CLOSING THE RACIAL

INEQUALITY GAPS
The Economic Cost of Black Inequality in the U.S.

Citi GPS: Global Perspectives & Solutions

September 2020

Citi is one of the world’s largest financial institutions, operating in all major established and emerging markets. Across these world markets, our employees conduct
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For more information on Citi GPS, please visit our website at www.citi.com/citigps.
 Dana M Peterson Director, is a Global Economist with Citi Research. Her goal is to provide high value,
accurate and timely analysis that informs Citi’s top tier clients in their investment, risk, and business planning
decisions. Dana has specific responsibility for identifying, analyzing, and publishing research papers on
important global economic themes having direct financial market implications. Such global economic themes
include, monetary policy, fiscal and trade policy, debt, taxation; ESG; and demographics. Dana also
examines U.S. themes using granular data. Dana and her research have been featured by U.S. and
international news outlets in print and on television, including the CNBC, Bloomberg, Thomson-Reuters,
WSJ, the Financial Times (FT), Fox Business News Network, BNN-Bloomberg, Globe and Mail, CBC, and
National Post.

Please note: This is the last report written by Dana Peterson in her role as Global Economist at Citi. We
thank Dana for her insights and dedication to global thematics and in particular her work on this important Citi
GPS report. We wish her all the best in her new role as Chief Economist at The Conference Board.

Catherine L Mann is the Global Chief Economist at Citigroup where she is responsible for thought leadership,
research guidance of a global team of economists, and cross-fertilization of research across macroeconomics,
fixed-income, and equities. Prior to this position, she was Chief Economist at the OECD, where she also was
Director of the Economics Department and was Finance Deputy to the G20 (2014-2017). Prior to the OECD,
she held the Barbara '54 and Richard M. Rosenberg Professor of Global Finance at the International Business
School, Brandeis University, where she also directed the Rosenberg Institute of Global Finance (2006-2014).
She spent 20-plus years in Washington, DC (1984-2006) where her positions included Senior Fellow at the
Peter G. Peterson Institute for International Economics; Economist, Senior Economist, and Assistant Director in
the International Finance Division at the Federal Reserve Board of Governors; Senior International Economist
on the President's Council of Economic Advisers; and Adviser to the Chief Economist at the World Bank. Dr.
Mann received her PhD in Economics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and her undergraduate
degree is from Harvard University.

+1-212-816-6498 | [email protected]
 3

CLOSING THE RACIAL INEQUALITY

GAPS
The Economic Cost of Black Inequality in the U.S.
In his Letter from a Birmingham Jail, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. wrote, “We are caught in
an inescapable network of mutuality, tied in a single garment of destiny. Whatever
affects one directly, affects all indirectly.”

Today, more than at any time since Dr. King’s assassination, we are bearing witness to
the grave injustices affecting our fellow citizens. Black, Latinx, and Native Americans
have been hospitalized for COVID-19 at a disproportionately high rate, a direct result of
what the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has identified as “long-standing
systemic health and social inequities.” Blacks and People of Color are also bearing a
disproportionate share of the pandemic’s economic devastation. And the killings of
Ahmaud Arbery, Breonna Taylor, and George Floyd have finally shaken the U.S. and the
world awake to the egregious racial inequities in our criminal justice system.
Raymond J McGuire
Vice Chairman, Citi As Dr. King noted, these injustices affect all of us. Higher rates of infection among some
Chairman, Banking, Capital Markets, affect the health of all, and the loss of health, life, and livelihood among communities of
Advisory color diminish everyone’s economic security. No one should want to live in a society that
incarcerates or kills so many of its citizens just because they are black or brown.

The privileges we enjoy by working for Citi come with responsibilities. While elected
officials and community activists must do their part, so must we. One important thing we
can do is to show the costs of racial inequality through objective analysis which is what
the authors of this report have sought so effectively to demonstrate. Our overarching
goal for the Citi GPS series is not only to tackle the key opportunities and challenges of
the 21st century, but also to address complex societal questions and to not shy away
from difficult subjects. As such, we believe we have a responsibility to address current
events and to frame them with an economic lens in order to highlight the real costs of
longstanding discrimination against minority groups, especially against Black people and
particularly in the U.S.

The analysis in the report that follows shows that if four key racial gaps for Blacks —
wages, education, housing, and investment — were closed 20 years ago, $16 trillion
could have been added to the U.S. economy. And if the gaps are closed today, $5 trillion
can be added to U.S. GDP over the next five years.

I write this forward as Citi’s Vice Chairman and Chairman of our Global Banking, Capital
Markets and Advisory business, but my journey began at the bottom. My two brothers
and I were raised in Dayton, Ohio by our single mom and her parents, who had migrated
from Georgia to escape the injustice and terror of Jim Crow. They worked tirelessly as
janitors, social workers, and leaders at our local church to give us every opportunity. At
any given time, we shared our home with five to eight foster siblings.

Yet even today, with all those credentials and as one of the leading executives on Wall
Street, I am still seen first as a six-foot-four, two-hundred-pound Black man wherever I
go — even in my own neighborhood. I could have been George Floyd. And my wife and
I are constantly aware that our children could have their innocence snatched away from
them at any given moment, simply for the perceived threat of their skin color. I hope that
the analysis in this report brings sober perspective as well as hope to our readers as we
collectively find substantive and sustainable opportunities to address the gaps we
identify.

© 2020 Citigroup
A Path Towards Equality
NOT ADDRESSING RACIAL GAPS BETWEEN BLACKS AND WHITES HAS COST
THE U.S. ECONOMY UP TO $16 TRILLION OVER THE PAST 20 YEARS

Facilitating easy access to higher

Closing the Black Wage Gap could
education for Black students could
have added $2.7 trillion in income
have increased lifetime incomes
or +0.2% to GDP per year.
$90-$113 billion.

Providing fair and equitable lending

Improving access to housing credit
to Black entrepreneurs might have
might have added an additional
resulted in the creation of an additional
770,000 Black homeowners,
$13 trillion in business revenue and
adding $218 billion in sales and
potentially created 6.1 million jobs
expenditures.
per year.

If these racial gaps were closed today, we could see $5 trillion of additional GDP over the next 5 years, or an average
add of 0.35 percentage point to U.S. GDP growth per year and 0.09 percentage point to global growth per year.

WHAT CAN THE GOVERNMENT DO TO CLOSE

THE GAPS BETWEEN BLACKS AND WHITES? WHAT CAN INDIVIDUALS DO?

UTILIZE
ADVOCATE POLITICAL
AND JOBS FOR ONE’S POWER
CAREER
ED WAGES, INCOMES
PROVIDE GUARANTE
IMPLEMENTNTA X REFORM
CIAL INCLUSION
PROMOTE FINA RE
DECOUPLE HEALTHCA
ENC OU RASIGNE WO RKS
G INCENTIVE
EMENT HOU
IMPL
T IN WE ALTH B UILDINGN
INVESPROTECTIONS AGAINST DISCRIMINATIO USE EDUCATION EMBRACE DELAYED
INVEST IN
IMPLEMENT SALARY
HISTORY BANS AS A PATHWAY GRATIFICATION AND
FOR SUCCESS RISK TO GENERATE

WEALTH

© 2020 Citigroup
ATTITUDES AND POLICIES THAT UNDERMINE EQUAL ACCESS ARE
AT THE ROOT OF THE RACIAL GAPS PLAGUING U.S. SOCIETY

Housing Policing Income

The gap between white and Black Blacks are 5x as likely to be incarcerated Peak income occurs sooner
home ownership remains wide with vs. whites and make up an oversized and is lower for Black males
discriminatory practices still an issue. percent of the U.S. prison population — (age 45-49, $43,859) vs. white
33% vs. 12% of total U.S. population. males (age 50-54, $66,250).
U.S. Home Ownership Rate by Race (%)
White families have 8x as much
80
wealth as Black families and lower
70 debt-to-asset ratios (~10% vs. ~30%).
Source: NAACP
60 Median Income by Race and Age 2018 (US$ 000’s)

50 70
Voting
60
40 Over past 10 years, 25 of 50 States have
50
implemented voting restrictions which
30 40
disproportionately affect Black voters.
30
20
20
10 10
0
0

15-24
25-29
30-34
35-39
40-44
45-49
50-54
55-59
60-64
65-69
70-74
75+
Of the 3.1 million American adults
1900

1920

1940

1960

1980

2000

2020

estimated as banned from voting,

White Black 2.2 million are Black Americans. White Male Black Male

Source: Census Bureau, FRED Source: The Sentencing Project Source: Census Bureau, Federal Reserve

WHAT CAN CORPORATES DO?

ENGAGE IN DISMANTLE
SUPPORT DIVERSITY ADDRESS SOCIAL
CORPORATE
AND INCLUSION
RACIAL GAPS
RESPONSIBILITY STRUCTURAL
IN HIRING, BARRIERS TO HIRING
INITIATIVES FROM RETENTION, BLACK TALENT
THE TOP AND FIRING

RECRUIT
M O RE
K
BLAC
BOARD DEVELOP
MEMBERS METRICS TO
ANALYZE,
REPORT,
AND REACT
6

Contents
The Economic Costs of U.S. Racial Inequality 7
COVID-19 Shines Light on Racial Disparities 9
Why Gaps Exist: Racism and Inequality Are Little Improved 18
Bias 19
Housing & Education 21
Policing & Voting 26
Income and Wealth 32
Closing Gaps Generates Growth 36
Racial Wage Gap 37
Racial Labor Segmentation Gap 40
Racial Education Gap 43
Racial Wealth Gap 48
Racial Housing Gap 52
Racial Investment Gap 59
How Do We Close the Gaps: Future Policy 66
What Can Governments Do? 67
What Can Companies Do? 79
What Can Individuals Do? 89

© 2020 Citigroup
 7

The Economic Costs of U.S. Racial

Inequality
Racial equity has real economic benefits, A useful definition of racial equity hails from the San Francisco Fed: “racial equity
while discrimination has real economic costs means just and fair inclusion in an economy in which all can participate, prosper,
and reach their full potential. We will know we have achieved racial equity when
race no longer predicts life outcomes.”1

A plethora of data, studies, and societal ills indicate the U.S. has yet to achieve the
point of racial equity, given the prevalence of major gaps in economic opportunity,
education, income, housing, and wealth that run along racial fault lines.

The COVID-19 pandemic and the deaths of several Black people while in police
custody in rapid succession have laid bare the United States’ longstanding problem
of discrimination against minority groups, especially against Black people.
Moreover, it has laid bare how inequality has produced real economic costs and
social losses.

These costs are most evident in racial gaps: wide numerical differences in key
social and economic indicators between Black and white Americans. These gaps
are apparent in unemployment, net worth, debt levels, wages, peak income,
financing for businesses, spending on education, and rates of imprisonment and
sentencing levels. The gaps in many cases remain wide 60 years after the Civil
Rights Movement. In some cases, including in homeownership rates and college
degree attainment, the gaps are wider now than in the 1950s and 1960s.

This report (1) identifies the underlying causes of the racial and economic
gaps exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic; (2) discusses the value of
closing gaps; and (3) outlines how governments, corporations, and
individuals can work together to eliminate gaps for good.

We discover that closing racial gaps is a pareto improvement to both the U.S.
economy and society. If racial gaps for Blacks had been closed 20 years ago, U.S.
GDP could have benefitted by an estimated $16 trillion. If we close gaps today, the
equivalent add to the U.S. economy over the next five years could be $5 trillion of
additional GDP, or an average add of 0.35 percentage points to U.S. GDP growth
per year and 0.09 percentage points to global GDP growth per year.

 Closing the Black racial wage gap 20 years ago might have provided an
additional $2.7 trillion in income available for consumption and investment.

 Improving access to housing credit might have added an additional 770,000

Black homeowners over the last 20 years, with combined sales and expenditures
adding another $218 billion to GDP over that time.

 Facilitating increased access to higher education (college, graduate, and

vocational schools) for Black students might have bolstered lifetime incomes that
in aggregate sums to $90 to $113 billion.

 Providing fair and equitable lending to Black entrepreneurs might have resulted
in the creation of an additional $13 trillion in business revenue over the last 20
years. This could have been used for investments in labor, technology, capital
equipment, and structures and 6.1 million jobs might have been created per year.

1 “Racial Equity Primer,” Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco, June 12, 2020.

© 2020 Citigroup
8

 Closing the wage, housing, education, and business investment racial gaps can
help narrow the wealth gap, which is significant for facilitating homeownership,
business, and job creation, plus establishing a pipeline for intergenerational
wealth accumulation.

Figure 1. Racial Gaps Cause Economic Harm

Source: Citi Research

Figure 2. The Economic Case for Closing Racial Gaps is Highly Compelling

Source: Citi Research

© 2020 Citigroup
 9

COVID-19 Shines Light on Racial

Disparities
Figure 3. COVID-19 Uncovers Long-Standing Biases and Inequities in the U.S.

Source: Shutterstock

Dual health and economic crises resulting The dual health and economic crises resulting from the coronavirus lays bare long
from the coronavirus lays bare long simmering racial tensions and inequities that have plagued the U.S for centuries.
simmering racial tensions and inequities in The overlay of deep job cuts, threat of eviction, hunger, business closures among
the U.S. minority groups, and uneven fiscal supports, with high rates of infections and
deaths, plus repeated incidences of police brutality involving Black Americans has
proven too great to ignore. The result not only has precipitated protests in the
streets, but also a general reassessment of the very soul of the nation. Specifically,
how past and current biases have embedded themselves into the economy and
society, and what should be done to rectify them.

Data reveal the burden from the pandemic While all racial and ethnic groups are suffering from the fall-out of the pandemic,
has fallen disproportionately on Black data reveal the burden is falling more heavily on certain demographics. Black
Americans and tangible and emotional persons, in particular, appear to have suffered greater job losses amid government-
hardships from the virus spilled into national ordered shutdowns; found themselves in industries that are essential but low
outrage after several high profile deaths of paying; possessed more pre-existing factors leading to COVID-19 mortality; owned
Blacks during altercations with police businesses that closed permanently or were unable to access Paycheck Protection
Program (PPP) loans; and reported elevated rates of food, income, and housing
insecurity amid the crisis. The tangible and emotional hardships of the virus impact
spilled over into national outrage about the deaths of several Black people during
altercations with the police. Most notably, the video-taped death of George Floyd.

The combination of the pandemic and deadly community policing tactics leads us to
revisit the problem of racial gaps in the U.S., and the case for closing them. First we
review the disproportionate impact of the virus on minority groups, and Black
persons in particular, plus the linkages to preexisting racial gaps.

© 2020 Citigroup
10

Health Divide
In NYC, ethnic minorities were more likely to Ethnic minorities were more likely to contract and perish from COVID-19. Death
both contract COVID-19 and die from rates tallied by the U.S. Center for Disease Control (CDC) for New York City — a
COVID-19 particularly hard hit region — showed mortality figures for Black/African American
persons (92.3 deaths per 100,000 population) and Hispanic/Latino persons (74.3)
were substantially higher than that of white (45.2) or Asian (34.5) persons. A Federal
Reserve Bank of New York study reveals there is a high significance of death from
COVID-19 and the existence of various conditions, including belonging to a low
income group, living in a densely populated urban area, and/or being a member of a
major minority group (Figure 4).2 Indeed, an overlay of COVID-19 deaths and U.S.
counties having large minority populations indicates a higher prevalence of
perishing from COVID-19 if one belongs to a racial minority: Black, Hispanic, and
Native American plus select Asian and Pacific Islander population groups (Figure 5).

Figure 4. Being a Minority with Low Income, and/or Residing in Densely Populated Urban Areas
Raised the Likelihood of Death from COVID-19

Regressions of Cases and Deaths on Demographics

Cases/ 1,000 Cases/ 1,000 Cases/ 1,000 Cases/ 1,000

population population population population
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Low Income .5843** 1.183*** .8616*** .1192***
(2.46) (5.18) (3.37) (9.09)
Majority Minority 3.838*** 2.887*** 2.453*** .0951***
(14.91) (11.58) (8.34) (6.64)
In Metropolitan 1.837*** -1.381*** -1.465*** -.1096***
Statistical Area (6.68) (-4.51) (-4.77) (-6.23)
Log Population 1.41*** 1.404*** .1177***
Density (20.35) (20.26) (29.57)
Low Income x 1.335***
Majority (2.77)
Observations 3216 3136 3135 3136
Note: t statistics in parenthesis; Significance: * 10% level, ** 5% level, *** 1% level
Source: Federal Reserve Bank of NY

Federal data corroborate the racial disparity Federal data corroborate the racial disparity of COVID-19 deaths. The Centers for
of COVID-19 death Disease Control (CDC) stated that contributing factors included living conditions
(densely populated, residential segregation, multi-generational households,
incarceration), work circumstances (critical workers, lack of paid sick leave), and
underlying health conditions (lack of access to health insurance, serious underlying
medical conditions, stigma, and systemic inequalities). Regarding health conditions,
the SHADAC analysis of the American Community Survey (ACS) Public Use
Microdata Sample (PUMS) files reveals that although the number of uninsured
persons has fallen since passage of the Affordable Care Act in 2012, ethnic
minorities are still less likely to have health insurance (Figure 7).

2Chakrabarti, R. and William Nober. “Distribution of COVID-19 Incidence by Geography,

Race, and Income.” Liberty Street Economics, Federal Reserve Bank of New York, June
15, 2020.

© 2020 Citigroup
 11

Figure 5. U.S. Counties with Large Number of COVID-19 Deaths Tend to Overlap with Counties Having Large Minority Populations

Source: CDC, Census Bureau, Citi Research

Figure 6. Persons Belonging to Minority Groups, Especially Black Figure 7. Insurance Coverage has Improved Since Obamacare Passage,
Persons, Suffered More Deaths Per Capita than White Persons But Minorities Are Still More Likely to be Uninsured
U.S. COVID-19 Deaths (Feb-Jun 2020) U.S. Uninsured Rates for the Nonelderly Population
by Race & Ethnicity
140,000 Deaths per 100,000 Persons (RHS) 140 35
Deaths (number) ACA/Obamacare
120,000 120 30

100,000 100 25

80,000 80 20

60,000 60 15

40,000 40 10

20,000 20 5

0 0 0
Hispanic American Asian Black More Native White 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018
or Latino Indian than One Hawaiian African-American/ Black Asian
or Alaska Race or Other Hispanic/ Latino Other/ Multiple Races
Native Pacific
Islander
White

Source: CDC, Census Bureau and Citi Research Source: SHADAC analysis of the American Community Survey, Citi Research

Wealth and income gaps between Black The eroded sentiment among minorities amid the pandemic, and Black Americans
families and Hispanic, Asian, and white in particular, reflects not only policing and health care inequities, but also long
families have remained wide for last 40 simmering economic disparities. Both the wealth and income gaps between Black
years and Hispanic families and white and Asian families have remained wide over the
last 40 years for which the U.S. Census Bureau has collected data. The real median
income (Figure 8) and wealth (Figure 9) disparities continue to be stark for Black
Americans. These gaps have been exacerbated by business shutdowns amid the
coronavirus pandemic. In the latest Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) employment
report, the civilian unemployment rate in the U.S. continues to edge lower.
Nonetheless, jobless rates are falling for white persons faster than for other
minorities, and the unemployment rate for Black workers at 13.0 percent is the
highest (Figure 10). Moreover, the NBER reported there was greater business
destruction over the February-April 2020 span for Black-owned firms, in terms of
percentage decline, than for businesses owned by other ethnicities (Figure 11).

© 2020 Citigroup
12

Figure 8. Income Gaps for Black and Hispanic Figure 9. Wealth Gaps for Black And Hispanic Figure 10. Jobless Rate Remains Most Elevated
People Remain Wide People Have Not Improved for Black People in August 2020
U.S. Real Median Household Income U.S. Average Annual Interest, Dividend, U.S. Unemployment Rate: 16-Years+
(2018 CPI-U-RS Adj $) Rent & Property Income (2020, Seasonally Adjusted)
$3,000 20%
$90,000
$80,000 $2,500
15%
$70,000 $2,000
$60,000
$1,500 10%
$50,000
$1,000
$40,000 5%
$30,000 $500

$20,000 $0 0%
1972 1981 1990 1999 2008 2017 2003 2006 2009 2012 2015 2018 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug
White (Non-Hispanic) Black White/ All Other Races Black
Asian Hispanic White Black Asian Hispanic
Asian Hispanic
Source: Census Bureau, Citi Research Source: Census Bureau, Citi Research Source: Census Bureau, Citi Research

Insecurity
Black households have had more difficulty Managing the basics of daily living have been more difficult for Black households
managing the basics of daily living amid the amid the COVID-19 pandemic. Food sufficiency has been a greater challenge for
COVID-19 pandemic select households of color, and Black households in particular, during the COVID-19
pandemic. The Census Bureau’s Household Pulse Survey revealed that in June
2020, it was more likely the case for Black, Hispanic, and Other Racial category
households to have inadequate access to food during the pandemic than was the
case for white and Asian households. Black households were more likely to say that
they sometimes or often did not have enough to eat (Figure 12). Meanwhile, it was
more likely the case that Black, households fell behind on rent or mortgage
payments amid the coronavirus pandemic than white households (Figure 13). Black
households were also less confident they could make future housing payments than
were white households.

Figure 11. Black-Owned Businesses Suffered Brunt of COVID-19 Figure 12. Black Households Had Significant Challenges Related to
Disruptions Lack of Adequate Access to Food During the Coronavirus Pandemic
Demographic Group Losses of Businesses Due Food Sufficiency for Households
to COVID-19 Over Last 7-Days (June 2020)
Immigrant

100%
Female

Native
Latinx

White
Asian
Black
Total

Male

80%
0%
60%
-5%
40%
-10%
-15% 20%
-20% -17% -18%
-20% 0%
-25% -22% Hispanic White Black Asian Other
-25% -26% Races
-30% Did not report
-35% -32% Often not enough to eat
-36% Sometimes not enough to eat
-40% Enough food, but not always the types wanted
-45% -41% Enough of the types of food wanted
Source: NBER, Citi Research Source: Census Bureau Household Pulse Survey, Citi Research

© 2020 Citigroup
 13

Figure 13. Black Households Are More Likely to Have Deferred Housing Payments and Have “No Confidence” that Future Payments Will be Met
Owner Housing: Deferred Mortage Payment Renter Housing: Deferred Rent Payment 'No Confidence' On Next Housing Payment
(% of Homeowner Population by Race) (% of Homeowner Population by Race) (% of Total Owners or Renters)
6% 4% 20%

5%
3% 15%
4%
10%
3% 2%

2% 5%
1%
1% 0%
Hispanic White Black Asian Other
0% 0%
Races
Hispanic White Black Asian Other Hispanic White Black Asian Other
No Confidence Mortgage Will Be Paid Next Month
May-20 Jun-20 Races May-20 Jun-20 Races
No Confidence Rent Will be Paid Next Month
Source: Census Bureau Household Pulse Survey and Citi Research

Essential vs. Nonessential

The unequal nature of job losses, which Food and housing insecurity during the pandemic were directly linked to the
heavily affected low-skilled and discretionary unequal nature of job losses that heavily affected low-skilled and discretionary
sectors that largely employ minorities, was sectors employing large shares of minorities. The U.S. Private Sector Job Quality
directly linked to food and housing insecurity Index ® (JQI) listed jobs in the food and beverage services, retail, travel and
levels attractions, and the auto sector among the most vulnerable amid COVID-19
disruptions (Figure 14). Many of these jobs rank low in the quality index. The JQI
interprets “job quality” as meaning the weekly dollar income a job generates for an
employee. Hence, it is also likely many of these jobs have low skills requirements
given the relatively low quality of pay. U.S. job cuts among these sectors were
disproportionately skewed toward women and minorities due to labor market
segmentation into areas that were discretionary in nature and/or impossible to
execute in a work-from-home scheme. Indeed, a staggering 14 million white
workers were laid off, but this is compared to 8 million minorities, which comprise 23
percent of the working age population. In the second quarter of 2020, Black persons
working in coronavirus disruption-sensitive sectors experienced an employment loss
of 2.7 million. However, as a share of the number of employed Black persons one
year prior, the loss was 14 percent compared to 12 percent for white persons
(Figure 15). For Hispanic and Asian people the loss was 15 percent, each.

© 2020 Citigroup
14

Figure 14. Low-Pay Jobs Also Most Vulnerable to COVD-19 Disruption Figure 15. Minority Groups Slightly Harder Hit by Pandemic Layoffs
Vulnerable Private Production and Non-Supervisory Jobs Vulnerable COVID-19 Disruption Sectors
(Number of Jobs, Millions) (YoY Change in 2Q 2020 Employment & % of Employed Population by Race)
White Black Asian Hispanic
Sports & Entertainment 0 0%

Real Estate (2,000) -2%

-4%
Food Manufacturing (4,000)
-6%
Membership Associations & Orgs (6,000)
-8%
Education (8,000)
-10%
Automobile (10,000)
-12%
Travel & Attractions (12,000) -12%
-14%

Retail (14,000) -14% -15% -16%

-15%
Food & Beverage Svcs (16,000) -18%

All Other Sectors Professional & Business Services

- 3 6 9 12 Durable Goods Mfg Arts, Entertainment & Recreation
Low Quality Production and Non-Supervisory Jobs Real estate, Rental & Leasing Educational Service
Retail Trade Accommodation & Food Service
High Quality Production and Non-Supervisory Jobs Percent of Total Employed in 2Q 2019

Source: U.S. Private Sector Job Quality Index® (JQI), and Citi Research Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics and Citi Research estimates

Only 20% of Black workers were able to For Black persons who maintained their jobs, the split between essential and non-
work from home during the pandemic and essential work highlighted that the most hazardous jobs were also among those
Blacks tended to cluster in essential jobs with the lowest pay. According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), only 30
with high exposure to infection percent of U.S. workers are able to telework (work-from-home or WFH). Hispanic
and Black workers were the least able to WFH (16 percent and 20 percent,
respectively). (Figure 16). The BLS also reported laborers who are below the 50th
percentile in terms of wage level were the least likely to WFH: <25th percentile (9
percent) and 25th to 50th percentile (20 percent) (Figure 17). Moreover, many of the
jobs deemed essential by governments were the least amenable to WFH (Figure
18). Of essential jobs with high exposure to infection, many of them are low wage
jobs in which Black workers are clustered (Figure 19). Healthcare, food service, and
child care stand out as low-wage, essential occupations employing large numbers
of Black employees.

