Hrstory and Fhnlosephy

Nicholas Culpeper's Herbal Therapeutics

by Graeme Tobyn, MNIMH
The name of the seventeenth century herbalist and Culpeper's writings contained many criticisms of the
astrologer Nicholas Culpeper (1616-1654) remains Royal College of Physicians. In particular his first
memorable due to the continuing availability in print book, a translation of the pharmacopoeia of the Royal
of his most famous work The English Physitian College ofPhysicians entitledl Physical Directory or
(1652), otherwise known as Culpeper's Herbal. a Trqnslation of the London Dispensatory drew much
Befween Culpeper's day and ours, this herbal found its approbation from that quarter. Culpeper showed that
way into many homes because it contained informa- there was nothing miraculous in the doctors'prescrip-
fion on herbal healing from the Western tradition in tions except the costliness of the ingredients (although
English, rather than the doctors'Latin. It was cheap, even six years after Culpeper's death the College was
having no need of illustrations of the common or gar- still maintaining the pretence, when at the restoration
den English herbs that were well known to its audi- of the monarchy, it presented the newly crowned King
ence, and it showed a simple and safe alternative to the Charles II with a gift of powdered unicorn horn!). Graeme Tobyn
heroic chemical medicines which were in vogue in the Culpeper subsequently published other original works
18th and 19th centuries. The foundations of and translations of leading medical texts of the Graeme Tobyn is senior
Hippocratic and Galenic medicine upon day, all designed to educate the common
lecturer n herbal medic ne
which Culpeper's teachings were man and woman in medical practice.
built, crumbled only in the mid- For the purpose ofunderstanding at the university of central

dle of the 19th century with the his herbal therapeutics, I will Lancashire, a herbal st with
emergence of Virchow's cel- concenhate here on two key
12 years' experience n pri-
lular pathology. This. how- writings, which, read
ever, was the moment of {'i alongside his herbal, pro- vate pract ce, including

revival of herbal medi- vide a simplified over 2 years in the

cine in England with the approach to the herbal
Nationai Health Service in
arrival of Dr. Coffin L therapeutics of his day:
from America. where a , r his translation of Galen's the UK, a professional

version of Culpeper's sry:

*wi ..' Ars Medica, entitled astro oger and lecturer in
herbal was one ofthe ear-
-.
Galen's Art of Physick
astrologer, and author of
liest books printed. (Culpeper 1652) andA Key
isl:
::'!r to Galen and Hypocrates, Culpeper's Medicine
Culpeper was politically and their Method ofPhysick, (Element, 1 997).
spiritually a revolutionary. He
which was inserted into the reis-
fought for the parliamentarians in i'il
"
sue of A Physical Directory, reti-
the English civil war and believed Nicholas Culpeper*
tled the Pharmacopoeia Londinensis
that the execution ofCharles I, in the year
(Culpeper 1669). For an underpinning of
of his first publication, was the beginning of a
the medical principles involved I refer readers to my
collapse ofthe world order; the end ofthe rule ofkings
book and elsewhere (Tobyn, 1997; Gruner, i930;
and empires over the globe which would usher in the
Shah. 1966: Chishti 1988.1.
new kingdom of Jesus Christ. Not only would there be
no place for Bishops and other lackeys ofthe Church
Galen's Art of Physick
in this millenarian vision, but the lawyers and the doc-
In Culpeper's version of this medical classic, key pas-
tors, the other professions that abused the common
sages are translated and commented on to provide easy
man, would have to go too. As a trainee apothecary
understanding of medical treatment. He begins with
whose studies were interrupted by the civil war, he
definitions ofhealth, disease, and the neutral state that
took it upon himself, in those lawless days, to practice as
is no longer health but not yet disease; of elements,
a physician for the benefit ofhis suffering neighbors.
humours and spirits and a description of the four tem-
Culpeper made a name for himself by treating the poor
peraments and their compound temperaments. He lists
without palment, (for otherwise they would languish
the parts or members of the body (anatomy) and the
for want of money to pay a doctor), and by publishing
vital, natural and animal virtues or faculties and their
works on medicine in the vernacular English, so that
operations (physiology) (Tobyn 1997 part 2, section
his fellow countrymen could understand how to treat
1). The text then examines signs of temperamental
their own ailments and so have no need of doctors
imbalance in each organ or part of the body, with the
(Tobyn, 1997 , part I).

*Center Photo: Perm jssion of Lloyd Library and Museum, Cincinnati, OH lournal of the American Herbalists Guild 19
 ried in the blood and spirits, and consequently the fre
in the betly' and the ability of the organism to com-
plete digestion and assimilation of nutriments' Less
than optimal digestion allows undigested or crude
humours to enter the body and to provide a focus
where they settle for pathological processes to begin
(Tobyn 1997, part 2, section 2).

