from a teacher-focused
knowledge transmission approach to a learner-focused knowledge generation
approach (Armellini & Jones; Swan, 2010). These contrasting trends in online DE are
noted by Burge & Polec (2008) thus:
Burge & Polec add that while a shift from transmission models of teaching to
constructivist learning models might be assumed from teachers' use of interactive
features of online software, "many solo course designers have to struggle their way
into the new model" (p. 249). This calls attention to the need to understand the
dynamics of pedagogical change in online learning environments. For this we turn to
literature on the changing roles of teachers particularly in relation to course design,
variation in teachers' approaches to e-learning design, and the development of teacher
knowledge of and through e-learning design.
technologies are designed for particular purposes and "[t]hey facilitate, emphasise,
and enhance particular kinds of experience, while inhibiting, limiting, and sometimes
even excluding others" (Swan, 2010, p. 110). The design role of teachers, for
example, is amplified in online learning. According to Beetham & Sharpe (2007),
while design is a key feature of teaching in general, in e-learning "the need for
intentional design becomes more obvious and pressing" (p. 7). In face-to-face
teaching, approaches can be immediately adjusted to fit learners' needs which
teachers can gauge directly from learner performance. In technology-supported
learning, seemingly 'ordinary' pedagogical activities like grouping learners, posing
questions, providing resources, and other ways of scaffolding learning in response to
learner cues during the learning process "require forethought and an explicit
representation of what learners and teachers will do" (Beetham & Sharpe, p. 7).
At the same time, the new digital technologies are enabling design 'on the fly'
(Oliver, 2004, p. 24). Mason (1995) included in her typology online DE course
models where "less of the course is pre-determined and more is created each time the
course is delivered, through the discussions and activities" that take place on the
VLE. The focus of design therefore shifts from "the design and delivery of instruction
and instructional materials" to "the creation of environments that foster and support
active learning in collaborative communities" (Swan, 2010, p. 114). In these
"resource- and activity-based learning environments" (Naidu, 2008, p. 250),
"university teachers have to think carefully about the design of good learning tasks...
as well as about the resources that students will need if they are to stand a reasonable
chance of succeeding in these activities" (Goodyear, 2010, p. 4). Thus, the mediating
role of the teacher is expanded to include helping learners "to make sense of the
wealth of resources which they can, with guidance, find themselves" (Tait, 2010, p.
x).
These new teaching tasks in online learning environments are aspects of what
Siemens (2007) refers to as the curatorial role of teachers in networked learning.
According to Siemens, unlike the simplistic dichotomy of 'sage on the sage' vs.
`guide on the side' that is often employed to differentiate face-to-face from online
teaching, the term `curating' underscores the complexity of selecting resources for
learning26 — i.e., expertise in the subject matter is required to be able to make
26 See also Dron's (2002) description of the role of teachers as resource maker and distiller, resource
gatherer, and resource organiser.
45
decisions about what resources to select, provide expert commentary about each
resource or the resources as a whole, and showcase resources in ways that highlight
each resource as well as the relationships among them — and its critical role in
scaffolding learning particularly of disciplinary canons:
Price & Oliver (2007) also refer to Cousin's analysis of how the metaphors used for
VLEs "act to preserve a sense of conventional classroom teaching... in order to
provide teachers new to teaching in this way with 'a stable transition' (p. 24).
46
Ironically, this emphasis on what is the same between teaching online and teaching
face-to-face tends to encourage a conservative approach to teaching online (e.g.,
merely replicating face-to-face teaching practices).
28
In category 1 , the focus of teacher development is the teacher self, and it is directed
towards achieving a steady state. Category 2 is also teacher-focused but the
experience of development goes beyond feelings to include the practice of teaching:
the focus of development is to become a more effective teacher through the
development of teaching skills. In category 3, the focus of teacher development goes
beyond the teacher to the improvement of student learning. The three categories have
a hierarchical and inclusive relationship, with category 3 including in the background
an awareness of improved teaching skills and increased confidence in teaching and
category 2 including an awareness of increased confidence in teaching.
In a longitudinal study of 27 university teachers in Australia, McKenzie
(2003) also identified a shift in focus from the teacher to the student as a key
dimension of variation in four categories of university teachers' ways of experiencing
change in teaching. The four categories are: changing the content taught in order to
improve teaching (cA); changing teaching strategies in order to improve teaching
27 A phenomenographic approach involves collecting data through interviews and analysing the data to
develop hierarchically inclusive (i.e., from less to more complete) categories of description
representing "different ways of experiencing the phenomenon of interest" (Gonzalez, 2009, p. 12).
28 Category 1 has two sub-categories: 'teaching development as teaching becoming easier', and
`teaching development as growing confidence in one's abilities' (Akerlind, 2003).
48
(cB); relating teaching more closely to students' learning in order to improve learning
(cC); and coming to experience teaching in a more student-focused way by improving
understanding of teaching and students' learning (cD). Category cA includes two sub-
categories: changing the selection of content included or excluded in order to improve
teacher interest or student motivation (cAl), and changing the way the content is
organised for, and represented in, teaching in order to improve teaching efficiency or
teacher comfort (cA2). Except for categories cA and cB which are considered to be
parallel, the categories form a "semi-inclusive hierarchy" with category cD including
category cC, which in turn includes category cAl, cA2 and cB. Category cAl
includes cA2. According to McKenzie, in categories cA, cAl, cA2 and cB, "[c]hange
is directed towards improving teaching for the teacher" (p. 248). In contrast, in
categories cC and cD change is directed towards improving students' learning, and
with an awareness of how teaching relates to how students learn.
McKenzie explains lack of change in ways of experiencing teaching (i.e.,
teaching-focused teachers remaining teaching-focused) as the teachers "not [being]
oriented towards their situations in ways which created relevance structures for
discerning the critical aspects of student-focused ways of teaching" (p. 305). She
adds, "Teachers whose ways of experiencing remained teacher focused were not
resistant to change per se, and did not simply fail to discern and focus on aspects of
student focused ways of experiencing teaching. [Rather] [t]hey discerned and focused
on different aspects of their teaching and situations and experienced different patterns
of variation" (p. 309). Differences in what different teachers focus on also explain
"why, in similar learning situations, some teachers change their ways of experiencing
teaching and others do not" (p. 309).
This analysis is relevant to understanding pedagogic change in online learning.
That is, different teachers focus on different aspects of their online teaching
experience, and their experience of pedagogic change varies. To appreciate qualitative
differences in design practices that might appear to be similar, it is important to
examine the underlying focus of these practices — e.g., whether the focus of a
particular strategy is to improve teaching or to improve learning. Finally, influencing
teachers to shift "from knowledge transmission to knowledge construction" (Swan,
2010, p. 113) in their pedagogic designs, would involve helping the teachers to
discern critical aspects of alternative ways of teaching and design for learning.
49
Technologicat
Pedagog.c al Content
Knowledge
ITPACK1
Tochnnkcerail
Pedagogcal
KnOWIedge KnolleAQe r..ronledge
TPK *- • "1":-;h
P47daQUy,
hnnwindlp
Ph.
Pealagog ca
Content
KnOwtedue
Contexts
In a case study of a college faculty member who worked with a design team in
creating an online course, Koehler et al. (2004) noted changes in the faculty member's
technology literacy and "her thinking about her personal relationship with
50
technology" (Koehler & Mishra, 2005, p. 136). In another study using qualitative and
quantitative analyses of field notes for two design teams, Koehler et al. (2004)
observed that "participants moved from considering technology, pedagogy and
content as being independent constructs toward a richer conception that emphasized
connections among the three knowledge bases" (Koehler & Mishra, 2005, p. 136). In
a third study that made use of a survey administered to four faculty members and 14
students at two different points during a graduate 'learning by design' course, Koehler
& Mishra (2005) found a change in participants' thinking about the role of technology
in education, from "relatively simple beliefs" that "technology is just a new medium
to be learned, and designing with technology is simply translating previous content
and pedagogy into that new medium", to the recognition that "online courses require
more time" and "a change of content and pedagogy" and "designing an online course
is different than (sic) designing a face-to-face course" (p. 144).
In a more recent study, Graham et al. (2012) measured changes in the TPACK
of 133 teacher candidates by analysing their rationales for selecting technology in
three design tasks in a semester-long education technology course. Graham et al.
noted changes in the quantity and quality of rationales, in particular "a dramatic
increase for all of the TPK and TPACK categories, with a slight reduction in the
number of teacher candidates using TK as a rationale for their technology use" (pp.
10-11), and much more detailed rationales being given during the post-course
assessment than during the pre-course assessment. Graham et al. stated that although
they had expected that a greater number of rationales would be focused on more
content-specific strategies, these were the least common among the rationales cited
probably because the teacher candidates had yet to take methods courses in their
chosen content areas. Among the implications they derived from their study is the
need for approaches to educational technology courses that would focus more on
developing content-specific pedagogical strategies that are developmentally
appropriate, and less on using technology simply because it would be motivating and
fun for students. Relating this to the question regarding the process and direction of
pedagogical change experienced by faculty engaged in online learning, I surmise that
as faculty develop their TPACK through online course design, they will not only
adopt technology-supported pedagogical designs that will foster meaningful learner
engagement with the content of particular disciplines, but also provide pedagogical
51
rationales for these designs that highlight the integration of technology, pedagogy,
and content.
2.3.4 A framework for analysing the impact of teaching with Web technologies
on course design practices in online distance learning
The second research question that this study aims to address has to do with the
impact of teaching with Web technologies on the faculty's course design practices,
with 'impact' operationalised as 'change' in practice. The literature reviewed in this
regard focuses on the changing role of teachers particularly in course design, variation
in teachers' experiences of pedagogical change in designing online learning, and
development of teacher knowledge of and through online course design. There
appears to be a consensus in the literature reviewed about the direction of change —
i.e., from the design of content to the design of learning environments fostering active
collaborative learning, and from teacher-focused knowledge transmission or
instructivist models of teaching to learner-focused collaborative knowledge
construction models. Accordingly, in this study I look at whether these patterns can be
discerned from the accounts of the research participants. In particular, I examine
references to change, or the lack of it, in what they focus on in the design of their
courses and their perspectives on design in online learning.
Some of the studies reviewed suggest that for many teachers the apprehension
of change in online teaching is initially with reference to the experience of teaching in
face-to-face settings. Whether this point of reference changes as teachers gain more
experience in teaching online, and as their knowledge of how to teach online
increases, is an aspect that I also consider in my analysis of the data collected in this
study.