© 2020 Citigroup
 15

Figure 16. Only 20% of Black Workers Can Figure 17. Low Income Workers Less Likely to Figure 18. Low Wage Industries Less Amenable
Work from Home Work from Home to Work from Home
Share of Workers Who Can Telework Share of Workers Who Can Telework Share of Workers Who Can Telework
(by Race & Ethnicity, 2017–2018) (by Wage Level, 2017–2018) (by Industry, 2017–2018)
40%
37% Leisure & Hospitality 9%

35% <25th percentile 9% Ag, Forestry 11%

31%
30% Transportation & Utilities 14%
30%
Wholesale & Retail Trade 17%
25%
25th to 50th percentile 20% Construction 17%
20%
20%
Education & Health Svcs 26%
16%
15% Other Services 27%
50th to 65th percentile 37% Public Administration 30%
10%
Manufacturing 30%
5%
Information 53%
0%
>75th percentile 62% Professional & Bus Svcs 53%
White Black or Asian Hispanic Non-
African or Latino Hispanic
Financial Activities 57%
American or Latino
Race Ethinicity 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80%

Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Citi Research Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Citi Research Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Citi Research

Figure 19. Black Workers Are Overrepresented in Many of the Lowest Wage Jobs Considered High-Contact, Essential Services
Black Americans in High-Contact Essential Services
Nursing, Psychiatric & Home (By Annual Income, % Share)
Health Aides
40% Cooks
35%
Agriculture and Food Processors
30%
Childcare Workers
25% Medical Assistants
Retail Salespersons
20% Food Prep Workers Food & Beverage
15% Service Workers

10%
5%
0%
$28,540 $25,200 $28,480 $23,240 $33,610 $23,730 $24,200 $21,700

Black Americans in High-Contact Essential Services

(Number of Employees)
775,992 500,418
367,611 207,582 385,020
26,607 91,188 142,428

Cooks Childcare Workers Food Prep Workers Food & Beverage

Service Workers
Nursing, Psychiatric & Home Medical Assistants
Agriculture and Food Processors Retail Salespersons
Health Aides

Note: Dotted line denotes Black workers as a percent of the civilian non-institutional population 20 and over or 12.6 percent.
Source: McKinsey Global Institute analysis, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Citi Research estimates

© 2020 Citigroup
16

Uneven Relief
From the perspective of recovery, minority- The CARES Act of 2020 legislated the Paycheck Protection Program (PPP), which
owned firms received Federal government provided loans to businesses suffering coronavirus disruptions. The potentially
supports later forgivable loans were designed to encourage firms to invest and retain workers until
domestic demand improved. A Bloomberg News analysis of Small Businesses
Association (SBA) data revealed that in the initial wave of the program, minority-
owned firms received fewer loans as a share of the total number of minority-owned
businesses (17 percent) than did white-owned firms (27 percent). The percentages
improved and largely evened out in the second tranche of PPP loans at 75 and 72
percent, respectively (Figure 20). Nonetheless, minority firms found themselves
shut-out of the initial rounds of relief and struggled to receive funding from large
financial institutions at the outset of the pandemic disruptions, as the availability of
community banks expedited lending (Figure 21).

Figure 20. Minority-Owned Firms Received COVID-19 Relief Later than White-Owned Firms

First Round: Percentage of small businesses receiving PPP Second Round: Percentage of small businesses receiving PPP
loans in majority white & predominantly minority Congressional loans in majority white & predominantly minority Congressional
districts (April 3-16) districts (through June 30)

White 26.7% White 72.0%

Minority 17.1% Minority 75.1%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80%

Source: Bloomberg News

Figure 21. Minority-Owned Firms Received COVID-19 Relief Later

Percent of SBA Loans Going to Minority-Owned
(%) Businesses
50
Round
cv 1 Round
cv 2
45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Week
Source: Bloomberg News

© 2020 Citigroup
 17

Simmering Tensions
The U.S. has been gripped by protests In addition to the disruption from COVID-19, the U.S. has also been gripped by
fueled by a conflagration of inequality, protests fueled by a conflagration of inequality, racism, and police brutality. The civil
racism, and police brutality unrest comes against a backdrop of disproportionately higher numbers of deaths for
minorities, especially Black persons from COVID-19, and elevated unemployment
figures for Black Americans amid the pandemic-induced U.S. recession. Roughly
1,000 people per year die during altercations with the police (Figure 22). Nearly half
of them are racial minorities, and Black persons have a higher share of fatalities per
capita (Figure 23). A number of these deaths have come on account of mishandling
by police forces, which have been linked at times to long-standing social and racial
issues. In general, the U.S. has lost ground relative to other advanced economies,
and even the world, in terms of discrimination and violence against minority groups
(Figure 24).

Figure 22. Roughly 1,000 People/Yr Die in Altercations with the Police Figure 23. Police-Related Deaths Per Capita is Highest for Black People
Number of People in Fatal Police Shootings People in Fatal Police Shootings
500
0.8% (Deaths per Capita)

400
0.6%
300
0.4%
200

100 0.2%

0 0.0%
White Black Hispanic Other Unknown 2017 2018 2019 2020
2017 2018 2019 2020 White Black Hispanic
Source: Statista.com, Citi Research Source: Statista.com, Citi Research

Figure 24. The U.S. Has Lost Ground Relative to Other Advanced Economies and the World
Regarding Discrimination and Violence Against Minority Groups
Discrimination & Violence Against Minorities
(0=low, 10=high)
8

2
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
U.S. World Canada Germany
France U.K. Australia Japan
Source: The Social Progress Imperative, Citi Research

© 2020 Citigroup
18

Why Gaps Exist: Racism and

Inequality Are Little Improved
Defining systemic and persistent racism and The 400 years of enslavement of Black populations in the Americas has residual
providing evidence that has led to or effects that persist to this day despite tomes of legislation providing equal access to
exacerbated racial gaps is the first step various aspects of American life under the law. Attitudes and policies undermining
towards eliminating inequality equal access are at the root of the racial gaps plaguing U.S. society.

Closing racial gaps in the U.S. 20 years ago Moreover, societal inequities have manifested themselves into economic costs,
could have generated $16 trillion in GDP which have harmed individuals, families, communities, and ultimately the growth
and well-being of the U.S. economy. If the racial gaps in wages in the U.S. had
been closed two decades ago, there might have been an additional 0.2 percentage
point to real GDP growth per year. Adequate access to housing credit might have
produced 770,000 new Black homeowners. More Black students with university and
advanced degrees might have generated an additional $90 to $113 billion in income
that could have contributed to consumption. More than 6 million jobs per year might
have been added and $13 trillion in cumulative revenue gained if Black-owned firms
had equitable access to credit. The global implications are also apparent given the
U.S. contributes a one-third share of growth to the world economy.

Figure 25. What the United States Could Have Gained by Closing Racial Gaps 20 Years Ago

Source: Citi Research

© 2020 Citigroup
 19

Bias
The results of policies creating and The persistence of racially-biased attitudes, coupled with the implementation and
perpetuating bias produce inequality maintenance of policies enshrining these attitudes, constitute what is often termed
as systemic racism. Biases may be conscious or unconscious. Nonetheless, the
result of policies creating and perpetuating bias produce inequality. Even when the
biases fade, the policies may linger, rendering the inequality multi-generational as it
becomes interwoven with the way things are done: in broader society, government,
corporations, and/or institutions.

The continuation of racial bias and systemically-entrenched inequality born from

past and present biases are evident across multiple facets of U.S. society. The Civil
Rights Movement of the 1950s launched 20 years of major legislative achievements
for Black persons in America that also spurred other movements for equality.
However, 70 years later, improvements appear to be few and far between for many
Black Americans. The U.S. is light-years more equal than it was in the 1950s, but
systems perpetuating inequalities among different racial groups either still remain or
are being reinvented, either consciously or unconsciously.

Bias plays a central role in economic and Bias, whether conscious or unconscious, plays a central role in economic and social
social outcomes for Black Americans outcomes for Black Americans. Building upon the bias seen in businesses financing,
there are numerous cases of bias within the hiring spectrum and moreover from a
consumption prospective. As discussed by Greenwald and Krieger, 78 percent of
those who took the Harvard Implicit Association Test (IAT) displayed implicit bias,
with 85 percent of whites showing bias against Blacks. The overarching message in
the study was that most people possess bias, and due to its infinitely engrained
status, people are generally unware of their own bias despite its profound impact
upon behavior and attitude.3 One study, which sent out resumes with traditionally
white-sounding names like Emily and Greg and also resumes with Black-sounding
names like Lakisha and Jamal, found a white applicant was 49 percent more likely
than their Black counterpart to receive a call back in Chicago and 50 percent more
likely in Boston.4 This kind of systematic discrimination is inherently exclusionary of
Black people from the workforce, demonstrating the significant impact of bias, be it
unconscious or not. A 2015 experiment involving baseball card auctions on eBay
again highlighted the significant difference racial bias can have on economic
outcomes. Baseball cards held by dark-skinned/African American hands sold for
approximately 20 percent less than cards held by light-skinned/Caucasian hands,
despite the cards held by the African American hand being more valuable on
average.5 Without addressing bias directly, the challenge of equality will remain
profound.

3 Greenwald, A. and Linda Krieger. 2006. “Implicit Bias: Scientific Foundations”.

California Law Review. 94. 945. 10.2307/20439056.
4 Bertrand, M. and Sendhil Mullainathan. 2004. "Are Emily and Greg More Employable

Than Lakisha and Jamal? A Field Experiment on Labor Market Discrimination."

American Economic Review, Vol 94 (4): 991-1013,
https://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1257/0002828042002561.
5 Ayres, et. al. 2015. “Race Effects on EBay.” The RAND Journal of Economics, Vol. 46

(4), pp. 891–917., www.jstor.org/stable/43895621.

© 2020 Citigroup
20

The U.S. Civil Rights Movement: A Synopsis

The Civil Rights Movement that began in the late 1950s won African Americans basic rights long denied to them,
inspired other discriminated groups to fight for their own rights, and had a deep effect on American society.

After the Civil War, the 13th, 14th, and 15th amendments to the Constitution were supposed to guarantee equal rights
for African Americans. But in the South, segregation of the races, the denial of opportunities to African Americans, and
their disenfranchisement continued in a system known as "Jim Crow laws." In 1896, in a controversial decision, the
United States Supreme Court, in the case Plessy v. Ferguson, upheld the "separate, but equal" facilities for the races.

During World War II, some progress on equality was made as President Roosevelt outlawed discrimination in the
defense industry. Moreover, as the country fought for freedom around the world, many African-Americans began to
wonder why they did not enjoy those freedoms at home. In 1954, a series of landmark cases testing segregation
pressed by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) culminated in the Supreme
Court's ruling in the Brown v. Board of Education case, which unanimously outlawed segregation of public schools.

On December 1, 1955, the modern civil rights movement began when Rosa Parks, an African-American woman, was
arrested in Montgomery, Alabama for refusing to move to the back of the bus. A new minister in town, Martin Luther
King, Jr., organized a community bus boycott, which eventually led to the desegregation of the bus line and launched
protests across the South. In 1960, spontaneous sit-ins by students began at lunch counters throughout the South,
and in 1961, "Freedom Riders" boarded inter-state buses to test and break down segregated accommodations. These
protests were peaceful, but they were met with violent, and often, brutal force — televised images helped win support
from sympathetic whites in the North. In 1963, TV viewers saw hundreds of thousands of African Americans and
whites march on Washington, DC to end racial discrimination. It was there that Martin Luther King, Jr. delivered his
famous "I Have a Dream" speech.

After the assassination of President Kennedy and the landslide election of Lyndon Johnson, Congress passed the
landmark Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which outlawed racial discrimination in public
accommodations and schools and removed obstacles to voting. As part of the Civil Rights Act, the Federal
government would withhold funds from any state that did not desegregate, and as Health, Education & Welfare
Secretary, John Gardner was the man holding the purse strings. In 1967, he threatened to cut off $95.8 million in
Federal welfare funds to the state of Alabama unless it complied with desegregation guidelines. As Gardner
remembers, "Civil rights was real hardball."

The passage of the Voting Rights Act, in particular, prompted a massive effort to register African Americans
throughout the South to vote. Again, this was often met with violent resistance. After 1966, the Civil Rights Movement
began to fracture between those who favored non-violent means to achieve integration and younger, more radical
leaders who wanted to fight for "Black power." This split alienated some white allies, a process that was accelerated
by a wave of rioting in Black neighborhoods in Northern cities throughout 1965 and 1967.

After Dr. King was assassinated 1968 and more rioting ensued, the Civil Rights Movement as a cohesive effort
disintegrated. Yet the push for civil rights continued, with African Americans making gains economically, politically, and
socially. Moreover, other discriminated groups were inspired by the Civil Rights Movement and borrowed its tactics.
Over the 1960s and 1970s, gays and lesbians, women, Native Americans, and people with disabilities pushed for their
own inclusion in American society. Source: PBS.org.

© 2020 Citigroup
 21

Housing & Education

Intricate linkages between racial bias in housing and education dating back over a
century are major factors in economic gaps that persist today.

Housing Segregation
Housing discrimination from 1940 through Past discriminatory housing practices have contributed to economic inequality for
the 1960s prevented Black Americans from Black Americans in the present. According to the Economic Policy Institute (EPI),
owning homes and subsequently building systemic and legalized housing discrimination over the 1940 to 1960 period
intergenerational wealth prevented Black families from achieving homeownership, a critical staple for
building intergenerational wealth.6 Moreover, the disparity in homeownership was
perpetuated by continued discrimination in housing, through government, private
sector, individual, and even technological choices and actions, keeping the racial
gap wide (Figure 26). As recently as 2019, a popular Internet platform was cited for
discriminatory practices by its search engines according to the Fair Housing Act.7

Figure 26. The Gap Between Black and White Homeownership Rates Remains Wide

U.S. Home Ownership Rate by Race (%)

White Black Gap
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1900
1905
1910
1915
1920
1925
1930
1935
1940
1945
1950
1955
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
2015
2020
Source: Steven Ruggles, Sarah Flood, Ronald Goeken, Josiah Grover, Erin Meyer, Jose Pacas and Matthew
Sobek. IPUMS USA: Version 10.0 [dataset]. Minneapolis, MN: IPUMS, 2020. https://doi.org/10.18128/D010.V10.0,
Census Bureau, FRED, Citi Research.

New Deal policies predating WWII enshrined In an effort to combat a housing shortage in the mid 1930s the Federal Housing
modern housing segregation and Administration (FHA) refused to insure mortgages in and near Black neighborhoods,
discrimination in the U.S. a practice known as redlining. The most desirable neighborhoods for mortgages
were designated green, and the least, typically predominantly Black neighborhoods,
were designated red.

6 da Costa, P., “Housing discrimination underpins the staggering wealth gap between
blacks and Whites,” Economic Policy Institute, April 8, 2019.
7 Aranda, C., “Fighting Housing Discrimination in 2019,” Urban Institute, April 1, 2019.

© 2020 Citigroup
22

Prior to the Fair Housing Act in 1968, One study revealed that between 1934 and 1968, 98 percent of home loans
policies by the government as well as approved by the Federal government were given to white applicants.8 The FHA also
individual and private sector choices subsidized builders creating large tracts of housing in suburban areas as long as
perpetuated housing segregation those projects excluded Black homebuyers. Meanwhile, minorities were directed to
urban housing projects. These urban neighborhoods, where Black family housing
was permitted, were often cut off from resources and subject to underinvestment.9

Individual and private sector choices also perpetuated housing segregation. Prior to
the Fair Housing Act of 1968, residents of neighborhoods were allowed to create
contracts called restrictive covenants to establish and maintain a particular racial
makeup. Minorities, particularly Black persons, were prevented from moving into the
suburbs or predominantly white sections of metropolitan areas either legally or
through intimidation. Maps of Black neighborhoods were redlined and/or persons
wishing to leave these neighborhoods for majority-white neighborhoods were
threatened with violence.10 Realtors were threatened with the loss of their licenses if
they showed homes to Black families outside of prescribed areas. These activities
not only upheld segregation, but also concentrated poverty and underdevelopment
in geographic locations.

Housing discrimination became less overt Housing discrimination did not end with the Fair Housing Act. Tactics used to
after the Fair Housing Act including reinforce segregated neighborhood boundaries and majority-white suburbs became
practices like gentrification, which decreased less overt. Real estate agents would show potential Black home purchasers houses
the affordability of homeownership for in predominantly Black neighborhoods and decline to show many, if any, in other
Blacks neighborhoods. Banks would continue to decline to provide financing for mortgages
to Black homeowners, and insurance companies would refuse to insure mortgages
assumed by Black owners. “Gentrification” in urban areas contributed to the
decrease in affordability of housing for Black households. Realtors, renovators, and
builders played a role as neighborhoods formerly populated by a certain racial or
ethnic group were renamed, homes were upgraded to “luxury” status raising the
price point, or upscale homes were built in low-income neighborhoods, inviting other
such projects. These developments can lead to the displacement of current
residents resulting in a change in demographics.11 Governments can frustrate
affordable housing availability via zoning laws limiting construction of multi-family
units or expansion of neighborhood boundaries. Even positive community
revitalization activities by governments, such as investment in transit infrastructure,
can have the negative externality of inviting gentrification that affects Black
communities.

Barriers to homeownership have resulted in Fifty years of barriers to Black home ownership means that Black families have
Black families holding the least amount of missed out on the benefits of home price appreciation — a key ingredient to wealth
housing wealth accumulation. The Federal Reserve’s Survey of Consumer Finances reported that
as of 2016, Black homeowners continued to hold the least amount of housing
wealth compared to other racial groups (Figure 27). The median amount of housing
wealth for a Black family was $124,000, while the median amount for white families
was $200,000, Hispanic households $158,000, and other households $240,000.

8 Fulwood III, S., “The United States’ History of Segregated Housing Continues to Limit
Affordable Housing,” Center for American Progress, December 15, 2016.
9 Gross, T., “A 'Forgotten History' Of How The U.S. Government Segregated America,”

NPR, May 3, 2017.

10 da Costa, P., “Housing discrimination underpins the staggering wealth gap between

blacks and Whites,” Economic Policy Institute, April 8, 2019.

11 National Low Income Housing Coalition. “Gentrification and Neighborhood

Revitalization: WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE?”.

© 2020 Citigroup
 23

Black homeowners also don’t see the same A Princeton University study notes that even among Black families owning homes,
price appreciation in their homes as other properties do not appreciate at the same rate as properties held by other ethnic
homeowners groups.12 This is a reflection of the location of Black-owned homes in areas with
generally lower home values and/or bias in the way others view Black homeowners.
Even though the Great Recession’s housing crisis featured a wave of foreclosures,
in the subsequent ten years, white homeowners were more likely to see some home
price appreciation (+3 percent on average) versus Black families who didn’t see a
recovery (-6 percent on average) (Figure 28).13 Indeed, past housing policies have
concentrated Black families into higher-poverty neighborhoods with fewer of the
amenities that help raise home values. Moreover, even higher-income Black
families are still more likely to own homes in impoverished, predominately Black
neighborhoods (Figure 29). Black families have also not benefited from tax
incentives related to homeownership, including mortgage interest deductions
(Figure 30).

Figure 27. Black Families Hold the Least Amount of Housing Wealth Figure 28. Black Homeowners Experienced Home Price Depreciation
Nonfinancial Assets: Holdings of Primary Median Percentage Change in Home Price Index
Residence (Median, $) Among Black and White Borrowers
$350,000 (by Borrower Income Level, 2006 - 2017)
6% 5%
$300,000 4% 3%
2% 1%
$250,000
0%
$200,000 -2%
-2%
$150,000 -4%
-6%
$100,000 -6%
-8%
-8%
$50,000 -10%
Low (up to 80% of Moderate (81% to High (morethan
$0 area median 120% of area 21% of area
1989 1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010 2013 2016 income) median income) median income)
White Black Hispanic Other/Multiple Races Black Borrowers White Borrowers
Source: Federal Reserve Survey of Consumer Finances, Citi Research Source: Center for American Progress, Citi Research

12“The sordid history of housing discrimination in America,” Vox, December 5, 2019.

13Zonta, M., “Racial Disparities in Home Appreciation,” Center for American Progress,
July 15, 2019.

© 2020 Citigroup
24

Figure 29. Wealthier Black Families Live in Black Neighborhoods Figure 30. Homeowners Benefit From Special Tax Treatment in the U.S.
Average Black Population Percentage in Census Foregone Tax Revenue Due to Tax Relief for
Tracts Where Borrowers Bought Homes Access to Home Ownership
(by Census Tract Income Level (2013-2017) (Percentage of GDP, 2019 or latest year available)
45% 1.6%
40% 1.4%
35% 1.2%
30% 1.0%
25% 0.8%
20% 0.6%
0.4%
15%
0.2%
10%
0.0%
5%

Canada

U.S.*
Norway
U.K

Mexico

New Zealand
Australia*
Netherlands

Belgium

Finland

Poland*
Chile
Sweden*

Luxembourg*
0%
Low (up to 80% of Moderate (81% to High (more than
area median 120% of area 21% of area
income) median income) median income)
High Income Black Borrowers High Income White Borrowers Other types of tax relief Mortgage interest deduction
Source: Center for American Progress, Citi Research Note: * indicates that spending is missing for one of the policy instruments and the
reported amount is therefore a lower-bound estimate. Source, OECD, Citi Research

Separate & Unequal Education

Segregated housing has led to segregated Segregated housing has facilitated and perpetuated unequal access to quality
schooling by virtue of how schools are education for Black Americans, which is pivotal to erasing income and wealth gaps.
generally funded in the U.S. Brown vs. the Board of Education was designed to end separate and categorically
unequal public schooling. However, housing segregation and the method used to
fund schools have helped to perpetuate separate and unequal access to education
for many Black students (Figure 31). A significant degree of evidence suggests a
strong correlation between high-value housing and the quality of schooling.
Seventy-five percent of children attend public schools in the U.S., which means they
are assigned to a school nearest to where they live. If neighborhoods are
segregated, then so are the schools. Moreover, if schools are largely funded via
property taxes, then schools in wealthy neighborhoods will invariably receive
greater resources, while schools in poorer areas will receive fewer resources
(Figure 32). State governments attempt to make up the differences, but often fall
short.14 Resources affect both the quality of the school and the education students
are given. Hence, racially segregated schools in areas of concentrated poverty have
fewer resources, higher teacher turnover, and a lower quality of education.15 School
choice in the form of vouchers and charter schools have in various instances
improved the quality of education, but have been unable to address the underlying
problem of segregation.

14 Chingos, M. M. and Kristin Blagg. 2017. “Do Poor Kids Get Their Fair Share of School
Funding?”, Urban Institute.
15 Bhargava, S., 2018. “The Interdependence of Housing and School Segregation,” Open

Society Foundations, Harvard University.

© 2020 Citigroup
 25

Figure 31. Greater Racial Housing Segregation Often Means Less Public School Funding
School Funding Per Student ($) vs. Degree of Racial
Housing Segregation (0=No Segregation)
$2,000 AK

Total Public Education Funding Per

$1,800 NM
LA
$1,600 MT
SD
WV ND

Student ($)
DE MS NY RI
$1,400 KY VT
WY AR PA
TN AL TX AZ IL
$1,200 CA MI
SC ME NE GA MO
FL
NC OK IAIN KS OH
$1,000 NV MA
ID WA MDNH WI
OR CT NJ
$800 MN VA
CO
UT
$600
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40
Dissimilarity Index (0.0-1.0)
Source: Urban Institute, U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Common Core of
Data (CCD), "National Public Education Financial Survey," 2016-17

Figure 32. More Than One-Third of States Rely on Property Taxes as a Major Source of Public School Funding

Revenues for Public Elementary & Secondary Schools Revenues for Public Elementary & Secondary Schools
(by Source of Funds & State or Jurisdiction, 2016-17) (by Source of Funds & State or Jurisdiction, 2016-17)
New Hampshire Georgia
Connecticut Mississippi
Nebraska Utah
Massachusetts California
Maine Michigan
New Jersey Washington
New York Montana
Rhode Island Kentucky
Illinois Wyoming
Texas Indiana
Missouri Maryland
South Dakota
Nevada
Pennsylvania
North Dakota
Wisconsin
Delaware
Florida
North Carolina
Ohio
Idaho
Colorado
Tennessee
Oregon
Virginia Louisiana
South Carolina Minnesota
Arkansas Kansas
Iowa Alabama
West Virginia New Mexico
Oklahoma Alaska
Arizona Vermont
District of Columbia Hawaii

0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100

Federal State Other Local Property Tax Private Federal State Other Local Property Tax Private
Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Common Core of Data (CCD), "National Public Education Financial Survey," 2016-17

© 2020 Citigroup
26

Policing & Voting

Policies relating to community policing and mass-incarceration have contributed to a
deleterious cycle that has led to underrepresentation in government and the labor
market.

Community Policing
The War on Drugs enhanced prosecution of Extraordinary levels of incarceration as a consequence of bias within the criminal
Blacks through disparate application of justice system are evident from movements such as the War on Drugs. Following
punishment the Rockefeller drug laws of the 1970s and born from the Reagan era, the War on
Drugs has become interchangeable with the enhanced prosecution of Blacks. The
perceived injustice is only amplified when considering the disparate application of
punishment when associated with crimes committed predominantly by Blacks, such
as the abuse of crack-cocaine, with 88 percent of Federal crack defendants Black
by 2012, in comparison to crimes committed predominantly by whites crime
(powdered cocaine) (Figure 33).16 Though the original 1986 100-1 ratio (500 grams
of powdered cocaine and just 5 grams of crack cocaine incurred the same five-year
sentence) has been reduced by the 2010 Fair Sentencing Act, a significant disparity
remains with the current ratio standing at 18-1.17 According to recent Bureau of
Justice Statistics, there has been material improvement in incarceration rates in the
U.S., with the rate for Black Americans declining the most; down 34 percent since
2006.18 Nonetheless, the share relative to the entire Black population remains
stubbornly high (Figure 34).

