Reservoir System Oct 2013-2 PDF

RESERVOIR SYSTEM
H.P.SEPTORATNO SIREGAR
CONTENTS (1)
• INTRODUCTION
• ROCK PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
• FLUID PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
• OIL AND GAS RESERVES CALCULATION
(ASSET)
• RESERVOIR DRIVING MECHANISMS
• FLUID FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA:
EQUATIONS AND ITS APPLICATIONS
• PRODUCTIVITY
CONTENTS (2)
• PREDICTION OF RESERVOIR
PERFORMANCE
• DECLINE CURVE ANALYSIS
• MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION
• WATER INFLUX
• WATER CONING
• RESERVOIR SIMULATION: AN
INTRODUCTION
RESERVOIR ENGINEERING
MAY BE DEFINED AS (REF:CRAFT,
HAWKINS, REV. BY TERRY)
•―THE APPLICATION OF SCIENTIFIC
PRINCIPLES TO THE DRAINAGE
PROBLEMS ARISING DURING THE
DEVELOPMENT AND PRODUCTION OF
OIL AND GAS RESERVOIRS‖
•TO OBTAIN A HIGH ECONOMIC
RECOVERY
RESERVOIR ENGINEERING
TOOLS
• SUBSURFACE GEOLOGY
• APPLIED MATHEMATICS
• BASIC PHYSICS
• BASIC CHEMISTRY
• DRILLING ENGINEERING
PETROLEUM
• PRODUCTION ENGINEERING
ENGINEERING
• PIPELINE ENGINEERING
SOURCE: L.P.DAKE
INTRODUCTION (1)
• OVERVIEW OF RESERVOIR SYSTEM
– REGIONAL BASIN
– STRUCTURE OR FIELD
– FLUIDS: OIL, GAS, WATER
– TRAP (STRUCTURAL, STRATIGRAPHIC)
– IMPERMEABLE LAYER
– RESERVOIR ROCKS
• TYPES
• POROSITY, ABSOLUTE PERMEABILITY
INTRODUCTION (2)
– FLUIDS-ROCK INTERACTION
(PETROPHYSICS):
• EFFECTIVE AND RELATIVE PERMEABILITY
• CAPILLARY PRESSURE
• WETTABILITY
• INTERFACIAL TENSION
• SATURATION (O,W,G) & DISTRIBUTION
– RESERVOIR DYNAMICS:
• PRESSURE , VOLUME, TEMPERATURE
• PRESSURE DEPENDENT ROCK AND FLUID
PROPERTIES
• FLUID FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA
INTRODUCTION (3)
– INITIAL OR ORIGINAL OIL AND GAS IN
PLACE
– RECOVERY FACTOR
– DRIVING MECHANISMS
• EXTERNAL FACTORS:
– INFLUX (NATURAL OR INJECTION)
– GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT
– OVERBURDEN PRESSURE
COMPACTION
INTRODUCTION (4)
– CONSTRAINTS:
• PHYSICAL BOUNDARIES
• LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE REGULATIONS
• SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT
• NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
• CONTRACT LIFE / DURATION
• ECONOMICS
PETROLEUM GEOLOGY
HOW IS PETROLEUM FORMED?
Petroleum is result of the deposition of plant or animal matter
in areas which are slowly subsiding. These areas are usually
in the sea or along its margins in coastal lagoons or marshes,
occasionally in lakes or inland swamps. Sediments are
deposited along with that at least part of the organic matter is
preserved by burial before being destroyed by decay. As time
goes on and the areas continue to sink slowly, the organic
material is buried deeper an hence is exposed to higher
temperatures and pressures. Eventually chemical changes
result in the generation of petroleum, a complex, highly
variable mixture of hydrocarbons.
WHAT IS ―TRAP‖ ?
The term ―trap‖ was first applied to a

hydrocarbon accumulation by Orton: ―…stocks
of oil and gas might be reaped in the summits
of folds or arches found along their way to
higher ground .‖A detailed historical account of
the subsequent evolution of the concept and
etymology of the term trap is found in Dott and
Reynolds(1969).
WHERE CAN WE FIND PETROLEUM ?
Hydrocarbons—crude oil and natural gas—