2.4 What are the issues and challenges in designing online learning?
Some of the key issues and challenges in designing online learning can be
deduced from the preceding sections. In section 2.3, the issue of the non-improvement
of teaching practices in online environments is mentioned. In a study of VLE use by
faculty in a university in Ireland, Blin & Munro (2008) found that the dominant use of
the VLE was for the dissemination of course-related materials previously distributed
via the Intranet or on paper (see also Sharpe et al., 2006). Hedberg (2006) cites survey
results indicating that for majority of more than 20,000 students and 800 staff
52
and learning (Bates, 2000; Hughes, 2004); teachers' personal and professional use of
technology (Becker, 2000; Russell et al., 2003); teachers' pedagogic orientation and
subject subculture (John, 2005; John and La Velle, 2004); professional development,
particularly the kind that fosters critical reflection on practice (Daly & Pachler, 2007);
and membership in a community of practice (John, 2005; Laurillard, 2011; Otero et
al., 2005). Holistic practitioner development would adopt a variety of approaches —
including "training (faculty development courses and workshops), guidance (learning
technology experts), online resources (open educational resources for content, digital
repositories), digital tools (toolkits, authoring tools, virtual learning environments),
and communities (peer groups working together in online spaces to exchange ideas
and information)" (Laurillard, 2011, p. 66) — the planning and implementation of
which would be based on principles for 'effective interventions that support e-
learning', namely, usability, contextualisation, promoting professional learning,
working with communities, and promoting good learning design (Sharpe, 2004;
Sharpe & Oliver, 2007).
Kirkwood & Price (2006) argue for professional development that includes
not only the individual teacher but also departmental faculty and senior university
managers in order to "help engender an evidence-based and genuinely developmental
approach" to e-learning policy development within higher education institutions (p.
10) (see also Sharpe et al., 2006). Policy development needs to address policy gaps as
well as 'policy tensions' (Hardy, 2008; Pachler & Daly, 2011) or conflicting policy
pressures arising from incompatible or contradictory policies, procedures, and
guidelines, "whether ratified or tacitly agreed" (Masterman & Vogel, 2007, p. 58).
For example, there can be tensions between policy on assessment of student learning
and policy promoting innovation with ICT, as Pearson & Naylor (2006) found in their
study of ICT integration in secondary schools in England. There might also be
contradictory discourses within policies promoting innovation which, when coupled
with pressure to rapidly implement a complex learning reform agenda, can militate
against policy support for good practice in professional development in e-learning, as
noted in Hardy's (2008) study of a cluster of six schools in Queensland, Australia.
Among established DE universities, there is a need to review and
reconceptualise organisational structures and procedures in order to manage and
support innovations, and to address issues such as service standards for students and
staff, and quality assurance (Abrioux, 2001, 2006; Annand, 2007; Sangra, 2006). This
54
is not as easy as it sounds. As Abrioux (2001) has noted, the enhancement of "old
models of distance education by taking advantage of the e-learning environment" is
just as challenging as the adoption of online learning by conventional institutions
because "the [very same] institutional infrastructures and learning/teaching support
functions....which, in the past, complemented the individual academic's expertise and
served to create a comprehensive high quality learning environment for distance
learners" (p. 1) might also now constrain innovative practice by distance educators.29
29The "constraining infrastructure" includes "capital investments such as printing presses, television
and radio production, course material warehouses, and various administrative and computing systems"
and "institutional investments in human resources... and labor relations structures" (Abrioux, 2001, p.
1).
55
effective learning with technology. The need to adopt new designs for learning poses
challenges to both individual teachers and institutions, which highlights the
importance of practitioner development and support for effective pedagogical practice
in online learning.
The literature review also suggests that there is no lack of research on online
teaching and design for online learning. However, the studies that have been
undertaken are on Australian, European, and North American higher education
contexts, and there is value in looking at whether and how approaches to and
perspectives on online teaching and design for online learning in the Philippine
context are similar to and/or different from what is reported in the literature. In the
current study I examine online course design practice in a single mode DE university
in the Philippines using a set of analytic frames formulated from the literature
reviewed in this chapter. The next chapter describes the methodologies I employed for
researching teachers' practices in and perspectives on designing online DE in the
Philippines.
56
CHAPTER 3 - METHODOLOGY
their courses, and who were using these technologies in a variety of ways. Second, I
chose colleagues whose collective experience of DE at UPOU spanned several
`generations', from the early phase of using pre-packaged print-based materials with
face-to-face tutorials, to the middle phase of using print-based materials with online
tutorials, to the more recent phase of resource-based online course development and
delivery. In this way, they could provide more insights into how course design
practices at UPOU have evolved and the corollary issues if any.
Based on these criteria, eight full-time UPOU faculty and two affiliate faculty
administrators who have been closely involved with the institution since its
establishment were selected as research participants. The eight full-time faculty
members comprise about a third of the total number of full-time faculty members,
while the two affiliate faculty administrators represent about one percent of the total
number of affiliate and adjunct faculty. Three of them are male and seven are female,
reflecting the predominance of female faculty members in the university as a whole.
In terms of rank, three research participants are assistant professors, four are associate
professors, and three are full professors. Four of the participants have at least 10 years
experience in teaching at a distance, two have more than five years experience, and
four have less than five years experience. They teach courses from different
disciplines, all teach graduate level courses, and four teach undergraduate level
courses as well. Table 3-1 presents the teaching profiles of all 10 participants.
The participants also vary in the kind and quantity of training in teaching
online and at a distance that they have gone through. One has formal graduate training
in DE, three have completed a 10-month online training programme on e-learning,
and three have participated in study visits to DE institutions abroad. Four have
attended only university-organised one-day or half-day workshops on course design
and use of the VLE. All but two have participated in national and international
conferences in ODL. In addition, all 10 participants are faculty administrators and/or
have administrative roles that gives them a vantage point from which to observe the
course design practice of other faculty members and reflect on the factors that impact
on this practice, the issues arising therefrom, and their implications for policy and
operations.32
Given the study's focus on the collective case rather than individual cases, I
have opted not to provide more detailed portraits of each of the research participants
in this chapter. However, in the discussion of findings (in Chapters 4 and 5) I take
care to provide relevant details about particular participants to help explain particular
perspectives and viewpoints that are ascribed to them.
32Four of the participants are currently serving as programme chairs, three have served as programme
chairs in the past, two are programme development associates providing technical support to faculty in
the use of the university's learning management system, and three have overall supervision of
academic program development and delivery as dean, vice-chancellor of academic affairs, and
chancellor.
59
appropriate method for finding out what individuals think and feel about a
phenomenon (in this study, this phenomenon is course design in online DE) — i.e.,
their intentions and perceptions and the meanings that they ascribe to the phenomenon
(Merriam, 2009; Robson, 2002). It is also a suitable method for deriving participant
accounts of how a phenomenon has developed over time (Robson, 2002).
I had initially considered using participant observation, in particular focused
observation and selective observation, as the method of data collection. According to
Angrosino & Mays de Perez (2003, p.114), focused observation is a method applied
to "well-defined types of group activities" while selective observation is used to study
the specific attributes of these activities. In focused observation, what to pay attention
to is guided by the insights of those whose practice is being observed, which in turn
are elicited through interviews (Angrosino & Mays de Perez, 2003). However,
reflecting further on comments on the proposed method of data collection from the
reviewers of the thesis proposal, I decided against using participant observation for
two reasons. First, course design is often a private process that is difficult to observe
directly. While course design is manifested through such artefacts as course plans or
syllabi, activity guides, and course websites, these are arguably not the design process
itself but rather the outcomes or products of that process, and it is still necessary to
ask the designer directly what factors were considered in their development.33 Second,
with the shift to single lecturer-generated courses at UPOU, there is practically no
opportunity to observe the actual course design process.34 While the UPOU faculty
included in this study have talked about their course design work during faculty
workshops and colloquia, these presentations and discussions are arguably 'second
order" commentaries on design, rather than actual design itself 3s
More to the point, because my study focuses on the pedagogical rationales or
explanations that underpin the research participants' specific design practices, rather
than how they actually go about the course design process, interviews are the most
suitable means of data collection. This is based on my understanding that —
1) Course design is a purposeful activity: it involves making deliberate choices of
content and instructional strategies to achieve specific curricular outcomes based
33
I experienced this in my institution-focused study where my initial impressions and analysis of
teachers' lesson plans were proven to be partially valid at best and on occasion simply inaccurate by
the teachers' explanations during my interviews with them.
34 With course team-generated courses, course team meetings provided an opportunity to observe the
course design process.
35 I am indebted to Dr. Martin Oliver for this phrasing.
60
on the designer's understanding of the learning context, including the nature of the
subject matter, the type of learner, and the resources and tools available
(Goodyear, 2009); and
2) Especially in courses designed by faculty members working alone or
independently, course design is influenced by the teacher-designer's personal
constructs, which consist of personal experiences of learning, including those
shaped by culture, gender, and ethnicity; personal views of what makes for 'good'
teaching; and beliefs about the purposes of the subject (Leach & Moon, 2000;
Banks, Leach & Moon, 2005).
I contend that the intentions and personal constructs that influence design are best
accessed by asking the designer directly what he/she intended to do or achieve, and
why.
The interview method is not without limitations. One is possible incongruence
between what interviewees say and what they actually do (Kane et al., 2002). But
since the research focus is the designer's intentions and rationales, this is not an issue
in this study. Another limitation of the interview method is the possibility of
`respondent bias' which is manifested either in interviewees withholding information
or interviewees giving responses that they think the interviewer wants to hear
(Robson, 2002). The possibility of respondent bias was an issue in this study because
of my status as insider-researcher and, more generally, because of the nature of
interviewing as a data generating method rather than simply a data gathering method.
As Freebody (2003, p. 137) puts it, in interviews the "questions are...not...neutral or
uninterested invitations to speak [but] rather...shape the grounds or the footings on
which the participants can and should speak". This is not necessarily a negative
quality because interviews, especially in insider-research, are also "interactional
events in which members of a culture draw on and rebuild their shared cultural
knowledge" (Freebody, 2003, p. 137). However, interview participants should feel
that they can interact with the interviewer freely and on an equal footing.
In this study, I sought to achieve this by carefully explaining to the
participants the purposes and scope of the study, including the types of questions I
would ask them to answer; formally requesting their consent to participate in the
study and formally requesting an interview at a date, time, and place of their choice;
and assuring them that their answers would be anonymised in the report. Indications
that the research participants interacted freely with me during the interviews are their
61
active engagement in the interview process and detailed responses to my questions (as
can be seen from the discussion of findings in Chapters 4 and 5), which often led to a
lengthier and deeper discussion than I had anticipated. Furthermore, I felt confident
that I did not exercise any undue influence over the research participants, despite my
status as a colleague, and that they could interact with me on an equal footing,
because of their position and rank in the university hierarchy (two of them are high-
ranking university officials and four others are heads of key university offices,
including one academic unit), and the fact that they are members of other Faculties
(i.e., not the Faculty I belong to) (this was the case with eight of the research
participants).
In sections 3.2.3, 3.3 and 3.4 of this chapter I discuss further how I conducted
the interviews in ways that I hope address the limitations posed by my status as
insider-researcher.
short questionnaire that the interviewees could answer after the interview and send to
me by email (see Appendix 2).
Table 3-2 shows how the final set of interview questions maps on to the
research questions. The sequence of questions followed Entwistle's (1997, p. 132)
recommended movement "from actions to experience, and from concrete to abstract"
— i.e., from descriptions of specific and concrete teaching situations and practices,
towards deeper reflection on their experiential and more abstract dimensions.