Figure 33. Drug Offences for Black Prisoners Are Overwhelmingly for Crack Cocaine
Powder Crack Meth-
Cocaine Cocaine Heroin Marijuana amphetamine Other
White 12.6 4.2 12.5 24 48.3 50.9
Black/African American 32.3 88.1 38.8 13.9 2.5 28.4
Hispanic/Latino 54.2 7.1 48 59 45 9
Asian/Pacific Islander 0.5 0.3 0.7 1.7 3 10.8
American Indian/Alaska Native 0.4 0.3 0.1 1.5 1.2 0.8
Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, Citi Research

Unequal application of drug-related Reductions in incarceration rates notwithstanding, Black Americans remain far more
sentencing has led to mass-incarceration likely to be imprisoned than their other racial counterparts — almost twice as likely
leading to a much higher likelihood of Black as Hispanic Americans and five times more likely than white Americans. As a result,
incarceration the United States prison population is disproportionally Black dominated (33
percent) relative to their presence in the U.S. total population (12 percent). A similar
trend can be seen with the Hispanic population (23 percent of prison population vs
16 percent of U.S. population), in contrast to white Americans who make up just 30
percent of the prison population despite being 63 percent of total U.S. population.
Startlingly, one in every three Black boys born can expect to be sentenced within

16 Banks, R. R., 2003. “Beyond Profiling: Race, Policing, and the Drug War.” Stanford
Law Review, Vol. 56, (3), pp. 571–603. "Cruel and Unusual: Disproportionate Sentences
for New York Drug Offenders, 1997 " Human Rights Watch Vol. 9 (2) (B). Internet.
Available: http://www.hrw.org/summaries/s.us973.html.
17 U.S. Department of Justice. “Drug Offenders in Federal Prison: Estimates of

Characteristics Based on Linked Data,” Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice

Statistics, October 2012. ACLU Fair Sentencing Act https://www.aclu.org/issues/criminal-
law-reform/drug-law-reform/fair-sentencing-act.
18 Carson, E.A., “Prisoners in 2018,” BJS Statistician, U.S. Department of Justice, Office

of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics.

© 2020 Citigroup
 27

their lifetime, versus one in every six Latino boys and one in every seventeen white
boys.

This disparity is even more apparent when reviewing individual age ranges, with 1
in 20 Black Americans between the ages of 35 and 39 in either State or Federal
Prison. Moreover, several studies have shown the percentage difference in
sentence length for Black versus white prisoners can be from 5 to 20 percentage
points (Figure 35). Though only accounting for 5 percent of the global population,
the U.S. is home to 25 percent of the world’s prison population, recording the
highest incarceration rate globally. Aside from the racial inequality, the cost of
maintaining this system is outsized, costing $81 billion in 2012 alone (with the rate
of spending three times that on Pre K-12 education over the last 30 years).19

Figure 34. Imprisonment Rates Have Fallen, But Still Remain Elevated Figure 35. Sentences for Black Prisoners Can Exceed Those of White
for Black U.S. Residents Offenders by 5 to 20 Percentage Points
Imprisonment Rates of U.S. Residents Differences in Sentence Length for Male Offenders
(Per 100,000 in Each Demographic Group) (%) (% Difference in Sentence Length)
1,800 25
White
1,600 Black 20
1,400 Hispanic
15
1,200 10
1,000 5
800 0
600
-5
400
-10
200 Black Male vs. Hispanic Male vs. Other Male vs.
White Male White Male White Male
0
2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 Koon PROTECT Booker Gall Post-Report

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, Citi Research Source: US Sentencing Commission,1999-2016 data files, Citi Research

Incarceration limits an ex-offenders ability to Incarceration also limits the ability of Black ex-offenders to obtain employment, earn
obtain employment, earn income, and build income, and build wealth. The Brookings Institute highlights several key facts linking
wealth low job prospects to incarceration and vice-versa. Former prisoners fare poorly in
the labor market, with only 55 percent earning any income in the first year of release
and median earnings of only $10,090. Prisoners generally had poor labor market
prospects before becoming incarcerated. An estimated 51 percent of prime-age
men were employed two full years prior to imprisonment, with median earnings of
only $6,250. Growing up in poverty dramatically increased the likelihood of
incarceration. Boys raised in families in the bottom decile of the income distribution
were 20 times more likely to be in prison in their early 30s than those born in the top
decile. Notably, boys from the poorest families were 40 times more likely to be
imprisoned than boys from the wealthiest families. Brookings finds that an
astounding one-third of men age 30 without any annual earnings are either
incarcerated or ex-prisoners. Moreover, where one grows up is highly correlated
with the likelihood of incarceration. Imprisonment rates can vary by a factor of 30
between zip codes in the same city.20

19NAACP. “Criminal Justice Fact Sheet,”.

20Looney, A., “5 facts about prisoners and work, before and after incarceration,”
Brookings, March 14, 2018.

© 2020 Citigroup
28

Bias against ex-prisoners leads to a poor A poor earnings trajectory post-imprisonment is linked to bias. Unemployment
earnings trajectory post-imprisonment following incarceration is often a consequence of the “prison penalty,” where
employers discriminate against persons with criminal records. Evidence of a
criminal record reduces employer call-back rates by 50 percent.

Studies suggest that formerly incarcerated persons do desire to work: among 25-44
year olds, 93.3 percent were active in the labor market compared to 83.8 percent of
the general population of the same age. However, unemployment rates for formerly
incarcerated persons can be five times that of persons who were never imprisoned.
Unemployment rates for Black female former inmates were 44 percent before
COVID-19, and the rate for Black males was 35 percent. Black women are also
more likely to work part-time jobs after imprisonment than other racial groups.

Figure 36. Incarceration and Poor Earnings Prospects Are Interrelated Figure 37. Ex-Prisoners Are 5x More Likely to be Unemployed
Income Before and After Incarceration Pre-COVID-19 Unemployment Rates
60% 45%
(% of Incarcerated Population) (% of Civilian Labor Force) 44%
51%
40%
50%
45% 35% 35%
40% 36% 36% 30%
25%
30% 23%
20%
18%
20% 15%
11% 10%
10% 6% 8%
5% 5%
2% 1%
0% 0%
No 1 to $15,001 to $25,001 to $50,001+ General Population Formerly Imprisoned
Earnings $15,000 $25,000 $50,000 Population
Earnings 2-Years Ahead of Imprisonment Black Women Black Men
First Year After Imprisonment White Women White Men
Source: Brookings, Citi Research Source: Prison Policy Initiative, Citi Research

Voting Power
Felony disenfranchisement has a This cycle of mass incarceration becomes increasingly problematic when
disproportionate impact on Black Americans considering the impact of felony disenfranchisement and its disproportionate impact
due to the cycle of mass incarceration on people of color. As of 2016, one in every thirteen Black American adults could
not vote due to felony convictions, with more than 20 percent of Black adults in four
states (Florida, Kentucky, Tennessee and Virginia) disenfranchised.21 There is a
sense of cyclicality within disenfranchisement as 27 percent of non-voters were
rearrested versus only 12 percent of voters. It has been argued that political
elections would have seen differing outcomes should disenfranchisement not have
been established, including seven Senate races between 1970 and 1998, as well as
the infamously tight Gore-Bush Presidential election of 2000.22 Though there has
been significant progress, with 25 States modifying their felony disenfranchisement
provisions since 1997 (10 repealing or amending lifetime disenfranchisement laws),
it still stands that of the total 3.1 million American adults estimated as banned from
voting, 2.2 million are Black Americans.23

21 Chung, J., 2017. “Felony Disenfranchisement: A Primer,” The Sentencing Project.

22 Uggen, C. & Manza, J. 2002. “Democratic contraction? Political consequences of felon
disenfranchisement in the United States”. American Sociological Review, 67 (6), 777-
803. Uggen, C. & Manza, J. 2004. “Voting and subsequent crime and arrest: Evidence
from a community sample”. Columbia Human Rights Law Review, 36 (1), 193-215.
23 Porter, N. 2010. “Expanding the vote: State felony disenfranchisement reform, 1997-

2010.”, DC: The Sentencing Project., Uggen, C., Larson, L., & Shannon, S. 2016. “6

© 2020 Citigroup
 29

The forced reduction in political clout is only compounded by already lower voter
turnout rates for Black and minority voters versus their white counterparts.
Excluding record turnout in 2008 (69.1 percent) during the Obama election cycle,
Black voters have underperformed white voters with regards to turnout; 51.4
percent vs. 54.2 percent on average from 2000-2018.24

Figure 38. Felony Disenfranchisement Restrictions by State, 2019

Source: The Sentencing Project

With the U.S. set to become minority white The Black and minority vote is set to become increasingly significant as the U.S. is
by 2045 based on demographic trends, the forecast to become minority white by 2045.25 With white voters at less than 50
Black and minority vote will become percent for the first time, the influence of minority voters will be enhanced with the
increasingly significant Black vote making up 13.1 percent of the vote, Hispanic 24 percent and Asian 7.9
percent. This trend is compounded by the emergence of Gen Z as part of the
electorate. As a group, ‘minority majority’ is set to potentially be reached in Gen Z
as early as this year (2020), with the 18-29 age range achieving this by 2027.26
Perhaps unsurprisingly Gen Z voters are set to be some of the most ‘liberal’ yet,
essentially reflecting Millennial positioning on key issues.

Younger voters (Gen Z) are more ethnically What is apparent is that Gen Z voters from both sides of the aisle are more
diverse and are more consolidated around consolidated around core social issues than their older counterparts. Significantly,
core social issues than older voters over 60 percent of both Gen Z and Millennial voters view increasing racial and
ethnic diversity as a good thing for society, versus only 48 percent of Boomers.

million lost voters: State-level estimates of felony disenfranchisement”, Washington, DC:

The Sentencing Project.
24 United States Elections Project. “Voter Turnout Demographics”.

25 Frey, W.H., “The US will become ‘minority White’ in 2045, Census projects,” Brookings

Institute, May 14, 2018.

26 Ibid.

© 2020 Citigroup
30

More importantly, even amongst Republican Gen Z voters, a majority still agree with
that statement, versus only 30 percent of Republican Boomers.27

This disparity between younger and older Republicans can be found elsewhere,
with a majority of Republican Gen Z also in favor of the government having a larger
role in society. Sixty-six percent of American Gen Z and Millennials also hold the
opinion that the Black population in the U.S. is treated less fairly than the white
population vs. only 50 percent of Gen X. As the younger generations gain
prominence amongst the voting population, first as a support to the already
established Millennial voting trends and then in their own right, they will demand
more political attention. With Gen Z voters composing 9 percent of the 2020
electorate (up from 4 percent in 2016), versus the declining share of Baby Boomers
(from 68 percent in 2016 to only 4/10 in 2020), policymakers may need to be more
conscientious of this new group of voters.28

Figure 39. Minority Voters Are Gaining Ground Figure 40. Potential Voters Are Skewing Younger (i.e.,<40 Years of Age)
Race of Voters in Mid-Term Elections Eligible Voters by Age in 2020
(% of total) 30%
1% 1% 28%
100% 2% 2% 2% 2% 3% 27%
4%
4% 4% 5% 5% 25%
6% 7% 7% 25%
90% 10% 9% 10%
11% 11% 10%
80% 11% 12%
12%
20%
70%
60%
15%
50%
85% 85% 82% 82%
40% 80% 78% 76% 10%
73% 10% 9%
30%
20% 5%
10%
0% 0%
1990 1994 1998 2002 2006 2010 2014 2018 Boomer Millenial Gen X Silent + Gen Z
White Black Hispanic Asian (1946-64) (1981-96) (1965-80) (pre-1946) (After 1996)

Source: The Pew Research Center, Citi Research Source: The Pew Research Center, Citi Research

Recent events have rallied and inspired the political activism of many young and
Black voters — traditionally two groups with lower-than-average voter turnout.
Given the demographic makeup of Gen Z is increasingly diverse (minority majority
by 2020 with Blacks (14 percent) and Hispanics (25 percent) the largest minority
groups), its unsurprising that movements such as ‘#BlackLivesMatter’ had the
support of over 60 percent of Millennials and Gen Z, versus only 37 percent of
Boomers.29 Should young minority voters translate this intensified interest in
addressing the issues most prominent to themselves into presence at the polls, then
there is a real argument to stress the significance and impact this group can have.

27 Parker, K., Graf, N., and Ruth Igielnik “Generation Z Looks a Lot Like Millennials on
Key Social and Political Issues”, Pew Research Center, January 17, 2019.
28 Parker, K. and Ruth Igielnik.“On the Cusp of Adulthood and Facing an Uncertain

Future: What We Know About Gen Z So Far”, Pew Research Center, May 14, 2020.
Cilluffo, A. and Richard Fry “An early look at the 2020 electorate,” Pew Research Center,
January 30, 2019.
29 Parker, K., Graf, N., and Ruth Igielnik “Generation Z Looks a Lot Like Millennials on

Key Social and Political Issues”, Pew Research Center, January 17, 2019.

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 31

Voter suppression, although less blatant Voter suppression remains a persistent threat to full participation of Black voters in
than during the Jim Crow era, still exists the U.S. democratic process. The connection between voter suppression and race
today did not end in the 1960s. Tactics that disenfranchise voters of color, and particularly
Black voters, are still in existence today, although they are less blatant than those
deployed during the Jim Crow Era. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 significantly
curtailed voter suppression. In 1966, the Supreme Court invalidated poll taxes.
However, a 2013 Supreme Court decision Shelby County v. Holder vacated key
provisions of the Voting Rights Act opening the door for state and local governments
to erect barriers to voting for racial minorities. The main element in the 2013
decision ended the requirement of state and local governments to obtain
preclearance from the Federal government before changing voting rules. Over the
last 10 years, 25 of 50 states have implemented new voting restrictions. Ten of
those states have sizable Black populations: Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia,
North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, Illinois, Michigan, and Tennessee
according to the Brennan Center.

States have enhanced barriers to voting New restrictive voting rules include requiring voters to present government-issued
since 2013 photo IDs, which disproportionately affects the youngest and oldest voters, as they
are less likely to have a driver’s license or permit (Figure 41). There is even
disparity among types of IDs. In Texas for example, handgun licenses, which are
predominantly held by white persons (82 percent), are permissible (Figure 44). But
student IDs are disallowed, despite more than half of the students of the University
of Texas system being racial or ethnic minorities (51 percent). While the stated aim
of voter rules is to combat voter impersonation fraud research by the Brennan
Center for Justice has found scant evidence of such types of behavior. Other
barriers to voting include restrictions on early voting, which is largely used by
minority voters; third party voter registration drives that often target Black voters;
voter list purges, which have eliminated 33 million voters from the rolls over the
2014-2018 period (Figure 43); and exact matches of voter registration form data
and IDs. Other tactics include not upgrading technology; moving or closing polling
stations without notifying voters; shortening voting hours; restricting early voting on
weekends when Black voters are likely to vote; shutting Departments of Motor
Vehicles (DMVs) in minority communities where heavy voter registration takes
place; and/or not properly training poll workers. Federal courts have ruled that many
voting restrictions have been implemented with the aim to racially discriminate.

Figure 41. Black Voters Are More Likely to Not Figure 42. In Some States, Like North Carolina, Figure 43. Several States with Notable Minority
Have Government Issued Photo IDs Black Voters Are More Likely to Vote Early Populations Are Engaged in Heavy Voter
Registration Purges: Percent of Lists Purged
Voting-Age Citizens in U.S. Without Percentage of Early Voters in 2012
Current Government-Issued Photo ID North Carolina Elections

White 8% White 49%

Black 25% Black 64%

0% 10% 20% 30% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80%

Source: Brennan Center. Citi Research Source: Brakebill vs Jaeger, Citi Research Source: Brennan Center. Citi Research

© 2020 Citigroup
32

Figure 44. Handgun Licenses Are Acceptable Forms of ID for Voting in Figure 45. Many States with Large Minority Populations in the South
Texas, but Student IDs Are Not and West have Closed Polling Stations
Texas: Number of Handgun Licenses Issued (2018) Number of Polling Places Closed (2012-2018)

1,713 8,406 18 29 6
1% 2% 28,359 214 1% 2% 0%
8% 6,033 13%
2%
72 320
15,496
4% 20%
5%

96
6%

282,076 126 750

82% 8% 46%

Native American Asian or Pacific Islander Alaska Arizona Texas

Black Multi-Racial Louisiana Mississippi Alabama
Other/Unknown White Georgia South Carolina North Carolina

Source: Texas Department of Public Safety, Citi Research Source: The Leadership Conference Education Fund, Citi Research

Income and Wealth

Disparities in housing, education, policing, and voting rights plus conscious and
unconscious bias have limited access to employment for many Black Americans,
and consequently social mobility and wealth accumulation.

Peak Income
Peak earnings are lower for Black and An extended history of job discrimination, plus unequal access to quality education
Hispanic males than white males and occur in the U.S., have capped lifetime income prospects for many Black Americans.
at a younger age Census Bureau data reveal that as of 2018, it was still the case that male Black and
Hispanic workers would see peak income earlier in their careers (age 40s), and at a
far lower level (~$40,000) than their white male peers (early 50s and ~$65,000)
(Figure 46). The gap between peak income between Black and Hispanic workers is
even greater relative to Asian male workers (~$80,000), even though Asian males
experience peak income around the same age. For women the peak age is about
the same as males, and the gaps in income between races is smaller. Moreover,
peak earnings for Black women are about $5,000 higher than for Black men.
Nonetheless, women in general earn notably less over a lifetime than do men
(Figure 47), having significant negative implications for retirement income which
must typically be stretched over a longer period for women than for men.

© 2020 Citigroup
 33

Figure 46. Peak Income Occurs Sooner and Lower for Black Males Figure 47. Income Prospects Over a Lifetime are Worse for Women
Median Income by Race & Age Median Income by Race & Age
(2018, $) $90,000 (2018, $)
$90,000

$80,000 $80,000

$70,000 $70,000

$60,000 $60,000

$50,000 $50,000

$40,000 $40,000

$30,000 $30,000

$20,000 $20,000

$10,000 $10,000

$0 $0
15- 25- 30- 35- 40- 45- 50- 55- 60- 65- 70- 75 15- 25- 30- 35- 40- 45- 50- 55- 60- 65- 70- 75
24 29 34 39 44 49 54 59 64 69 74 yrs+ 24 29 34 39 44 49 54 59 64 69 74 yrs+
yrs yrs yrs yrs yrs yrs yrs yrs yrs yrs yrs yrs yrs yrs yrs yrs yrs yrs yrs yrs yrs yrs
White Male Black Male White Female Black Female
Hispanic Male Asian Male Hispanic Female Asian Female
Source: Census Bureau, Citi Research Source: Census Bureau, Citi Research

Lower lifetime income for Black families Income is key to accumulating liquid assets, which are important for smoothing
caps retirement funds, limits spending consumption. Lower lifetime income prospects not only cap retirement funds, but
options, and reduces cushions needed also limit spending options over the course of a lifetime, and especially during
during recessions and shocks economic downturns. The Bureau of Labor Statistics’ Consumer Expenditure
Survey shows that Black families spend slightly more of their incomes than other
ethnic and racial groups on budgetary staples, including on housing (20 percent)
and utilities (8 percent) (Figure 48). Black families (69 percent) are highly likely to
be faced with unaffordable child care options, as are Hispanic families (72 percent),
which can often consume as much as 11 percent of a family’s monthly income
(Figure 49).30 Importantly, the level of family income is important for creating liquid
assets (i.e., savings in the form of cash or easily convertible instruments like
certificates of deposit (CDs)).

Savings are paramount for helping families to smooth their consumption over a
lifetime, particularly during recessions, and shocks including job loss and illness.
According to the Federal Reserve Board’s Survey of Consumer Finances, the
median amount of liquid assets held by Black families in 2016 (the most recent
reading), was $11,400 (Figure 50). This is roughly one-third of what white families
held ($29,200), suggesting that Black families are potentially more vulnerable to
hardship during tough economic times. Hispanic families were worse off, with just
$6,500 in liquid assets.

30Baldiga, M., Joshi, P., Hardy, E., and Dolores Acevedo-Garcia. 2018. “Data-for-Equity
Research Brief, Child Care Affordability for Working Parents,” Institute for Child, Youth
and Family Policy, Heller School for Social Policy and Management Brandeis University;
Malik, R. 2019. “Working Families Are Spending Big Money on Child Care,” Center for
American Progress, June 20, 2019.

© 2020 Citigroup
34

Figure 48. Black and Hispanic Families Spend Slightly More on Housing Figure 49. Black and Hispanic Families Are More Likely to Experience
than White and Asian Families Challenging Child Care Options
Spending Shares of After-Tax Income Unaffordable Care Indicator for Working Parents
40% (2018) (by Race/Ethnicity (2014-2017)
80% 72%
35% 2% 69%
2% 70% 63%
2% 6% 60%
30% 5% 60%
3% 53%
25% 8%
8% 7% 5% 50%
20% 6% 4% 40%
15% 30%
10% 20% 20% 18% 20%
17%
5% 10%
0% 0%
White Black Hispanic Asian Total Hispanic Black White Asian
Shelter Utilities Health Care Education
Note: The sample is parents working full time and year round with four or fewer
children and at least one child under age 14 (N=71,981).
Source: Current Population Survey, 2014-2017 March Annual Social and Economic
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics Consumer Expenditure Survey, Citi Research Supplement, Public Use Microdata Files, IPUMS-CPS, University of Minnesota,
estimates www.ipums.org.

Figure 50. Black Families Hold Roughly One-Third of the Liquid Assets that Are Key to
Smoothing Consumption than White Families Hold
Liquid Assets
(Median, 2016)
$35,000

$30,000 $29,200

$25,000

$20,000 $19,000

$15,000
$11,400
$10,000
$6,500
$5,000

$0
2016
White Black Hispanic Other/Multiple Race
Note: Liquid Assets include transaction accounts, certificates of deposits
Source: Federal Reserve Survey of Consumer Finances, Citi Research

Wealth and Debt Gaps

Historical gaps in intergenerational wealth The Federal Reserve Board’s Survey of Consumer Finances reveals that the wealth
accumulation have led to challenges in gap between Black families and white families has remained persistently wide.
social mobility for Black Americans Among Black families, household net worth, which is defined as total assets less all
liabilities, has hovered in the $15,000 to $25,000 range over the last thirty years
(Figure 51). Net worth for white families has been in the range of $115,000 and
$200,000. The gap between white and Black familial income is a multiple of eight.
Meanwhile, the leverage ratio — debt divided by assets — for Black families has
remained stubbornly elevated above 25 percent over much of the last 30 years,
while the leverage ratio for white families has held between 10 and 15 percent
(Figure 52). These metrics matter as the body of literature suggests that wealth and
debt play meaningful roles in social mobility, especially from one generation to the
next.

© 2020 Citigroup
 35

A myriad of factors contribute to the racial Building wealth is not just a function of higher income, but the ability to save out of
wealth gaps in the U.S. income once basic needs are met. The outsized debt-to-asset ratio for Black
families indicates that a number of families have insufficient income to meet needs
and are financing expenditures with credit. This indicates a lack of disposable
income available for saving and investing. Other factors contributing to wealth
accumulation include (1) intergenerational transfers of wealth within families; (2)
conditions where one lives, such as poverty rates, home values and housing
segregation;(3) geographic and financial barriers to human capital formation (e.g.,
elevated costs for education; limited job prospects in region); (4) discrimination in
labor markets and/or racially motivated segmentation; and (5) racial biases in
policies and practices of government, institutions, and the private sector.31 Without
amelioration, each of these factors discussed above will perpetuate racial wealth
gaps.

Figure 51. White Families Have 8x More Wealth than Black Families Figure 52. Leverage Ratios for Black Families Have Remained Elevated
Household Net Worth Debt-to-Asset Ratio
$250,000 40%
35%
$200,000
30%
$150,000 25%

$100,000 20%
15%
$50,000
10%
$0 5%
1989 1993 1997 2001 2005 2009 2013 2017 1989 1993 1997 2001 2005 2009 2013 2017
White Black Hispanic Other/Multiple Race White Black Hispanic Other/Multiple Race
Source: Federal Reserve Survey of Consumer Finances, Citi Research Source: Federal Reserve Survey of Consumer Finances, Citi Research

31 (i) (e.g., Meschede et al. 2017; Chiteji and Hamilton 2002; McKernan et al. 2014b); (ii)
(e.g., Chetty et al. 2019; Perry et al. 2018); (iii) (e.g., Dobbie and Fryer 2011; Jackson
and Reynolds 2013; Addo et al. 2016) ; (iv) (e.g., Grodsky and Pager 2001; Bertrand &
Mullainathan 2004); (v)(e.g., Oliver and Shapiro 2013; Katznelson 2005; Robles et al.
2006; Bayer et al. 2014; Asante-Muhamm).

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36

Closing Gaps Generates Growth

Figure 53. The Economic Case for Closing Racial Gaps in the United States

Source: Citi Research

Amid a once-in-a-century global pandemic that has resulted in staggering economic
and job losses, investors should welcome ideas and actions that can add value.
Closing racial gaps is one.

The business case for eliminating racial The business case for eliminating racial gaps is well established. Some firms
gaps is well established believe continuing to focus on Diversity & Inclusion (D&I) as part of their COVID-19
recovery strategy is a luxury. However evidence shows firms who do not abandon
D&I protocols may fare better. Companies in the top quartile for both gender and
ethnic diversity are 12 percent more likely to outperform companies in lower
quartiles. Top quartile companies outperformed those in the fourth by 36 percent in
terms of profitability (up from 33 percent in 2017, 35 percent in 2014).32

The economic case for closing racial gaps is The economic case for closing racial gaps is equally compelling. Present racial
equally compelling gaps in income, housing, education, business ownership and financing, and wealth
are derived from centuries of bias and institutionalized segregation, producing not
only societal, but also real economic losses. However, future gains from eliminating
these gaps are enormous: benefiting not only individuals, but also the broader U.S.
economy with positive spillover effects into the global economy. If four key racial
gaps had been closed 20 years ago, then the additional GDP that could have been
added to the U.S. economy might have summed to as much as $16 trillion. Casting
this amount forward into the future, a global economic model suggests roughly $5
trillion could be added to U.S. GDP through 2025 from closing the gaps. The
consequent additions to U.S. and global GDP growth averages roughly 0.4
percentage point and 0.1 percentage point per year, respectively. These gains do
not reflect the potential narrowing of the wealth gap experienced by Black persons
in the U.S., which would inevitably also lead to additional economic gains.

32Hunt, V., Layton, D., and Sara Prince “Why diversity matters,” McKinsey, January 1,
2015.

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 37

Racial Wage Gap

Opportunity Loss
Racial and gender wage gaps remain wide Racial and gender wage gaps remain wide in the U.S., signaling lost opportunity for
in the U.S., signaling lost opportunity for income, consumption, investment, and real GDP growth. Typically, wage gaps are
income, consumption, investment, and real measured by comparing the median wage of female and/or non-white workers to
GDP growth that of white males. Over the last 20 years, wages for Asian males have broken
significantly above those of white males, and in the most recent two years, wages
for Asian women exceed those of white males. However, for white women in
general and Black and Hispanic workers in particular, the gaps between white male
wages persist. The gap for Black male wages compared to white male wages was
80 cents on the dollar, as of 2020. The gap for Black female wages to white male
wages was just below 70 cents on the dollar in 2020. The gaps for male and female
Hispanic workers relative to white male wages is even starker at about 70 cents and
60 cents, respectively (Figure 54).