are found in certain layers of rock that are
usually buried deep beneath the surface of
the earth.
WHAT MAKE A RESERVOIR?
• SOURCE ROCK: ORGANIC MATTERS
BECOME HYDROCARBON AT HIGH
P&T
• PATHWAY
• RESERVOIR ROCK: POROUS &
PERMEABLE ROCK WHICH FORMS A
TRAP BY STRUCTURAL AND/OR
STRATIGRAPHIC FEATURES , SALT
DOME TRAP OR HYDRODYNAMIC
TRAP (LESS COMMON)
SOURCE:WIKIPEDIA
OIL & GAS RESERVOIR
SOURCE:WIKIPEDIA
Screenshot of a structure map generated
by Contour map software for an 8500ft
deep gas & Oil reservoir in the Erath
field,Vermilion Parish, Erath, Louisiana.
The left-to-right gap, near the top of
the contour mapindicates a Fault line. This
fault line is between the blue/green contour
lines and the purple/red/yellow contour
lines. The thin red circular contour line in
the middle of the map indicates the top of
the oil reservoir. Because gas floats above
oil, the thin red contour line marks the
gas/oil contact zone.
SOURCE:WIKIPEDIA
FOLD / STRUCTURAL TRAP FAULT /STRUCTURAL TRAP
SOURCE: WIKIPEDIA
PINCHOUT
SOURCE: WIKIPEDIA
PRODUCTION FROM PETROLEUM
RESERVOIRS
• NATURAL RESERVOIR ENERGY
– FLUID EXPANSION (VOLUMETRIC RESERVOIR)
– FLUID DISPLACEMENT: INFLUX
– GRAVITATIONAL DRAINAGE
– CAPILLARY EXPULSION
• INJECTED ENERGY
– WATER:WATERFLOOD, GAS (GAS CYCLING, GAS
FLOODING)
– STEAM (HEAT): HUFF & PUFF, STEAMFLOOD
– IN SITU COMBUSTION
– CHEMICALS, BACTERIA
– OTHERS:ELECTRICITY,VIBRATION
RESERVOIR TYPES (1)
SOURCE:http://www.metu.edu.tr/~kok/pete110/PETE110_CHAPTER6.pdf
RESERVOIR TYPES (2)
http://www.metu.edu.tr/~kok/pete110/PETE110_CHAPTER6.pdf
RESERVOIR TYPES (3)
RESERVOIR TYPES (4)
RESERVOIR TYPES (5)
P-T Diagram
(Ref:Craft,Hawkins,rev’d by:Terry)
Phase Diagram of a Cap Gas & Oil Zone Fluid
showing Retrograde Cap Gas
(Ref:Craft,Hawkins,rev’d:Terry)
Phase Diagram of a Cap Gas and Oil Zone Fluid
showing Non-Retrograde Cap Gas
(Ref:Craft,Hawkins,rev’d:Terry)
ROCK PROPERTIES
POROSITY
As the sediments were deposited and the rocks were being

formed during past geological times, some void spaces that
developed became isolated from the other void spaces by
excessive cementation. Thus, many of the void spaces are
interconnected while some of the pore spaces are
completely isolated. This leads to two distinct types of
porosity, namely:
• Absolute porosity
• Effective porosity
SOURCE:Univ of Petrol.& Minerals, Saudi Arabia
ROCK PROPERTIES
POROSITY
The porosity of a rock is a measure of the storage
capacity (pore volume)that is capable of holding fluids.
Quantitatively, the porosity is the ratio of the pore
volume to the total volume (bulk volume). This important
rock property is determined mathematically by the
following generalized relationship:
where f = porosity
Absolute porosity
The absolute porosity is defined as the ratio of the total pore space in
the rock to that of the bulk volume. A rock may have considerable
absolute porosity and yet have no conductivity to fluid for lack of pore
interconnection. The absolute porosity is generally expressed
mathematically by the following relationships:
or
where fa = absolute porosity.

Effective porosity
The effective porosity is the percentage of interconnected

pore space with respect to the bulk volume, or
where f = effective porosity.