3) What are your Ok, if we can just abstract a little Why is that in particular? Is it a
pedagogical bit. In general, what I'm getting function of the kinds of students
purposes for using is that you use a range of tools that you have? Or would you do
these Web-based and applications for different this anyway?
tools and resources? purposes: to engage them in ***
(may cite different discussion, to be able to provide Ok, so the principle of
purposes for easy access to content, to be able redundancy. Any other? Other
different tools and to motivate and engage them and than those you have previously
resources) get them to participate more, to discussed?
answer very specific questions ***
about what they find difficult. So far you've identified several
Any other purposes we haven't pedagogical purposes for your
surfaced? choice of web-based activity. One
*** that emerges very clearly is to
How would you summarize your maintain learner interest.... to
pedagogical purposes for using keep them engaged – that's one
all of these Web-based tools and purpose that you've identified.
resources? The other is, for this particular
activity, it's to clarify
misconceptions. Any other? I'm
just recapping what you've
already mentioned or implied.
4) How important is I actually have one question You mentioned that a particularly
each of the three asking you about what you think dominant form of interaction is
types of interaction of each of the three types of the teacher — you — interacting
— learner-content, interactivity. You've already with students. How does this
learner-learner, mentioned the interaction happen? Is this in the context of
learner-teacher — in between the learner and the the forum or do you for example
your online DE material, the learner-content have a private, one-on-one
courses? (Probe: Is interaction. And then there are conversation with them by email?
there a particular two others – the learner-learner
type of interaction interaction and the learner-
that you consider teacher [interaction]. So how
more important than important is each of these in your
others? If so, which courses and how do you design
one?) How do you for each of them?
design for the
type(s) of interaction
that you consider
important?
65
5) In your online DE The other priority in distance Ok. I will probe a little bit in
courses, how education is learner terms of how you design, because
important is independence, independent it is much more clear how you
independent, self- learning, because of the design for interaction, like by
paced learning on circumstance. How important is forming a forum and then posing
the part of the this in your courses and how is it a question. But how do you design
students? How do designed into your courses? for independence?
you design for *** ***
independent, self- ...you said that for you it is In the previous question you
paced learning in important for them to be able to talked about the role of the
your online DE interact with the teacher and with teacher in encouraging that kind
courses? each other, but there are people of learning. Is there a role for you
who cannot work collaboratively or the FIC in developing
and who would prefer work by autonomous learning skills?
themselves, to learn by ***
themselves. So that's them, Would you say that providing that
right? But for you personally, kind of structure has an effect — a
how important is it that students positive effect — on their ability to
should be able to work do things by themselves? If so,
independently within the context how is this apparent?
of your course? What is the place
of independent learning in your
course vis-à-vis for example
interactive learning which you
already said is important?
6) What (other) factors Ok. So that's three factors now:
do you take into the learning objective, your
account when you conception of what learning is and
design your Web- how it takes place, and what you
based or online DE know about your students, what
courses? you assume initially but actually
this is also I guess confirmed by
your experience, right? Are there
any other factors that you take
into account?
7) How has your course ...You've been teaching at You mentioned precisely the key
design practice UPOU for what — three years, term — pedagogy... if we focus just
evolved from your two and half years? So you've on pedagogy, on the way that you
early years of handled these courses several teach, and try and identify or
teaching at a times maybe? With different sets describe a little more concretely
distance to the of students. Do you notice the changes that have taken place
present? whether the way you are in that area. How would you
designing your courses now is describe the change for you?
different and if so in what way is ***
8a) How does the use of Just to make sure I'm getting what
Web technologies you're saying, does this have to
impact the way you do with strengthening instruction
teach? More and the modes or the diversity, or
specifically, what the instructional strategies?
aspects of your ***
online distance The fact that you can use them
teaching practice are and not have to make them
strengthened by your yourself, as you put it — what is
use of Web-based the advantage of that from a
tools and resources? pedagogical point of view? For
you as a teacher, what does that
add or what does that enable you
to do?
9) What gaps, if any, ...when you were designing the So far what you've been pointing
have you observed activities that you were out as one explanation for the
between your designing, you had very specific gaps and the weaknesses is the
pedagogical aims goals in mind. Has it ever technological limitation. Are there
and what you are happened that there is a gap other reasons that you can think of
actually able to do or between what you had aimed for for why there is a gap between
achieve in your and what you were able to what you intended and what
online DE courses? achieve? actually happened?
What do you think
would explain these
gaps?
10) What do you think This is more general and your Like different faculty do different
are the issues and vantage point is interesting things. And then you mentioned
challenges in because you are the program the need to share what they
designing and chair so I suppose you would develop. Why is that important?
developing online have [the] opportunity to observe Why is that necessary?
distance education the way others are designing
courses at UPOU? their courses, if at all. So my
question has to do with what you
consider to be the issues and
challenges in the way that we do
course design and development
at UPOU -- based on your own
practice, based on what you have
observed of what others are
doing.
***
36 Such exchanges took place during university colloquia and faculty workshops where participants
shared and discussed examples of their design work.
37 The other official language of the Philippines is Filipino.
68
In the second stage of data analysis, which took place during the writing of the
report, I looked at the data using the analytic approach and frameworks that I had
derived from the literature review38. In broad terms, this involved comparing and
contrasting the themes or patterns I had identified in the interview data with related
themes or patterns in the literature. This gave me a broader perspective on particular
findings, helping me to avoid a tendency to miss the forest for the trees. At the same
time, I sought to avoid seeing in the data only what my theoretical lens would allow
me to see (i.e., tunnel vision) by being careful to attend to 'counter-examples'
(Knight, 2002; Robson 2002) or themes emerging from the study that appeared to be
new or different or relatively unexplored in the literature. The study's findings are
presented (in Chapters 4 and 5) according to the final set of themes and sub-themes.
38See Chapter 2.
39I joined UPOU in 1999 after 10 years of teaching at the flagship campus of the UP System. My
administrative roles at UPOU have included membership in the Academic Personnel Board (APB) and
the Chancellor's Advisory Council. The APB recommends and implements policies on hiring, retention
and promotion, as well as tenure of faculty.
70
One advantage is that I know firsthand the course design practices that I
sought to study. Another advantage is that I know from many formal and informal
discussions with colleagues that there is a great deal of interest in further study of
issues and trends in ODeL course design particularly within our institutional context.
Third, because we are a very small university, my colleagues and I work closely
together on many university projects and we have a highly collegial relationship.
Thus, my colleagues were fully aware of my intentions to undertake this study and
they expressed full support and willingness to cooperate.
On the other hand, I found that our organisational roles and experiences, as
well as our personal and professional identities, made it difficult for my colleagues
and I to assume the roles that our respective engagements in/with my study called for.
I, for one, needed to consciously take on a situational identity as researcher, to
"reinvent [my]self from complete insider to interested-but-ignorant bystander"
(Angrosino & Mays de Perez, p. 125). To prepare for this process of 'role-making'
(Angrosino & Mays de Perez, p. 111), I convened a colloquium series where my
colleagues and I talked about some of the course design practices and issues that I was
interested in analysing. The series ran from September 2009 to January 2010 and
included presentations by 11 faculty members, including one by myself. Several
aspects of the colloquium series assured me of the feasibility of conducting the kind
of insider-research I undertook in this thesis: my colleagues' willingness to talk about
aspects of their teaching practice and their openness to questions from the audience
(including my own questions); the thoughtful and animated discussions during the
colloquium sessions; and our collective resolve to continue our critical reflection and
dialogue on our practice of DE.
Because my study revolves around issues and concerns in which they too have
a special interest as DE practitioners and researchers, I consider my colleagues my
research collaborators and not just "respondents" or "key informants". Accordingly,
during the data collection, I adopted an attitude of disclosure and openness,
explaining the purposes of my study and taking care to listen attentively to their
responses to the questions that I posed. My colleagues were equally forthcoming in
their accounts of their teaching practice, and they were unstinting in their sharing of
insights and reflections.
Moreover, during the data analysis and report writing, I took pains to avoid
making reductive interpretations by trying to be aware of my prejudices and taking
71
care not to impose these 'unexamined interpretive frameworks' (Brown & Dowling,
1998, p. 44) on the research data. Especially in cases where these contradicted my
own perspective, 1 carefully re-read and reflected on statements made by my
colleagues, referred to related studies, and rigorously applied my analytic framework.
Aware that "the interpretations of the researcher [myself] are likely to be emphasised
more than the interpretations of those people studied", I have tried in this report "to
preserve the[ir] multiple realities, the[ir] different and even contradictory views of
what is happening" (Stake, 1995, p. 12). I hope that in so doing, I shall have
demonstrated, at least to myself, that "[a]n ethic of caution is not contradictory to an
ethic of interpretation" (Stake, p. 12).
72
The most frequently mentioned Web resources were online articles, followed
by video materials, websites and online databases. Also mentioned were
webcast/streaming media and images taken from online repositories. The reasons
given for the use of online articles and websites mostly point to the need to augment
course materials with more current research-based information. Those who use videos
cited its advantage as a medium for representing certain types of information (e.g.,
processes). In some cases, resources are used not as sources of content but as a focus
for discussion or scenario building. Table 4-2 summarises the reasons given by the
faculty for their use of particular Web resources.
With regard to Web tools, all research participants said they use discussion
forums in UPOU's Moodle-based VLE. Email and chat tools are also widely used.
Some faculty members said they use media sharing sites, blogging services, and wild
applications. Some also mentioned online quizzes, screen casting, and social
networking tools. Table 4-3 presents the pedagogical purposes cited by the faculty for
their use of particular Web tools.
The faculty's use of Web tools and resources can be analysed in terms of
Laurillard's (2002) media types:
Table 4-4. Web technologies used by the faculty classified by media type
Participant Narrative Interactive Adaptive Communicative Productive media
media media media media
P1 online articles, discussion forums, student blogs as an
Web pages chat via Yahoo option for the term
Messenger, Web- project
based SMS
student videos
uploaded to
YouTube as an
option for the term
project
P2 online articles, portals, topic interactive discussion forums,
slide hotlists, tutorials; email, discussions
presentations, WebQuests online quizzes on Ning
e-books, online
videos
76
P3 journal articles, resource lists online quizzes discussion forums, group blogs
videos, images, chat via Skype and
e-books, Yahoo Messenger wikis
screencasts
P4 online articles, online quizzes discussion forums
Web pages
P5 online journal discussion forums,
articles chat via Skype,
email
P6 online articles, websites, email, discussion
e-books, videos online forums
databases
P7 online articles discussion forums,student videos
chat via Yahoo uploaded to
Messenger and Youtube as an
Skype option for the term
project
P8 online articles, discussion forums, media sharing by
videos, Facebook students via
screencasts, Facebook
tutorials
P9 online articles discussion forums, wiki, chat
chat tool on Moodie summaries posted
online
P10 online articles, discussion forum videos and other
videos production exercises
published by
students on a social
networking site
Table 4-4 shows that the research participants' use of narrative media is
complemented by use of communicative media (by all), interactive and adaptive
media (by some), and productive media (by some). Thus, their use of Web
technologies may be said to be 'interactive' rather than 'one-way' (as defined by
Mason & Rennie, 2008) for the most part.
How they use Web technologies can also be differentiated in terms of whether
they emphasise individual and independent learning, or collaborative learning, as
suggested by Roberts (2003) and Gonzalez (2009). Based on their reasons for using
Web tools and resources, two (P6 and P10) appear to put more emphasis on
independent learning, two (P7 and P8) emphasise collaborative learning more, and the
other six (P1, P2, P3, P4, P5 and P9) give more or less equal emphasis to both
independent and collaborative learning.