Figure 54. Black and Hispanic Men and Women Make Fewer Cents on the Dollar than White Men and Women
Wage Comparisons Persons Ages 25-54 Wage Comparisons Persons Ages 25-54 Wage Comparisons Persons Ages 25-54
(Cents on the Dollar Relative to White Males) (Cents on the Dollar Relative to White Males) (Cents on the Dollar Relative to White Males)
1.4 1.4 1.4
1.3 1.3 1.3
1.2 1.2 1.2

1.1 1.1 1.1

1 1 1

0.9 0.9 0.9

0.8
0.8 0.8
0.7
0.7 0.7
0.6
0.6 0.6
0.5
0.5 0.5 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 White Male vs. White Male
White Male vs. White Male White Female vs. White Male White Female vs. White Male
White Male vs. White Male White Female vs. White Male Hispanic Male vs. White Male
Asian Male vs. White Male Asian Female vs. White Male Black Male vs. White Male Black Female vs. White Male Hispanic Female vs. White Male

Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Citi Research

Individual wage losses over the past 20 Individual wage losses due to gaps over the last 20 years have been substantial.
years have been substantial — between The gap in terms of aggregate income for white female wages (i.e., all white women
$175,000 and $360,000 — due to racial and nationwide) compared to white male wages has been narrowing as a share of U.S.
gender gaps GDP over the last 20 years (Figure 55). Some of this reflects slower GDP growth in
general, but also a slight increase in white female wages. However, for Black and
Hispanic male and female workers, their gaps as shares of GDP have not improved.
The presence of gaps denote significant opportunity loss in terms of wages that
could have been used for personal consumption, home buying, or investment in
small businesses. As the wage gap with white males was not collapsed for white
females 20 years ago, the typical individual white female worker missed out on
roughly $175,000 in additional income. For Black males, the loss was approximately
$225,000, for Black females and Hispanic males about $300,000, and for Hispanic
females roughly $360,000 (Figure 56).

© 2020 Citigroup
38

Figure 55. Wage Gap has Narrowed Somewhat for White Women but Figure 56. Accrual of 20 Years of Lost Income Due to Wage Gap is
Not for Black, Hispanic and Other (Non-Asian) Minority Groups Acute for the Representative Black and Hispanic Worker
Annual Wage Gap with White Male Salary Approximate Individual Loss in Income
(% of GDP) (2000 to 2020)
6%
White Black Black Hispanic Hispanic
White Female Gap Female Male Female Male Female
Black Male Gap $0
5% Black Female Gap
Hispanic Male Gap
Hispanic Female Gap ($50,000)
4%
($100,000)

3% ($150,000)

($200,000)
2%
($250,000)

1% ($300,000)

($350,000)
0%
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 ($400,000)

Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, BEA, Citi Research estimates Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Citi Research estimates

Closing the Gap

Closing the minority wage gap 20 years ago The wage gaps between minorities and white males, if closed 20 years ago might
could have generated $12 trillion in income; have generated $12 trillion in additional income, and indeed for Black workers an
$2.7 trillion for Blacks additional $2.7 trillion. Since the Great Financial Crisis, income inequality expressed
in one fashion by wage gaps has worsened in most years. The aggregate amount of
income lost due to wage gaps each year is equivalent to a roughly 0.15 percentage
point contribution to U.S. GDP growth per year (Figure 57). While that appears to be
a nominal amount in comparison to the losses experienced amid the COVID-19
global recession, in “normal” years a nearly 0.2 percentage point add to annual U.S.
GDP growth is actually quite substantial. This is especially true as the pre-pandemic
economy was on course to slow to a new equilibrium rate of 1.7 to 1.9 percent a
year. The total amount of income that could have been generated since 2000 if all
income gaps were closed sums to an astounding $12 trillion, with $5 trillion from
closing the white male-white female gap, and another $7 trillion from closing the
gaps between white males and Black and Hispanic workers. The contribution of
closing the Black worker gaps with white male wages is an outsized $2.7 trillion
(Figure 58 and Figure 59).

© 2020 Citigroup
 39

Figure 57. Closing Wage Gaps for White Women and Minorities Could Have Contributed to GDP
Growth in Most Years Post-Great Financial Crisis (GFC)
Wage Gap With White Male Salary
(Contribution to Real GDP Growth)
0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0

-0.1

-0.2

-0.3
White Female Gap
Black Male Gap
-0.4 Black Female Gap
Hispanic Male Gap
Hispanic Female Gap
-0.5
2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020
Note: Red rectangles denote U.S. recessions
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA), Citi Research estimates

Figure 58. Gaps with White Male Salaries Remain Wide in 2020 Figure 59. Lost Wages Add Up to Trillions of Dollars in Foregone GDP
Annual Wage Gap with White Male Salary
(Real $bn, % of GDP, 1Q 2020)
$300 1.6%
1.4%
$250
1.2%
$200
1.0%
$150 0.8%
0.6%
$100
0.4%
$50
0.2%
$0 0.0%
White Black Black Hispanic Hispanic
Female Male Female Male Female
Gap Gap Gap Gap Gap

Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, BEA, Citi Research Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, BEA, Citi Research

© 2020 Citigroup
40

Racial Labor Segmentation Gap

Location, Location, Location
Black workers represent 10 percent or less Where a person works determines their wage potential. In general, Black workers
of many of the occupations paying the top are underrepresented in management, business, financial, professional and related
wages occupations that pay the highest salaries. The share of Black managers is roughly
10 percent compared to almost 20 percent among white workers (Figure 60). The
share of Black professionals is about 20 percent compared to nearly 35 percent
among Asian. On balance, Black workers represent 10 percent or less of many of
the occupations that pay the top wages, including STEM, finance, legal, medicine,
and management jobs (Figure 61). Black workers are, however, overrepresented in
sales and services occupations, office and administrative, as well as in transport
and material moving occupations (Figure 62).

Almost half of Black workers are employed Black workers are more likely to be situated in jobs requiring lower skills and/or are
in jobs potentially subject to automation more susceptible to automation. Skill requirements and the risk of automation
appear to be drivers of wage differences between more technical and less technical
occupations. A study by Carl Benedikt Frey and Michael Osborne highlighted in the
Citi GPS report Technology at Work noted that 47% of U.S. jobs were at risk due to
automation. Among Black workers, close to half (46 percent) work in jobs that are
subject to potential automation compared to those that are not (54 percent), and
only 3 percent of Black workers are in technical jobs, leaving the other 97 percent in
non-technical jobs that could be automated to some degree (Figure 63).

Figure 60. Black Workers Are Underrepresented in Management, Figure 61. Black Workers Comprise Small Shares of Occupations that
Business, financial, Professional and Related Occupations Typically Pay Higher Wages Compared to White and Asian Workers

Distribution of Labor by Race (% of employed, 2019) Distrbution of Labor in STEM, Finance, Legal,
Medicine & Management Jobs (%)
100
Science 6.4
80
Heatlhcare 12.7
60
Finance 10.1

40 Architecture &
6.9
Engineering

20 Legal 8.4
Computer &
8.9
0 Mathematics
White Black Asian Hispanic
Management 7.9
Transport/Material-Moving Production
Installation/Maint./Repair Construction/Extraction
Farming/Fishing/Forestry Office & Administrative 0 20 40 60 80 100
Sales & Related Service
Professional & Related Management/Business/Financial White Black Asian Hispanic
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Citi Research Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Citi Research

© 2020 Citigroup
 41

Figure 62. Black Workers Are More Concentrated in Jobs that Pay Less than $25/hour and May Also Require Fewer Skills
Median Hourly Wage Rate vs. Number of Black Persons in Profession
$60 ($/hr, '000s)

Management
$50

Computer &
Mathematical

$40 Architecture & Engineering

Median Hourly Wage Rate ($/hr)

Legal
Business & Financial
Healthcare
Life, Physical & Social Operations Practitioner &
Science Technical
$30 Arts/Design/
Entertainment/Sports/
Media Education, Training &
Community &
Social Services Library
Installation, Construction &
Maint. & Extraction Office & Admin
$20 Repair Protective Support
Service Production Sales & Transport & Material

Healthcare Support Related Moving

Farming,
Fishing & Food Prep & Serving Related
Building &
Forestry Grounds Personal
$10
Cleaning & Care &
Maintenance Service

$0
0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000
Number of Black Persons in Profession ('000s)
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Citi Research

Figure 63. Black People are More Likely to Work in Jobs That Are Susceptible to Automation
Workers in Workers in Workers in Workers in
Jobs Jobs Not Tech Jobs Non-Tech
Susceptible to Susceptible to Jobs
Automation Automation
Worker Population 58.7 Million 77.7 Million 7.2 Million 129.2 Million
Number of Workers 39 years 41 years 41 years 40 years
Median Age $17.37 $26.94 $39.68 $21.88
Mean Hourly Wage $14.26 $22.06 $36.76 $17.16
Percent of workers in the below groups who hold jobs of the specified type:
Total Workers 43.0% 57.0% 5.3% 94.7%
Male 44.1% 55.9% 8.1% 91.9%
Female 41.9% 58.1% 2.4% 97.6%
Asian, non-Hispanic 35.9% 64.1% 15.9% 84.1%
Black, non-Hispanic 46.4% 53.6% 3.0% 97.0%
Hispanic 54.1% 45.9% 2.3% 97.7%
White, non-Hispanic 40.0% 60.0% 5.6% 94.4%
Other, non-Hispanic 45.2% 54.8% 4.9% 95.1%
Graduate Degree 11.3% 88.7% 10.6% 89.4%
Bachelor's Degree (BA) 26.9% 73.1% 11.3% 88.7%
Some College, but less than a BA 46.7% 53.3% 3.9% 96.1%
High School Degree or Less 60.7% 39.3% 1.0% 99.0%
Source: U.S. Government Accountability Office, BLS and Citi Research

© 2020 Citigroup
42

Closing the Gap

Pursuing education and training for more Encouraging Black students and workers to pursue education and training suitable
technical and skills-based careers can help to more technological and skills-based careers can help close the racial labor
close the racial labor segmentation gap segmentation gap. The BLS cites literature in labor economics positing that
technology has increased the productivity of workers with college educations more
than workers with less education. The increase in productivity helps explain the rise
of earnings for college-educated workers relative to the earnings of non-college-
educated workers, despite the increase in the labor supply of college-educated
workers. The BLS notes that since 1980, the relative incomes of college-educated
workers have risen compared to high school-educated workers, after adjusting for
other observable factors. The phenomenon is called the college earnings premium,
which has increased from 34 percent in 1980 to 68 percent by 2018 (Figure 65).
One aspect of the widening premium is the share of hours worked by college-
educated workers has nearly doubled from 20 percent in 1979 to 39 percent by
2018. In a simple supply-demand framework, this suggests demand for college-
educated workers has outpaced the steady increase in supply. Hence, there is
plenty of room for more Black college graduates to be absorbed into the U.S. labor
market.

Figure 64. Select Occupations Are More Susceptible to Automation Figure 65. College Degrees Produce Notable Wage Benefits
Occupations Projected to Experience Declines in Share of College Wage Premium, Experience Premium, & Share of Labor
Industry Employment Due to Automation (2016-2026E) Supplied by College-Educated Workers (1964–2018)
150% 60%
Other
100% 40%
Farming, Fishing, & Forestry

Business & Financial 50% 20%

Transport & Material Moving

0% 0%
Office & Admin Support 1964 1970 1976 1982 1988 1994 2000 2006 2012 2018
College-educated premium
Production Experience premium
Share of national hours worked by college workers (RHS)
-10% 10% 30% 50%
Source: US Government Accountability Office, BLS, Citi Research Source: BLS, Citi Research

© 2020 Citigroup
 43

Racial Education Gap

Higher Education
Attainment of higher education can be Encouraging Black students to pursue higher education is a manner in which racial
challenged by lack of access to quality pre- wage and income gaps can be closed, but there are challenges. Plenty of literature
school education and underfunded public and simple calculations affirm that persons with a degree beyond a high school
schooling in K-12 diploma earn more over a lifetime than persons with a high school degree or less.
The difference over a 40-year career is upwards of $1.3 million for a person with a
bachelor’s (or equivalent) degree and $2.0 million for a person with an advance
degree (Figure 66). However, the path towards college and advanced degrees for
Black students is challenged by lack of access to a quality pre-school education and
underfunding of public schools from grades K-12. For Black students who do attend
college, which since 1980 has consistently been 10 percentage points below the
national average, the occupation chosen after graduating from college or with an
advanced degree also determines lifetime income.

Figure 66. Students Earning Bachelor or Advanced Degrees Earn More Lifetime Income
Estimated Earnings Over 40-Year Career
(2010 to 2050E)
$4,000,000
$3,500,000
$3,000,000
$2.0mn
$2,500,000 $1.3mn
$2,000,000
$1,500,000
$1,000,000
$500,000
$0
Less Than High School Some College Bachelor's Advanced
High School Diploma or Associates Degree Degree
Diploma Degree

Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Citi Research

Access to Pre-School
Black children are more likely to attend full- Education literature suggests that children who receive a pre-school education
time pre-school than other children perform better once in grades K-12. Pre-school programs also serve as an
important form of childcare for working parents. A Brookings Institute report
summarizing early education studies found that high-quality programs produced
short-term gains in cognitive functioning and longer-term gains in school
achievement and social adjustment. Moreover, pre-school education yields higher
school achievement, fewer children being ‘left-back’ in a grade, reduced need for
special education, and a reduction in neighborhood crime. Early childhood
education can also save governments between $13,000 and $19,000 per child over
and above the cost of the pre-school program. The National Center for Education
Statistics reported that in 2018, 26 percent of Black children aged 3-5 years old
attended full-time pre-school, exceeding every other racial group (Figure 67).
Slightly more white children overall (43 percent) attended either full- or part-time
pre-school, compared to 38 percent of Black children. Nonetheless, a sizable
number of Black children overall attend pre-school.

© 2020 Citigroup
44

But access to high-quality, adequately- However, access to high quality, adequately-funded pre-school remains challenged
funded pre-school varies by state…and poor in terms of availability, quality, funding, and training of teachers. State-funded (as
funding is directly linked to quality of opposed to private) pre-school programs serve just 22 percent of 4-year-olds and 3
education percent of 5-year-olds. Only three states — Florida, Georgia, and Oklahoma —
make pre-school available to all 4-year-olds. Twelve states with state-funded pre-
school do not offer programs to 3-year-olds, and 12 states have no state-funded
pre-school at all (Figure 68). Overall state spending on pre-school is disparate,
ranging from $1,600 per child to $10,000, and the average amount of spending
($3,600 per child) is roughly one-third of the average spend on public school
students in K-12. Quality of education also varies. The National Institute for Early
Education Research (NIEER) reports only 17 states meet eight or more of their ten
quality-checklist criteria. Poor funding is directly linked to quality according to
NIEER, and programs serving primarily poor students tend to receive less funding
than those who serve more middle-class students. Relatedly, while 76 percent of
pre-school teachers have a Bachelor’s degree, only roughly 56 percent have a
teaching certificate to teach young children. Moreover, pre-school teachers earn
less than half of that earned by elementary school teachers, and 70 percent report
earnings below 200 percent of the Federal poverty guidelines.

These figures are important, as state programs comprise 70 percent of all early
childhood education centers, and the states with the least funding and poorest
quality tend to host large Black populations.

Figure 67. Black Children More Likely to Attend Full-Day Pre-School Figure 68. Few States Have High Quality Pre-School Programs
Percentage of 3- to 5-yr Olds Enrolled in Pre-School Programs Ten States Meet All Four Process-Quality Focused Quality Standards Benchmarks
(by Race/Ethnicity & Attendance Status, 2018)
50%

40%

22% 12%
30%
13% 16% 16%

20%

26%
10% 21% 21% 20% 19%

0%
White Black Hispanic Asian Two or more
races
Full-Day Part-day

Note: Idaho, Montana, New Hampshire, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah and
Wyoming have no state pre-school program.*These multi-program states have
Source: Census Bureau, Citi Research programs with different quality standards. Data in map is for largest state program.
Source: National Institute for Early Education, NPR, Citi Research

Funding K-12 Schools

The funding gap between white and minority The racial education gap begins with widespread underfunding of schools with high
school districts in the U.S. sums to $23 concentrations of children of color. The average difference in funding of
billion, despite serving the same number of predominately white school districts and predominately minority school districts
children sums to $23 billion, despite serving roughly the same number of children, according
to a study by nonprofit think tank EdBuild. In the U.S., 27 percent of students live in
non-white districts, while 26 percent live in white districts. In white districts, 5
percent of students live in high-poverty areas, while in non-white districts 20 percent
of student live in high-poverty areas (Figure 69). Even relative to high-poverty white
districts, well-off non-white districts receive less money.

© 2020 Citigroup
 45

The difference between the revenue received for funding low-poverty white districts
($14,121 per student) and all non-white districts ($11,853) is more than $2,200 per
student (Figure 70). EdBuild estimates the national average difference in revenue
per student between non-white and white districts is $2,226. This difference this
difference sums to $22.5 billion ($2,226 times 10,126,150 affected students). States
that stand out in terms of the severity of the funding gap between non-white and
white school districts include California, Texas, New Jersey, and Arizona (Figure
71).

Figure 69. White and Non-White Districts Serve Same Number of Kids Figure 70. Non-White Districts are Chronically Underfunded
School District Demographics Average Revenue Per Student ($)
(Percent of National Enrollment) $16,000
$14,121
$14,000 $12,987
$12,205
20% $12,000 $11,500
High Poverty, Non-
White Districts
$10,000
Low Poverty, Non-White
47% 7% Districts $8,000
High Poverty, White
5% Districts $6,000
Low Poverty, White
$4,000
Districts
21% All Other Districts $2,000

$0
High Poverty, Non-White Districts Low Poverty, Non-White Districts
High Poverty, White Districts Low Poverty, White Districts
Source: EdBuild, Citi Research Source: EdBuild, Citi Research

Figure 71. Funding Gaps Between White and Non-White School Districts Remain Wide

Source: EdBuild, Citi Research

Reliance on property taxes for school Where a student resides can determine whether they will face a funding
funding means wealthier municipalities will disadvantage. The Federal government spends roughly $23 billion a year on K-12
have potentially greater resources to finance education. While a sizable figure, it only constitutes 10 percent of total funding for
their school districts public schools. The remaining $660 billion is raised at the state and local
government level. The gap in school funding reflects a combination of past housing
segregation policies and a patchwork of current district financing schemes that
value local control.

© 2020 Citigroup
46

According to EdBuild, nearly all states rely upon property taxes to fund schools.
Hence wealthier municipalities will have potentially greater resources to finance
their school districts. Fifteen states also generate funds through locally-raised sales
taxes, six permit locally-governed income taxes and many states use revenues from
lottery gaming programs. Just over half of all states employ a student-based
formula, while the remainder fund schools based upon a variety of formulas.

STEM and High-Demand Careers

Only about 20% of students earning In addition to funding, school curricula and whether students are directed towards
university degrees earn degrees in STEM- high-wage and/or in-demand occupations matters for closing the education gap that
related fields but Black students only make can help solve the income gap. Department of Education data from 2013 indicated
up 12% of STEM graduates that U.S. high school students were on average taking fewer course credits in
STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) disciplines than in
humanities and arts. Even among those taking STEM coursework, Black students
took slightly fewer credits than their white and Asian counterparts (Figure 72). More
recent data from 2015-16 show that among students receiving university degrees
few — 20 percent or less — earn degrees in STEM-related fields, which typically
have elevated wages and lifetime earnings potential. Asian students were the
exception, with 30 percent of all degrees from STEM programs. Among all other
students, Black students produced the least STEM graduates at 12 percent (Figure
73).

Figure 72. U.S. Students in General Are Taking Fewer Credits in STEM Courses than Non-STEM Courses
Average High School Credits Earned by Subject Areas Average High School Credits Earned by Subject Areas (by
(by Race/Ethnicity, Number of Credits, 2013) Race/Ethnicity, Number of Credits, 2013)
14
STEM 14 Non-STEM
12
12
10
10
8
8
6
6
4 4
2 2

0 0
White Black Hispanic Asian Two or More White Black Hispanic Asian Two or More
Races Races
Math Science Computer & Info Sciences Engineering & Tech English Social Studies Foreign Lanugage Fine Arts

Source: National Center for Educational Statistics, Citi Research

STEM jobs generally pay more than many ‘middle-class’ non-STEM jobs. Even
within the STEM fields, jobs requiring greater skills pay notably more than the U.S.
national median annual salary of $38,640 (Figure 74). It’s logical for young students,
to not only pursue more difficult jobs in the STEM, finance, and legal fields, but to
also aim for those requiring greater mental and/or technical acuity within these fields
given the enhanced potential for increased lifetime earnings. Access to high quality
education and opportunities throughout one’s academic career, as well as guidance
by mentors and exposure to higher paying occupations early in one’s working
career are key to closing the gap.

© 2020 Citigroup
 47

Figure 73. Black People Have the Smallest Share of STEM Graduates Figure 74. STEM Jobs Pay More than Many Middle-Class Jobs
STEM Bachelor’s Degrees as % of Total Bachelor’s Degrees Annual Median Salary ($/Year)
Conferred by Post-Secondary Institutions,
(by Race/Ethnicity, Academic Year, 2015–16) $38,640
Paralegals &
35 33 Legal Assistants

30 Lawyers, Judges

25 Insurance Agent
20
20 18 Actuary
15 15 14
15 Engineering
12 Technicians
10 Engineers
5 Computer
Support Specialist
0 Database &
White Black Hispanic Asian Pacific Native Two or Systems Admin
Islander American More
Races $0 $40,000 $80,000 $120,000

Source: National Center for Education al Statistics, Citi Research Source: National Center for Educational Statistics, Citi Research

Closing the Gap

Closing the gap in advanced degrees Closing the college/advanced degree racial gap 20 years ago might have generated
between Blacks and the national average 20 up to $113 billion in additional income for saving, investing and consumption. Since
years ago would have produced an the early 1980s, the proportion of Black people aged 25+ who obtain a bachelor’s
additional 1.7 million Black university degree has persistently been about 10 percentage points below the U.S. national
graduates rate (Figure 75). If this gap was closed back in 2000, then over the last 20 years
there might have been an additional 1.7 million Black university graduates. If these
graduates earned the median income that bachelor degree holders made, as
described above, the equivalent additional income generated might be roughly $90
billion. If all of those graduates obtained advanced degrees, the figure might
increase to $113 billion (Figure 76). This is not a recommendation for students to
only pursue college or graduate school. It is saying that any degree — college,
graduate, associate, technical — in excess of a high school degree typically signals
greater lifetime income.

Figure 75. The Gap Between Black and National Degree Attainment Has Figure 76. Closing the 10 Percentage Point Gap 20 Years Ago Might
Been Fairly Steady at Around 10 Percentage Points Have Generated an Additional $90 to $113 Billion in Black Income
Rates of Bachelor's Degree Attainment Among Persons Closing the Black Post-Secondary Degree Gap
40% Age 25 and Over (1940 - 2018) Additional Income for Consumption ($bn)

35% 35% $120

$113
30% $100
26% $90
25%
$80
20%
$60
15%

10% $40

5% $20
0%
1940 1975 1987 1991 1995 1999 2003 2007 2011 2015
$0
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018
All Persons Age 25 and Over Black All Bachelor Degrees All Advanced Degrees

Source: National Center for Educational Statistics, Citi Research Source: National Center for Educational Statistics, Citi Research

© 2020 Citigroup
48

Racial Wealth Gap

Black and Hispanic families continue to trail Black and Hispanic families continue to trail white and Asian families in
white and Asian families in accumulating accumulating wealth. Issues like lack of inheritances and barriers to entry, including
wealth to income and access to credit, appear to be working against the ability of Black and
Hispanic families to amass wealth required for acquiring assets for personal
financial security and community investment. Data from the Federal Reserve’s 2010
and 2013 Surveys of Consumer Finances, while dated, reveal that inherited wealth
significantly bolsters familial wealth, particularly for white families (Figure 77). Black
families are less likely to receive (10.6 percent) or expect an inheritance (5.9
percent) relative to white families (22.9 percent and 18.8 percent). Meanwhile,
easier avenues toward the accumulation of generational wealth, like home
ownership and retirement benefits, are littered with obstacles for minorities,
especially Black and Hispanic families.

Figure 77. Inheritance Can Meaningfully Bolster Familial Wealth

Including Households With Inheritances Only Households Without Inheritance

Mean Wealth Median Wealth Mean Wealth Median Wealth
White $ 1,152,818.00 $ 287,457.00 $ 742,627.00 $ 183,050.00
Black $ 168,238.00 $ 38,174.00 $ 85,702.00 $ 33,969.00
Hispanic $ 399,498.00 $ 65,960.00 $ 196,541.00 $ 38,125.00
Source: Federal Reserve Board, Citi Research

Financial Assets
Black families have one-third, and Hispanic Black families have one-third, and Hispanic families one-fourth the financial assets
families one-fourth the financial assets of of white families. Financial assets are dependent on income, job benefits, the ability
white families to accumulate savings, and generational (inherited) wealth. The ability to invest
depends on initial conditions including inherited wealth, the ability to work in a high
wage job that facilitates savings needed for investment, a higher tolerance for risk,
and financial savvy. The sections above explain the challenges for Black and
Hispanic families regarding inheritances and high wage employment. Linked to high
wage employment are benefits including retirement benefits and pooled investment
funds like 401K plans, which are an easy way to accumulate financial wealth. Black
and Hispanic workers are almost equally likely to participate in traditional pension
plans, but less likely to participate in 401K plans relative to their white counterparts
(Figure 78). Jobs that have unions which bargain for pensions may explain some of
the similarity in rates of participation among racial groups. Greater labor force
participation in jobs that are non-unionized, part-time and/or lacking in benefits
among Black and Hispanic workers may explain the disparity for 401K plans (Figure
79).

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Figure 78. Black and Hispanic Workers Are Less Likely to Participate in Figure 79. Black Men are Slightly More Likely to Work Part-Time than
401(k) Plans White Men; Black Women More Likely to Work Part-Time than Men

Retirement Plan Participation of Families Percent of Employed Persons Working Part-Time

(Age 32-61, 2016) (Percent of Total Workers by Gender & Race)
28 Hispanic
Hispanic
13

Asian
33
Black
17
Black
51
White
21 White

0 20 40 60 0% 5% 10% 15% 20%

401(k)-Style Defined Contribution Defined Benefit Pension Women Men
Source: Federal Reserve Survey of Consumer Finances, Citi Research Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Citi Research

Nonfinancial Assets
Black families have fewer assets in every Black families have fewer assets in every category of nonfinancial wealth compared
category of nonfinancial wealth compared to to other races, with elevated barriers to attaining such wealth via property holdings.
other races Nonfinancial assets depend upon income and wealth (Figure 80), but also equal
access to credit. The largest contributors of nonfinancial wealth are related to real
estate (primary residence, other residential property and nonresidential property).
Property is typically acquired through inheritance, or a combination of savings (from
earned income and financial assets) and access to credit, which is often dependent
upon one’s savings, proof of a perpetual source of income (wages), and credit
history. Black families are trailing other races on nearly all of these fronts, rendering
the path towards building wealth through nonfinancial assets difficult to attain
(Figure 81).