MEASUREMENT OF POROSITY : DIRECT METHOD
BULKVOLUME  GRAINVOLUME
=
BULKVOLUME
SOURCE: Dr.S.A.ABU KHAMSIN,UPM,S.ARABIA

ESTIMATION OF POROSITY
INDIRECT METHODS:
• SONIC (ACOUSTIC) LOG
• FORMATION DENSITY (GAMMA RAY)
LOG
One important application of the effective porosity is its use
in determining the original hydrocarbon volume in place.
Consider a reservoir with an areal extent of A acres and an
average thickness of h feet. The total bulk volume of the
reservoir can be determined from the following
expressions:
Bulk volume = 43,560 A h, ft3
or
Bulk volume = 7,758 A h, bbl
where A = areal extent, acres

h = average thickness, feet
PERMEABILITY
Permeability is a property of the porous medium
that measures the capacity and ability of the
formation to transmit fluids. The rock permeability,
k, is a very important rock property because it
controls the directional movement and the flow
rate of the reservoir fluids in the formation. This
rock characterization was first defined
mathematically by Henry Darcy in 1856. In fact,
the equation that defines permeability in terms of
measurable quantities is called Darcy’s Law.
PERMEABILITY CORRELATIONS
• FOR CLEAN SANDSTONE ROCK:
k = a b
WHERE ―a‖ AND ―b‖ ARE EMPIRICAL

CONSTANTS
ROCK COMPRESSIBILITY (1)
1  dv 
DEFINITION:
c =   
v  dp T
WHERE:
c = ISOTHERMAL COMPRESSIBILITY
THE UNITS ARE IN RECIPROCAL PRESSURE
UNITS
v = VOLUME
p = PRESSURE
THE EQUATION DESCRIBES THE CHANGE IN VOLUME

THAT A SUBSTANCE UNDERGOES DURING A CHANGE
IN PRESSURE WHILE THE TEMPERATURE IS HELD
CONSTANT
ROCK COMPRESSIBILITY (2):
Vertical, drained compressibilities[2]
Material β (m²/N or Pa-1)
Plastic clay 2×10–6 – 2.6×10–7
Stiff clay 2.6×10–7 – 1.3×10–7
Medium-hard clay 1.3×10–7 – 6.9×10–8
Loose sand 1×10–7 – 5.2×10–8
Dense sand 2×10–8 – 1.3×10–8
Dense, sandy gravel 1×10–8 – 5.2×10–9
Rock, fissured 6.9×10–10 – 3.3×10–10
Rock, sound <3.3×10–10
Water at 25 °C (undrained)[3] 4.6×10–10
NOTE: 1 psi = 6.894757 kPa ≈ 7 kPa = 7000 Pa

• WHEN THE INTERNAL FLUID PRESSURE WITHIN
THE PORE SPACES OF A ROCK, WHICH IS
SUBJECTED TO A CONSTANT EXTERNAL (ROCK OR
OVERBURDEN) PRESSURE, IS REDUCED , THE
BULK VOLUME OF THE ROCK DECREASES WHILE
THE VOLUME OF THE SOLID ROCK MATERIAL
(E.G.,THE SAND GRAINS OF A SANDSTONE)
INCREASES
• BOTH OF THESE VOLUME CHANGES REDUCE THE
POROSITY OF THE ROCK (SLIGHTLY)
• APPX. 0.5% FOR A 1000 PSI INTERNAL FLUID
PRESSURE CHANGE, E.G., AT Φ = 20% TO 19.9%
• CLIMESTONE & SANDSTONE RES.ROCK =
2x10-6 – 25x10-6 psi-1
• CORRELATIONS BY NEWMAN:
– FOR SANDSTONE: 6
97.3200(10)
cf =
(1  55.8721)1.42859
(FOR 0.02 < Φ < 0.23)

– FOR LIMESTONE:
0.853531
cf =
{1  2.47664(10 )}
6 0.92990
(FOR 0.02 < Φ < 0.33)