Mild disease is where an imbalance exists in the qual-

ities of the body as a whole or in a specific part or
organ; serious disease is where a humour has gathered
in a organ to excess in either quantity or quality.
Manipulation of the six factors - for instance the adop-
tion of exercise, which generates heat in the body, con-
cocts or 'cooks up' cold humours like catarrh and
expels them as sweat through the pores of the skin -
G
may be sufficient to correct a mild imbalance of qual-
ities, such as slight coldness. A substantial part of
C
.F

Galen s Art of Physick examines signs of alterations in

Borago fficinalis (borage) the qualities of parts of the body. Below, the examples
of the heart and of the brain are used to illustrate
herbs to restore balance and therefore health to the (Culpeper, 1652, chapters 18-21 and 33-36).
part. The final section looks at the factors determining
The Heart
how the human body can become altered from a state
The hearl is naturally hot and dry in quality. Signs of
of health to one of disease.
an afilicted heartmay be: difficulty breathing, palpita-
Itwas axiomatic in Hippocratic and Galenic medicine tions, body heat, fevers and shivering, a change of
that the majority of all diseases did not come from color, fainting andpain. Imbalances ofparticular qual-
without, like infection or injury, but from within, by a ities, their signs and remedies are:
surplus of foodstuffs and what we now call metabolic
waste products (Aschner 1943). In his great work De
too hot and dry
swift, large and hard pulse; rapid breathing; very hairy
Contagione (1546), Hieronymus Fracastorius (1483-
chest (recent research has shown that more men with a
1553) had described different methods of infection -
hairy chest suffer heart attacks than those less hairy);
by direct contact (via clothing utensils etc.), and at a
subject is active, hasty, angry, tyrannical.
distance - but these were not followed up for centuries
(Guthrie 1945). The Hippocratic concept ofphysis,t'e. Rx. Borago fficinalis (borage), Lacluca virosa (w1ld
the constitution or psychophysical make-up and self- lettuce), Viola odorata (syrup ofsweet violets)
healing power of the organism, persisted into the 19th
century. Since the constitution of each individual is hot and moist
unique, so is the related individual resistance or sus- swift, large but softpulse; expiration longerthan inspi-
ceptibility to external noxious agents (and, for that ration; chest less hairy than above; quick to anger and
matter, predisposition to non-infective diseases). For action but not so cruel; prone to inflammations and
each constitution, evaluated according to the prevail- infections
ing temperament with modification by addition of a
Rx. Sweating and bleeding; Melissa fficinalis (lemon
secondary temperament, a specific regulation of six
balm), Ruta graveolens (rue), Angelica archangelica
factors (the 'six non-natural things': quality of aiq
(angelica), Borago fficinalis (borage), Viola odorata
food/drink, sleep/wakefulness, exercise/rest, normal (syrup ofviolets), Rosa spp. (red rose)
evacuations from the body and the emotions) was pro-
posed to maintain the organism in health. Disease was cold and dry
said to arise from a combination of external modifica- small, hard pulse; slow respiration ifthe chest is large;
tions of environment (the six factors as the exciting no hair on chest; least prone to anger, but once angered
cause) and internal constitutional factors (the predis- never forgets
posing cause). Injudicious management of the six non-
Flx. Rosmarinus fficinalis (rosemary), Calendula
natural things affects the innate heat ofthe body, car-
fficinalis (marigold), borage, rose

20 Spring/Summer 2QQ2
 Hrstory and Phrlosephy

cold and moist other has few discharges and needs cooling, soothing
soft pulse; body movement slow; fearful mind; has no and moistening medicines appropriate to the head. The
anger or fight various herbs listed above are not interchangeable but
require selection according to the totality of signs and
Rx. Ruta graveolens (rue), rosemary, Crocus sativus the overall presentation of the patient, and with the
(saffron), lemon balm, marigold angelica, knowledge of the operations of each herb listed in the
C inn am o mum v er um (cinnamon) table below