Figure 80. Black Families Have One-Third of the Financial Assets of Figure 81. Black Families Have Fewer Assets in Every Category of
White Families Nonfinancial Wealth Relative to Other Races
Financial Wealth by Race Nonfinancial Wealth by Race
(Median Values in $, 2016) $700,000 (Median Values in $, 2016)
$500,000
$600,000
$400,000
$500,000
$300,000 $400,000

$200,000 $300,000

$200,000
$100,000
$100,000
$0
$0
White Black Hispanic Other/
White Black Hispanic Other/
Multiple
Multiple
Transaction Accounts Certificates of Deposit
Savings Bonds Stocks Other Business Equity
Pooled Investment Funds Retirement Accounts Equity in Non-Residential Property Other Residential Property
Cash Value Life Insurance Other Managed Assets
Other Primary Residence Vehicles
Source: Federal Reserve Board, Citi Research Source: Federal Research Board, Citi Research

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Hard and Soft Barriers

The primary driver behind the wealth gap is The Federal Reserve found the primary driver behind the wealth gap is the income
the income gap, therefore policies designed gap. Moreover the income gap is large enough to explain the persistent difference
to speed the closing of the racial wealth gap in wealth accumulation between different racial groups in the United States. The key
should focus on closing the racial income policy implication of this finding is that policies designed to speed the closing of the
gap racial wealth gap should focus upon closing the racial income gap. Looking at the
Federal Reserve’s Survey of Consumer Finances dating back nearly 40 years
reveals that while wealth and incomes have fallen, the ratio of both wealth and
income of Black and white families remained persistently wide (Figure 82). Looking
ahead, the Federal Reserve estimates the wealth gap can be eliminated if the racial
income gap is closed (Figure 83). This effect would eventually negate the influences
of unequal bequests, initial conditions, and unequal returns. The downside is that
this might take roughly 200 years to achieve.

Figure 82. Wealth and Income Ratios of Black and White Means in the Figure 83. Contribution to Factors of Wealth Gap Over Time
Survey of Consumer Finances Reveal Persistently Wide Gaps

Source: Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland: What Is Behind the Persistence of the Source: Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland: What Is Behind the Persistence of the
Racial Wealth Gap? Racial Wealth Gap?

Intangibles also matter significantly for Black and Hispanic families are less likely to have exposure to financial markets
wealth accumulation and peer groups of successful investors, which help provide the financial literacy
required to make informed decisions. Black and Hispanic people are few and far
between in finance jobs, which would facilitate education and access to peer groups
(Figure 84). Moreover, financial literacy coursework is still far from fully included in
academic curriculums, which is problematic for all students, not just for students of
color. According to the Council for Economic Education, only 21 states require high
school students to take a course in personal finances, and only a handful of states
require standardized testing around financial literacy (Figure 85). Compounding
these barriers are the lower levels of tolerance for risk among Black and Hispanic
families which is strongly associated with the level of net worth (i.e., higher net
worth allows for a higher risk tolerance) (Figure 86 and Figure 87).

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Figure 84. Black People Represent Small Share of Financial Workers Figure 85. Few States Mandate Financial Literacy Coursework
Persons Employed in Financial Services
(2019)

Insurance Carriers &

Related Activities

Securities,
Commodities,
Funds, Trusts, & Other FIs

Nondepository
Credit & Related
Activities
Savings
Institutions
(incl Credit
Unions)
Banking &
Related
Activities

0% 10% 20% 30% 40%

Black Asian Hispanic

Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Citi Research Source: Council for Economic Education

Figure 86. Average 2013 Family Wealth by Attitudes Toward Saving and Figure 87. Wealth, Race, and Attitudes Toward Saving and Investing:
Investing (Family Head Ages 35 to 59) Distribution of Attitudes by Race
Net Worth Risk Tolerant Long Horizon Luxury Borrower
Tolerant of risk $ 1,079,478.00 White 23% 71% 18%
Not tolerant $ 375,608.00 Black 15% 53% 21%
Hispanic 15% 52% 17%
Long time horizon for saving and investing $ 748,093.00 Total 21% 67% 18%
Short or medium time horizon $ 183,354.00

Approve of borrowing for vacations or luxuries $ 435,134.00

Do not approve $ 532,150.00
Source: Federal Reserve Board: Exploring the Racial Wealth Gap Using the Survey of Source: Federal Reserve Board: Exploring the Racial Wealth Gap Using the Survey of
Consumer Finances Consumer Finances

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Racial Housing Gap

Black families have the lowest rate of home Housing is the largest stock of wealth most families hold, with Black families facing
ownership among different racial groups the greatest obstacles to home ownership. At 47 percent as of the first quarter of
2020, Black families have the lowest rate of home ownership among different racial
groups (Figure 88). Income and wealth gaps contribute to lower levels of
homeownership, but so do other factors, including access to credit, outstanding
debt, and a short supply of affordable housing options.

Figure 88. Black Homeownership Rates Are Below That of All Other Racial Groups

U.S. Home Ownership Rate by Race (%)

80
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
Mar-95

Mar-05
Mar-94

Mar-96
Mar-97
Mar-98
Mar-99
Mar-00
Mar-01
Mar-02
Mar-03
Mar-04

Mar-06
Mar-07
Mar-08
Mar-09
Mar-10
Mar-11
Mar-12
Mar-13
Mar-14
Mar-15
Mar-16
Mar-17
Mar-18
Mar-19
Mar-20
White Black Hispanic Asian Other

Source: Census Bureau, Citi Research

Access to Credit
Black families continued to be the most The path towards Black family home ownership is limited by reduced access to
likely racial group to be denied a credit. The Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB) reported in 2019, Black
conventional or nonconventional mortgage families continued to be the most likely racial group to be denied a conventional or
nonconventional mortgage for home purchase or refinance (Figure 89). The denial
rate for Black families remained above 15 percent for home purchase and was
roughly 35 percent for refinance, compared to just above 5 percent and 15 percent,
respectively, for white families. The higher denial rate for Black families largely
reflected elevated debt-to-income ratios, poor credit histories, and incomplete
applications (Figure 90).

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 53

Figure 89. Black People Continue to Experience the Highest Level of Mortgage Loan Denials
Home Purchase: Denial Rates for Mortgage Loan Refinance: Denial Rates for Mortgage Loan
(Conventional & Nonconventional) (Conventional and Nonconventional)
35% 65%

30% 55%

25% 45%

20% 35%

15% 25%

10% 15%

5% 5%
2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018
All Applicants Asian All Applicants Asian
Black or African American Hispanic White Black or African American Hispanic White
Non-Hispanic White Other Minority Non-Hispanic White Other minority
* Consists of applications by American Indians or Alaska Natives, Native Hawaiians or other Pacific Islanders, and borrowers reporting two or more minority races.
Source: Consumer Financial Protection Bureau, Citi Research

Figure 90. Elevated Debt-to-Income Ratios, Poor Credit Histories, and Incomplete Applications Are the Main Drivers of Loan Application Denials
for Black Homebuyers and Mortgage Loan Refinancers

Home Purchase: Reasons for Mortgage Loan Denial Refinance: Reasons for Mortgage Loan Denial
(Conventional & Nonconventional, 2019) (Conventional & Nonconventional, 2019)
100% 100%
90% 90%
80% 80%
70% 70%
60% 60%
50% 50%
40% 40%
30% 30%
20% 20%
10% 10%
0% 0%
Asian Black or Hispanic Non- Other Asian Black or Hispanic Non- Other
African White Hispanic Minority African White Hispanic Minority
American White American White
Debt-to- Employ- Credit Collateral Insuf- Debt-to- Employ- Credit Collateral Insuf-
income ment history ficient income ment history ficient
ratio history cash ratio history cash
Unveri- Credit Mortgage Other Unveri- Credit Mortgage Other
fiable app ins. fiable app ins.
info incom- denied info incom- denied
plete plete
* Consists of applications by American Indians or Alaska Natives, Native Hawaiians or other Pacific Islanders, and borrowers reporting two or more minority races.
Source: Consumer Financial Protection Bureau, Citi Research

© 2020 Citigroup
54

Access to Financial Services

Lack of access to traditional financial Lower credit scores among Black families can be partially explained by the forces of
services in Black neighborhoods, plus higher structural racism in the financial system. Research shows the legacies of redlining,
account requirements drive Black families to community segregation, and few traditional financial institutions in predominately
alternative financial institutions which are Black neighborhoods have limited access to traditional credit for Black borrowers’
costly and exposed them disproportionately to predatory lending sources. A study by think-
tank New America reveals that alternative financial institutions predominate in states
where more Black people tend to reside. An overlay of the 16 states (IL, MI, AR, LA,
MS, AL, TN,GA, FL, SC,NC, VA, MD, DE, NJ, NY) where Black people represent a
greater percent of the population than the national average, maps nearly one-to-one
with the elevated number of alternative banking institutions (Figure 91). Moreover,
traditional banks in predominately Black neighborhoods, tend to require higher initial
opening deposits, higher minimum balances. This translates into Black
accountholders needing to deposit a higher percentage of their paychecks into
accounts to avoid fees or closure (Figure 92). Higher costs contribute to the
elevated number of unbanked individuals who are forced to turn to alternative
financial institutions like check cashing outfits and payday lenders, which carry
higher interest rates and fees (Figure 93). McKinsey estimates the average person
could save as much as $40,000 over a career by switching from check cashing
places to a traditional bank account. Fines, fees, and subprime borrowing erode
credit scores and consequently reduce access to credit for home ownership (Figure
94).

Figure 91. Traditional and Nontraditional Banking Services by Concentration of Minority Populations

Source: New America

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 55

Figure 92. Even Traditional Banking Can Cost More for Minority Communities
Average Required Opening Deposit Average Required Minimum Balance Avg Maintenance Fee as % of Median Income
(by Majority Race in Community) (by Majority Race in Community) (by Majority Race in Community)
$1,200
$120
0.7% Deposit Amounts
$97 $1,000 $957
$100 $871 0.6% Balance Amounts
$81 $749
$80 $800 0.5%
$69 $69 $626
$60 $600 0.4%
0.3%
$40 $400
0.2%
$20 $200
0.1%
$0 $0 0.0%
White Black Hispanic Other White Black Hispanic Other White Black Hispanic Other
Source: New America (David H Montgomery/Bloomberg CityLab)

Figure 93. Black Consumers Are More Likely to be Unbanked or Figure 94. There is a Notable Relationship Between Alternative
Underbanked Financial Services Use and Low Credit Scores
Banking Status by Race (2017) Alternative Financial Service Use vs. Credit
45% Score
Other 57% 28% 13% 3% Black
40%
Alternative Financial Service Use
Hispanic Other
White 77% 14% 3%6% 35%

30%
Asian 67% 18% 3% 13%
25%
Hispanic 49% 29% 14% 8% Asian
20%
White
Black 46% 30% 17% 7% 15%

10%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 660 680 700 720 740 760
Banked Underbanked Unbanked Unknown Average Credit Score (300 to 850)
Source: FDIC National Survey of Unbanked and Underbanked Households,
Source: FDIC National Survey of Unbanked and Underbanked Households Shiftprocessing.com, Citi Research

Student Loan Debt

Elevated student loan debt and high debt-to- Elevated debt-to-income levels and poor credit histories linked to student loan debt
income levels inhibit Black homeownership are also likely inhibiting Black homeownership. The Urban Institute found that
African Americans with four-year college degrees have a lower homeownership rate
than white Americans without a high school diploma — 56.4 percent vs. 60.5
percent (Figure 95). Of all racial groups, the Federal Reserve Board’s Survey of
Household Economics and Decisionmaking reveals Black persons (43 percent) are
more likely to have student loan debt than white persons (24 percent), and have
more student loan debt on average regardless of housing situation (Figure 96). The
income and wealth gaps contribute to the sizable amount of student loans Black
persons borrow and ultimately carry as debt. Also according to the Center for
Responsible Lending, Black persons with a college degree are five times more likely
to default on their student debt than white Americans, which is also associated with
the wealth gap. The presence of elevated student loan debt and/or defaults render a
person less likely to meet mortgage lending standards.

© 2020 Citigroup
56

Figure 95. Black Persons Are More Likely to Have Student Loan Debt Figure 96. Black Persons Tend to Have Higher Average Student Loan
Than Other Racial and Ethnic Groups Debt Regardless of Housing Situation

Share of People Ages 25 to 55 With Student Loan Debt Average Student Loan Debt
(2019) (People Ages 25-55, 2019)
45% 43% $20,000
40%
$15,000
35%
30% 26% $10,000
24% 23%
25%
20% $5,000
15% $0
10% Two or Black Hispanic Other White,
5% More Non- Non-
0% Races Hispanic Hispanic
White, Non- Black, Non- Hispanic Other Neither own nor pay rent Own home w/o mortgage or loan
Hispanic Hispanic Own home w/ mortgage or loan Pay rent
Source: Federal Reserve Board Survey of Household Economics and Decisionmaking, Source: Federal Reserve Board Survey of Household Economics and Decisionmaking,
Citi Research Citi Research

Affordable Housing
In many metropolitan areas with large Black Even when income and credit conditions are met, lack of affordable housing
populations, geographic segregation is remains a major constraint to homeownership for many Black families. Data from
compounded by lack of available affordable the Census Bureau and real estate agency Zillow reveal that in many metropolitan
housing areas with large Black populations, geographic segregation is compounded by lack
of available affordable housing. The dissimilarity score is a metric that measures the
extent to which racial groups are clustered in geographic areas. Again, many of
these clusters are a result of past policies including housing discrimination and
redlining. Cities with sizable Black populations including New York, Los Angeles,
Washington DC, Boston, Miami, Philadelphia, Atlanta, Houston, and Detroit are not
only quite segregated (dissimilarity scores closer to 1 than 0.5) but also have wide
gaps between the least and most expensive homes (Figure 97). A Trulia real estate
agency study also revealed the widening gap between the median home valuation
and most homes in large metro areas appeared to be occurring at the lower end of
the market. In other words in most markets affordable housing is disappearing.

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Figure 97. Affordable Housing Gap is Highly Pronounced in Metro Areas with Large Black Populations

Home Value Gap vs. Geographic Segregation in Metro Areas With Large
Black Populations
8
​ Black Population

San Francisco, CA
6
Distance Between Top and Bottom Home Valuation
(Standard Deviations from Mean)

Los Angeles-Long…
4 New York, NY
​
​
​
​​ Washington, DC
Miami-Fort Boston, MA
2 Lauderdale, FL
​ ​ Baltimore, MD
​ ​
Atlanta, GA Philadelphia, PA MI
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ TX Detroit,
​ ​​​ ​ ​ Houston,
​ ​ ​
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ LASt. Louis, MO
​ Orleans,
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Cleveland, OH ​
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​​ ​​ ​ ​ New ​
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
​
​
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​​ ​​ ​ ​ Chicago, IL
0 ​​ ​ ​​
​ ​ ​
​ ​ ​ ​​ ​ ​​
0.2 0.3 ​ 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

​ ​ ​
-2

-4 Dissimilarity Index
(0=Least Segregated Geographically; 1=Most Segregated Gegraphically)
Source: Census Bureau, Zillow, Blackdemographics.com, Citi Research

Closing the Gap

If the Black home ownership rate were Closing the Black family housing gap 20 years ago might have generated $218
returned to the 2000 level, there would be billion in additional U.S. consumption. According to the Urban Institute, the current
an estimated 770,000 additional Black 30 basis point gap between Black and white family home ownership is greater now
homeowners than before 1968 when housing discrimination was legal. The ownership spread is
directly related to the racial wealth gap and the increase in inequality in general post
the Great Financial Crisis. If the Black home ownership rate were returned to the
2000 level, there would be an estimated 770,000 additional Black homeowners.
Multiplying the National Association of Realtor’s median existing home price by this
figure equates to $154 billion in additional home sales over the 2000 to 2019 period
(Figure 98). A simple calculation of spending on maintenance, cars, and furniture,
which often accompany home buying using the Bureau of Labor Statistics’
Consumer Expenditure Survey suggests that there might have been another $65
billion in consumption over the last two decades (Figure 99).

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Figure 98. 770,000 Additional Black Homeowners Might Have Added Figure 99. Black Homeowners Might Have Generated an Additional $65
Another $154 Billion in Spending on Housing Since 2000 billion in Consumption on Housing-Related Expenditures
Estimate of Additional Home Purchases Estimate of Additional Expenses
($bn) ($bn)
$160 $70
$140 $60
$120
$50
$100
$40
$80
$30
$60
$20
$40
$10
$20
$0
$0

2006
2007
2008
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005

2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2000

2003

2016

2019
2001
2002

2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015

2017
2018

Own dwelling expenses Furnishings Vehicles Gasoline

Source: National Association of Realtors, Citi Research Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Citi Research

Figure 100. Seventeen Percent of the Black-White Homeownership Gap Remains Unexplained
Oaxaca Decomposition: Estimated Explanatory Power For
Black-White Home Ownership Gap at the MSA Level

Unexplained 17.0%

Female-Headed Household -9.9%

Household with Children -8.1%

Educational Attainment 2.0%

Unemployment Rate 3.0%

Median Household Income 9.2%

Age Distribution 18.4%

Earns below 25th Percentile
21.5%
of Area Median Income
FICO Score 21.9%

Marital Status 26.7%

-20% -10% 0% 10% 20% 30%

Source: Urban Institute, Citi Research

© 2020 Citigroup
 59

Racial Investment Gap

Capital Deficit
A lack of funding along the investment cycle Black entrepreneurs suffer not from a lack of vision, but a lack of funding along
is an issue for Black entrepreneurs and every point in the investment cycle. Funding is a challenge over the phases of start-
business owners up and as the business matures (Figure 101). Indeed, Black business owners are
more likely to cease the operations of their business due to insufficient sales and/or
lack of financing than other racial group (Figure 102). During the early stages of
funding for a new business, Black founders are more likely to source funds from
family, friends, and employees than are white founders. However, funding from
friends and family tends to yield $25,000 or less in capital for Black-owned firms,
and even less for white-owned firms (Figure 103). Black founders are more likely to
bring their own resources to the table than are white founders, with Black founders
more apt to use personal and business credit cards that may have higher interest
rates and fees (Figure 104). Black founders are also less likely to receive other
forms of financing, including business loans from banks, financial institutions, and
friends, grants, and professional investors (e.g., angel and venture capital
investors). For Black founders who do gain access to these other types of
investment, the percentage receiving loans of $100,000 or more is somewhat
smaller than the size of loans for white founders (Figure 106).

Figure 101. Phases of Private Business Financing Figure 102. Black Businesses More Likely to Die Due to Inadequate
Sales and/or Access to Financing
Reasons a Business Ceased Operations
100%
3% 3%
98% 5% 5%
96%
3%
5%
94% 2%
3%
92%

90% 93% 94%

93% 92%
88%

86%
White Black Asian Hispanic
Operations ceased for another reason

Not operating: Inadequate cash flow/sales, lack of business

or personal loans/credit
Business currently operating

Source: Citi Research Source: SBA, Census Bureau, Citi Research

© 2020 Citigroup
60

Figure 103. Black Entrepreneurs Are More Dependent Upon Sources of Capital from Friends, Family, and Own Resources for Capital
Sources of Start-up Financing: White Sources of Start-up Financing: Black
Entrepreneurs Entrepreneurs
65.4 70.6

18.7 17.6 15.2

9.9 10.3 9.4 8.9 11.3
7.3 7.8 8.1
5.4 5.1 3.3 3.5 5.1 6.1 7.3
0.4 1.9 0.5 0.2 0.8 2.8 0.5 0.6
Personal/family savings of owners Personal/family savings of owners
Personal/family assets other than savings of owner Personal/family assets other than savings of owner
Personal/family home equity loan Personal/family home equity loan
Personal credit cards Personal credit cards
Business credit cards Business credit cards
Business loan from a government Business loan from a government
Government-guaranteed business loan from bank/financial institution Government-guaranteed business loan from bank/financial institution
Business loan from a bank or financial institution Business loan from a bank or financial institution
Business loan/investment from family/friends Business loan/investment from family/friends
Investment by venture capitalists Investment by venture capitalists
Grants Grants
Other sources of capital Other sources of capital
Don't know Don't know
None needed None needed
Source: SBA, Census Bureau Annual Survey of Entrepreneurs, Citi Research

Figure 104. Black Founders Are More Likely to Figure 105. Friends and Family Yield Limited Figure 106. Black Founders Receive Less
Produce their Own Resources for Start-ups Resources for Both Black and White Founders Funding for Projects Above $100,000
Distribution of Firms Distribution of Firms Distribution of Firms
80% (by Owner Financing Amounts) (by Family, Friends & Employees (by Banks & Financial Institutions
30% Financing Amts) 40% Financing Amts )
70%
25% 35%
60%
30%
20%
50%
25%

40% 15% 20%

30% 15%
10%
20% 10%
5%
10% 5%

0% 0%
0%
White Black Asian Hispanic White Black Asian Hispanic
White Black Asian Hispanic
$250,000 or more $100,000 to $249,999 $250,000 or more $100,000 to $249,999 $250,000 or more $100,000 to $249,999
$50,000 to $99,999 $25,000 to $49,999 $50,000 to $99,999 $25,000 to $49,999 $50,000 to $99,999 $25,000 to $49,999
$10,000 to 24,999 $5000 to $9,999 $10,000 to 24,999 $5000 to $9,999 $10,000 to 24,999 $5000 to $9,999
$1 to $4,999 $1 to $4,999 $1 to $4,999
Source: SBA, Census Bureau Annual Survey of Source: SBA, Census Bureau Annual Survey of Source: SBA, Census Bureau Annual Survey of
Entrepreneurs, Citi Research Entrepreneurs, Citi Research Entrepreneurs, Citi Research

© 2020 Citigroup
 61

Bank Loans and Denials

Creditworthy Black-owned firms experience Black entrepreneurs appear shut-out of traditional forms of financing. The reliance
greater challenges raising capital than of Black founders on less lucrative forms of financing may reflect the difficulty in
creditworthy white-owned firms including financing along the investment channel. According to the Fed, creditworthy Black-
lower application rate, lower approval rates, owned firms experience greater challenges raising capital than creditworthy white-
owned firms. Even after controlling for firm characteristics and performance, the Fed
finds that approval rates for Black-owned firms still remain lower. Fed data indicate
all entrepreneurs are more likely to apply to large banks versus other institutions for
financing. However, Black-owned businesses are the least likely to receive approval
for loans from large banks (Figure 107). Despite Black-owned firms being less likely
to apply for financing at small banks, they are similarly less likely to be approved for
loans than white-owned firms at these small banks. Black founders are the least
likely to apply to online lending sources, like most other racial groups, but are about
equally likely to be approved as white founders at these alternative financial
institutions. This suggests there may be critical factors differentiating Black founders
in traditional bank lending standards than among alternative financial institutions. If
Black-owned firms are passing the gauntlet along myriad metrics, but still not
receiving funding, then the epsilon may be bias.

Black-owned forms also tend to receive less The Fed also found that underfunding is affecting financing. While Black-owned
in funding than white-owned firms firms are roughly equivalent with white-owned firms in the percentage who decline
to apply for loans due to discouragement, Black founders are still less likely to say
that they had sufficient funding in place (Figure 108). The Fed reports that even for
those Black-owned firms who are approved for financing, they typically receive less
than half of what was requested. According to the Fed, minority-owned businesses
in recent times are still facing potentially large unmet financing needs. Census
Bureau data confirm this. When complaints of underfunding are tabulated across
different types of financing, Black founders routinely state that they received fewer
dollars than requested.

Figure 107. Black Entrepreneurs Are Less Likely to Receive Loans from Traditional Banks Despite High Likelihood of Applying to Traditional Banks
Likelihood of Applying at Lending Source Likelihood of Approval for at Least Some ReportedReason for Not Submitting Credit App
(by Race/Ethnicity of Firm Ownership, %, 2018) Financing at Lending Source (by Race/Ethnicity of Firm Ownership, %, 2018)
90 (by Race/Ethnicity, %) 85 83
60 82 60 56
80 74 78 76
50 70 65 67 50 47 46 45
60 59
40 40
50 45
30 40 30
20 30 18
20 12 13 13
20
10 10 10
0 0 0
Overall Large Small Online CDFIs Overall Large Small Online Discourage From Sufficient Financing in
Banks Banks Lenders Banks Banks Lenders Applying Place
White Black Asian Hispanic White Black Hispanic White Black Asian Hispanic
Note: CDFI stands for Community Development Financial Institutions
Source: Federal Reserve Board, Citi Research

© 2020 Citigroup
62

Figure 108. Black Business-Owners Routinely Receive Less Funding than Requested from Financing Sources
Percent of Firms Who Established New Funding Relationship, but Who Did Not Receive Amount of Funding
Requested by Source
60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%
Owner(s) Friends, Banks, Credit Home Equity Credit Trade Angel Venture Other Crowdfunding Grants
Family Unions Loans Cards Credit Investors Capitalists Investor Platform
Employees or other in name of Businesses
Financial Business
Institution Owner(s)
White Black Asian Hispanic

Source: SBA, Census Bureau Annual Survey of Entrepreneurs, Citi Research

Asymmetric Information and Narrow Pipelines

Black investors represent small shares of Black investors are missing out on an important stage in capital raising. Angel and
angel and venture capital investment venture capital (VC) investment are important phases in the private business
capitalization pathway, but Black investors represent small shares of these types of
investors. Just over 1 percent of all angel investors are Black (Figure 109), while 4
percent of the VC workforce is Black, with just 3 percent in the senior ranks of
leadership (Figure 110). The number of Black persons in finance provision positions
is important because they can play a pivotal role in directing capital to Black-owned
businesses. In the VC space, this is extremely important as the majority of products
purchased by consumers received VC funding at some point and these financiers
decide which businesses receive funding and ultimately what products go to market.