Among those who use the Web for collaborative learning, the collaborative
learning activity is mostly asynchronous online discussion but with occasional
synchronous activities such as chat sessions and small group tutorials. Some (like P3
77
and P7) design learning activities that require students to work together on projects,
such as a group blog, wiki or video project. Among those who use the Web for
independent learning, there appears to be an emphasis on providing a variety of
resources for learners to use — i.e., rich media as well as text materials (in the case of
P6, P10, and P2), interactive media such as online databases (P6) and tutorials (P2,
P8), and adaptive media such as online quizzes (P2 and P3), aside from narrative
media.
Still, even those who emphasise independent learning more than collaborative
learning use discussion forums as a way of motivating learners (P6) and as a venue
for learners to articulate their understanding of content (P10). Also, those who use
social networking sites do so both for collaborative learning purposes, such as
encouraging greater learner dialogue (P2 and P8), and to support independent
learning, in particular as a venue for students to publish their individual work (P10).
In other words, all of the faculty use more or less the same Web technologies to
support both independent learning and collaborative learning. This proves Bain et
al.'s (1998) assertion that it is not the type of technology used but how a particular
technology is used that accounts for differences in pedagogical approaches.
Furthermore, contrary to the dichotomous description of academics' use of the
Web that has been proposed in previous studies, in both independent learning with the
Web and collaborative learning with the Web the academics included in this study use
Web technologies in an interactive way to foster learner interaction with content and
interaction among learners, and only some faculty members emphasise either
independent learning or collaborative learning in their use of Web technologies and
the rest attempt to balance both types of learning. This finding supports Haughey et
al.'s (2008) comment regarding the diversity of pedagogical practices and orientations
in contemporary DE, as well as Anderson's (2008) model of online learning which
combines flexible, self-paced learning with participation in an online learning
community.
P6: ...I often say that independent learning is a big part of [DE] simply
because the instructor is physically removed from the student. I really
think independent learning is 90 per cent of it. And you know,
sometimes I think that you can teach yourself anything these days
[because] everything is on the Internet already. And our function as
instructors is simply to provide pressure. There are free books that
people will not read [by themselves] but [which] they will have to read
because you ask them questions about it and then you give them
grades. That's our role really. Independent learning is really [the way
to learn]... it seems there is no other way. My courses are all like that:
read this stuff and then I'll ask questions about it. And I try to design
the questions so that they make you think more about the material that
you've read.
***
P10: [Learner independence is] very important. In fact, you can take
my course and not even talk to me. But you make sure that you submit
all the outputs that are asked of you. That's why I always say don't talk
to me because that's just talk and if I don't see what you have done,
then I know that you didn't get it. Sometimes I make comments like,
"Why are you making your own principles? It seems that you did not
read, you did not view "Knowing How to See" and you call these
things by other names. What have you been doing?" In other words,
with their output I know whether they have been able to process the
text that they viewed....
Thus, discussion forums are not a main feature in the courses that they teach. P6 said
that he began including a discussion forum in his courses only recently, when he
realised that students might need to have some social contact with fellow learners to
mitigate the sense of isolation that studying at a distance might engender. In PlO's
classes, learner-learner interaction comes at the end of the term when students
showcase their work on their Multiply sites for others to view and comment on. This
type of learner interaction with their peers and their personal community of family
and friends, which a social networking site like Multiply allows for, is included in
Anderson's representation of the independent learning approach to online learning.
On learner-learner interaction and independent learning. For P7 learner-
learner interaction is the most important type of interaction and she exerts a lot of
effort to design collaborative activities even if these may not be necessary to achieve
the course objectives:
P7: It's like this — The independence will come in terms of you being
able to manage your own learning, your knowing what to do at what
time. For instance, you have to read all these things, you have to read
all these reading materials, you have to do your assignment. At the
same time, there is the group aspect of the learning wherein you will
be coming there prepared because you have done all the independent
things....
81
Like P7, P8 said that she goes out of her way to select Web tools and design
activities for collaborative learning "because I know that they [learners] will learn
from each other, aside from the teacher" (P8). Aside from discussion forums, P8
conducts online tutorials on-demand41 and she has experimented with the use of
Facebook as a supplementary learning space for her students. But P8 also noted that
while most students have no problem participating in group activities, there are some
who are unable to participate (like one student based in China where Facebook is
banned) or who are unwilling to participate because they prefer to study on their own.
P8 admitted that the latter pose a dilemma for her because while she believes in the
importance of collaborative learning, these 'solitary learners' who have an
`intrapersonal' learning style (Ke & Carr-Chellman, 2006) are able to demonstrate
that they can do the required work by themselves: "But in the end there are students
who go it alone, who really cannot work in a group, who refuse to participate in group
work. But their work is good!" (P8). Because of this, and her appreciation of the
diversity of students in terms of degree of preparedness for her course in basic
computing, P8 makes available all learning materials at the outset instead of releasing
them in instalments. This allows the more advanced learners to read ahead if they
wish. She also limits the collaborative work to the final project which is done towards
the end of the term.
The foregoing suggests that the independent learning approach and the
collaborative learning approach to online distance education may be combined. For
those whose preferred approach is collaborative learning (like P7 and P8),
independent learning is something that precedes and supports collaboration. For
others (discussed below), the two approaches should be balanced, or provided for to
an equal degree.
On balancing the forms of interaction and independent learning. The six
faculty members who said that the three forms of interaction are equally important
referred to the different types of learning activities in their courses that foster these
forms of interaction. For example, learner-content interaction happens when students
study the learning resources provided (mentioned by P2, P5, and P9), learner-learner
interaction takes place in the discussion forums and other online collaborative
activities (mentioned by P2, P5, P8, and P9), and learner-teacher interaction occurs
when teachers give learners individualised feedback on assignments (mentioned by
P4 and P5). Aside from asynchronous discussions, four of the six research
participants who said that all three forms of interaction are important (P1, P3, P5 and
P9) have synchronous discussions with students using instant messaging and Web-
based conferencing tools. They also include in their courses other types of online
collaborative activities, such as webinars (P1), forums with resource speakers (P9),
and wiki activities (P3, P4 and P9). They likewise cited a variety of Web-based
materials that they include in the course packages they prepare for students, such as
online journal articles (P3, P4, and 135), e-books (P2 and P4), video materials (P1 and
P3), development reports (P9), lesson plans and tutorials (P2), and even political
advertisements (P4). Their integration of a variety of Web-based learning materials
and tools, and discussion-based and collaborative activities, is consistent with their
view regarding the need to balance the three forms of interaction specified by Moore.
With regard to independent learning, the general view among these six
research participants seems to be that it is important but it must be balanced with
other pedagogical considerations, such as the course structure and the need for
interaction. Except for P1 who allows students to hand in their main course
assignment any time during the term, all of the research participants set deadlines for
learning activities and assignments, and they expect students to move through the
course as a cohort. For P2 and P3, this is a way of helping learners to manage their
studies better. For P4 and P7, it is a way of helping students to feel that they are part
of a learning community:
P7: ...you [the teacher] give them time, a guide, a schedule of learning
tasks. For me it's also because you also have to help them manage
their time. Because if you don't, they will not be able to come together
on time, they won't be able to come together as a group.
These comments suggest more or less equal emphasis being given to course structure
and dialogue, while learner autonomy is de-emphasised. According to Benson &
Samarawickrema (2009), this mix is appropriate for learning contexts with the
83
As mentioned, a factor that might account for P5 and P9's perspective on learner
independence is course level. That is, the degree of learner independence that teachers
design into a course is influenced by whether the course is an undergraduate or
graduate-level course, and/or whether it is a first year versus senior year course
(Benson & Samarawickrema, 2009; Oliver, 2002). This is evident in the following
remarks by P3:
communication studies (P5 and P7), and multimedia design (P8). Similarly, those
whose approach to online learning reflects a cognitivist constructivist orientation have
different disciplinary backgrounds: reading education (P2), marine science (P6), and
film studies (P10). Based on Becher's (1989) classification of disciplines, five of the
disciplines mentioned are 'applied soft', two are 'pure hard', and one is 'applied
hard'.42 While several faculty from a 'soft applied' discipline have a social
constructivist pedagogical orientation, at least one of them (P10) has a cognitive-
behaviourist pedagogical orientation43. P6, who comes from a 'pure hard' discipline',
also appears to have a cognitive-behaviourist orientation to teaching. The two faculty
members from 'pure hard' disciplines (P6 and P1) also differ in their approaches to
online teaching, with P1 leaning more towards a social constructivist approach. These
findings corroborate Bain & McNaught's (2006) observation regarding 'discipline
heterogeneity' in pedagogical beliefs and practices in 'computer-facilitated learning',
and Gonzalez's (2009) findings of academics from similar discipline categories with
contrasting approaches to teaching with the Web.
This is not to say, however, that their disciplinary affiliation has no influence
on how the academics in this study use Web technologies for teaching. P5, for one,
referred to the influence of her discipline on her beliefs about how learning takes
place, thus: "Maybe coming from the communication discipline, [I think that]
interaction is where knowledge is created." For other research participants,
disciplinary influence is apparent in subject pedagogies. For example, P1's use of
webinars in his graduate courses, where students make an oral presentation and
answer questions from their peers and from a panel of experts, reflects the influence
of scientific conferences which are common in his discipline. P8, who teaches
computer education and Web design courses, talked about trying to simulate the
computer laboratory approach which involves on-the-spot demonstrations and hands-
on exercises:
42
The applied soft disciplines mentioned are management, education, communication studies,
multimedia design, and film studies; the pure hard disciplines are biology and marine science; and the
applied hard discipline is nursing.
43 See Chapter 2, section 2.3. A cognitive-behaviourist orientation is described by Anderson & Dron
(2011) as having highly structured content, minimal social presence because learning is largely an
individual process, and reduced teacher presence as teacher-learner interaction consists mostly of
marking and evaluation.
86
...The learners need to see how you use the software. Or if you have
your text, they need visuals, screenshots, showing how it would look if
you log in...
P6: ... Like now we have the LAMP [Land Administration and
Management courses]. For that we really have to produce course
manuals. This is like going back to the old [way of developing course
materials].
P6: There are no textbooks in the Philippines. It's such a new field for
the Philippines. Essentially the practice is there but the practitioners
have learned from manuals in the US etc.... So we have to really write
manuals. Also, this program is really for practitioners, people who will
go out and do.... For Environment students I want people who will
question.... Here [in Land Valuation and Management] it's different.
In other words, I don't expect them to learn from a reading list. One
book — that's what I imagine for them.
Me: So... the factor in this instance is the nature of the discipline?
P6: Yeah. Because valuation is... still evolving in the Philippines but it
is sort of set as a discipline. You find out how much the cost is of a
certain piece of property. Unlike environment and natural resources
management where the field really needs to develop in terms of people
thinking critically. Is it correct to look at a resource this way? Is it
correct to always assume that people will have to be involved'?....
Because the pendulum swings from centralised command and control
to community-based [approaches]. So you need practitioners who are
questioning [critical].