The Brain A condition which involves an excessive accumulation

The brain is naturally cold and moist and is very of a humour (and very often this is an excess of the
affected by either heat or cold. People often need to cold and moist phlegm humour) is termed a plethora.
wear hats, to keep the heat off in summer or the cold The site of the accumulation may suffer pain or a sense
out in winter. of heaviness, and there may be other more general
signs such as lassitude, loss of appetite, a ruddy com-
too cold and moist
plexion, tightness of the skin and a full pulse. The
abundant discharges (e.g. phlegm), worse in winter;
excess may be quantitative, leading to obstructions and
increased sleep, lethargic; dulled senses, brain mud-
possibly acute medical emergencies (e.g. stroke, heart
dled with poor wit and memory
attack), or qualitative, where the alteration of normal
Rx. Juniperus communis (uniper), Stachys betonica humours into metabolic waste products maintains a
(betony), Chamomile (Matricaria recutita), chronic disease.
Fo eni c ulum v ul gare (fennel)

cold and dry

discharges; affected by cold; face cold, livid, swarthy;
sleeps badly; good memory but may be fearful.
Rx. conserves of rose, borage, Malva neglecta (mal-
lows), Verbena ollicinalis (vervain), violet leaves,
betony, Salvia fficinalis (sage), Fumaria olJicinalis
(fumitory), Humulus lupulus (hops)

hot and moist

discharges but well concocted (i.e. not thick, dense);
veins standing out on temples; eyes red hot, burning;
dreams a lot. foolish imaginings.

Rx. bleeding

hot and dry

few discharges; head hot with continual headache;
bloodshot eyes; sleeps little, stays up late; sharp-wit-
ted, good anticipation and sense ofsmell

Rx. fumitory Salix alba (willow), wild lettuce, hops,

Nymphaea nouchali (waterlily), rose, sweet violet,
laudanum

These two examples show how some signs relate to the

person as a whole and to their behavior, as well as to
the physical part affected. From the descriptions of
qualitative imbalances of the brain and hence the flu-
ids of the head important differentials may arise. For
example, consider two people both suffering from
sinusitis. One has the one with copious nasal discharge =c
F
G
thus has a cold condition requiring heating pungent
and cutting remedies appropriate to the head while the Althea fficinalis (marshmallow)

lournal of the American Herbalists Guild 21

Historically, the treatment approach for plethoric
states, has been via methods of elimination, namely
diet (fasting), purging, vomiting, sweating, diuresis,
bleeding and draining through the skin (counter-irri-
tants and scarification). These were adopted as med-
ical treatments from observing the way the human
body is able spontaneously to preserve itself or correct
imbalances. This is seen most easily in the purer bod-
ies of children, who may develop nosebleeds, diarrhea
or vomiting to evacuate an unhealthy substance. While
we may entertain today the prescribing of fasts, herbal
diaphoretics and diuretics, and some use of laxatives,
we baulk at the idea of vomits, strong purges, blood-
letting and blistering the skin. Culpeper takes a very
cautious attitude to violent measures in his section on
vomits and purges (Culpeper,1669, pp 298-305). He
suggested using vomits as seldom as possible and only
for conditions of the stomach, while the old
Hippocratic indication for vomits applied to a variety
of diseases located above the navel. As for purges, he
discouraged the violent and dangerous medicines too =C
-F
often recommended by one patient to another without
supervision or too enthusiastically given by doctors.
Instead, he recommended gentler remedies for self- Hys s opus fficinalis (hyssoP)
medication, and gradual evacuation of the humour
either in doses adequate for a purgative effect, or else
A Key to Galen and Hippocrates
sufficient for correcting the offending humour to allow
The details just given on purging medicines are to be
the body to do its own cleansing work. His recommen-
found in Culpeper's A Key to Galen and Hypocrates,
dations for herbs to purge each kind of humour,
their Method of Physick, appended to the text of
include the following:
the Pharmacopoeia Londinensis' Together with
yetlow bile (hot and dry) Culpeper's treatment of the Cataologue of Simples in
Artemisia absinthium (wormwood), Centaurium ery- the New Dispensatory located in the middle of the
thraea (centaury), Aloe vera (aloes), Humulus lupulus pharmacopoeia, these provide information on the qual-
(hops), mallows, Prunns persica (peach leaves and ities or temperatures of herbal medicines, the organs of
flowers), Rosa damascena (damask rose), violets, the body they are appropriated to, and their operations
prunes, Tamarindus indica (tamatind), Rheum ffici- or actions in the body. We will explore the detail of this
nale (rhubarb). material presently.