Asymmetric information and a narrow Studies suggest that the sparse amount of investments by Black angel and VC
pipeline limit investment in Black-owned investors reflect a combination of asymmetric information — in that Black
businesses entrepreneurs are not aware of these sources of funding — and/or a narrow pipeline
of incoming investors. With respect to information, SEC regulation prohibits
business founders from publicly advertising fundraising. Communication of these
opportunities are limited to a network of accredited investors. Accredited investors
must have $1 million in net worth, not including a home, or income exceeding
$300,000, which can be prohibitive for many would be angel investors. Hence, a
lack of information and wealth-limits create barriers for entrepreneurs and potential
investors. Regarding the pipeline, many VCs have backgrounds in investment
banking, which have struggled with diversity given in part to recruiting from elite
schools that are also lacking in diversity. Indeed, 40 percent of venture capitalists
attended either Harvard or Stanford University. Over the last 30 years Harvard
Business School had a Black population averaging about 5 percent. The high cost
of a business school education is one prohibition for Black students.

© 2020 Citigroup
 63

Figure 109. Black Investors Represent a Figure 110. Black Investors Are Underrepresented in the Venture Capital Space, Both in
Nominal Share of Angel Investors Leadership and the Overall Workforce
Angel Investors by Race Venture Capital Sector Venture Capital Sector
Overall Workforce by Race Leadership by Race

5%
2% 3% 4% 3%
3%
6%
1%

15%
17%

88%

76% 80%

White Black Asian Hispanic Other White Asian Black Hispanic White Asian Black Hispanic

Source: Wharton Entrepreneurship and Angel Capital Source: NVCA, Deloitte, Citi Research
Association, Citi Research

Investor Bias
Unconscious bias may also be at the root of Venture capital is a relationship-based business, so the leaders decide which other
the dearth of investment in Black-owned investors are invited into the fold, and which firms receive capital. This proves
businesses problematic if the perception of Black founders and their business ventures are
tinged by unconscious bias. Anecdotal assertions of bias include investors not
trusting that Black entrepreneurs have viable and sustainable businesses, and/or
lack an understanding of the product or customer Black founders are serving. Even
for professional investors choosing to invest in VC funds, data-based evidence of
bias is revealed in a Stanford University study which determined when venture
capital funds are managed by a person of color with strong credentials, professional
investors judge them more harshly than their white counterparts with identical
credentials (Figure 111). The study found investors were able to easily distinguish
between stronger and weaker white-led teams, where the stronger team received
the higher ratings and the weaker team lower ratings. However, investors were
unable to distinguish between stronger and weaker Black-led teams. Strong white-
led teams were expected to raise more funds than strong Black-led teams,
suggesting lower funding prospects for Black-led fund teams, and consequently
financing for Black-owned businesses (Figure 112).

© 2020 Citigroup
64

Figure 111. Higher Performing Black-Led VC Funds Rated Lower than Figure 112. Professional Investors Less Able to Distinguish Between
White-Led VC Funds by Professional Investors Weak and Strong VC Funds, Projecting Lower Funding Prospects

5 300

Fundraising Predictions (mn)

White Male Managing Partner White Male Managing Partner
Overall Performance Ratings

Black Male Managing Partner Black Male Managing Partner

250
4
200
3
150
2
100
1
50

0 0
Weaker Stronger 1 2 3 4 5
One-Pager Quality Competence
Source: Stanford University, PNAS Source: Stanford University, PNAS

Closing the Gap

Increased access to funding and Increased access to financing and information are tactics that may help close the
information, alternative measures of credit, financing gap for Black-owned businesses. As Black-owned firms appear to invest
and financial education can all help close greater sums of owner-generated financing for start-up projects, this greater level of
the financing gap personal sacrifice should factor more favorably into lending decisions from financial
institutions. Experts have also advocated for alternative measures of credit to factor
more materially in underwriting decisions, not just FICO scores. Black
entrepreneurs are on balance more highly educated than the average small
business owner, and are more likely to be Gen X’ers (45 percent) and Baby
Boomers (31 percent) than Millennials (22 percent). However, there still appear to
be gaps in experience running a firm and/or knowledge about financing options,
including angel and venture capital investment. Governments (including the SBA)
can make it easier for firms to learn about funding options and/or lowering the
barrier for interested investors to become engaged, particularly for angel investors.
There is also a market for private firms to educate and counsel Black business
owners regarding applying for and obtaining financing via traditional and non-
traditional financing channels.

Eliminating bias will be more difficult. However, if lenders and professional investors
changed their views towards minority-owned firms, there might be greater access to
capital. More capital helps ensure the survival of Black-owned firms, and greater
revenue, which currently trails that of white-owned firms in every industry except
manufacturing (Figure 113). More revenue leads to greater job creation, and more
income which facilitates consumption and real GDP growth. A Fed survey found that
60 percent of Black-owned firms declined to apply for financing, even when needed,
due to concern that they would be denied. Increasing applications as well as
improving approval rates would be highly favorable for Black-owned firms.

Closing the share of Black-owned firms-gap Closing the share of Black-owned firms-gap 20 years ago might have generated
20 years ago might have generated $13 $13 trillion of revenues for investment, 6.1 million jobs per year, and a cumulative
trillion of revenues for investment, 6.1 million $182 billion in income for consumption. In 2017, there were more than 114,400
jobs per year, and a cumulative $182 billion small Black-owned firms, employing 1.2 million persons, generating $121 billion in
in income for consumption revenue and $35 billion in annual payroll. However, the number of Black-owned
small businesses represents just 0.6 percent of the Black civilian population age 20
and over (20 million people). This is compared to a 3.6 percent share of white-
owned small firms to the white civilian population (122 million).

© 2020 Citigroup
 65

If the share of Black-owned firms was raised to 3.6 percent of the U.S. Black
population, the number of businesses would rise to more than 720,000, or a 6-fold
increase. Per year, revenue might increase to $761 billion, the number of
employees to 7.3 million, and payrolls to $10.8 billion. If this gap were closed two
decades ago, then the additional amount of consumption from workers’ incomes
might have summed to near $182 billion. Some share of the extra $13 trillion in
revenues over the last 20 years might have also contributed to GDP-enhancing
capital expenditure on equipment, intellectual property, and structures (Figure 114).

Figure 113. With the Exception of Manufacturing, White-Owned Firms Generate More Revenues
per Business than Black-Owned Firms
Revenues Per Type of Business ($)
White Black
Wholesale Trade

Utilities

Transportation & Warehousing

Retail Trade
Real estate &
Rental & Leasing
Professional, Scientific,
& Technical Svcs
Other Services (except Public Admin)
Mining, Quarrying, &
Oil & Gas Extraction
Manufacturing
Mgmt of Companies
& Enterprises
Information
Health care &
Social Assistance
Finance & Insurance

Educational Services

Construction

Arts, Entertainment, & Recreation

Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing, &
Hunting
Admin & Support and Waste Mgmt
& Remediation Svcs
Accommodation & Food Services

$0 $10,000 $20,000 $30,000

Source: Census Bureau Survey of Business Owners, Citi Research

Figure 114. Small Firms, Revenues, Employment and Payrolls: 2017 Actual and Gap Closure Estimates
Per Year 20 Years

Black Small Businesses 2017 Share of Black 3.6 Percent Share of Black 2017 Share of Black 3.6 Percent Share of Black
population (0.6 percent) Population population (0.6 percent) Population
Firms (Number) 114,400 720,069 2,288,000 14,401,386
Revenues (Billions of US$) $121 $761 $2,417 $15,212
Employees (Number) 1,155,344 7,272,095
Payrolls/Year (Billions of US$) $1.7 $10.8 $34.4 $216.7
Source: Citi Research

© 2020 Citigroup
66

How Do We Close the Gaps: Future

Policy
Figure 115. Governments, Corporations, and Individuals Can All Work Together to Close Gaps

Source: Shutterstock

Significant and permanent behavioral and To emerge from a history of entrenched segregation and active discriminatory policy
attitudinal changes are required to mitigate into an era of genuine equity will require conscientious reform at individualistic,
the number of gaps faced by Black corporate, and governmental levels. Although there is much to celebrate regarding
Americans renewed interest in closing gaps, there is still considerable work that must be done.

Moreover, given the exacerbation of inequality amid the COVID-19 pandemic, now
is an important time to focus on eliminating racial gaps. In the U.S., the sum total of
wealth held by U.S. billionaires is equal to three-quarters of all Black wealth ($3.5
trillion vs $4.6 trillion). Hence, it is crucial to address severe income inequality as
part of the overall economic resolution and to avoid the perpetuation of disparity as
seen after the Global Financial Crisis (GFC) of 2008. As of 2016, only 20 percent of
Americans are said to have recovered to pre-GFC wealth levels, with Black
Americans having suffered a 33 percent decline in wealth between 2007 and 2010.
The GFC wealth loss further compounded how the median Black family witnessed
their wealth almost halve, once adjusted for inflation, from 1983 to 2016; in
comparison to an increase of almost one-third for white households.33

33Dettling, L.J., Hsu, J.W. and Elizabeth Llanes. 2018. "A Wealthless Recovery? Asset
Ownership and the Uneven Recovery from the Great Recession," FEDS Notes.
Washington: Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System; Wolff, E. 2017.
"Household Wealth Trends in the United States, 1962 to 2016: Has Middle Class Wealth
Recovered?", NBER Working Paper No. 24085.

© 2020 Citigroup
 67

What Can Governments Do?

Figure 116. Public Policies are Required to Advance Racial Gap Closures

Source: Shutterstock

Governments can help reduce racial gaps Governments can help reduce racial gaps by eliminating discriminatory barriers and
by eliminating discriminatory barriers and implementing policies that support work, homeownership, entrepreneurship, and
implementing policies that support work, well-being. Basic actions, borrowed in part from the literature on gender equity,
homeownership, entrepreneurship, and well- include (1) adequate race-specific data collection, necessary for identifying,
being tracking, and ameliorating race-based gaps; (2) prohibiting discrimination in wages,
housing, labor, financial services, lending etc. based upon race; (3) facilitating work,
including affordable childcare options, quality K-12 education, access to higher
education, and paid family leave; and (4) supporting innovation, including enabling
access to financing for Black-owned firms and start-ups. Additionally, governments
can act to promote access to affordable healthcare and housing, which are
paramount for supporting work and innovation. In this paper, we also highlight more
unconventional ideas for how governments can contribute to closing racial gaps,
from the Fed and Congress, to the state and local level.

Monetary Policy Focus

Voices are calling for the U.S. central bank More voices are calling for the U.S. central bank to enhance its focus upon racial
to include reducing racial inequality as part economic gaps. Economic gaps produced as a consequence of decades of racial
of its mission discrimination have been highlighted by Democratic politicians in the U.S. in their
proposal for the Fed to integrate racial considerations in its policymaking. Under
‘The Federal Reserve Racial and Economic Equity Act’, the reduction of racial
inequality in the U.S. economy would become an official part of the Fed’s mission.
Former Vice President, Joe Biden called on the Fed to ‘aggressively enhance’ its
highlighting of ‘persistent racial gaps in jobs, wages and wealth.’34 It is worth
highlighting that before the pandemic, the Black unemployment rate, concurrent will
all other jobless rates, was falling and reached an all-time low of 5.4 percent in
August 2019. However, it remained higher than overall unemployment, which
troughed at 3.5 percent in February 2020 and the white unemployment rate, which
fell to 3.1percent in January 2020 (Figure 117).

34Long, H., “Democrats introduce bill to give the Federal Reserve a new mission: Ending
racial inequality,” Washington Post, August 5, 2020.

© 2020 Citigroup
68

Amid the pandemic, jobless rates across every racial group swelled to nearly four
times their pre-COVID levels, but the racial gaps persisted.35

The Fed will now focus on broad-based and Even in the absence of new legislation, the Fed has signaled a willingness to
inclusive job gains and will allow inflation to enhance its focus upon inequality. At the 2020 Jackson Hole Economic Summit, the
exceed their 2 percent target for a period Fed indicated its policies will focus on “broad-based and inclusive” job gains,
language suggesting the central bank’s policies may help disadvantaged Americans
in particular, rather than as a consequence of focusing upon maximum employment
in general. Practically, the Fed will now allow inflation to exceed the 2-percent target
for a period of time before raising interest rates, allowing unemployment rates to fall
further. Still Chairman Powell stated that ending racial inequality “is more of an all-
government, society project that we need to take on forcefully…It can’t just be the
way the Fed manages interest rates.”36 In other words, there is a role for fiscal
policies at every level of government. Moreover, a counter argument to the Fed
allowing rates to remain lower for longer, is that low rates inflate the prices of asset
that do not benefit low income persons on the upswing, but do negatively affect
them on the downswing when the owners of capital (employers) respond to financial
market crises by cutting labor.

Figure 117. Black Unemployment Rate is Consistently Higher than Other Races
U.S. Unemployment Rate: 16 Years+
25 (Statistical Average, %)

20

15

10

0
Sep-1973

Sep-1978

Sep-1983

Sep-1988

Sep-1993

Sep-1998

Sep-2003

Sep-2008

Sep-2013

Sep-2018
May-1975

May-1980

May-1985

May-1990

May-1995

May-2000

May-2005

May-2010

May-2015

May-2020
Jan-1972

Jan-1977

Jan-1982

Jan-1987

Jan-1992

Jan-1997

Jan-2002

Jan-2007

Jan-2012

Jan-2017
White Black Asian Hispanic
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics. Citi Research

35 Zeitli, M., “Federal Reserve policy has failed Black Americans for decades. Now is the
time to fix that,” Business Insider, July 18, 2020.
36 Guida, V., “An activist central bank? Dems push the Fed to fight racial inequality,”

Politico, August 29, 2020.

© 2020 Citigroup
 69

Encourage Work
Tax policy, such as EITC and CTC, have Reforming tax benefits and the application of specialized tax reforms can encourage
proven to reduce poverty as workers keep work among lower income families and help reduce racial gaps. One recent study
more of their earnings highlighted that of the nearly $275 billion within the 2018 Tax Cuts and Jobs Act, 80
percent benefited white households; receiving $2,020 on average in cuts, versus
$970 received by Latino household and just $840 by Black Households.37 Moreover,
households in the highest 1 percentile received 23.7 percent of the law’s total tax
cuts, in comparison to just 13.8 percent received by the bottom 60 percent. Given
that white households are three times as likely as Black or Latino households to be
in the top 1%, these racial gaps are further exacerbated.38 Some effective and
racially-inclusive tax provisions linked to work such as the Earned Income Tax
Credit (EITC), and Child Tax Credit (CTC), have proven to reduce poverty while
serving a larger proportion of minority groups, especially Black and Latina Women.
Some policymakers would make CTC fully refundable so the benefits reach the
poorest children. Indeed, an estimated 17 million Black households would benefit
from a fully-refundable CTC.39 Under current law, the Congressional Budget Office
(CBO) estimates the share of Federal government spending on these credits is set
to tumble over the next decade without Congressional intervention (Figure 118).

How do the EITC and the Child Tax Credit Encourage Work?
 EITC: The Earned Income Tax Credit, EITC or EIC, is a benefit for working people with low to moderate income. To
qualify for EITC, tax filers must have earned income from either working for someone or from running or owning a
business or farm, in addition to meeting some basic rules. Filers must also either meet additional rules for workers
without a qualifying child or have a child that meets all the qualifying child rules. (Source: IRS.gov).

 CTC: The Child Tax Credit (CTC) is designed to give an income boost to the parents or guardians of children and
other dependents. It only applies to dependents who are younger than 17 as of the last day of the tax year. The
credit is worth up to $2,000 per dependent, but income level determines the exactly amount of the credit. Tax filers
need to have earned at least $2,500 to qualify for the CTC. Then it phases out for income above $200,000 for
single filers and $400,000 for joint filers. If earned income is above the applicable threshold, filers will receive a
partial credit. (Source: Smartasset)

Provide Guaranteed Wages, Income, and Jobs

Progressive policies to help close gaps A policy with dramatic implication would be a “living wage.” Currently, the Federal
include raising minimum wages, introducing minimum wage for tip earning employees at just $2.13 an hour and $7.25 for others.
income supplements, and guaranteeing jobs Although Black workers make up only 11 percent of the workforce, 38 percent of
Black workers currently work for minimum wage and would receive a pay increase
under such legislation, helping to address the wage gap (Figure 119).40
Another policy gaining traction in U.S. policy circles, which has also been
implemented in other nations (e.g., Canada), is that of guaranteed income supports.

37 Institute on Taxation and Economic Policy and Prosperity Now “Race, Wealth and
Taxes: How the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act Supercharges the Racial Wealth Divide,”
October 11, 2018.
38 Ibid.; Huang, Chye-Ching and Roderick Taylor. “Advancing Racial Equity Through the

Tax Code,” Spotlight on Poverty and Opportunity, 24 September 2019; Chye-Ching

Huang and Roderick Taylor. “How the Federal Tax Code Can Better Advance Racial
Equity,”, Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, July 25, 2019.
39 Marr et al., “Working Families Tax Relief Act Would Raise Incomes of 46 Million

Households, Reduce Child Poverty,” Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, April 16,
2019.
40 Walker, D., “If Corporations Really Want to Address Racial Inequality, Here are 9

Things That Actually Make a Difference.” Time, August 4, 2020.

© 2020 Citigroup
70

Means-tested, direct government transfers to families, with the potential to expand

guaranteed income above the poverty line might help assist families with expenses
such as childcare, which is a key enabler of work. A successful basic income
program in practice is the Alaska Permanent Fund. The Fund has paid residents a
dividend of $1,600 on average in recent years, with one study showing the program
reduced poverty by 20 percent in the state.41 In a similar fashion, a Federal Job
Guarantee has also been advocated as an effective way to decrease the racial
income gap. While potentially an expensive proposition, with estimated ranging from
$378 billion to $543 billion per year, there is some potential to mitigate poverty
through work.42

Figure 118. EITC and Child Tax Credit Spending Share Set to Tumble Figure 119. Black People More Likely to Make Minimum Wage or Less
CBO: Federal Government Spending on Percent of Workers Paid Hourly Rates At or Below Federal
Earned Income and Child Tax Credits Minimum Wage
(Share of GDP) 3.0%
2.0%

1.8% 2.5%
Forecast
1.6%
2.0%
1.4%

1.2% 1.5%

1.0%
1.0%
0.8%

0.6% 0.5%

0.4%
0.0%
White White Black Black Asian Asian Hispanic Hispanic
0.2%
Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women
2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

2025

2026

2027

2028

2029

2030

At Minimum Wage Below Minimum Wage

Source: Congressional Budget Office, Citi Research Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Citi Research

Implement Tax Reform

Raising revenue in a more progressive way Changes to current tax provisions, including a more progressive tax code, might
and moving away from flat income taxes also have a material impact on efforts to close gaps. Some policymakers and
could help close wealth gaps experts suggest taxing wealth rather than income, and increasing taxes on inherited
wealth — both of which are traditionally areas where Black Americans fall behind
their white counterparts. Much of the Federal tax code is designed to offset less
progressive state tax codes, which rely heavily on sales and excise taxes; meaning
that on average, the lowest-income households pay a higher share of their income
than the highest-income households.43 Indeed, 25 of the 50 states in the U.S. plus
Washington DC, have combined state and local sales taxes in excess of the
national median of 6.98 percent (Figure 120).

Ten of the 50 states (Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Michigan, New

Hampshire, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, and Utah) have one income

41 Berman, Matthew and Random Reamey. “Permanent Fund Dividends and Poverty in
Alaska.” Institute of Social and Economic Research: University of Alaska Anchorage.
42 Paddison, Laura. “What is a federal jobs guarantee?” The Huffington Post; Paul, Mark,

William Darity, Jr. and Darrick Hamilton. “The Federal Job Guarantee – A Policy to
Achieve Permanent Full Employment.” Center on Budget and Policy Priorities.
43 Huang, Chye-Ching and Roderick Taylor “How the Federal Tax Code Can Better

Advance Racial Equity,” Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, 25 July 2019

© 2020 Citigroup
 71

tax rate for all individual tax payers, making them the least progressive (Figure 121).
A clear approach the U.S. could take in order to reduce racial inequality would be to
raise more revenue overall in a progressive manner, with the revenues then
directed to investments which advance racial equity. Indeed, the U.S. system of
taxes currently underperforms 27 other high-income countries in regards to
reducing post-tax inequality.44

Figure 120. 25 States have Combined State and Local Tax Rates Figure 121. Progressiveness of State Taxes-
Exceeding the National Median of 6.98%
Combined State & Local Sales Tax Rate State Income Tax Rates: Difference

12.30%
Between Top & Bottom Rate (%, 2020)
9.55%
9.53%
9.52%

14%
9.23%
9.22%
8.95%

12% Least Progressive

8.80%
8.68%
8.68%
8.52%
8.40%
8.23%
8.20%
8.19%

States

9.60%
12%
7.83%
7.65%
7.46%
7.46%
7.31%
7.18%
7.17%
7.07%
7.05%
7.00%
7.00%
6.98%

8.20%
10%

7.57%
10%

7.00%
5.90%
5.80%
8% 8%

5.40%
4.95%
4.95%
4.90%
4.82%
4.75%
4.60%
4.50%
4.50%
4.40%
4.38%
4.00%
3.99%
3.90%
3.75%
3.75%
3.65%
3.50%
6%

3.20%
3.00%
6%

2.60%
2.24%
2.00%
1.95%
1.91%
1.80%
4%

1.35%
4% 2%

0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
2% 0%

Pennsylvania
Michigan

Alabama
North Carolina

Maine

New Mexico

Nebraska
Delaware

New York
New Hampshire

North Dakota

Ohio
Mississippi

Minnesota

Georgia
Indiana
Kentucky
Massachusetts

Tennessee
Utah

Arizona

Rhode Island
Kansas

Wisconsin

Connecticut
West Virginia

Maryland
Virginia

Oklahoma
Arkansas

Oregon

Wyoming
Missouri

Louisiana

Idaho
Montana

Iowa

California
Illinois

Washington

Vermont

South Carolina
New Jersey

Hawaii
0%
Kansas
Arkansas

New York
Tennessee

Louisiana

Texas

South Carolina

Utah
Ohio
Alabama
Oklahoma

Indiana
Illinois

Arizona
Nevada
Missouri

Colorado
Minnesota
California

New Mexico

Georgia

North Carolina
Mississippi
Florida

Rhode Island
Washington

Note: States not listed do not have state income taxes.

Source: The Tax Foundation, Citi Research Source: The Tax Foundation, Citi Research

Promote Financial Inclusion

Increasing access to financial services is To address racial wealth inequality, the exceptionally high number of unbanked or
key to increasing the amount of Blacks in underbanked Black households (estimated to be 47 percent) also needs to be
the financial system combatted with Federal banking services. In order to avoid the usual obstacles of
traditional for-profit banking of minimum account balances and transaction costs,
one study advocates the Congressional strengthening of the U.S. Postal Service
(USPS) as an avenue for financial services. At its peak in 1947, the Postal Savings
systems held $3.4 billion in reserves. Enabling the USPS to provide financial
services would provide an alternative means of banking for many families, and in
tandem allow for more money to circulate within the economies of low-income
communities. The immediate need for cash availability, which a Postal
Service/FedAccounts proposal would mobilize, has been incredibly apparent during
the COVID-19 pandemic. These FedAccounts would enable free and digitized
payments, withdrawals, and provide the ability to receive payments such as jobless
benefits or stimulus checks without minimum balance requirements or fees.

44Based on reductions in the Gini measure of inequality among 33 countries for which
OECD data for 2016 or the latest available year are available (see OECD Income
Distribution Database, 2019). The United States ranks above only New Zealand, Israel,
Switzerland, Korea, and Chile on this measure. (Data for Mexico, Hungary, and Turkey
are unavailable.)

© 2020 Citigroup
72

Fintech can also play a critical role in reducing the number of unbanked persons.
Ex-JP Morgan Managing Director and founder of Mobility Capital Finance, Wole
Coaxum, estimates that “Black and Hispanic people spend 50 to 100 percent more
per month for basic banking services, which, over a lifetime, can cost $40,000 in
fees.”4546 His company, along with a number of others, seeks to tackle this in
providing financial services to those on low to moderate incomes. Similarly FS Card
provides credit cards with $500 spending limits as an alternative to payday loan
services. In providing these alternative services without the high fees, these fintech
firms have the ability to drastically improve access to basic financial services.
Moreover, in August 2020, leaders of the fintech industry, including Credit Karma,
Monzo, and Stash, announced the creation of the Fintech Equality Coalition. The
Coalition will focus on enhancing access to financial services and committing to
providing opportunities in recruitment outreach within the Black community.47

Decouple Health Care

Providing minimum government-supported Access to affordable healthcare is a key component of enabling work and wealth
healthcare would increase the level of health creation. Indeed, a Gallup poll found that 9 percent of American adults and 14
security for workers in economically- percent of non-white American adults would avoid treatment for the coronavirus
challenged industries over concerns over medical expense.48 An idea gained greater traction in the U.S. is
to decouple healthcare from employment. Most people who have health insurance
in the U.S. receive it via their employers (Figure 122). Expansion of Medicaid —
public healthcare for persons under 65 years of age — has increased since being
implemented under Obamacare (ACA) in 2012, but the private-direct purchase
option under the ACA has fallen during the Trump Administration. Given the three
groups who saw their unemployment markers spike to elevated peaks in April 2020
were women (15.5 percent), Black Americans (16.7 percent), and Latinos (18.9
percent), there is a clear connection between race/gender and those most at risk
from losing their healthcare coverage.49 In providing minimum government-
supported healthcare, as an additional option to private job-linked health care, those
in more economically-challenged industries would have an increased level of health
security, with potentially significant benefits to minority groups.

45 Rosen, E., “Trying to Correct Banking’s Racial Imbalance”, The New York Times, June
30, 2020.
46 FDIC National Survey of Unbanked and Underbanked Households, 2017.

47 “Fintech Equality Coalition Created to Help Fight Racial Inequality in the Industry,” PR

Newswire, August 13, 2020.

48 Witters, D., “In U.S., 14% with Likely Covid-19 to Avoid Care Due to Cost,” Gallup,

April 28, 2020.

49 Tolbert, J., Orgera, K., Singer, N. and Anthony Damico, “Key Facts About The

Uninsured Population,” Kaiser Family Foundation, December 13, 2019; Kaiser Family
Foundation, “State Data and Policy Actions to Address Coronavirus,” Kaiser Family
Foundation, May 13, 2020.

© 2020 Citigroup
 73

Figure 122. The Majority of U.S. Persons Are Covered by Private-Employed Based Insurance;
The Number of Persons in the Private-Direct Purchase Option Has Declined in Recent Years
Number of People With and Without Health Insurance
70,000 185,000

60,000
175,000
50,000

40,000
165,000
30,000

20,000
155,000
10,000

0 145,000
94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10 12 14 16 18
Private: Direct Purchase Public: Medicaid
Public: Medicare Public: Military
Not Covered Private: Employment Based (RHS)
Note: Some persons may have more than one type of insurance.
Source: Census Bureau, Citi Research

Implement Housing Incentives

Public policy should focus upon housing as Two suggestions proposed for providing affordable housing include: (1) expansion
a pathway to wealth of tax incentives encouraging low-income housing in affluent areas; and (2) low-
income community revitalization policies encouraging residential and commercial
development in poor and primarily communities of color.50 A third avenue for
facilitating the path to homeownership for Black families is to close gaps enabling
higher earnings and wealth accumulation necessary for home ownership.