MEASUREMENT OF ROCK COMPRESSIBILITY

SATURATION
• OIL SATURATION IS THE FRACTION OF THE PORE
SPACE OCCUPIED BY OIL
• MOST OIL RESERVOIRS ALSO CONTAIN SOME
CONNATE WATER (NON-MOVABLE)
• SATURATION IS RARELY 100%; USUALLY RANGES
FROM 10% TO 90% (IN THE OIL / WATER
TRANSITION ZONES)
• MOST RESERVOIRS ARE WATER WET AND
CONTAIN CONNATE WATER
• WATER SATURATION MAY RANGE FROM 10% TO
50% FOR AN OIL OR GAS RESERVOIR AND IS 100%
FOR AN AQUIFER
• THE WATER SATURATION OBVIOUSLY AFFECTS
THE OIL AND GAS RESERVES
ARCHIE’S EQUATION:
RELATIVE PERMEABILITY VS SATURATION
SOURCE:
DR.PAUL GLOVER
SOURCE: DR.PAUL GLOVER
GAS PROPERTIES
• EQUATION OF STATE:
– IDEAL GAS LAW: p V = n R T
• p : ABSOLUTE PRESSURE, PSIA
• V: TOTAL VOLUME, CU FT
• n: POUND-MOLES (LB-MOLES)
• T: ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE, OR
• R: GAS CONSTANT = 10.73
MW
SGGAS = , WHERE: MW=MOLECULAR
28.97 WEIGHT
ISOTHERMS OF AN IDEAL GAS
T6
T3
T1
GAS PROPERTIES
– REAL GAS LAW : p Va = n z R T
Va ACTUAL VOLUME OF n MOLES OF GAS AT T AND p

z= =
Vi IDEAL VOLUME OF n MOLES OF GAS AT T AND p
– REDUCED TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE:
T P
TR = and PR =
TC PC
– TC AND PC: CRITICAL TEMPERATURE AND
PRESSURE
GAS CRITICAL PROPERTIES
IF THE COMPOSITION OR CRITICAL PROPERTIES OF

INDIVIDUAL COMPONENTS ARE NOT KOWN, USE
SUTTON CORRELATION:
COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR
REDUCED PRESSURE (PR)

GAS FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR
pSC zT
Bg =
TSC p
zT
Bg = 0.02829 cuft / SCF
p
zT
Bg = 0.00504 bbl / SCF
p
GAS DENSITY
28.97( SGg )( p)
g = lb / cuft
zRT
ISOTHERMAL COMPRESSIBILITY OF
GAS
1 dV 1 1 dz
c= , THUS cg = 
V dp p z dp
FOR AN IDEAL GAS, Z=1 AND (DZ/DP) = 0,
1
cg =
p
EX: AT 1000 PSIA, Cg OF AN IDEAL GAS = 1/1000
OR 10-3 PSI-1
VISCOSITY OF GAS
CRUDE OIL PROPERTIES
FLASH & DIFFERENTIAL LIBERATION
FLASH DIFFERENTIAL
• GAS REMAINS IN CONTACT • ONLY GAS IS PRO-
WITH LIQUID DUCED;REMOVED FROM
• SYSTEM VOLUME INCREASES CONTACT WITH LIQUID
AS PRESSURE DECLINES
• CONSTANT COMPOSITION, • CONSTANT VOLUME,
CHANGING VOLUME CHANGING COMPOSITION
• LAB & CALCULATIONS: • RETROGRADE CONDENSATE
SIMPLER WITH FLASH RESERVOIR DEPLETION:
DIFFERENTIAL
STANDING CORRELATION
for p≤pb
OIL FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR
•When oil is produced, the high reservoir temperature
and pressure decreases to surface conditions and gas
bubbles out of the oil.
•As the gas bubbles out of the oil, the volume of the oil
decreases. Stabilized oil under surface conditions
(either 60 F and 14.7 psi or 15 C and 101.325 kPa) is
called stock tank oil.
•Oil reserves are calculated in terms of stock tank oil
volumes rather than reservoir oil volumes.
•Oil formation volume factor ( Bo ) can be defined as
ratio of Volume at reservoir condition to Volume at
the surface condition (at 60F and 14.7psi).
•It usually varies from 1.0 to 1.7. A formation volume
factor of 1.4 is characteristic of high-shrinkage oil and
1.2 of low-shrinkage oil.(Source: Wikipedia)
RS & BO vs P
OIL FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR
TWO PHASE FVF:
Bt = Bo  Bg ( Rsoi  Rso )
ABOVE Pb: Rsoi = Rso,
THUS Bt = Bo
FOR P>Pb: STANDING CORRELATION
Bo = Bob exp[co ( pb  p)]