phlegm (cold and moist) However, Culpeper also added to this publication some
Hyssopus fficinalis (hyssop), Cytisus scoparius astrological material, namely the As trologo -Phy sicall
(broom), Sambucus canadensis (elder flowers). Discourse. ln its Premonitory Epistle to the Reader
Culpeper relates the seven planets to bodily organs and
water
functions, and gives a basic outline of the three worlds
elder flowers, bark or leaves, broom.
of hermetic philosophy- the elemental (sublunary), the
black bile celestial and the intellectual - by which the reader may
Senna alexandrina (senna), Fumaria officinalis understand something ofthe place ofastrology in the
(fumitory), Cuscuta europaea (dodder), whey. work of healing. Culpeper's view was that physick (i.e.
medicine) without astrology is "like a lamp without
Gentle purges for thick phlegm or black bile should be
oll" (Culpeper (1656)). The way to prescribe medi-
prescribed writes Culpeper, with pungent, cutting
cines is according to their planetary rulers, and both
medicines to break up the humour for easier evacua-
the timing of and manner of 'potentizing' remedies
tion, while astringent herbs should be avoided.
astrologically is mentioned in several places in his
Generally, herbs which strengthen the heart and stom-
herbal, iilustrated by use ofa horoscope at the back of
ach, and carminatives for the bowels, should be added.
the herbal. This section has been excised from all edi-
The mixture can be taken before bed.

22 Spring/Summer 2002
 Hnstory en@! Fhf,flosophy

tions I have seen dated after the 1670's. Although the were due to excess cold in the body and coldness was
occult or hidden qualities ofherbs are briefly discussed said to induce moisture, as the cold of night brings the
below, space does not allow here to explore the astro- wet dew with it. Naturally, however, the potential of
logical approach, and I must refer you to my book herbal remedies was not rigidly reduced to a straight-
(Tobyn, 1997, section 4 and appendices). jacket of degrees of the four qualities, but each had
their unique identity and healing action. For instance,
The Manifest Qualities of Herbs marigold is considered a herb hot in the 2nd degree yet
Galen had classified herbs by the action of bringing also brings moisture to the body.
heat, cold, dryness or moisture in one of four degrees
Herbs inducing cold in the body are fewer in number,
to the body, or a particular organ ofthe body. Heat and
and were needed less often. Many are classified as
cold are the active qualities that alter dryness and
cold and dry in the lst or 2nd degree, such as coltsfoot,
moisture, the passive qualities. The principle of med-
ical treatment is one of allopathy, that is, treating with
yarrow and dandelion, while others were notably cold
and moist, like sweet violet, chickweed and white pond
opposites. Thus, for a cold and moist condition, hea!
ing and drying remedies are employed while for a cold lily. Herbs cold in the 3rd and 4th degree are narcotic
and dry condition, a heating and moistening approach and, iftaken in excess could extinguish the natural heat

is taken. Hippocrates had objected that simply to spec- ofthe body entirely and kill the patient. In this group
ify a heating remedy was insufficient. It also had to be are opium poppy, deadly nightshade and henbane.
stated whether the medicine should be drying (astrin-
gent) or bland (moistening). The Hidden Qualities of Herbs
Culpeper paid parlicular attention to the occult or hid-
Physicians considered the human body in health to be den qualities of herbal medicines. This attention
hot in the first degree, and naturally moist. This is the reflected his interest in Hermetic philosophy, which
temperatue and temperament of healthy blood which was very much in vogue in the late 15th, 16th and the
carries the innate heat and vitality. (Humans are con- first half of the 17th centuries. He laid out the basic
stituted by around 80% water, the "radical moisture" tenets of the philosophy in his description of the three
ofthe body was thought essential to keep the flame of worlds: the elemental (sublunary), celestial and intel-
light alive). A focus on preserving "radical moisture" lectual (Culpepea 1651)
ensured the continuation of health and longevity.
Herbs hot in the first degree, mild enough in heat not The sublunary world encompassed all life on planet
to have a drying effect on the body, could be used to Earth. Everything in it is materially composed of the
maintain or restore the innate heat. Milk thistle is one four elements in varying proportions that determine
such herb, since it "cleanses the blood exceedingly: the manifest qualities which are perceived through the
and in Spring, if you please to boil the tender plant five human senses. It is at this level that the manifest
(but cut off the prickles unless you have a mind to qualities of herbal medicines are also discerned and,
choke yourselfl it will change your blood as the season when coupled with age-old empirical knowledge of
changes, and that is the way to be safe" (Culpeper, what effects a particular herb can have on the body,
1656, under Our Lady's Thistle). Many medicinal leads to a rational and empirical approach to the use of
herbs shared the qualities ofheat (and dryness) in the herbs as medicines.
2nd degree, the extra degree of heat implying that a
Above the sublunary world and influencing it, lay the
cold imbalance of the body needed medicinal correc-
celestial world ofthe planets and fixed stars. These are
tion. Herbs hot in the 3rd degree, such as juniper, rue
connected not by a causal relationship, but one of cor-
and angelica, and in the 4th degree such as mustard
respondence and mirroring, according to the Hermetic
and garlic, represented much stronger medicines
which must be prescribed in smaller doses or for a lim-
axiom "as above, so below". A set of occult corre-
spondences linked the seven traditional planets with all
ited period since just the right amount of heat was to
matter in the sublunary world as a part of the intercon-
be applied to correct a given degree ofcoldness in the
nectedness of all things in the cosmos. Since the
body. The application ofan excess ofheat was feared
human being (microcosm) was an epitome of the cos-
to create a new condition manifesting as excess heat
mos (macrocosm), Culpeper could argue for the pres-
(Tobyn, 1999).
ence of a microcosmic Sun, Moon, Mercury, Venus,
Herbs which induced heat greater than the natural heat Mars, Jupiter and Saturn in the human body. Every
ofthe body necessarily induced an increase in the pas- herb in Culpeper's herbal is given a planetary 'ruler.'
sive quality ofdryness. This was considered beneficial The seat of the microcosmic Sun, for instance, lies in
since many illnesses, and certainly chronic conditions, the heart where the vital spirits ofthe body are created