Encouraging homeownership is a potential Policy reform of established programs to benefit minority groups, might be
path to intergenerational wealth instrumental in closing equity gaps. One candidate for reform is the Mortgage
Interest Deduction program which currently only benefits 6% of Black families.
Enhancing the benefit to Black households requires increased homeownership, but
the gap in homeownership rates between white and Black families is significant: the
Black homeownership rate is at 44 percent vs. white at 70 percent. Affordable also
housing remains a challenge in many local regions with large Black populations
(Figure 123). Increasing incentives and access to affordable housing is an avenue
towards greater homeownership. With a stark deficiency in affordable housing — in
no state can a full time employee on $7.25 afford a two bedroom apartment —
progress in this area is of desperate necessity.51 The American Housing and
Economic Mobility Act provides an initial framework with provisions for down
payment assistance for first time buyers living in formerly redlined or officially
segregated areas.52

50 Fulwok III, S., “The United States’ History of Segregated Housing Continues to Limit
Affordable Housing,” Center for American Progress, December 15, 2016.
51 National Low-Income Housing Coalition. “Out of Reach 2018: The High Cost of

Housing.” 2018.
52 “Warren Unveils Historic Legislation to Confront America's Housing Crisis.” Press

release. September 26, 2018.

© 2020 Citigroup
74

Figure 123. Many Highly Populated Regions of the U.S. Are Unaffordable Even For Median-
Income Households

Notes: Median incomes are estimated at the core-based statistical area (CBSA) level. Recently sold homes are
defined as homes with owners that moved within the 12 months prior to the survey date. Monthly payments
assume a 3.5% down payment and property taxes of 1.15%, property insurance of 0.35%, and mortgage insurance
of 0.85%. Affordable payments are defined as requiring less than 31% of monthly household income. Only CBSAs
with at least 30 home sales in the past year are shown.
Source: JCHS tabulations of US Census Bureau, 2017 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates, and
Freddie Mac, PMMS

17 percent of the gap between Black and The Urban Institute found intangible factors are contributing to the widening racial
white homeownership is unexplained housing gap, highlighting the need for targeted policy solutions. According to the
Urban Institute, even after accounting for individual factors including marital status,
income distribution, FICO scores, age, median household income, and city
segregation, approximately 17 percent of the Black-white family home ownership
gap remains unexplained (Figure 100). These intangible factors suggest a
combination of policies are necessary to narrow the gap, built on a foundation of fair
housing and lending, plus new technologies.

 Advance policy solutions at the local level: Expand small-dollar mortgages;

remove discriminatory terms in home- and condo-association deeds on single
family units; property tax relief for low- and moderate-income taxpayers;
strengthen lender networks.

 Tackle housing supply constraints and affordability: Reform local land-use,

building codes and zoning laws; Federal investments in affordable housing;
Government-sponsored enterprise (GSE) and Housing & Urban Development
(HUD) collaboration with organizations working to make housing affordable.

 Promote an equitable and accessible housing finance system: Increase

visibility, access, and types of down payment assistance programs; alternative
data for credit histories and diverse sources of income for down payments.

 Further outreach and counseling for renters and mortgage-ready

millennials: Improve and expand financial education and homeownership
preparation; expand programs that automate saving for down payments.

 Focus on sustainable homeownership and preservation: Strengthen post-

purchase counseling; early-warning displacement metrics; mitigation strategies
and interventions for homeowners at high risk for flood and disaster events.

© 2020 Citigroup
 75

Invest in Training
Government investment in training programs Government focus on specific skills training with respect to identified occupational
can help narrow income and wealth gaps availability through either community college courses or named industry training has
proven instrumental in combating economic inequality. With over 12 million students
enrolling in community colleges each year, and a majority of those enrolled as
undergraduates in 2-year public colleges identifying as non-white, funding for these
programs is vital in delivering a more equitable workforce. However, without a
permanent funding stream, sustainability can be a challenge.5354 Though community
colleges have been the benefactors of a number of grants, including the Community
Based Job Training Grant (CBJTG), which provided $600 million in three years from
2005-2010, and two Federal grant programs under President Obama — Health
Profession Opportunity Grant and Trade Adjustment Assistance Community College
and Career Training (TAACCT) — there have been calls to reform the workforce
system to move away from presumptions based upon skills narratives.5556 Skills
narratives place an emphasis on skills, which for many workers “fail[s] to recognize
the historical and inter-generational way in which multiple systems, including not
only workforce, but also education, housing, criminal justice and others, have
created an inherent set of disadvantages for people of color.”57 Without proper
recognition of individual circumstance, and an understanding that a
multidimensional, rather than a ‘one-size-fits-all’ approach is far more likely to
deliver meaningful results, there is a natural restriction to equity progress.

Public-private partnerships can help narrow Public-private partnerships can help narrow training gaps. Notably, white high
training gaps school dropouts have the same chance of obtaining a job as Black workers who
have completed some college or earned an associate degree. In order to address
such discrepancies, The Center for American Progress has highlighted four policy
features that are essential for developing an equitable design and process for
training and job access: (1) expand the share of economic risk by requiring
employers of a certain size to pay into the WETF (Workforce Equity Trust Fund); (2)
make a suite of wrap-around services (e.g., childcare) and employment benefits
standard; (3) improve workforce analytics by creating an accountability dashboard
for multiple measures of job quality; and (4) govern the WETF by a multi-
stakeholder partnership comprising of business, labor and the public.5859 There are
a number of programs along such guidelines emerging with community-based
organizations designing programs to directly train and connect workers to local
opportunities.

53 Eyster, L., Durham, C., and Theresa Anderson. “Federal Investments in Job Training
at Community Colleges,” Urban Institute, December 2016
54 Kilpatrick, S., “A Quick Rundown of Community College Diversity Statistics,”, EVERFI

55 Anderson, T., Loprest, P., Derrick-Mills, T. Eyster, L., Morley, E., and Alan Werner.

2014. Health Profession Opportunity Grants: Year Two Annual Report 2011–2012.
Report 2014-03. Washington, DC: Office of Planning, Research, and Evaluation,
Administration for Children and Families, US Department of Health and Human Services.
56 Lam, L. “A Design for Workforce Equity,” Center for American Progress, October 16,

2019.
57 Race Forward, “Race-Explicit Strategies for Workforce Equity in Healthcare and IT”

(New York: 2017).

58 Adams, S. “White High School Drop-Outs Are As Likely To Land Jobs As Black

College Students,” Forbes, June 27, 2014.

59 Lam, L. “A Design for Workforce Equity,” Center for American Progress, October 16,

2019.

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76

For example, in Detroit, HOPE has incorporated robotics training into its technical
training; and in San Diego, the International Rescue Committee has included solar
panel installation into training options; connecting a high-growth local industry
currently facing a skilled labor shortage with job-seekers.60

Invest in Wealth Building

Government investment in programs that Government investment in building wealth is a radical approach to closing the racial
encourage wealth building can reduce the wealth gap. One approach is ‘Baby Bonds’.61 Championed by New Jersey Senator
racial wealth gap Cory Booker, the bonds would provide every child born with $1,000 in an interest-
bearing savings account that would be added to annually (maximum of $2,000
based upon family income) up to the age of 18. Upon reaching adulthood, the funds
accrued can be accessed for wealth building activities such as down payments on
homes, college tuition, or start-up funding.62 A study by Columbia University on the
effect of instruments such as ‘Baby Bonds’ estimated that though the racial disparity
would persist, it would be substantially narrowed: from a factor of 15.9 to 1.4 at the
median, with the median Caucasian adult holding approximately $79,000 versus
$58,890 for the median Black adult.63 The program is expected to cost $60 billion
per year, and to be funded by modifying the estate tax and closing the tax break for
inherited capital gains.64 There have also been some successes at the state and
local level. In Oklahoma, the Ford Foundation provided over a thousand babies with
$1,000 in state-owned 529 college savings account in 2007. There is evidence to
suggest these kinds of programs could have significant impact with young people
who, with a college fund, are three times as likely to go to college, and four times as
likely to graduate, helping to address future racial earnings gaps.65

Invest in Protections
Funding and broadening the scope of anti- Established in 1965, the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)
discrimination agencies can help lessen is tasked with enforcing Federal laws preventing discrimination against job
inequality in the United States applicants and employees based upon race, color, religion, sex, national origin, age,
disability, or genetic information. However, as the U.S. population has grown by 44
percent in 40 years to roughly 330 million persons, and become even more diverse,
Federal funding for the EEOC has not kept pace. Indeed, funding for the EEOC has
shrunk by 8 percent over the same period, and the number of employees at the
EEOC fielding discrimination complaints has decreased by 42 percent since 1980.
Meanwhile, at the state level, funds for employment anti-discrimination programs
are modest and in some cases non-existent. A 2015 census of ten states with the
largest Black populations revealed that none of them spent more than 70 cents per
resident on employment anti-discrimination programs. Indeed, three states —
Mississippi, Alabama, and North Carolina — spent zero dollars on such programs.

60 Jones, M., and Ed Skyler. “Here's a solution to economic inequity: Invest more in job
training,” USA Today, March 10, 2020.
61 Zwede, N., “Universal Baby Bonds Reduce Black-White Wealth Inequality,

Progressively Raise Net Worth of All Young Adults.”

62 “Interview With Corey Booker: Making real the ideals of our country,” The Economist,

July 14, 2020.

63 Zwede, N. “Universal Baby Bonds Reduce Black-White Wealth Inequality,

Progressively Raise Net Worth of All Young Adults.”

64 Viebeck, E., “Booker wants a ‘baby bond’ for every U.S. child. Would it work?,” The

Washington Post, August 19, 2019.

65 “‘Baby bonds’ proven to boost aspirations and college savings,” Bangor News,

December 11, 2018.

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 77

Figure 124. Congress Has Decreased Resources for the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) Over the Last 40 Years
U.S. Population EEOC Budget (Millions of US$) Number of EEOC Employees
450 (Millions of People) ('000s of People)
$450 4,500
$412
400
$400 $380 4,000
350 325 3,390
$350 3,500
300
$300 3,000
250 225 $250 2,500
1,968
200 $200 2,000
150 $150 1,500
1980 2018 1980 2018 1980 2018
Source: Census Bureau, EEOC, Citi Research

Implement Salary History Bans

Banning employers from asking about salary Salary history bans are a method to stop the perpetuation of racial wage gaps. With
history helps to stop prior wage the wage gap between white and Black workers having grown at the median
discrimination from being perpetuated between 2000 and 2019, increasing the discrepancy from 20.8 percent to 24.4
percent, addressing this disparity is particularly important.66 One approach that has
proven particularly effective is banning employers from inquiring about historical
salaries. A study by Boston University found that, following bans, pay for job
switchers increased by 13 percent for Black workers and 8 percent for women
workers, respectively.67 By removing the knowledge of prior salaries, employers are
no longer influenced by potential discrimination of previous employers, and hence
are less likely to perpetuate the wage gap between white and Black employees by
continuing to maintain the difference. Massachusetts, as the first state to impose a
ban preventing employers asking candidates their previous salaries in 2016, has
been followed by 18 other states, with individual cities nationwide, including
Washington DC, also following suit (Figure 126).6869

66 Gould, E., “State of Working America Wages 2019,” Economic Policy Institute,
February 20, 2020.
67 Bessen, J. E., Meng, C., and Erich Denk. “Perpetuating Inequality: What Salary

History Bans Reveal About Wages,” SSRN, June 24, 2020.

68 “Salary history bans,” HRDrive, August 7, 2020.

69 Ziv, S., “Salary History Bans Reduce Racial and Gender Wage Gaps; Every CEO

Should Use Them,” Forbes, June 23, 2020.

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78

Figure 125. Anti-Discrimination Agency Spending at the State Level is Figure 126. Only 19 of 50 States Plus Washington, DC, and 20 of
Significantly Underfunded in States with Large Black Populations Thousands of Municipalities, Have Salary History Bans

Per-Capita Funding of EEOC and Anti-

Discrimination Agencies in States with the
Largest Black Popualations (FY 2018)

EEOC $1.19

South Carolina $0.69

Maryland $0.55

Tennessee $0.39

Delaware $0.38

Georgia $0.06

Louisiana $0.02

North Carolina $0.00

Alabama $0.00

Mississippi $0.00

$0.00 $0.20 $0.40 $0.60 $0.80 $1.00 $1.20

Source: EEOC, Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, Citi Research Source: AccuSource, HRDrive, Citi Research

© 2020 Citigroup
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What Can Companies Do?

Figure 127. Corporations Play a Tremendous Role in Eliminating Racial Gaps

Source: Shutterstock

The Business Case

The business case for diversity is While imperfect, there is a business case for diversity that should help motivate
multifaceted firms to act upon closing racial gaps. The body of literature suggests that when
executed well, diversity and inclusion in the workplace may lead to increased
revenue, reduced costs, greater innovation, and increased employee engagement,
productivity, and commitment.70 The business case is multifaceted:

 Changing demographics: Businesses may desire their workforces to reflect

current and future population trends. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, by
2060, the percentage of non-Hispanic white persons will decline to 44 percent
from roughly 60 percent currently and there will be a major increase in the
number of persons of color.71 If this is the case, firms should adjust their
employee composition to match their future customer base. Even today, when
persons of color are still in the minority, many firms still do not reflect the
demographics of the nation at every rung on the jobs ladder.

70“The Business Case for D&I: Ask Catalyst Express,” Catalyst, October 4, 2019.
71Colby, S.L., and Jennifer M. Ortman. “Projections of the Size and Composition of the
U.S. Population: 2014 to 2060,” US Census Bureau, March 2015.

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Figure 128. The Share of Non-White Hispanic Persons Is Poised to Shrink to 44% by 2060

Population Projections
(Shares of Total Population,%)
100%

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%
2016 2020 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050 2055 2060
Hispanic or Latino Two or More Races
Native Hawaiian & Other Pacific Islander Asian
American Indian & Alaska Native Black or African American
Non-Hispanic White
Source: Census Bureau, Citi Research
 Diversity of Perspectives: Persons from diverse backgrounds and experiences
will have a multiplicity of ideas and perspectives. Diversity of perspectives may
produce better outcomes as diversity can help avoid “group-think.”72 A diversity of
opinions can create friction. However, if diverse employees are made to feel
included, then outcomes can potentially be positive.73 A Boston Consulting Group
(BCG) international survey, including the U.S., revealed a strong and statistically
significant correlation between the diversity of management teams and overall
innovation. “Firms reporting above-average diversity on their management teams
also reported innovation revenue that was 19 percentage points higher than that
of companies with below-average leadership diversity — 45% of total revenue
versus just 26%.”7475

 Bolstering the Bottom Line: Studies suggest that diverse firms may have
stronger financial results more generally. A separate McKinsey & Company
international survey found that “companies in the top quartile for racial and ethnic
diversity were 35 percent more likely to have financial returns above their
respective national industry medians.” In the United States, McKinsey found
“there is a linear relationship between racial and ethnic diversity and better
financial performance: for every 10 percent increase in racial and ethnic diversity
on the senior-executive team, earnings before interest and taxes (EBIT) rise 0.8
percent.”

72 Sidorenko, V., “The Business Case For Diversity and Inclusion,” TLNT, April 24, 2019.
73 Kaplan, S., “Why the ‘business case’ for diversity isn’t working,” Fast Company,
February 12, 2020.
74 Lorenzo, R., Voigt, N., Tsusaka, M., Krentz, K., and Katie Abouzahr. “How Diverse

Leadership Teams Boost Innovation,” Boston Consulting Group, January 23, 2018.
75 Esweraj, V., “The business case for diversity in the workplace is now overwhelming,”

World Economic Forum (WEF), April 29, 2019.

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Moreover, that “racial and ethnic diversity has a stronger impact on financial
performance in the United States than gender diversity, perhaps because earlier
efforts to increase women’s representation in the top levels of business have
already yielded positive results.”76

Figure 129. Businesses with Diverse Leadership Teams May Generate More Revenue Figure 130. Diverse Firms May Perform Better
Likelihood of Financial Performance
Above National Industry Median
26% 45% Gender & Ethnic
Diversity Combined: 40%
All Other Quartiles
Gender & Ethnic
Diversity Combined: 53%
Innovation Revenue - Innovation Revenue - Top Quartile
Companies with Companies with
Below-Average Above-Average
Gender Diversity:
47%
Diversity Scores Bottom Quartile
Diversity Scores
Gender Diversity:
54%
Top Quartile

55% Ethnic Diversity:

74% 43%
Bottom Quartile

Ethnic Diversity:
58%
Top Quartile

0% 20% 40% 60% 80%

Source: The Boston Consulting Group, Citi Research Source: McKinsey & Co, Citi Research

 A Matter of Talent - Recruiting and Retaining the Best Talent Is Paramount:

By hiring a limited group of people based upon a specific mold (i.e. white and/or
male), companies are foregoing significant segments of talent. Hence, firms
should consider directing resources and energy towards recruiting and retaining
diverse employees, and creating inclusive workplace cultures where everyone
has an equal opportunity to contribute and succeed.77 McKinsey & Company
posits that more diverse companies, “are better able to win top talent and
improve their customer orientation, employee satisfaction, and decision making,
and all that leads to a virtuous cycle of increasing returns.”78

 Moral Imperative - It’s the Right Thing to Do: The Society for Human
Resource Management defines inclusion as, “the achievement of a work
environment in which all individuals are treated fairly and respectfully, have equal
access to opportunities and resources, and can contribute fully to the
organization’s success.” Employees who are made to feel like they belong are
potentially better performers and happier people.79

76 Hunt, V., Layton, D., and Sara Prince. “Why diversity matters,” McKinsey & Company,
January 1, 2015.
77 “The Business Case for D&I: Ask Catalyst Express,” Catalyst, October 4, 2019.

78 Hunt, V., Layton, D., and Sara Prince. “Why diversity matters,” McKinsey & Company,

January 1, 2015.
79 Sidorenko, V., “The Business Case For Diversity and Inclusion,” TLNT, April 24, 2019.

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Support Initiatives from the Top

Consumers expect corporations that make Support of Diversity and Inclusion (D&I) initiatives must come from the top. As of
statements on racial equality to follow up 2020, only four CEOs at Fortune 500 companies are Black. This statistic highlights
with concrete action – support must come concerns about equity, as management diversity is often reflected at all levels of a
from the top company.80 Literature suggests that corporations must actively engage in D&I
initiatives in order to change the composition and complexion of their firms, but
focus must start at the top of the corporate ladder. Indeed, the Edelman Trust
Barometer indicates that in the U.S., 63 percent of consumer respondents to their
poll believed corporations that make statements in support of racial equality must
follow it up with concrete actions in order not to be seen as exploitative or
opportunistic (Figure 130).

A number of high profile CEOs support D&I initiatives, including former Xerox CEO
Ursula Burns (the first Black female CEO of a Fortune 500 company) who stated
that “Business leaders have to start to lead, what has happened in the past, they’ve
trailed.” Similarly a number of CEOs have pledged hard dollars to address racial
gaps. For example, Comcast pledged $100 million over three years to accelerate
efforts on diversity and inclusion, and Walmart also pledged $100 million over five
years to create a new center on racial equity that would concentrate in four areas:
financial, health care, criminal justice and education.81

Citi’s Response

In direct response to the messages from the #BLM Protests, Citi itself has committed to $10.7 million in donations:
$1 million each to two organizations working to close the Black achievement gap in education in the United States:
UNCF and Management Leadership of Tomorrow (MLT). This is in addition to the $8 million Citi committed to four
leading Black-led organizations addressing voting rights, income and wealth gaps, and housing discrimination (the
NAACP Legal Defense Fund, the Lawyers’ Committee for Civil Rights, the National Urban League and the National
Fair Housing Alliance), for a total of $10,684,000 in charitable contributions, inclusive of employee contributions.

Figure 131. Consumers Expect Firms to Follow up Talk with Action

Percent Who Agree with: "Brands and companies that

issue a statement in support of racial equality need to
follow-it up with concrete action."
70% 65% 63% 63%
60% 57%
54% 53%
50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%
South Africa Canada U.S. U.K. France Germany
Source: Edelman Brand Trust Barometer 2020, Citi Research

80 Siripurapu, A., “The US Inequality Debate”. Council on Foreign Relations. July 15,
2020.
81 Stankiewicz, K., “CEOs are offering plans and investments to address racial inequality

after George Floyd death”. CNBC. June 11, 2020.

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Address Racial Gaps in Hiring, Retention, and Firing

Corporations can implement policies that are Corporations can implement policies that are more conscious of addressing racial
more conscious of addressing racial gaps in gaps in matters of hiring, retention, and firing. There are several recommendations
matters of hiring, retention, and firing for the corporate setting:

 Recruitment and Hiring: Establishing diverse slates and limiting selection bias
is paramount at the recruitment and hiring stage. Analysis by NatCen suggests
that there is discrimination and ‘ethnic filtering’ in the recruitment process.
Indeed, National Academy of Sciences data reveal the rate of callbacks for Black
candidates is generally lower than that of white candidates, and this rate has
been little changed over since the 1970s.82 Moreover, businesses may be
inadvertently perpetuating wage inequality by asking for salary histories. To
enhance motivation for greater minority employment, companies could be subject
to mandatory, randomized public diversity monitoring with the intention that in
facing potential obligation to publish minority employment statistics this would
translate into material change and diversification of the recruitment process.
Additionally, a government supported and fiscally incentivized enhancement of
online recruitment as a method to further anonymize the hiring process likely
would prove instrumental in improving racial equality in hiring practices.83

 Retention: With research showing that a professional leaving an organization

can cost as much as twice the average associate’s salary there is clear economic
incentive to improve retention rates, especially among minority employees who
are more likely to leave a firm due to mistreatment.84 Active consideration of
minority interests and implementation of specific programs to address minority
representation within a firm are proven avenues to greater retention levels.
These include mentoring schemes, with defined commitment from employers to
provide clear evaluation tools to deliver tangible advancement of their minority
employees; active inclusion in high visibility assignments; and proactive
endeavors to provide influential sponsors to minority employees within the firm to
support the navigation of corporate ascent.85 Firms should ensure that pay and
promotion of Black employees is commensurate with other workers.86

82 Quillian, L., Pager, D., Midtbøen, A., and Ole Hexel. Hiring Discrimination Against
Black Americans Hasn’t Declined in 25 Years,” Harvard Business Review, October 11,
2017.
83 Lloyd, J., “Ending Ethnic Discrimination in Recruitment”. The Strategic Society Centre.

November, 2010.
84 Kapor Center. 2017 Tech Leavers Study.

85 Diversity Primer, Diversity Best Practices, September 2009 -

https://www.diversitybestpractices.com/sites/diversitybestpractices.com/files/import/emb
edded/anchors/files/diversity_primer_chapter_08.pdf.
86 Vieux, S., “What Companies Can Do to Combat Systemic Racism Against Black

Colleagues in the Workplace,” Just Capital, June 4, 2020.

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84

Figure 132. Callbacks of White Applicants Relative to Black Applicants

Source: Meta-analysis of field experiments shows no change in racial discrimination in hiring over time. Lincoln
Quilliana, Devah Pager, Ole Hexela, and Arnfinn H. Midtbøen,Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
(PNAS), 2017

 Layoffs: Black and Hispanic workers are more likely to be subject to reductions
in force (RIF) actions amid economic downturns due to higher labor market
segmentation in lower-level or more discretionary jobs. The Harvard Business
Review (HBR) suggests employers can consider performance more than
position, and cross-training and upskilling workers to help narrow the numbers of
minorities reduced. Companies factoring performance into their decision-making,
often are able to retain their best performers, regardless of gender and race.
Businesses can redeploy workers with transferable skills to other parts of the
firm, and/or cross-train employees for other tasks to avoid major labor cuts.
Employers can also cut pay and hours, but continue to retain workers.87

 Lists: HBR recommends that firms, when releasing employees, maintain lists of
persons being let go to note major disparities and to share those lists with other
firms that may have job openings. Businesses can draw from these lists of
recently unemployed persons to find a diverse set of talent.88

Engage in Corporate Social Responsibility

Businesses can engage in corporate social Bolstering external communities and supporting minority-owned firms can help
responsibility (CSR) close gaps at the societal level. Businesses can engage in corporate social
responsibility (CSR). CSR is considered a strategic differentiator for firms, which
can aid in brand reputation externally and support employee morale and sense of
purpose internally. Moreover, corporations can provide direct investments in
minority-owned small businesses.

87 Kalev, A., “Research: U.S. Unemployment Rising Faster for Women and People of
Color,” Harvard Business Review, April 20, 2020.
88 Morgan Roberts, L., McCluney, C.L., Thomas, E.L., and Michelle Kim. “How U.S.

Companies Can Support Employees of Color Through the Pandemic,” Harvard Business
Review, May 22, 2020.

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 85

Firms can also consider public actions to accelerate policies and legal measures to
protect and support vulnerable populations. This can include public condemnation
of events or legislation that target groups of people based upon race.89

Studies have shown CSR is not only for attracting and retaining customers, but also
for retaining talent. For example, Millennials are willing to forego an average of 14.4
percent of their expected compensation to work at socially responsible companies.
Also 88 percent of Millennials believe a business should be proactivity participating
in the community. A reported 92 percent of employees involved in CSR programs
cite higher rates of emotional and physical health. Moreover, 66 percent of
employees report a greater sense of loyalty to their employers as a consequence of
participating in CSR programs.90

Dismantle Structural Barriers to Hiring Black Talent

Structural barriers to hiring, such as criminal Other structural barriers inhibiting corporations from hiring Black talent must also be
histories, should be addressed to eliminate dismantled. In a Time Magazine article written by Darren Walker, the President of
discrimination the Ford Foundation, Walker advocated enforcement of racially diverse candidate
pools while also stressing the material impact of engaging fully with Fair Chance
Hiring (FCH). FCH is where companies are encouraged to employ qualified job
applicants with criminal histories — a group in which Black Americans are
overrepresented, as African American men are 11.8 times more likely to be
incarcerated than white men of the same age.9192 Policies that might help reduce
joblessness among ex-inmates include: (1) temporary basic income; (2)
occupational licensing reform; (3) bond insurance and tax incentives for employers
who hire ex-offenders; (4) automatic record expungement; and (5) banning
employment discrimination subject to Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of1964. 93
Moreover, removing blanket bans on occupational licensing, and following a more
bespoke approach. For example, in New Jersey and Oklahoma, a conviction must
have a ‘direct, rational, or reasonable relationship’ to the duties of the occupation to
be defined for licensing.