87
P2: Well, for one, the principle of redundancy because I do not know
how limited or how extensive the access to materials of my students
is....
P1's strategy for reaching learners with variable access to the course is to use a Web-
based broadcast SMS application to communicate with students. He also keeps
learners engaged with the course by sending them content-related questions through
broadcast SMS.
Following good design practice, the research participants engage in an
analysis of learner needs. This can be through learner surveys, such as those
undertaken by P1 and P8, or by extrapolating the characteristics of the 'typical' or
`expected' student (Oliver, 2004) in a particular discipline and course level. P5
referred to this process of extrapolation as a matter of 'anticipating' and making
assumptions about learners and designing learning activities accordingly:
89
...I would assume that because this is a graduate level [course], the
students have both the practical and the theoretical knowledge and that
I have to exploit that for them to realise that you're not coming here
tabula rasa, that you don't know anything. You come here with
knowledge. You can participate in knowledge creation....
P5's reference to designing her course to leverage (she uses the word
`exploit') the heterogeneity of learner perspectives highlights learner participation in
course activities as an aspect of learner access. Good design should foster learner
participation (Goodyear, 2009), and the faculty members included in this study
consider it an important goal of their design practice. However, there are particular
challenges to ensuring participation by all learners in online DE, aside from access to
technology. P3, P4, and P9 observed that although learners have a wealth of
experiences to draw from, they need to be encouraged to articulate and share their
personal and professional experiences, and they need guidance in how to relate these
to the concepts and theories taken up in class.
Aside from formulating discussion questions and moderating discussion
forums with this in mind, providing for less formal discussion is one strategy for
encouraging learner participation. P9, for example, holds regular chat sessions
because "socialisation is very important especially because [learners] are far from
each other [and] you have to make them feel that they belong to a learning
community, [that] they are not alone in this course" (cf. Shin, 2003; Kehrwald, 2008).
To distinguish discussion forums intended purely for socialisation, faculty members
use labels like `kapihan' (Tagalog for 'café' — used by P7) or 'open forum' (P3).
Others like P8 and P2 use Web applications outside of the VLE to engage students
more. P8 uses Facebook, and she contrasted its informality and democratic character
with the formality and teacher-centredness of the VLE:
...Also, even if you don't give instructions. Actually, there are no rules
[in Facebook] although of course I set guidelines like you can only talk
about this, you can only post such pictures. But there are no rules as
such really. In Moodie it's understood that only [the teacher] is in
control. But in Facebook there is a sense of freedom.
P2 made a similar comparison between Moodie and Ning, a blogging service that she
has decided to use in one class. She finds the latter "easier [for students] to navigate"
(with fewer "layers in terms of clicking"), "more youthful", and less "clunky" than
Moodie.
One issue in designing for learner participation in online learning is
unevenness in participation (Seddon et al., 2011) among learners and in different
learning activities. Take P9's account of some students participating only in chat
sessions and not in the discussion forums:
P9: There are some who participate in the chat but don't go to the
forum.
...I think it's more because they feel more comfortable in the chat
because they don't, perhaps they do not write very well.
... in the chat, since you are only allowed to write down a few
sentences, you know, you're not really compelled [to write much],
sometimes you just say, "Yes, I agree." (laughs) But your presence is
there, you know. I mean that's fine. If they could not contribute, what
can I do?
P9's remarks call attention to the need to consider learners' capacities for
participation and how different Web tools might be used to address this (Hrastinski,
2007). It also raises the question of how to account for and assess the distinct forms of
91
learner participation in online learning, such as lurking (see, for example, Seddon et
al., 2011 and Slevin, 2008).
Ironically, some e-learning designs that aim to foster learner participation also
have the potential to limit learner access and inhibit participation. For example, while
chat sessions might be intended to encourage learners to participate more, as P9
explained, not all learners can participate in such sessions due to differences in time
zones and competing demands on time and, in some cases, bandwidth limitations. If
not all learners can participate in a learning activity, should the activity be
implemented anyway? For P2 this is a key concern and she does not have chat
sessions for this reason: "I have very big classes and I don't really want to start that,
you know, I can chat with 10 people and not chat with the others." P3 and P8 also
have large classes. Their solution to the issue is to make the synchronous tutorials
voluntary rather than compulsory:
P3: ...when I announce the chat session I will tell them that this is to
clarify this topic and so on. In a way I'm also sort of narrowing, I mean
really focusing what would be the discussion in the chat and so I
assume that those who are not interested have already grasped the
concept. And in any case it's not part of the grading requirement.
P8: ...there are Web 2.0 tools that are available so that you can
collaborate, do collaborative work, without being online at the same. In
other words, collaboration can be asynchronous; it does not have to be
synchronous. But some students cannot stop thinking of it as a
synchronous activity. For example, they explain the group's inability
to work together in this way: "Ma'am, it's because they [other group
members] don't log in at the agreed upon time." And then I say,...
"You can still collaborate on the project, work on it, even if you are
[not logged in at the same time]." As it is, students are not necessarily
in the same time zones especially if they have a group mate who is
abroad. In fact, I deliberately group students who are geographically
dispersed. I make it difficult for them to opt to have a face-to-face
meeting. Because there are tools they can use. But no. They insist on
organising, scheduling a chat. They can't drop the idea of
synchronicity. Or they will use their cell phones.
92
• Among faculty members who are inclined towards dialogic and collaborative
learning activities, there are different perspectives with regard to what types of
learner participation are valuable and how they should be designed for. In
particular, there are differences of opinion over the value of synchronous learning
activities. While an increasing number of faculty are expressing interest in using
Web conferencing tools for tutorials, lecture sessions, and group discussions,
some faculty members have pointed out the constraints on learner access,
participation, and autonomy that such activities pose. The place of synchronous
online learning in DE is an area for further study, as evidenced by the emergence
of 'blended' or hybrid DE combining asynchronous and synchronous interaction
(see, for example, Hrastinski, 2007; Power, 2008; Power & Gould-Morven, 2011).
This chapter discusses findings related to the second and third research
questions, namely, How does their use of Web-based tools and resources impact the
faculty's course design practices? and What are the issues and challenges in the
design of online DE courses from the faculty's point of view?.
In connection with the second research question, the research participants
were asked how they think their course design practice has evolved from the time
they started teaching in distance education mode, and after Web technologies became
more widely available and UPOU adopted a more resource-based approach to course
development. More specifically, they were asked what aspects of their course design
they consider to have been strengthened and weakened by their use of Web
technologies. The analysis of the responses to these questions looks at evidence of
shifts in the focus of their course design practice. This is based on the idea, derived
from the studies on variation in the focus of online learning design discussed in
Chapter 244, that the impact of teaching with the Web can be gauged not so much
from the literal uptake of online tools, as from what teachers focus on in their use of
these tools. How teachers use online tools is guided by their conceptions of teaching
and learning, which in turn can be inferred from what they focus on in their
descriptions of their online teaching experience. Change in their pedagogic
conceptions comes about from a broadening of the teachers' awareness of the
pedagogic opportunities afforded by learning technologies, and the development of
their knowledge and skills in online learning design. To appreciate qualitative
differences between the design practices of different academics, which might appear
to be similar (because, for example, they use the same tools), as well as qualitative
changes in one academic's design practice over time, it is important to examine the
underlying focus of these practices — e.g., whether the focus of a particular strategy
is to improve teaching or to improve learning. In section 5.1 the analysis of the
research participants' perceptions of changes in their course design practices are
compared to trends noted in the literature regarding shifts in emphasis from content
development and independent study to social interaction and collaboration in online
5.1 How teaching with the Web impacts on course design practice
The research participants described changes in their course design practice
arising from or corollary to their use of Web tools and resources in their courses, that
fall into four areas: content development, teaching strategies, learning activities, and
assessment of learning (Table 5-1):
Change in content development and change in teaching strategies (the first two
columns of Table 5-1) are similar to the first two categories of change in how
university teachers experience teaching identified by McKenzie45 (2003), namely:
changing content taught in order to improve teaching (cA) and changing teaching
strategies in order to improve teaching (cB). The two other areas of change in Table
5-1 (i.e., change in learning activities and change in assessment) do not have
equivalents in McKenzie's classification. However, as shown in Table 5-1 and as
discussed below, they represent important dimensions of variation in the ODeL
course design practice of the faculty.
McKenzie identified a shift in focus from teacher to student as a key
dimension of variation in how teachers experience change in their teaching. A similar
pattern of pedagogic change has been noted in the DE and e-learning literature46.
Accordingly, in the discussion below 1 examine whether the changes described by the
research participants are teacher- or student-focused, and whether the direction of
change is from being teacher-focused to being student-focused.
P6: My usual thing is to make a course outline and then look for things
out there. And there's lots of good stuff, mostly printed stuff, PDFs
and soon. There's so much [out there]. The research organisations, UN
bodies, they just keep on publishing and coming out with new reports.
... And then you can update.... It's possible for the information you
include to be always current.
P1: I try to avoid sticking to one reference because there are lots of
learning materials online and there are different or diverse
presentations of concepts and different formats available to suit the
learning styles of students. For example, I have students who like
watching videos, so I make sure that the learning materials that I select
have a video equivalent.
P2 likewise revealed a learner orientation when she talked about selecting resources
that her students, who are themselves teachers, would be able to use in their own
classrooms: "Many of those will be very useful for them outside of my class. I mean
they are really teacher resources, so they can go back to these" (P2). P1 and P2's
rationales for implementing Web-based content development suggest that it is not
simply including learning resources but how these learning resources are used in a
course, especially by learners, that might spell the difference between a subject- or
content-focused approach, and a more learner-focused approach.
P9: ...[previously] the inputs [were] coming mostly from you. But now,
with all of these [Web] tools, you can now ask them, you can involve
them much more, and they can now participate more actively and they
have the venue for that rather than just me providing this
information.... They can now collaborate with each other....
***
101
P7: ...it's really the dialogue. In the past, when it was just the [face-to-
face tutorial], there was not much dialogue happening. Now you have
elbow room to really discuss so many aspects that you really want to
discuss with your students. Now it's really like you are talking with
them.
***
P5: In my first and second semesters in 2004 I conducted face-to-face
sessions with students.... Then I made the decision to go fully online
because I find that our discussion there is very rich and I wanted the
other students to hear and listen, too....
would play with it, and only later would I think about its effect on the
learner. Now I think more about [how it impacts on the learner].
Although the intent is to provide students with better guidance, P4's rationale for
providing assessment criteria is consistent with the traditional approach to assessment
where the teacher is the authority and the assessor and arbiter of the quality of student
learning (Mason, 2008). A more learner-centered approach would be to negotiate the
assessment criteria with learners and have them use these to assess their own learning
(Anderson, 2008; Mason, 2008).
103
P3: ...Because of the existing tools, now it's easy for them [the
students] to video. I mean when they prepare their assignment, it can
be multimedia.... And that helps in assessing learning outcomes,
because then you [the teacher] have better ways of checking their
performance, for example when they're doing their clinical practicum
and even if you are not there.... This is what we have been doing for
students based abroad, and for a particular skill like physical
assessment. They can actually just do it and send a video, or they can
compile a case study and put all these evidences of their work. So it's
like a portfolio for the clinical practicum. In fact I wrote a course
manual for the clinical practicum course to help the faculty improve
the learning activities that they have for students based abroad that
they are not able to see face-to-face.
many online courses espouse and the teacher-centred approach to assessment in such
courses. This is discussed further in section 5.2.4.