Journal of the American Herbalists Guild 23

from blood and pneuma (air, breath). Solar herbs have to puge the brain of them. Others strengthen the
an affinity for the heart and are restorative to it. brain, through a hidden affiniry. These are usually
This represents treatrnent by sympathy (or homeopath- herbs of Mercury as listed in the herbal, or else anoth-
ically), and fulfils the requirement to treat the affected er planet in the zodiac sign Aries (for instance, wood
part of the body in any condition with sympathetic betony under Jupiter in Aries, rosemary under the Sun
remedies. The hidden virtue of a herb is to be 'poten- in Aries).
tised' by its being gathered at a propitious hour accord-
The location of the symptom, however, does not nec-
ing to the rules of astrology. For instance, Hypericum
essarily indicate the only part of the body requiring
perforatum (St. John's wort), a solar herb, may well be
treatment. For instance, since the brain is in the top of
gathered in the hour of the sun on St. John's day (June
the body, vapors arising from an overheated organ
24th - midsummer solstice) when the Sun itself is at its
lower down in the body may be to blame for the brain's
maximum declination for the northern hemisphere and
affliction. This is one explanation of certain melan-
most potent in its heat.
cholic affections of the mind, and is the origin of the
The highest ofthe three worlds is the intellechral. This term 'the vapours' relating to transient mental affec-
is the realm of God of Plato's ideal forms or of our tions in gynaecology. Thus treatment of the brain must
highest spiritual potential as human beings. This realm begin with the organ at the cause of the problem'
has influence over the celestial world according to the Lingard for example, recommended the addition of
maxim "the wise man rules his stars, the fool obeys the emmenogogte Tanacetum vulgare (tansy) to
them". Although we are not blindly controlled like Cinchona (cinchona) and a heart mixture,
fficinalis
puppets by the movements of the planets and can cre- which included Gentiana lutea (gentian), in his tried
ate our individual destinies through wisdom and self- and tested treatment for menopausal hot flushes
knowledge, an awareness of the flow of life as repre- (Lingard 1958).
sented syrnbolically by the horoscopic delineation of
The Heart
the movement of planets was also considered impor-
Medicines appropriated to the heart are called cordials'
tant. For example, a tense configuration between Mars
They were often prescribed as syrups or conserves,
and the Sun - a disharmony of the spheres - may augur
especially of the flowers of borage, viper's bugloss,
a tendency for choler to increase in the body and pro-
sweet violet and rose. Sugar was deemed gently hot
duce a likelihood of anger and strife during that peri-
and moist and thought fitting for pleasing the hear1,
od. Wth foreknowledge of this, we may consciously the seat of the vital spirit whose heat is cherished by
strive to keep our cool. Ignorance of this dimension the body's radical moisture. Cordials refresh the vital
can lead to becoming the victim of such passions, one spirits, making them lively and active. They were said
who'obeys' their stars. to achieve this both as strengtheners of the heart and
by keeping back melancholy vapours rising up from
Herbs Appropriated to the Various
the spleen. Depression may arise from the fumes of an
Organs of the Body
imbalanced spleen which naturally ascend, both to the
For a given condition, a suitable medicinal herb must heart - producing a clear disruption to the vitality and
be selected not only for its qualitative effects in rela- a potential spread ofdisease to other parts ofthe body-
tion to the nature of the complaint but also for its and to the head to produce melancholy thoughts. An
appropriateness for the part of the body needing treat- imbalanced spleen and a disrupted flow of the vital
ment. Herbs may heat, cool, dry or moisten particular spirits can produce the physical s1'rnptoms in depres-
organs ofthe body, but in addition may also target and sion ofanorexia, constipation, and lack oflibido. Thus
strengthen a particular part though their hidden qual- the hearl needs protection and the spleen correcting,
ities, as indicated in the table of herbs below. I will use exemplified by such modern and traditional ffeatments
the same two examples again, of medicines targeting for depression as St. John's wort and borage respec-
the brain and the heart. tively.