Develop Metrics to Analyze, Report, and React

Change can’t happen until metrics are In order for firms to begin and/or continue the process of facilitating racial gap
developed to analyze current situations, closures in the workplace, metrics must be used to analyze, report, and react. The
report and react steps towards eliminating wage gaps include: (1) collecting data; (2) analyzing and
publicizing the data; and then (3) acting on the results of the data if they reveal that
inequity in pay exists for jobs requiring the same qualifications. First, firms can
assess current workforce demographics: do the present number of Black
employees match national and local population ratios? Second, firms may set
recruitment targets to address discrepancies for Black employees. In areas where
Black employees are underrepresented, firms can establish recruitment targets with
accountability mechanisms like tying executive compensation to meeting targets or
holding leaders accountable in performance reviews.

89 IBID.
90 Civic, B., “CSR – IS IT GOOD FOR BUSINESS?,” February 28, 2018.
91 Walker, D., “If Corporations Really Want to Address Racial Inequality, Here are 9

Things That Actually Make a Difference.” Time, August 4, 2020.

92 Keaveny, P., “Ensuring Racial Equality- from classrooms to Workplaces”. The

Conversation. March 6, 2019.

93 Couloute, L., and Daniel Kopf. “Out of Prison & Out of Work: Unemployment among

formerly incarcerated people,” Prison Policy Institute, July 2018.

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86

Targets are useful for opening up opportunity for highly qualified underrepresented
persons while potentially limiting space for less qualified persons among
overrepresented groups.94 Third, investigate whether Black employees are
compensated for equal work and promoted as regularly as other employees.
Following the pay equity study (analyze), firms should be transparent about the
results (report), and then create a plan to rectify discrepancies (react).95 Business
can also hire specialized recruitment and employment firms (e.g., Jopwell) to assist
with diversification initiatives.

Recruit More Black Board Members

More Black executives need to be added to To assist with accountability, companies can add more Black executives to their
corporate boards boards. According to Deloitte LLP “a critical need for inclusive leadership, the
shifting U.S. demographics, and investor pressure in the United States have
increased the focus on diversity in the C-suite and on public company boards.”96 A
2018 Deloitte study found that 34 percent of Fortune 500 seats were held by women
and minorities, and 38.6 percent of Fortune 100 board seats were held by women
and minorities. This share might increase to 40 percent by 2024 if the rate of
increase identified over the 2016 to 2018 period of the study were kept. Notably,
Black women gained 32 Fortune 500 seats in 2018, and Black men acquired 26
seats, rates of increase of 26.2 percent and 8.5 percent respectively. 97 Nonetheless,
the study confirmed that many of the Black board members were “recycled,”
meaning they had already been board members elsewhere or are currently serving
on another board. Hence, while board diversity is increasing, the absolute number
and share of Black men and women on boards (9 percent) is lagging relative to the
U.S. population (13 percent).

94 Kaplan, S., “Why the ‘business case’ for diversity isn’t working,” Fast Company,
February 12, 2020.
95 Vieux, S., “What Companies Can Do to Combat Systemic Racism Against Black

Colleagues in the Workplace,” Just Capital, June 4, 2020.

96 DeHaas. D., Akutagawa, L., and Skip Spriggs. Missing Pieces Report: The 2018

Board Diversity Census of Women and Minorities on Fortune 500 Boards, Deloitte LLP,
February 5, 2019.
97 Ibid.

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Figure 133. Black People Still Underrepresented on Boards (9%) Relative to Population (13%)
Fortune 500 Board Seats (2018)
332 154 ,
6% 3% 148 61
2% 1%
168
45
1,017 3%
1%
18% 3
1 0%
0%

3,741
66%

Black Men Black Women Asian Men

Asian women Hispanic Men Hispanic Women
Other Men Other Women White Men
White Women
Source: Deloitte LLP, Citi Research

Challenges to adding more Black board directors must be overcome. According to

the Harvard Business Review, challenges to adding Black board members include:
(1) few existing minority directors to recruit and attract Black board members; (2) a
lack of Black persons in the executive pipeline, who are often persons tapped for
board seats; (3) an insufficient number of minorities on recruitment slates; (4)
homogenous social networks that may have few or no Black persons who might be
tapped for board directorships; (5) inadequate director onboarding required for
directors to get to know each other and work more effectively; (6) lack of leadership
roles on boards for Black directors, making them less effective; and (7) bias, where
Black directors, especially women, feel that their ideas are devalued or ignored.98
Many of these challenges can be overcome by (1) broadening the search criteria for
board members; (2) better leveraging search firms for finding board members; (3)
improving on-boarding training; (4) ensuring more leadership roles for Black
directors; (5) building up the pipeline of potential directors by addressing problems
with retention of Black employees; and (6) valuing the expertise, contributions, and
opinions of Black board directors. Diverse boards provide a diversity of
perspectives, create a virtuous cycle of greater diversity, and help with recruitment
and retention of diverse talent throughout the company.

98Cheng, J.Y-J., Groysberg, B., and Paul M. Healy. “Why Do Boards Have So Few
Black Directors?,” Harvard Business Review, August 13, 2020.

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Figure 134. Social Networking is a Major Factor In Selecting Black Figure 135. Racially Diverse Boards Tend to Prioritize Racial Diversity
Board Members Within the Company
How Black Directors Were Initially Introduced to Percent of Directors Who Agree or Strongly
the Board Agree
(% of Black or White Directors)

Other 13% 34%

13%
Diversity in this company is a
White Black 56%
Am a current or former 12% high priority
executive of the company 0% 69%
Appointed by a major 15%
shareholder 13%

Known to a member of 13%

executive management 21% 53%
This board has an ideal mix
of members with diverse 66%
Known to the CEO 31% perspectives and experiences
33%
77%
Recruited by an executive 25%
search firm 33%
0% 50% 100%
Known to the board or one of 35%
the other directors 54% Boards with 0 directors who are racial/ethnic minorities
Boards with 1 director who is a racial/ethnic minorities
0% 20% 40% 60% Boards with 2+ directors who are racial/ethnic minorities
Source: Harvard Business Review, Citi Research Source: Harvard Business Review, Citi Research

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 89

What Can Individuals Do?

Figure 136. Individuals Can Work Towards Eliminating Racial Gaps

Source: Shutterstock

While we argue that structural factors have and continue to play significant roles in
perpetuating racial gaps, individuals are far from powerless. Black persons in the
U.S. can continue to advocate for themselves in the realms of finances, education,
business, and politics. Meanwhile, persons of other races can continue to educate
themselves about historical disparities and work towards fixing them.

Use Education as a Pathway for Advancement

Education is a pathway for advancements Parents can advocate for greater accountability from and funding for schools.
and parents can advocate for greater Although Black parents are less likely to volunteer at school events, often due to
accountability and funding for schools work commitments, it does not mean that they are not involved in their children’s
education. Parents show their activism in their choices for education for their
children including charter schools, private schools, and magnet public schools.
(Figure 137). On a small scale, one study revealed that 83 percent of Black
students had their homework checked by a parent, compared to 57 percent of white
students and 59 percent of Asian students.99 In terms of more dramatic action,
parents have reported willingness to move in order to provide their students with
access to a better school district. Parents can continue to take action against
unequal disciplinary measures against their children that can disrupt learning and
future prospects. Black youth comprise roughly 16 percent of public school students
and about 9 percent of private school students. Yet, they account for 35 percent of
in- and out-of-school suspensions, and 39 percent of expulsions.100 Parents can
ensure that their children are considered for gifted and talented education (GATE)
programs and apply to magnate schools, which have become more racially
segregated.101 Finally, parents can use their political power (Decennial Census,
voting) to ensure that adequate funding is directed towards their school districts.

99 Morris, M.W., Black Stats: African Americans by the Numbers in the 21st Century,
2014.
100 Ibid.

101 Pirtle, W., “The Other Segregation,” The Atlantic, April 23, 2019.

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Figure 137. Minority Students Are More Likely to Attend Charter Schools than Traditional Ones

Distribution of Public Elementary and Secondary Students

(2017-2018)
100 3.9 3.9
5.3 4.0
80
26.3 33.1

60
14.5
25.8
40

48.7
20
32.1

0
Traditional (Non-Charter) Schools Charter Schools
White Black
Hispanic Asian
Pacific Islander American Indian/ Alaska Native
Two or More Races

Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Common Core of Data (CCD), Citi
Research

Students can aim high and utilize resources As mentioned above, students can take more courses relevant to STEM fields, and
that promote success take Advanced Placement courses in high school. Students should seek education
beyond a high school degree: college, trade school. Students should also consider
advanced and professional degrees even after earning a college degree.
Throughout the school career, students can take advantage of organizations that
promote academic achievement and stepping stones into business. Notable
organization include Girls Who Code, My Brother’s Keeper Alliance, Jack and Jill of
America Incorporated, United Negro College Fund (UNCF), Management
Leadership for Tomorrow (MLT), INROADS, Toigo, Sponsors for Educational
Opportunity (SEO), A Better Chance, the Jackie Robinson Foundation, and the
Urban League. Funding for education can be tackled in part via familial investments
in college savings plans and student applications to scholarships. As discussed
above, training and higher education are highly correlated with higher incomes over
a lifetime.

© 2020 Citigroup
 91

Have Non-Profit Organizations Built the Middle Class? Spotlight on MLT and INROADS

Non-profit organizations have existed for more 100 years to help advance the financial and social wellbeing of Black Americans.
Two organizations have quantified how their efforts have bolstered the expansion of the Black middle-class.

 MLT – Statistics from the MLT website indicate the average starting salary for their Career Prep Fellows is $75,000, with half
of these students coming from homes with annual household incomes of less than $50,000. Moreover, of their 1,600 scholars
per year, 90 percent of their undergraduates receive an offer for a high trajectory job, 90 percent of its MBA Prep students
matriculate at top10 business schools, and 90 percent of its first-generation college students are on track to graduate within 4-
6 years, compared to the national average of 11 percent.

 INROADS –INROADS in partnership with Australian-based non-profit Career Trackers surveyed 1000 INROADS alumni to
determine how the organization has helped to narrow racial gaps. Among respondents, 57 percent have incomes in the range
of $50,000 to $100,000 and 34 percent with incomes exceeding $100,000. Forty seven percent have net worth in the range of
$100,000 to $500,000, and 40 percent in the $500,000 to $5 million range. Plus, 76 percent own a home. Regarding real
estate 49 percent own at least one property and 56 percent own more than one property (Figure 138).

Figure 138. INROADS Scholar Alumni Have Helped to Expand the Black and Minority US Middle-Class

Income (Percent of Respondents) Net Worth (Percent of Respondents)

60% 57%
50% 47%
50%
40%
40%
29% 30%
30%
20% 20%
20% 20%
9%
10% 5% 10% 6% 4% 2% 1% 0% 0%
0%
0% 0%

$5-$10mn
<$25K

$1-$5mn

$50-$100mn
$500K-$1mn

$10-$25mn

$25-$20mn
$1-$50K

$100K-$250K

$250K-$500K

$100K-$500K
$50K-$100K

$50K-$100K
$25K - $50K

Home Ownership (Percent Respondents) Real Estate Ownership (Percent of Properties)

80% 76% 49%
50%
70% 45%

60% 40%
35%
50%
30%
40% 24%
25%
30% 24% 20% 17% 16%
15%
20% 10%
10%
10% 4% 3% 3%
5%
0% 0% 0% 0% 1%
0% 0%
Owner Non-Owner 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Source: Adam Davids, Fulbright Scholar hosted by INROADS and Director of Learning and Innovation CareerTrackers Australia, Citi Research

© 2020 Citigroup
92

What Is Citi Doing to Help Minority Women Advance in Technology?

Citi Foundation Supports NPower and their report Breaking Through, Rising Up; Strategies for Propelling
Women of Color in Technology

In May 2018, the Citi Foundation awarded a $1.64 million grant to NPower to increase the enrollment of young women
in its program from 25% to 40% by 2022 — now two years into this mission, enrollment rates are at 31%. In
September 2020, Citi Foundation announced it was expanding its partnership with NPower, including an additional $4
million investment, to help advance the careers of young Black and Latinx women in the technology field across six
U.S. cities.

To date, the intersection of gender, race, and class in technology has received little attention. NPower seeks to
address this discrepancy and highlight the core elements crucial to establishing a more equitable industry; with a
particular focus on women of color. Undeniably, achieving this goal will require intention, investment and innovation as
well as cross-sector awareness and action by practitioners and executives. With women making up just 26% of the
technology workforce and with Black and Latinx women making up just 3% and 1% of the computing workforce,
respectively, there is significant progress to be made.

NPower seeks to address inequality in providing free training in technology. Its aim is to correct diminished
access to early computing as a result of inequitable funding streams in high-poverty areas disproportionally affecting
minority groups. There are four key aspects to the program: (1) focusing on recruitment; (2) support services; (3)
instruction; and (4) job placement services. In combining the practical with the personable, the program is able to best
approach training for women of color. In using community-based organizations to expand applicant pools whilst
providing wraparound support services, the impact of the training and economic mobility provided to alumni can be
material. Moreover, in endeavoring to target classroom bias by providing female instructors, the program is also able
to provide applicable role models; challenging what is often seen as a barrier to motivation to join an industry. With
Citi’s support, the instructional staff at NPower has gone from one female instructor in 2018 to recruiting and
onboarding six additional female instructors two years later. This trend of inclusion is further emphasized within the job
placement aspect of the program, primarily in their drive to create strong partnerships with employers that
demonstrate successful and integrated diversity practices.

NPower supports utilization of a number of strategies that practitioners, employers, and funders can apply in
order to deliver a successful and minority favorable outcome. Particularly impactful is the suggestion for the
provision of flexible training provisions, such as online or at the weekend, whilst considering skill based hiring and
embracing non-traditional educational backgrounds. Moreover from a funding prospective, investing in wraparound
services such as childcare — with 19% of female and 10% of male students citing managing childcare responsibilities
as a significant challenge during the program — and transportation, deliver meaningful differences for participants.

NPower believes a number of policy levers for increasing opportunities for Women of Color in Technology
can also be widely applied to the minority population as a whole. Fundamentally, an expansion of funding for
apprenticeship programs as well as the expansion of Pell Grants to shorter term training programs would have a
positive impact, alongside the increased funding for childcare subsides, especially during non-traditional hours. To
provide sustainability, expanding family leave laws and strengthening pay parity laws would prove instrumental in
progressing towards a more equitable workplace, not just in technology, but in every industry.

Don’t Ask, Don’t Get: Advocate for One’s Career

Black workers can enhance their wage and Black workers should seek greater opportunities, including stretch assignments and
income prospects by advocating for their leadership roles. Ask for and accept constructive feedback during reviews in order
careers. to identify areas of strength and weakness. Request clear goals that constitute
success and review them with managers on a frequent basis. When it comes to
compensation ask for the raise, but also arm oneself with a list of accomplishments
warranting an increase. Ask employers where your salary lies within the range for
your duties. If outside of that range, ask for it to be rectified. Unfortunately, a study
by PayScale indicates that “People of color were significantly less likely than white
men to have received a raise when they asked for one.

© 2020 Citigroup
 93

Women of color were 19 percent less likely to have received a raise than a white
man and men of color were 25 percent less likely.”102 Nonetheless, if workers do not
ask for a raise, then they lower the likelihood of receiving one. Network and remain
visible, highlighting your successes with key stakeholders. Workers should seek
mentors, advocates, and sponsors to help navigate their careers within a corporate
setting. Join trade unions or professional clubs within your industry. Join or create
support groups with colleagues outside of your business to glean knowledge and to
build morale. Remain curious and retool one’s skillset in order to be prepared for
larger roles, greater responsibilities, and new opportunities.

 Consider starting a business: The U.S. Chamber of Congress and the SBA are
resources for Black-owned businesses to find sources for grants, financing, and
advice on how to run effective firms.

 Move: While a difficult decision, relocation may be the answer to improved jobs
prospects. Sixty five percent of the Black population resides in 16 states in the
U.S. However, according to a survey by McKinsey and Company, on average
these states rank below national averages in metrics that can lead to an
improved quality of life and wealth generation. Black workers, especially younger
workers can opt to move to states that are generating the most jobs in high
paying industries.

Figure 139. Black Workers Are Concentrated in States with Poor Economic Prospects Relative to National Average

McKinsey Leading State Index Scores: 2017

National
Average for 16 States With Above-Average Black Populations
60 55 53 52 53
49 47 51 49 50 48 51 49 51
47 48 48 48 50 49 47
50 46 46
41 43
40 40
40
32 31
30

20

10

0
Economy

Healthcare

Infrastructure

Quailty of

Healthcare

Healthcare
Stability

Opportunity

Broadband
Corrections

Opportunity

Employment
Education

Health
Public
Economic
Fiscal

Crime &

Access

Access
Quality
Life

Source: McKinsey & Company, Citi Research

“PayScale Research Shows People of Color Up to 25% Less Likely toRreceive a

102

Requested Pay Raise than White Men,” PayScale Inc., May 28, 2018.

© 2020 Citigroup
94

Figure 140. Black Workers Are Less Likely to Be Located In States With Rapid Growth in High Wage Sectors
Healthcare and Social Assistance Professional and Technical
5.0% 6.0%
Nevada Utah
Percent Job Growth (5-Yr Annualized Rate: 2013-2018)

Percent Job Growth (5-Yr Annualized Rate: 2013-2018)

4.5%
5.0%
4.0% North Carolina
Florida South Carolina
Arizona 4.0% Colorado NevadaTexas
3.5% Idaho Arizona Tennessee
Colorado Missouri
Utah Washington
California South Carolina Georgia
Massachusetts
3.0% Oregon Florida 3.0%OregonMinnesota
Delaware
Idaho Texas Indiana DC
2.5% Georgia ​
New Hampshire ​ Alabama
New York ​ ​ Rhode
​ Island Arkansas
​ ​ ​
​ ​ Virginia 2.0% ​ ​
Illinois New York
​​ Arkansas ​ ​ Virginia Maryland
2.0% ​ ​ Louisiana Michigan
​ New Jersey North Carolina ​ ​
​ Ohio ​ Mississippi
​ Tennessee Mississippi DC ​ New Jersey Louisiana
​​ ​ 1.0% ​ ​
1.5% ​ ​ Alabama
​ ​ ​
Michigan Maryland
​ ​ Ohio Delaware
1.0% ​ ​
​ Illinois 0.0%
​ 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%
0.5% ​

​ -1.0%
0.0% ​
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50%
-0.5% -2.0%
Black Persons as Share of Population: 2020 Black Persons as Share of Population: 2020

Financial Services Information and Communications

3.5% 6.0%
Arizona
Percent Job Growth (5-Yr Annualized Rate: 2013-2018)
Percent Job Growth (5-Yr Annualized Rate: 2013-2018)

Washington
3.0%
Florida
4.0%
Wyoming Utah California Nevada North Carolina
2.5% North Carolina Arizona
Georgia DC
Colorado ​ South Carolina
Texas Delaware 2.0% ​ New York
IdahoUtah ​ Tennessee
2.0% ​
Tennessee Georgia ​ ​
Florida
Virginia ​​ ​ ​ ​ Michigan
​ ​
Ohio Virginia Alabama
1.5% 0.0% ​ ​ Illinois
​​ ​ ​ ​
South Carolina DC 0% ​ ​ ​ 10% ​ 20% 30% 40% 50%
​ Arkansas ​ New Jersey Maryland Mississippi
​ ​ ​ ​ Michigan ​
New York
1.0% Alabama ​ ​
​ -2.0% ​ Delaware Louisiana
​​ ​ ​ ​​
​
0.5% ​ ​ New Jersey
​ Illinois
Mississippi
-4.0% Arkansas
​ Maryland Louisiana
0.0% ​ ​
​
0% ​ 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50% ​
​ ​
​​ -6.0%
-0.5% ​

-1.0% -8.0%
Black Persons as Share of Population: 2020 Black Persons as Share of Population: 2020

Source: BEA, World Population Review, Citi Research

Embrace Delayed Gratification and Risk

Investment is an important tool for Financial literacy and engaging with more traditional forms of financial services are
generating wealth ways that Black families can learn to budget and adjust spending in order to
generate savings. Savings are critical for generating wealth via investments in
homes, retirement and college savings vehicles, businesses, and financial assets.
Indeed, a 2017 Gallup poll revealed that only 36 percent of Black respondents
compared to 60 percent of white respondents cited investments in the stock market
(Figure 141).103 This is despite one fifth to one quarter of people in the US believing
that stocks are a good long-term investment in recent years (Figure 142).104 Actions
that generate wealth require delayed gratification and a measure of risk, but can
often lead to positive returns over the longer run.

103 Jones, J.M., “U.S. Stock Ownership Down Among All but Older, Higher-Income,”
Gallup, May 24, 2017.
104 McCarthy, J., “Stock Investments Lose Some Luster After COVID-19 Sell-Off,”

Gallup, April 24, 2020.

© 2020 Citigroup
 95

Operation Hope and Dfree are notable organizations that advocate financial literacy
as an avenue for achieving financial independence, often known as “silver rights.”
Online brokerage firms that require smaller initial investments and reduced fees, as
well as investment clubs are ways that families with modest incomes can begin to
invest in their futures. Families with greater means can seek professional advice
from brokers and financial advisors. All persons working at jobs with pension funds
and/or retirement savings vehicles (IRAs, 401Ks) should take advantage of them,
especially early in one’s career.

Figure 141. Black People Less Likely to Own Stocks than White People Figure 142. A Significant Share of Americans Favor Stock Holdings
U.S. Stock Ownership Which Do You Think is the Best Long-Term
70% (Percent of Respondants, 2017) Investment?

60% 40%
60%
35% 34% 34% 35% 35%
35%
34% 31%
50% 30%
30% 28%
40% 36% 37%
25% 25% 25%24% 25% 27%
26% 26%
30% 24% 22%
19% 20% 22% 21%
20% 20% 19%
17% 18% 17% 17%
20%
15% 17% 19%
16% 16%
14%
10% 14% 14% 15% 15% 13% 15% 15%
10%
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
0% Real Estate Stocks/Mutual Funds
White Black Hispanic Savings Accounts/CDs Gold
Source: Gallup, Citi Research Source: Gallup, Citi Research

Utilize Political Power

Black persons can use the power of the Many people are utilizing the #BlackLivesMatter movement as an opportunity to
purse and political activism to advance speak out against and address racial disparities of all stripes in the United States.
closure of racial gaps Even ordinary persons can use their wallets to challenge firms to change practices
that perpetuate inequality. Meanwhile, shareholders can use their influence over
corporate executives to advance change. Every citizen having the right to vote
should exercise it. Those willing to have a more direct hand in effecting change at
the institutional level can engage in political activism by running for office or
supporting elected officials with finances and time. While the number of Black
politicians, particularly at the Federal level, remains few, the numbers have been on
the rise, and likely will continue to do so (Figure 144).

© 2020 Citigroup
96

Figure 143. Number of Blacks in Congress is Small but Steadily Climbing Figure 144. Blacks in Federal Positions Have Increased
Number of Black U.S. Representatives 30%
60
25%

50 20%

15%
40
10%

30 5%

0%

Carter
Johnson

Ford

Reagan, term 1

Reagan, term 2

G.H.W. Bush

Clinton, term 1

Clinton, term 2

Trump, to date
Nixon, term 1

Nixon, term 2

G.W. Bush, term 1

G.W. Bush, term 2

Obama, term 1

Obama, term 2
20

10

0
1965 1975 1985 1995 2005 2015

Source: Pew Research Center, Citi Research Source: Pew Research Center, Citi Research

© 2020 Citigroup
Citi Global Perspectives & Solutions (Citi GPS) is designed to help our clients
navigate the global economy’s most demanding challenges, identify future themes and
trends, and help our clients profit in a fast-changing and interconnected world. Citi GPS
accesses the best elements of our global conversation and harvests the thought
leadership of a wide range of senior professionals across the firm.

All Citi GPS reports are available on our website www.citi.com/citigps

Negative Interest Rates ePrivacy & Data Protection

Where Is the Real Limit to Data Privacy & its Influence
Cheap Money? on AI Ethics, Competition &
July 2020 Tech Evolution
July 2020
Technology at Work v5.0 5G and Mobile Operators
The New Normal of Remote Is Virtual Becoming Real?
Work April 2020
June 2020

Closing the Loop on Global Disruptive Innovations VII

Recycling Ten More Things to Stop and
Finding a Global Solution to Think About
the Patchwork of Recycling February 2020
February 2020
Building a TCFD With Teeth Banking the Next Billion
What the Markets Need to Digital Financial Inclusion in
Price Climate Risk Action
February 2020 January 2020

Experiential Commerce Investment Themes in 2020

A Brave New World January 2020
January 2020

Corporate Finance Car of the Future v4.0 –

Priorities 2020 2020 Update
January 2020 The Race for the Future of
Networked Mobility
January 2020
The Global Art Market Education: Power to the
Drivers of Evolution People
December 2019 Exploring Opportunities for
Private Capital in Education
November 2019
Digitizing Governments Electric Aircraft
The Journey to Enacting a Flightpath of the Future of Air
Digital Agenda Travel
October 2019 September 2019
Energy Darwinism III For Better Or Worse, Has
The Electrifying Path to Net Globalization Peaked?
Zero Carbon Understanding Global
September 2019 Integration
August 2019

Factory of the Future Technology at Work v4.0

Flexible, Digitized, and Navigating the Future of Work
Sustainable June 2019
July 2019

Video Games: Cloud Managing Cyber Risk with

Invaders Human Intelligence
Bracing for the Netflix-ization A Practical Approach
of Gaming May 2019
June 2019

Bank X 2019 Corporate Finance

The New New Banks Priorities
March 2019 January 2019

Investment Themes in 2019 Car of the Future 4.0

January 2019 The Race for the Future of
Networked Mobility
January 2019

China’s Belt and Road Feeding the Future

Initiative How Innovation and Shifting
A Progress Report Consumer Preferences Can
December 2018 Help Feed a Growing Planet
November 2018
Migration and the Rethinking Single-Use Plastics
Economy Responding to a Sea Change in
Economic Realities, Social Consumer Behavior
Impact, & Political Choices August 2018
September 2018

Disruptive Innovations VI Putting the Band Back

Ten More Things to Stop and Together
Think About Remastering the World of Music
August 2018 August 2018

UN Sustainable Electric Vehicles

Development Goals Ready(ing) For Adoption
A Systematic Framework for June 2018
Aligning Investment
June 2018
 99

Notes:

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Notes:

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 101

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