In sum, the faculty's descriptions of how their online course design practice
has changed call attention to four areas: content development, teaching strategies,
learning activities, and assessment. In general the changes in learning activities
suggest a shift towards a learner-focused social constructivist design. Similarly, while
some of the changes in content development appeared to be either teacher- or subject-
focused, other descriptions were learner-focused. In contrast, descriptions of change
in teaching strategies were largely teacher-focused, with emphasis on the improved
ability to teach certain kinds of courses and to organise a course better. Descriptions
of change in assessment practice also tended to be teacher-focused, with only one
faculty member describing the change in his assessment practice in a learner-focused
manner. However, it is notable that faculty members who have contrasting approaches
to ODeL articulated both teacher- and/or subject-focused and learner-focused
descriptions of how teaching with Web technologies has changed or is changing how
they design their courses (Table 5-2). This is discussed further in section 5.2.
Table 5-2. Distribution of faculty responses in terms of area and focus of change
in course design practice
Area of Change Teacher- or Subject-focused Learner- or Learning-focused
descriptions/rationales descriptions/rationales
Content P2, P6, P10 Pl , P2, P5, P9
Learning activities P2, P3 P2, P3, P4, P5, P7, P8, P9
Teaching strategies P5, P8, P9
Assessment P3, P4 P1
Table 5-3. Issues and challenges in personal ODeL course design practice
Aspect Weakness/Issue/Challenge
Content development Time needed for selecting resources (P1, P2, P8)
Developing study guides (P2, P4, P6)
Teaching strategies Reduction of opportunities to lecture (P6, P10)
Learning activities Over-reliance on tool and failure to consider effects on
learners/learning (P3, P4)
Learner engagement and participation (P1, P3, P6, P8, P9)
Spontaneity and immediacy (P2, P7)
Control of learner behaviour (P5)
Assessment Fairness in assessment of learning (P7)
P2: ...I have found a lot of resources...which are really for study.
These are really workshops or modules. For example, last semester I
discovered a workshop for inquiry-based learning where they really go
through lessons. Imagine if I had to do that for myself. And then I
discovered... modules developed by.... and they are complete, they
have examples, exercise sheets, quizzes....
However, as P4 noted, since many Web resources were created for some other
context, it is important to develop study guides that will help learners make
productive use of these Web resources. A study guide consists of a general
106
commentary and guide questions to help students focus on key aspects of the text. The
lack of a study guide can prove to be a problem, as P6 noted:
P6: ...I don't make study guides. But now I realise that I need to
provide them for the undergraduate students.... Because I give journal
articles and they miss the main point.
Interestingly, only two faculty members out of the 10 included in this study
mentioned the need to develop study guides. Moreover, a cursory examination of
more than a hundred course sites for courses offered in two semesters indicates that
non-provision of study guides is widespread. Some faculty members (like P6) neglect
the development of study guides because they are accustomed to face-to-face teaching
where texts are usually discussed in class and there is less need for a written study
guide. Another reason, noted by P4 in this study, is that writing study guides is
associated with the older DE course development model of writing stand-alone or
self-contained course materials, which is being supplanted by the newer resource-
based approach to course development:
And I've been getting some mixed reactions regarding the new
approach that we're taking. Like yesterday there was this one guy who
criticised the written modules that we had before, implying that they
were too processed or simplistic. But at the same time there are other
students who are quite busy with their work who would prefer a
written module that they can bring around and then read even while
they are travelling. So I really don't know how to approach this. In fact
I want to develop a course that would strike a balance between the two
[but] I don't know how that would happen.
P4's remarks underscore, inter alia, that it is not enough to direct learners to online
resources; teachers also need to provide guidance regarding what aspects of these
resources are important and how concepts and ideas from different resources might be
107
meaningfully integrated given particular course goals. But how much guidance to
give appears to be a dilemma for faculty. There can be too little guidance or too
much, both of which would be detrimental to learning.
Related to this is the issue of when to provide guidance. One of the
affordances of Web technologies in DE contexts is enabling the provision of just-in-
time instruction. Access to online resources that can be easily re-purposed for
instruction and the availability of tools for faculty to assemble course packages on
their own (Muirhead, 2005) means that course development is now more open-ended
and flexible (Mason, 1998). Faculty members generally consider this to be an
advantage. P7 for example noted:
P7: ...You can even provide materials, unlike before where you will
have to plan that at the start of the semester, you have to package
everything before you start the course. But now, we can even introduce
changes as we go along and then that's manageable now.
However, as P4 suggested, increased flexibility for teachers with regard to the posting
of course materials does not necessarily mean greater flexibility for all learners (cf.
Thorpe & Godwin, 2006). P4 also reported student comments about how the
unavailability of all course materials at the beginning of the term limits their ability to
pace their own learning.
P8 expressed a contrary view: she noted that periodic release of course
materials appears to help her students keep on track with the course activities. The
difference in reactions might be due to the fact that P4's students are graduate
students with a stronger disposition towards autonomy, while P8's students are
undergraduates who might be more dependent on teacher direction and pacing. For
the current discussion, the more critical point is that pedagogical designs not only
have variable effects on learners, but also the potential to throw into relief certain
tensions between teaching and learning practices.
These remarks by P6, and others mentioned below, suggest that the influence of face-
to-face teaching behaviours on how teachers teach online is not insignificant. In some
cases there seems to be the assumption that classroom-based face-to-face teaching is
the standard practice not only in the sense of being the benchmark against which all
modes of teaching are measured, but also in the sense of being the 'best practice' that
should be emulated. In this study, this is evident in some of the faculty's statements
about being able to do online what is done face-to-face:
P9: ...they've always thought that this is face-to-face and this is online
and they're two distinct [modes] and we try to bridge them.... [but]
you have a resource person as well [in the online class], [so] it's the
same thing. You know, you're getting the same.... You're just
applying it online. And it should not be different.... (emphasis
added)
***
P7: ....I say to them, look, these activities, these examples can show
that even in an online setting we can do collaborative work among
our students. (emphasis added)
These statements reveal a desire for parity (Jevons, 1987), with parity being
interpreted as, or confused with, sameness: "[I] would tell people that DE is
something that is at par, that it's not different from residential... teaching" (P5).
However, while face-to-face and online teaching might have features in
common, they also have important differences (Price & Oliver, 2006). Recognition of
the differences comes with mixed emotions. The more commonly documented faculty
reaction is reluctance and, in some cases, outright resistance usually in the early
stages of the institutional shift to e-learning in conventional universities (Blin &
Munro, 2008). Even those who take to teaching online, like the faculty included in
this study, seem to have residual feelings of attachment to face-to-face teaching, as
evidenced by the following:
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P6: For me the ideal situation would be that there is face-to-face, that it
is primarily online but there will be face-to-face sessions for those who
can come, and then we'll do something for those who can't be there,
whether it's uploading the lecture or whatever. I also miss the
interaction.
***
P10: ...On the other hand, the advantage of face-to-face [teaching] is,
I'm really a teacher. They don't sleep in my classes. They love going
to my classes. Because I am animated, and I have a lot of stories....
activities in particular can 'alienate' (P8) some students. Among others, having to
work with a group and follow the group schedule can be difficult for some learners.
For those like P7 who consider dialogue to be central to learning, there is
dissatisfaction with the lack of spontaneity and immediacy in asynchronous
computer-mediated interaction. P7 said that the 'lag' or delay in feedback that is
characteristic of asynchronous discussion could make some teacher responses seem
irrelevant or 'inappropriate'. Immediacy refers to the sense of physical or
psychological closeness arising from particular communication behaviours (Woods &
Baker, 2004). In online courses, instructors can achieve immediacy by "ensuring a
high degree of interactivity and participation" (Kearsley, 2000, p. 78, quoted in
Woods & Baker, 2004, p. 5) through class discussion, dialogue about complex issues,
group projects, and authentic learning activities. But while teachers can build in these
types of activities (as P7 and others do), how the design will 'unfold' is unpredictable,
as P5 noted:
P5: ...the design more or less is stable. But when the class unfolds for
instance, you would not anticipate... a heated debate on a particular
subject matter.... [Y]ou want the students to debate, but not a heated
debate. For instance, you can already see that they are trying to attack
the personality of the person. It's not part of our design —
P5's remarks suggest the need to orient faculty not only to the technology-related and
pedagogical aspects of online teaching but also to the social and managerial aspects,
including "how to prevent and/or deal with inappropriate student behaviours when
using the Internet and/or Web communication tools" (Kanuka et al., 2008, p. 137).
P7: ... the equity could have been there if the setting were different...
for instance if there were no option A, option B [and] everybody will
be required to undergo this one process....it will always be a dilemma
for me as teacher when I assess my students, whether I am being fair to
everyone when I have all these options open to my students. And then
there are always things that I want them to do that can't be done.
P7's concern appears to be how to ensure that the different options given to students
meet the same standards of quality and enable learning to the same degree. According
to Beetham (2007), in flexible learning where learners have a choice of what learning
tasks to undertake, what technologies to use, and what evidence of learning to present
for assessment, it is important that "learners be supported in all the different choices
they make" (p. 33). This is challenging "despite the capacity of technology to present
a wider range of options" because "the limiting factor is the availability of skilled
practitioners to provide relevant feedback and support" (p. 33). Indeed, in the latter
half of the statement quoted above, P7 expressed concern about her inability to "be
with" her students to observe and support them as they do their field work.
P7's comments are consistent with the 'communicative-networked learning
focused' approach (Gonzalez, 2008) to teaching with the Web that she espouses. In
this approach the role of the teacher is to be present and be actively involved in the
students' learning (Roberts, 2003). The challenge for P7 and others is to think about
112
how to be 'present' to their students in the online learning environment. The concept
of 'teaching presence' in the community of inquiry model of online learning
(Garrison et al., 2000) and the concept of 'transactional presence' proposed by Shin
(2003) may be useful here. Teaching presence in online courses is manifested through
the organisation of the learning space and process; facilitating academic discourse;
and providing direct instruction by posing questions, providing expert commentaries,
and assessment and feedback (Anderson et al., 2001). Transactional presence (TP), on
the other hand, is "the degree to which a distance student perceives the availability of,
and connectedness with, people in his/her educational setting" (Shin, 2003, p. 71). A
high level of teaching presence as well as teacher TP, which Shin found to impact on
student-perceived learning achievement, can be established in online courses using
VLE functionalities and other Web tools.
Finally, P7 alluded to her previous experiences of learning ("how I was
trained") as an influence on her conception of teaching and assessment practices.