OIL ISOTHERMAL COMPRESSIBILITY
1 dV
co = 
V dp
SOME CORRELATIONS TO ESTIMATE CO:
•VILLENA-LANZI
•VASQUEZ & BEGGS
OIL VISCOSITY
SOURCE: ABEDINI ET AL
WATER PROPERTIES
• PROPERTIES OF FORMATION WATERS ARE
AFFECTED BY:
– TEMPERATURE
– PRESSURE
– QUANTITY OF SOLUTION GAS
– DISSOLVED SOLIDS
• WATER COMPRESSIBILITY AFFECTS:
– PRODUCTION OF VOLUMETRIC RESERVOIR ABOVE THE
BUBBLE POINT
– WATER INFLUX IN WATER DRIVE RESERVOIRS
RESERVES DEFINITION (SPE)
• INITIAL OIL IN PLACE
• INITIAL GAS IN PLACE
• RESERVES
• RECOVERY FACTOR
RESERVES CATEGORY
• PROVED
– DEVELOPED
• PRODUCING
• NON PRODUCING
– UNDEVELOPED
• UNPROVED
– PROBABLE
– POSSIBLE
DEFINITION OF RESERVES
RESERVES ARE ESTIMATED VOLUMES OF
CRUDE OIL, CONDENSATE, NATURAL GAS,
NATURAL GAS LIQUIDS, AND ASSOCIATED
MARKETABLE SUBSTANCES ANTICIPATED TO
BE COMMERCIALLY RECOVERABLE AND
MARKETABLE FROM A GIVEN DATE
FORWARD, UNDER EXISTING ECONOMIC
CONDITIONS, BY ESTABLISHED OPERATING
PRACTICES, AND UNDER CURRENT
GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS (REF:JPT FROM
SPE,1981)
RESERVES ESTIMATE
METHODS
• ANALOGY
• VOLUMETRIC
• MATERIAL BALANCE
• SIMULATION
• DECLINE CURVE
RESERVES ESTIMATE METHODS (1)
• BY ANALOGY:
REQUIRED STRENGTH WEAKNESS
•FIELD OR •FAST NOT ACCU-

WELL WITH •CHEAP RATE
SIMILAR •COULD BE
CHARACTERIS
TICS DONE
•REGIONAL BEFORE
KNOWLEDGE DRILLING
• VOLUMETRIC
•WELL LOG •FAST •INACCURA
•CORE •COULD BE CY IN AREA
•REC FAC- DONE WITH AND RF
TOR (RF) LIMITED
•FLUID PRO- DATA
PERTIES,DST (EARLY
SAMPLING LIFE)
•PROD TEST
•SUBSURFACE
MAP
• MATERIAL BALANCE
•PRESSURE •COULD •PRESSURE
VS.TIME ESTIMATE DATA ARE
•PRODUC- IOIP,IGIP, P, NOT AL-
TION DATA RESERVES, WAYS
•FLUID & WATER IN- AVAILABLE
ROCK DA- FLUX, GAS
TA CAP SIZE,
DRIVING
MECHANISM
• RESERVOIR SIMULATION
•FOR EACH •COULD •COSTLY

CELL:K,Ø,H,D, CAPTURE •TIME CONSU-
SWI,PI, CR VARIATIONS MING
•FOR EACH •CAN PREDICT •REQUIRE
PROD FROM
WELL: LOCA- EACH WELL MANY DATA
TION,PROD
INTERVAL, P VS.
T, Q VS. T,
ELEVATION
• RESERVOIR SIMULATION (CONT’D)
•FOR EACH •CAN PREDICT •GOOD HISTORY