The brain Other cordials strengthen the heart through a hidden

Culpeper writes that because of its natural temperature (astrological) virtue and preserve it from poison. These
the braih is easily affected by both heat and cold and are the Alexipharmicals such as rue, angelica and
juniper, all herbs ofthe Sun. Additionally, cordials can
ollen suffers an excess of moisture. Cephalic medi-
cines are used to correct the imbalance. These may work by cooling the heat of fevers and so preserving
the heart from overheating.
cool or heat, the latter being pungent or aromatic herbs
that have the power to cut cold and moist humours and These two examples show Culpeper's clarification of

24 Spring/Summer 2O02
 Hrstory end Fhillosophy

the main actions or operations required in herbs to biting and pungent and help to open blood vessels
treat these organs. to bring more blood to the area or to disperse a stag-
nant blood humour in a part. Note that herbs must
The Operations or Actions of Herbs also be drying in order to open passages in the liver.
The third part of Culpeper's method rn A Key to Galen A col4 dry quality would in theory belong to herbs
and Hypocrates, their Method of Physick covers the which close offvessels.
specific actions (properties or operations) ofherbs. In 5. Attenuating Herbs (cutting and thinning) -These
the list below I have not mentioned herbs used to treat herbs are usually heating but not always so, and
external wounds, nor those which increase fertility. taste sharp, sour or bitter, dilating rather than con-
Purgative medicines cleanse the body by carrying tracting the tongue. By their penetration they "cut
away the offending humour - differentiating them from up" thick humours so that the body can more easi-
dispersing diaphoretics- but not all cleansers are ly consume and expel them. They are used to open
purgatives. Some herbs fight against poison in the obstructions ofthe bowels due to tough and viscous
body although they are not, in Culpeper's sense, true humours, to expectorate phlegm from the lungs,
alexipharmics. and to bring on menstruation. Culpeper recom-
mends a gentle purge before using attenuating
1. Emollient llerbs - These correct hardness of a herbs, in case their heating effect scatters only a
part. Hardness may result either from thick portion of a humour and leaves a remainder in a
humours congealed by cold, or by distension and thickened and more obstructive state.
stretching of a part full of a humow. In the latter
case, since moisture may be the cause of distention,
6. Drawing and Repelling Herbs -These are used to
draw the innate heat and the spirits to an over-
the most appropriate emollient must be drying to
cooled part ofthe body, or in external applications
consume the moisture. Generally, however, an
to draw humours to a place safely away from anoth-
emollient should manifest qualities of heat and
er. They also draw poisons or corrupt humours out
moisture to counter the cold" dry impaction of a
of the body and may be used to help the crisis of a
humour. Emollient medicines may taste sweet or disease. Culpeper deems them hotter in quality than
oily (never sour, salry rough, sharp, astringent or attenuating herbs. Repelling medicines drive away
very hot) and may be prescribed with cutting med- an influx of a humour and are astringent, cooling
icines to aid penetration ofthe congealed humour. and thin. A good example is vinegar of roses
applied to the head in hot headaches. These can be
2. Loosening Herbs - These loosen or relax and are
used at the beginning of treatment to prevent an
similar in quality to emollients, but are used to treat
increase in offending humour, which will be dis-
moveable parts of the musculoskeletal system suf- persed by diaphoretics towards the end of treat-
fering stiffness, spasms and cramps. Most remedies ment.
for the brain (cephalics) have a loosening action.
They can be identified in Culpeper's herbal as treat- 7. Diaphoretic (odiscussing') Herbs These are used
ing'coruulsions'and cramps. There is some overlap to expel serous or thin humours and noxious
between these herbs and today's relaxant and spas- vapours from the body. Once again, for fear ofleav-

moll'tic herbs. ing behind a thickened humour, purgation must be

carried out first (or venesection ifthe fault is in the
3. Thinning and Thickening llerbs - Thinning blood). Consequently a strong diaphoretic is usual-
herbs are heating and thin or rarify humours, and ly employed once the disease is in decline as a
open the pores ofthe skin to allow the release ofthe result ofpreceding treatment, except in conditions
harmful part of these humours, (for instance excess due to heat in the blood, when diaphoretics can be
heat or of pain-producing 'toxins'). When applied used when the disease is increasing (eg. in fevers).