Similar remarks about their disciplinary background and training were made by P5
and P6. Indeed, teachers and students bring to the online learning experience "already
learned well-defined roles through years of common educational background and
experience in the formal education system" (Anderson et al., 2001, p. 5). When they
find that such roles are not relevant to the online learning context, they experience
feelings of anomie and they are "force[d].... to explicitly define or redefine their
functional roles" which, for teachers, impacts on notions of authority and power or at
least their sense of being in control (Anderson et al., 2001, p. 5). In this study this can
be gleaned from the following remark by P5:
P5: Making them aware that you're the teacher — I don't relinquish
[this]. To me knowledge is co-created; the teacher and the students are
co-creators of knowledge. But I don't relinquish my role as a teacher,
my identity and my authority as a teacher. I don't want that. I will
never relinquish that.
The expectation that teachers remain in control of the learning situation might also
explain to some extent the persistence of teacher-directed assessment that is described
in sections 5.1.4 and 5.2.4.
In section 5.1 I noted that (i) in general, the direction of the shifts or changes
in course design described by the faculty tends to be from teacher-focused and/or
subject-focused practices towards more learner-focused practices; but (ii) many
113
New demands on
educational institutions and faculty
to adopt innovative practices (P10, P7)
Quality assurance
- Need for quality standards (P1, P4, P6)
***
PS: Because distance education is mediated by course materials in
different forms, the challenge I think is in the teacher understanding
such mediation and then using media as an agent, the teacher's agent,
to accomplish teaching. I think they have to realise that. It's like
making teachers, course writers, realise the nature of the process. They
tend to blame the university for not providing them training. Yeah,
that's one thing and I think that's real. But... I think you need to
understand the nature of that work, to come to terms with yourself, to
surface your own understanding of what teaching is.
It can be gleaned from P3 and PS's remarks that the training that faculty
members get in ODeL may be inadequate. Indeed, P8 in this study mentioned "no
proper orientation" as a problem that she experienced as a new faculty member. This
116
raises the question of how much and what kind of orientation and training is required
to foster the pedagogical re-orientation that is described by P3 and P5. It would seem
that faculty members need to devote time not only to participating in a training
programme but also to exploration and experimentation and learning from practice.
However, many affiliate faculty are not able to make this time investment to teaching
online (as noted by P3, P5, and P7). They have other priorities, such as their teaching
and research work in their home units. Furthermore, teaching online is not easy, as P3
pointed out: "I think the resistance is really because it's really difficult, it's not easy to
teach in the distance learning environment." (cf. Collis & Moonen, 2008).
The problem is that UPOU continues to rely on affiliate faculty to teach a
significant number of its course offerings every term. Although there has been a
gradual realisation that UPOU needs a bigger complement of full-time faculty than its
founders had anticipated, recruiting additional full-time faculty is challenging. For
one, the creation of additional faculty positions needs the approval of the UP System
and the Philippine government, and this approval hinges on budgetary considerations.
Second, it is difficult to recruit faculty with the knowledge, skills, and disposition for
teaching at a distance, as proven by recent faculty recruitment efforts.
Given UPOU's dependence on affiliate faculty for course delivery, engaging
the affiliate faculty is a political issue as much as it is an administrative challenge, as
P6 pointed out:
P6: ... But sometimes I don't know what to do with courses that the
same person has been teaching for years and there is no other person
who will teach it. And this person has been with the university for 30
years or something. I don't know the solution to this one.
P6: But who do you give the course to? And then I think about the
politics.... in particular, we should be sensitive to the fact that we have
two tracks.... If one day the College of.... decides that they will no
longer participate, a whole track [would disappear]! They [the College
faculty] distribute the teaching assignments among themselves. They
have a say in these matters. I am trying to proactively maintain a
relationship with them or else one day we will just be surprised that
they have decided to stop [teaching with us]. [If that happens] it's a
whole track that we will lose....
117
Indeed, breakdowns in relationships with affiliate faculty members can result in the
suspension of an entire programme, as has happened in the case of two UPOU
programmes. This is one of the vulnerabilities of small and medium-sized DE
institutions that are dependent on the academic collaboration of campus-based sister
institutions for developing and implementing their courses and programmes (Abrioux,
2006).
P1:... before you can design your course, you need information about
the learners because course design may become a constraint to some
students if you do not consider their profile, their background....
P1 suggested that programme chairs give faculty members who are assigned to handle
courses the profile of learners. At present, this is not done consistently across all
118
programmes and for all courses at UPOU.47 Also, some programmes have very large
enrolments and the enrolment profile that is drawn up (by the admissions unit) covers
only basic data like age, sex, domicile, educational attainment, and occupation.
But knowing learner profiles is insufficient. Beetham (2007) notes two
challenges in adopting a learner-centred approach to design: knowing which learner
differences matter in a particular learning context, and addressing learner differences
appropriately and effectively. In this study, P8 alludes to these two challenges thus:
"... the diverse backgrounds of students, the age gaps, are crazy.... There are students,
classmates, who are father and son.... [Y]ou really have to design [different] materials
for these [diverse] groups." P8 has expressed an interest in researching and
developing adaptive learning systems for UPOU. Adaptive learning is one of two
approaches to learner-centred design mentioned by Beetham. The other is providing
for flexible learning. However, as suggested in section 5.2.4, there seems to be little
engagement with flexible learning even among the research participants and this is
clearly an area in which they need further development.
The faculty also need guidance on how to "operationalise" the concept of
learners as co-creators (P2) or what Collis & Moonen (2008) refer to as 'contribution-
oriented pedagogies' where "the learner is involved in the contribution of at least
some of the learning resources in a course or even in the design of some aspects of the
course as he or she participates in it" (p. 98). In this study, this challenge is articulated
by P2 thus:
47While faculty members who will be handling a course for the first time might be given a general
orientation to a programme, including the background of learners, faculty members who have taught in
the programme previously might not get this kind of orientation for specific courses.
119
P1: ...I had been a tutor at UPOU since 1996. Then I became an
affiliate, and then a regular faculty member. At first 1 brought with me
to my Web-based course delivery my teaching style in the face-to-face
setting... focusing only the lecture and without consideration for the
learning style of the student, focusing only on one material and with
very minimal interaction with the student and among the students.... I
still had this style of teaching when I transferred to OU. I did not
provide for interaction, even when we began to use IVLE because I
was still very much oriented to the face-to-face mode. Then I realised
that there must be something wrong with my teaching style because of
the poor performance of the students, and so many students were
dropping out of my course. I realised that I wasn't providing the
students with any motivation to learn.
P2: ....many different minds go into different tracks and many people
discover different things simultaneously. Sometimes we say, hey,
you're doing this so I should do it, too. Because... there are many
things that do not come to my mind because it also depends on my
interests. And it also depends on types of courses. Like there are things
that work with theory courses.... [and] with labs and [the] clinical
[practicum]....
It also provides an opportunity for teachers "to participate in new ways of thinking —
or counter-thinking — in order to act according to critically informed understandings
of teaching and learning" (Daly & Pachler, 2007, p. 55).
However, building a community of practice is not easy. For UPOU's full-time
faculty, being geographically dispersed" and having multiple responsibilities
UPOU has two main offices: one in Los Banos, Laguna (the headquarters) and the other in Diliman,
48
Quezon City. It takes 2-2.5 hours travel by car to get from one to the other location. Some of the full-
120
(administrative work on top of teaching and research, an issue alluded to by P4, P5,
and P7 in this study) are barriers to regular formal exchanges and informal
conversations about teaching and learning. A possible solution to this problem and to
the problem of having too few full-time faculty may be derived from P3's suggestion
of a network-based approach where various experts internal and external to the
institution can collaborate in teaching a course online:
P3: ...[but] we have to look for networks that we can partner with or
collaborate with... because there are only a few full-time faculty and
obviously we don't have [all of the necessary expertise]. It will be very
good if we can explore networks that we can collaborate with as a
university. And that would strengthen the potential of coming up with
resource-based learning. Because even if we say it's resource-based
learning, we cannot assume that the students will only interact with the
materials. A lot of it also has something to do with experts facilitating.
P4: I think right now the problem with online teaching and learning as
a mode of teaching is that there are too many opportunities, there are
too many options, there are too many ways of doing things such that
our faculty members and course authors are confused!... we're all
experimenting, grappling with all the techniques, and improvising. I
think there will come a time when all of these things will settle. But
right now we're in that stage of to each his own. I think that comes
with new approaches and new technology and that's part of the
excitement. But —
time faculty are based at Los Banos, while others are based in Diliman. Two other full-time faculty
members are based at the UPOU learning center in Manila, about 1-1.5 hour's drive (in heavy traffic)
away from the Diliman office.
121
...I think the issue is about quality. How do we make sure that the
students get the kind of education that they deserve and... paid for? At
the same time, we also want to ensure, as much as possible, some sort
of a uniform learning experience.... I think there has to be some sort of
a common learning experience across programmes. Of course you
have different ways of teaching depending on the discipline, but —
P6: Teaching standards? If they are at all enforceable. But there could
be minimum standards, right? Like at least fix your course site. The
materials that need to be updated I think we are able to address. We do
have a system for giving incentives to do that, right? You can get
credit for doing that; you can get paid if you are an adjunct faculty
member. We just need to do it.
P10: ....But at the same time, especially people who are affiliate
[faculty], they're used to the traditional mode of teaching which is the
classroom. And then they were taught how to write modules and to
teach using the modules. They got this idea that the module is the
teacher and that they don't really have to engage with the students that
much. And then here comes online learning which says, hey, you have
opportunities for interactivity again but you have to do it in a different
way — asynchronously. So I can just imagine the adjustments that
these people have to undergo along the process.
The rapid pace of change can be confusing even for the full-time faculty:
P1: I am looking for some standard that would give us our identity as a
DE institution. Right now, we have different ways of dealing with our
classes and courses. In the past I didn't even know if what I was doing
counted as DE or whether it qualifies as DE pedagogy. Then I realised
from discussions with other faculty members that I'm on the right
122
Although he used the word 'standard', like P4 and P3 (who suggested providing
`models') P1 seems to be referring to a guide for good practice and, more generally,
"a common framework for assessing the effectiveness of any... approach... and to
draw useful conclusions for future development" (Davis, 2001, p. 13).
To conclude this section, the faculty described what for them are the macro
issues and challenges in ODeL course design that UPOU's administrators should
address. These include resistance to innovation, uneven innovation practice, and lack
of standards for innovation. While similar issues and challenges are described in the
literature, the way they play out at UPOU is unique to the institutional context, and
the solutions suggested by the faculty have certain nuances. In general, the range of
issues and challenges described calls for a holistic approach that includes a coherent
framework, relevant policies and guidelines, and appropriate tools and resources for
practitioners. This is discussed further in Chapter 6.
noted in the literature on online DE (see, for example, Burge & Polec, 2008; Calvert,
2005; Tait, 2010).
Moreover, with the new course types there is a greater variety of pedagogical
approaches at UPOU. Some course designs emphasise independent learning more
than dialogue and collaboration among learners, while others focus more on
discussion and collaborative learning activities than on individual work. Particularly
notable are pedagogical approaches that attempt to strike a balance between learner
interaction and independence. These represent a change from the self-instructional
approach in pre-online DE (Burge & Polec, 2008; Anderson & Dron, 2011) as well as
a slight deviation from the social constructivist community-centred approach that is
claimed to be prevalent in online learning (for example, by Garrison, 2009 and Swan,
2010).