ROCK TYPE: VARIOUS PROD MATCH DOES
KRO,KRW,KRG, SCHEME NOT
PC GUARANTEE
•FOR EACH GOOD
FLUID:BI,µI,RS, ρi PREDICTION
•CONTINUITY
•GRID SPEC:
SIZE, SHAPE
• DECLINE CURVE ANALYSIS
PRODUCTION •FAST ANALYSIS IS
DATA •CHEAP DONE FOR
•DOES NOT CONSTANT
WELL CONDI-
NEED TION
RESERVOIR
SIZE, FLUID
TYPE
•ACCURATE
•USER
FRIENDLY
Magnitude of uncertainty in reserves estimates(ref:www.petrobjects.com)
RESERVES ESTIMATION PROCESS
• DETERMINISTIC • PROBABILISTIC
• MORE COMMON • LESS COMMON
• SELECT A SINGLE • USE DISTRIBUTION
VALUE FOR EACH CURVE FOR EACH
PARAMETER PARAMETER
• THEN USE MONTE
CARLO SIMULATION
(USE RANDOM
NUMBER)TO GET
THE ANSWER
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
(REF:WWW.PETROBJECTS.COM)
PERCENTILES
VOLUMETRIC CALCULATION
7758.VB .f.(1  SWI )

• OIL: N=
BOI
43, 560.VB .f .(1 SWI )
• GAS:
G I =
BGI
BULK VOLUME CALCULATION
• PYRAMID
• TRAPEZOID (USED WHEN AREA 1 /
AREA 2 > 0.5)
Typical net pay isopach contour map
Example #1: Given the following data for
the Hout oil field in Saudi Arabia
Area = 26,700 acres
Net productive thickness = 49 ft
Porosity = 8%
Average Swi = 45%
Initial reservoir pressure, pi = 2980 psia
Bo at pi = 1.68 bbl/STB
Sor after water invasion = 20%
Calculate the Initial Oil in Place

Solution:
•Let’s start by calculating the reservoir bulk
volume:
Vb = 7758 x A x h = 7758 x 26,700 x 49 =
10.15 MMM bbl
•The initial oil in place is given by:

Vbf (1  S wi )
N=
Boi
10.15 x10 (0.08)(1  0.45)
9
N=
1.68
N  266MMSTB
RECOVERY FACTOR

• GAS RES: RF = 100 1  GI %
B 
 
(NO WD)  BGA 
• GAS RES: 1001  SWI  SGR 
RF = %
(ACTIVE 1  SWI
WTR DRIVE)
RECOVERY FACTOR
• OIL RES: RF =
1  SW  SOR 
(WD) 1  SW
• API CORRELATION:
– SOLUTION GAS RESERVOIR
– WATER DRIVE RESERVOIR
Example problem
RF =
1  SW  SOR 
1  SW
(1  0.45  0.2)
RF =
(1  0.45)
RF = 0.63
RECOVERY FACTOR
• GUTHRIE & GREENBERGER
CORRELATION (FOR WD,SANDSTONE
RES):
RF=0.114+0.272 LOG K+0.256 SW - 0.136

log μo-1.538 Ø – 0.00035 h
REC. FACTOR STATISTICS
HEAVY OIL 5-15 %
LIGHT
OIL,SOLUTION 10-25%
GAS DRIVE
LIGHT
OIL,WATER
DRIVE 20-35%
AND/OR GAS
CAP
LIGHT
OIL,GRAVITY 30-45%
DRAINAGE
SOURCE: A.K.PERMADI,DIKTAT TEK RES I