to swellings, they act much like emollient or loos- In quality, diaphoretic medicines are similar to
attenuating and drawing medicines, i.e., very hot
ening medicines. Thickening herbs are cooling and
and dry.
are used to 'pin down' a sharp, volatile humour so
that the body can work on expelling it. They can 8. Diuretic Herbs are either hot and pungent with the
also close the pores of the skin, making it more power to cut and thin the humours being excreted
resistant to cold and counteracting the debility of from thickened blood, or else cooling, which open
chronic sweats and dissolution ofthe vital spirits in and cleanse the urinary passages. Some of these
weak patients. herbs also have an anti-lithic action.

4. Vessel Opening llerbs -These are heating, sharp, 9. Emmenogogues - These herbs are hot and pungent,

Journal of the American Herbalists Guild 25

 soME coMMoNLY USED MEDICINAL HERBS, THEIR QUALITIES AND ACTIONS
Herb , '. I'Quality; Qegree.&.Ereence i., Orgini Ta$eted Operations or Itctiens
S,trenglheled
ASr'*""y H.tb Hot & Dry 1st, Thin, Liver, Spleen, Cleanses, Opens Obstructions

Gently Astringent KidneYs, Joints

Burdock Cold & DrY Womb r Cleanses, Diuretic & Antilithic

RooUleaf/Seed I lst Thin
Wild Carrot Seed I Hot 3rd, Dry Thin Liver *.i'.f . *e no go e, Anti-Lith ic,
gu
1
-oCarminativeFor Fertility & Labour
Celerv Herb/Seed ffot ind Drv 3rd, Thin Stomach, Liver, Spleen Thins, Emmenogogue Opens Obstructions
Carminative, D,rf]i.
Chamomile Flowers Hot & Dry 'lst Thin Brain, Liver, Joints, Thins And Disperses
KidneYs, Bowels Emmenogogue, Relaxant

Cinnamon ffoi A oty 2nd Thin Head, Heart, Lungs, Cleanses, Thins, Softens, Diuretic,
Stomach, Womb Emmenogogue, For Eyesight And Labour

Emmenogogue

Fumitory Herb Cold & Dry 2nd Bitter, Mod. Liver,

Head, Opens Obstructions Diuretic,
Actrinnant (hrrn & sRteen
Soleen Purqes Black Bilg
Bile
| !tr1oent,119rp , Bowels a
eowels
. Purses
!q1k
Gentian Root Hot & Dry Stomach, Heart Cuts, Thins & Cleanses, Opens Obstructions,

i v.1e1tt9'
ifor.h*nO i.rn , Hot Zna, Ory 3rd Bitter f-ungsjiver, Spleen Cuts & Thins, Disperses Cleanses, Opens
Obtructions, Emmenogogue' For Labour

ivrsop i"in -.ltotC olrto i!'. t'"* rcuts & Thins,

!l!gnt"t
lunlper Aerr[ i ff"t irO, OrV ist, Thin, Kidneys,
Heart, Stomach, Cuts & Thins, Diuretic, Eases Pain, Emmenogogue,
Pungent Mod. Astringent
- Bladder, Womb, Brain Carminative
--tllnt
Licorice Root Hot & Moist 1st Mod. Lungs Soothes Respiratory And Urinary Passages

9a-,,",:.,=#:tt-*,"*"1*ir""r,
vrarsn*arrow n";afi:til & Bradder I cr..n,.,, Emorient
spearmint Leaf Hot & Dry 3rd, Thin Pungent Stomach & womb Styptic, Disperses
Mod. Astringent

RooVleaf/Seed I ryd"ln,"t_ I Emmenogogue

9!as Olslrullions
Plantain Cold & DrY 2nd Head, Lungs, Bowels, Cleanses, Repels, Styptic

Herb/Root Astringen
Thick, Kidneys & Bladder, Womb
purslane Herb CofO * Moist 2nd Stomach, Liver, Kidneys, & Hot Fluxes, Styptic
I I Renels Bilious
, Mod. Astringent I Bladdef Womb i __
Southernwood Hot & Dry 3rd, Thin, Heart Cuts & Thins, Disperses, Cleanses Anthelmintic

Herb Bitter Mod.Astringent Alexipharmic Emmenogogue

st.John,s wort Herb I Hot & Dry 3rd, Thin Joints ] D'rr.l.t Et.aosog!9
Valerian Root Hot 1st, Dry 2nd, Pungent,
'
Heart, Bowels Carminative, Diuretic, tmmenogogue