Consistency in course design practice, on the other hand, is evident in the
design factors that the faculty take into account. These include curricular
requirements, subject pedagogies, conceptions of teaching and learning, and concern
for learner access and participation. Providing equitable access to learning resources
and tools and equal opportunities for participation in course activities requires special
attention in DE contexts. The strategies described by the faculty in this regard range
from limiting online resources and activities to those that all learners are likely to be
able to access, to providing for redundancy of resources and, to a lesser extent,
allowing for choice of resources and activities in diverse formats. Improving learner
participation also underpins efforts to take up new Web applications that will
facilitate communication and dialogue both asynchronously and synchronously.
The integration of synchronous online learning in some courses may be said to
be a new development in course design at UPOU. At a recent roundtable discussion
on synchronous pedagogies in ODeL50, faculty members cited the following
pedagogical rationales for using synchronous communication tools: to mitigate the
DE student's sense of isolation by providing opportunities "to socialise"; to monitor
student progress in large classes; and to facilitate convergence of meaning especially
around abstract ideas and concepts (cf. Hrastinksi, 2007). However, synchronous
pedagogies in DE contexts might also be interpreted as evidence of consistency, or
lack of change, in teaching practice, to the extent that they are motivated by a desire
50 The roundtable discussion was held on 18 June 2012 at the UPOU Oblation Hall.
126
pedagogies, this is due to the faculty and institution's lack of experience with
alternative pedagogical models in DE, including the traditional DE model of
independent study characterised by continuous enrolment and completion of course
activities at the learner's own pace and in any sequence, as well as contemporary
networked-based models that integrate cooperative and collaborative learning with
learner-paced study using personal learning environments that enable social
networking among learners (Anderson et al., 2005).
It may be noted that at least for the group of UPOU faculty and administrators
included in this study, there is no lack of interest in and willingness to explore new
practices and new directions in ODeL. But they admit that they constitute a minority,
and they cite as a continuing challenge how to foster innovative teaching and learning
practice across the institution as a whole. This is reminiscent of Collis & van der
Wende's (2002) characterisation of higher education institutions "now transferring
from a period of rich and mostly bottom-up experimentation to a phase in which
institution-wide use of ICT is being encouraged" (p. 8). Such institutions go through
three stages of ICT implementation: 1) "the establishment of institution-wide
technological infrastructure"; 2) "rich pedagogical use of this infrastructure"; and 3)
"strategic use of ICT with a view to the different target groups of higher education"
(p. 8). While many institutions are likely to have completed the first stage, the second
stage "is in many cases still in development" and the third stage "has in most cases
not been considered explicitly yet" (p. 8). This appears to be the case with UPOU, as
this study's findings suggest. The next section presents some possibilities for
addressing ODeL issues and challenges for individual faculty and the institution as a
whole.
contexts that were directly mentioned by the research participants in their reflections
on the impact of teaching with the Web on their teaching practice and the corollary
issues and challenges51, and skills that I inferred or extrapolated from these reflections
(shown in italics). The skills are grouped into the four areas — content development,
learning activities, teaching strategies, and assessment — around which the faculty's
descriptions of their course design practice can be clustered, as discussed in Chapter
5.
Based on the principle that effective teaching with technology requires the
integration of knowledge of content, pedagogy, and technologies for learning, the
ODeL teaching skills framework does not list technology skills separately from
pedagogical skills and content-related skills. Instead, the skills listed for each of the
four areas in each level of expertise are TPACK skills. For example, 'selecting Web
resources with learning outcomes in mind' requires a course designer to integrate
knowledge of a particular course and its target learning outcomes vis-à-vis a
programme of study (i.e., subject matter expertise, curricular knowledge), knowledge
of how the course is best taught and/or how particular learning outcomes are best
achieved (pedagogical content knowledge), and knowledge of how to locate Web
resources (Internet skills and information literacy) and evaluate their relevance to the
subject matter and their usefulness for helping learners achieve the target learning
outcomes (subject and pedagogical knowledge, and media literacy).
The framework also specifies levels of expertise (basic, intermediate, and
advanced). Basic level skills are the minimum set of skills that a faculty member who
is new to teaching an online DE course should have, or should be helped to develop.
With appropriate training and guidance in ODeL, faculty members should progress
from this basic or beginning level of ODeL teaching practice to the intermediate and
advanced (or proficient and expert) levels, and develop all of the skills listed for all
three levels. At this point, it should be noted that the framework presented in Table 6-
1 lists only the key skills derived from the findings of the current study and other key
skills may be added as needed.
The second implication for practice that may be drawn from the study's
findings is that a training programme is not sufficient for practitioner development in
ODeL. It is clear from the research participants' descriptions of how their course
design practice has evolved that professional development in ODeL is a complex
process requiring "exposure to a range of models of technology use" to develop the
"understanding [of] differences in interaction with technology and how this affects
learning [which] is crucial to designing effective activities, content and learning
goals" (Price & Oliver, 2007, p. 25); continuous engagement in design work; critical
reflection; and participation in a community of practice. Thus, course design and
other workshops should be part of a holistic and integrated faculty development
programme in ODeL that would include not only workshops but also opportunities to
undertake experiments, to learn alone or with a partner or a small group, and to share
130
scalability" (p. 72). Which 'pedagogical profiles' in ODeL should UPOU explore, and
how should it "optimise flexible delivery of these profiles" (Collis & van der Wende,
p. 72)? The following questions adapted from Bates (2001) may be used as a guide in
the strategic planning required for these bigger questions to be addressed:
At UPOU this is apparent in the largely uncritical adoption of the paced cohort-based
model of ODeL — i.e., it is not only based on the "classroom-based learning [that]
predominates in universities" but also "easier to support within the processes of the
organisation" (Annand, p. 1), including inter alia the semestral system, staffing
patterns, and course scheduling schemes. If new pedagogical models are to be
adopted, then it is necessary to put in place organisational arrangements that would
support each of these models. For innovative practice to gain traction, "the
commitment of some dedicated individuals will not suffice" and "the institution itself
must make a commitment (i.e., for support, resources and personnel) and... develop a
targeted implementation strategy" (Collis & van der Wende, p. 10). In implementing
flexible learning, for example, there is a need for a system-wide "technological
architecture, tools and functionalities" such as "a database driven system that allows
easy tailoring and adapting of (portions of) courses to serve the needs of different
groups of students" (Collis & van der Wende, p. 8).
132
priorities in teaching with the Web in a DE context (Chapter 2, Figure 2-4) has been
proposed, as well as a framework for analysing the impact of teaching with Web
technologies on course design practices in ODeL (Chapter 2, section 2.3.2). Use of
these analytic frameworks is demonstrated in Chapters 4 and 5.
The study found that teachers' use of Web tools and resources relates to the
importance that they give to independent learning and collaborative learning.
However, the study also found that teachers hold orientations to teaching and learning
with Web technologies that do not necessarily conform to the extremes identified in
the literature. Rather than subscribing to either an independent learning approach or a
collaborative learning approach, which are presented in some studies and theoretical
discussions as opposing approaches underpinned by contrasting orientations to
learning, some teachers adopt different pedagogical approaches for different learning
contexts, and/or they attempt to balance seemingly oppositional pedagogical
approaches. This flexibility comes from their having multiple orientations to learning,
which develops from an awareness of the need to take into account, and address
tensions among, a range of design factors. This flexibility in design practice may also
be understood as a manifestation of the convergence of an open learning philosophy,
distance education pedagogies, and e-learning technologies.
Based on the study's findings and the literature review, an ODeL teaching
skills framework (Table 6-1) has been proposed. The framework, which is described
in section 6.2, specifies teaching skills needed for a flexible approach to ODeL, or an
approach that combines independent learning with collaborative learning. It can serve
as a guide in the design of a professional development programme in ODeL course
design at UPOU, and it can be tested and adapted for use in similar ODeL contexts.
Lastly, in the preceding section some key points for institutional strategic
planning for ODeL are laid out for UPOU's administrators and faculty to consider.
— that is, offer a perspective — on the topic being studied" (p. 107) by virtue of their
being experienced, proficient and expert practitioners of ODeL. Paradoxically also,
while my being an insider-researcher posed difficulties, it afforded me sufficient
familiarity with my colleagues' course design practices to elicit fuller, more detailed
descriptions and explanations, and to make sense of these in terms of the institutional
and practical context as well as the theoretical context. However, if the study were to
be expanded to include novice ODeL practitioners or academics with limited
engagement (in terms of time and effort) with ODeL course design, a survey and
observation of practice might be more suitable means of collecting data than
interviews alone. A longitudinal study would also be more appropriate for observing
changes in the course design practices and pedagogical perspectives of academics
who are learning how to teach effectively with technology.
With regard to scope, the study explores variation in orientations and
approaches to, and perspectives on, ODeL as it is practised in one university. UPOU
implements a cohort- and term-based predominantly asynchronous type of ODeL.
While the aim of the study was not to describe and understand all ODeL course
design practices but to explore the course design practice of a particular group of
ODeL practitioners in a specific context, it may be argued that a better appreciation of
local practice might be derived from a comparison with faculty perspectives on course
design in other ODeL models. The latter would include the self-paced learning model
and the connectivist networked learning model implemented through massive open
online courses (MOOCs).
In closing, it should be noted that this study provides only a snapshot of
current course design practice at UPOU, a small single-mode DE institution with the
mission to "democratise access to quality higher education" within a conventional
university that prides itself in being the 'premier university' in a country with more
than 2,000 colleges and universities. Taken with a particular lens and from a
particular vantage point, the snapshot shows a multifaceted practice of distance
education, online learning, and open learning (ODeL). It provides a mixed picture of
innovation and stagnation, experimentation and muddling through, and change and
continuity in pedagogical perspectives, priorities, and practices in teaching with Web
technologies in a distance education context made more complex by new demands for
increased openness and flexibility. It remains to be seen how this picture will change.
136
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1) What Web-based tools and resources have you used or are using in the courses that
you teach at UPOU?
2) Please describe how you use each of these Web-based tools and resources in the
courses that you teach.
3) What are your pedagogical purposes for using these Web-based tools and
resources? (may cite different purposes for different tools and resources)
6) What (other) factors do you take into account when you design your Web-based or
online DE courses?
7) How has your course design practice evolved from your early years of teaching at a
distance to the present?
8a) How does the use of Web technologies impact the way you teach? More
specifically, what aspects of your online distance teaching practice are strengthened
by your use of Web-based tools and resources?
8b) What aspects of your online distance teaching practice are weakened or
diminished by your use of Web-based tools and resources?
9) What gaps, if any, have you observed between your pedagogical aims and what
you are actually able to do or achieve in your online DE courses? What do you think
would explain these gaps?
10) What do you think are the issues and challenges in designing and developing
online distance education courses at UPOU?
11) How do you think should these issues and challenges be addressed?
150
Appendix 2. Questionnaire
1) Have you experienced being an online distance learner? If yes, please write your
impressions of the design of the online course/s you participated in.
2) What kind of training, if any, have you received in designing and developing
online DE courses? Please describe this training.
4) What is online distance teaching and learning to you? Or what is your concept/idea
of online distance teaching and learning?
Basic Information
2) Faculty rank:
7) Web tools/applications and resources that you use often in a personal (non-
teaching) context (please list as many as you can think of):