ILLUSTRATION OF RF FROM
VOLUMETRIC GAS RESERVOIR
 BGI 
RF = 1001  
 BGA 
•RF FOR VOLUMETRIC GAS RESERVOIR:80 – 90% :
•SOME GAS PIPELINE COMPANIES USE AN
ABANDONMENT PRESSURE OF 100 PSI PER 1000
FT OF DEPTH
•EXAMPLE: GAS FVF AT INITIAL RESERVOIR
PRESSURE IS 0.00533 CUFT/SCF AND AT 500 PSIA
IT IS 0.03623. THEN:
 0.00533 
RF = 1001   = 85%
 0.03623 
ILLUSTRATION OF RF FROM GAS
RESERVOIRS UNDER WATER DRIVE
1  SWI SGR 
100  
 B BGA 
RF = GI
1  SWI 
 B 
 GI 
EXAMPLE: A FIELD IS PRODUCED UNDER A WATER DRIVE
SUCH THAT THE PRESSURE STABILIZES AT 1500 PSIA. IF
THE RESIDUAL GAS SATURATION IS 24% AND THE GAS
FVF AT 1500 PSIA IS 0.01122 CUFT/SCF, THEN
 (1  0.23) 0.24 
100 
 0.00533 0.0112 
RF = = 85%
 1  0.23 
 0.00533 
RESERVOIRS UNDER WATER DRIVE
• IF THE WATER DRIVE IS VERY
ACTIVE,THUS NO DECLINE OF
PRESSURE, THEN:
1001  SWI  SGR 
RF = %
1  SWI
FOR THE PREVIOUS EXAMPLE, ASSUMING A
RESIDUAL GAS SATURATION OF 24%,THEN:
1001  0.23  0.24
RF = = 69%
1  0.23
RESERVOIRS
• COMPARING WITH THE PREVIOUS
EXAMPLE IN VOLUMETRIC
RESERVOIR, BECAUSE THE RESIDUAL
GAS SATURATION IS INDEPENDENT
OF THE PRESSURE, THE RECOVERY
WILL BE GREATER FOR THE LOWER
STABILIZATION PRESSURE
DECLINE CURVE ANALYSIS
• USER FRIENDLY
• TYPES:
– EXPONENTIAL
– HARMONIC
– HYPERBOLIC
• VARIOUS CURVE VARIABLES:
– RATE VS TIME
– RATE VS CUMULATIVE PRODUCTION
– LOG OIL CUT VS CUMULATIVE PROD
– SUB SEA ELEVATION VS CUM PROD
– LOG CUM GAS PROD VS LOG CUM OIL PROD
RESERVOIR DRIVE MECHANISM
• SOLUTION GAS DRIVE OR DEPLETION
DRIVE
– SOURCE OF ENERGY: OIL SWELLS WHEN
SOLUTION GAS EXPAND DUE TO
PRESSURE REDUCTION
– RF: UP TO 15-20%
– COULD BE IDENTIFIED BY CURVE:
• P VS T
• PWF VS Q
• GOR VS T (OR P)
• WATER DRIVE
– SOURCE OF ENERGY: AQUIFER
– RF: UP TO 30-40%
• P VS T
• PWF VS Q
• GAS CAP DRIVE
– SOURCE OF ENERGY:FREE GAS
EXPANSION
– RF: UP TO 25-35%
• PWF VS Q
PWF
qo
• IDENTIFICATION BY MBE:
DDI + WDI + SDI = 1
WHY IS RF ―SMALL‖?
• RANGE:10%-30% (NATURAL
DEPLETION / PRIMARY RECOVERY)
• COULD WE INCREASE RF?
– SECONDARY RECOVERY
– ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY (EOR)
– IMPROVED OIL RECOVERY (IOR)
• OIL TRAPPED IN POROUS MEDIA BY
CAPILLARY FORCES
INTERACTION OF FORCES
THREE FORCES:
• VISCOUS FORCES : μv
• GRAVITY FORCES : ∆ρ
• CAPILLARY FORCES : σ
FLUID FLOW IN POROUS
RESERVOIRS (1)
• Q - ∆P RELATIONSHIP
• DARCY LAW
• PERMEABILITY (K)
• POROSITY (Ø)
• CAPILLARY PRESSURE (PC)
• RELATIVE PERMEABILITY
(KRO,KRW,KRG): 1-PHASE, 2-PHASE,3-
PHASE FLOW
FLUID FLOW IN POROUS
RESERVOIRS (2)
• INTERFACIAL TENSION (σOW)
• INFLUENCE OF SATURATION ON PC &
KRO/KRW, KRO/KRG,KRG/KRW
• OIL SATURATION IS DECREASING
WITH PRODUCTION TIME, THUS OIL
FLOW IS ALSO DECREASING
CLASSIFICATION OF RESERVOIR FLOW
SISTEMS
ACCORDING TO:
• TYPE OF FLUID
• GEOMETRY OF THE RESERVOIR
• RELATIVE RATE AT WHICH THE FLOW
APPROACHES A STEADY-STATECONDITION
FOLLOWING A DISTURBANCE
FLUID TYPES:
• INCOMPRESSIBLE
• SLIGHTLY COMPRESSIBLE
• COMPRESSIBLE
DARCY’S LAW
k  dp 
v = 0.001127   0.433 cos  
  ds 
v, bbls/day-ft2
k, md
μ, cp
p, psia
s, ft
γ, dimensionless
α, dip angle, degrees
Darcy developed a fluid flow equation that
has since become one of the standard
mathematical tools of the petroleum
engineer. If a horizontal linear flow of an
incompressible fluid is established through
a core sample of length L and a cross-
section of area A, then the governing fluid
flow equation is defined as
where n = apparent fluid flowing velocity,
cm/sec
k = proportionality constant, or permeability,
Darcys
 = viscosity of the flowing fluid, cp
dp/dL = pressure drop per unit length,
atm/cm
The apparent velocity is determined by
dividing the flow rate by the cross-sectional
area across which fluid is flowing.
Substituting the relationship, q/A, in place of