26 Spring/Summer 2002
 Hrstory end Phnlosophy

with the power to open blood vessels and thin the more Jierce " (Parkinson, I 640).
blood so as to facilitate menstruation. These reme-
The list oftarget organs for each herb are taken from
dies need to be given at the right time in a woman's
the Pharmacopoeia Londinen^sls which, including the
cycle. Ifthis is not known, Culpeper elsewhere sug-
Key to Galen and Hippocrates, can be found in a mod-
gests it is done in the few days before full moon
ern reprint (Culpeper 1995,307-393 and 554-583),
(Culpeper, 16'76,'78). He also advises that if the
although the section on purgatives is incomplete. In
woman's body is fulI of undigested humours, these
many cases herbs strengthen the organs they target,
need purging before administering hot
and those herbs strengthening target organs by hidden
enrmenogogues, for fear of scattering the crude
virtue are shown in bold. For the full range of uses of
humour into the blood vessels. A styptic action
a herb, this table should be read with the relevant
referred to in the table ofherbs includes the power
entries in Culpeper's herbal (Culpeper 1995), by which
to reduce or stop menstrual blood flow, and men-
any deficiencies of the table may be corrected.
tion is made where a herb is useful in labor, to facil-
itate birth or expel the afterbirth.
References
It should be clear from the foregoing that a sufficient Aschner 8.1943. The Utilitaristrc Approach to the History of
Medicine, Bulletin of the History of Medicme, Vol.X1 1'1

quantity ofan herb must be used to achieve the opera- No.3, March, 292.
tion or action on the body that is required. C hishti G. M. 1 988. The Traditional Healer, Thorsons.

Furthermore, there is a clear sequence of one action to Culpeper N.1652. Galen's Art of Physick, London.
be undertaken before a second and a third operation is Culpeper N.1 656 lhe English Physitian Enlarged, London.
Culpeper N.1669. Pharmacopoeia Londinensrs, reprint of
pursued. These strategies are fitting for an approach of 1651 edition. London: George Sawbridge.
using simples, one at a time, to achieve in order the Culpeper N.1676. Culpeper's Directory for Midwives.
different objectives, with each at a sufficient dosage. I London: George Sawbridge.
Culpeper N.1995. Culpeper's Complete Herbal, Wordsworth
believe that consideration of Culpeper's therapeutics
Library, Ware, Herts.
not only extends our knowledge of the herbal medi- Dantz J. 1543. Tables of Simple Medicines which are in the
cines we use (and of many which are no longer in use!) Works of Dioscorides, Galen and Pliny: Tabulae Simplicium
Medicamentorum, quae apud Dioscoridem, Galenum et
but also shows us a different approach to herbal treat- Plinium sunt.... Basileae, apud Henricum Petrum.
ment. This approach addresses the person who is i11, Gruner O. C.1930. A Treatise on the Canon of Medicine of
rather than simply the disease the person is suffering Avicenna, London, reprinted New York, 1 970.
Guthrie D.1945. A History of Medicine. London: Thomas
from, and in a way which meaningfully affects diagno- Nelson and Sons.
sis, prognosis and prescription to provide a complete Parkinson ). 1640. Theatrum Botanicum: or The Theatre of
alternative healing strategy. P/anfs. London: Thomas Cotes.
Shah M.H.1966. The General Principles of Avicenna's
Canon of Medicine. Karacht, Pakistan.
A Table of Herbs Tobyn G. 1997. Culpeper's Medicine: A Practice of Western
The table to the left lists herbs, their qualities, essence Holistic Medicine. Element: Shaftesbury, Dorset.

and actions, taken from a 16th century text of Tables

of Simple Medicines which are in the Works of
Dioscorides, Galen and Pliny (Dantz, 1543). The
herbs selected have been checked and confirmed as to
identity with Parkinson's Herbal (Parkinson, 1640). In
the vast majority of cases, these same qualities,
essence and actions match those listed by Culpeper
in his P harmacop o eia Londinensis (Culpeper, 1 669).
But Parkinson points out, for instance, that

"Galen hath erred very much in relating the tempera-

ture ofAnise seed, saying it is hot and dry in the third
degree and burning withall, by reason of the sharpness
and bitterness; which as it is well btown it hath no
such acrimonie therein that it should come near to any
burning quality, the sweetness do so temper the
for
sharpness therein that it doth not exceede the second =c
degree in heat, nor the first in drinesse; but the chymi-
call oyle drawen from the seed exceedeth much these
degrees, the spirits being contracted must needs be the Rus cus aculeatus (Butcher's broom)

lournal of the American Herbalists Guild 27