n in the above equation and solving for q
results in
where q = flow rate through the

porous medium, cm3/sec
A = cross-sectional area across
which flow occurs, cm2
One Darcy is a relatively high permeability as
the permeabilities of most reservoir rocks are
less than one Darcy. In order to avoid the use of
fractions in describing permeabilities, the term
millidarcy is used. As the term indicates, one
millidarcy, i.e., 1 md, is equal to one-thousandth
of one Darcy or, 1 Darcy = 1000 md
The negative sign in Equation is necessary as
the pressure increases in one direction while
the length increases in the opposite direction.
CLASSIFICATION OF RESERVOIR FLOW
SYSTEMS
ACCORDING TO:
• TYPE OF FLUID
• RESERVOIR GEOMETRY
• RELATIVE RATE OF APPROACHING STEADY
STATE CONDITION
FOR ENGINEERING PURPOSES:
• INCOMPRESSIBLE
• SLIGHTLY COMPRESSIBLE
• COMPRESSIBLE
INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS
• VOLUME OF FLUID DOES NOT CHANGE
WITH PRESSURE
• SIMPLIFY EQUATIONS
• SUFFICIENTLY ACCURATE FOR MANY
PURPOSES
• NOTE: STEADY STATE FLOW JUSTIFIES
INCOMPRESSIBLE BEHAVIOUR
SLIGHTLY COMPRESSSIBLE FLUID
• REPRESENTING NEARLY ALL LIQUIDS
• VOLUME CHANGE WITH PRESSURE IS
QUITE SMALL
c ( pR  p )
• EQUATION:
V = VR e
• C IS ASSUMED CONSTANT
• R = REFERENCE CONDITIONS
• SINCE C IS SMALL, THEN:
V = VR 1  c pR  p 
COMPRESSIBLE FLUID
• ITS VOLUME HAS A STRONG DEPENDENCE
ON PRESSURE
• ALL GASES ARE IN THIS CATEGORY
• REAL GAS LAW: znR' T
V=
p
• Cg CANNOT BE TREATED AS A CONSTANT
WITH VARYING PRESSURE
• Cg CAN BE EXPRESSED BY:
1 1 dz
cg = 
p z dp
COMMON FLOW GEOMETRIES
SOURCE: CRAFT, HAWKINS ,REV BY TERRY

FLOW SISTEMS ACCORDING TO
TIME DEPENDENCE
• STEADY-STATE
• TRANSIENT
• LATE TRANSIENT
• PSEUDO STEADY-STATE
MOVEMENT OF PRESSURE
• DURING TRANSIENT PERIOD: THE PRESSURE
MOVES AT A RATE PROPORTIONAL TO THE
FORMATION DIFFUSIVITY: k
=
f ct
• WHERE:
ct = cg S g  co So  cw S w  c f
• DURING TRANSIENT: INFINITE ACTING
• LATE TRANSIENT:PRESSURE HAS REACHED
OUTER BOUNDARY
• PSEUDOSTEADY STATE:PRESSUREBEHAVIOR
STABILIZED;CHANGE AT A CONSTANT RATE AND A
LINEAR FUNCTION OF TIME
SOURCE: CRAFT, HAWKINS, REV BY TERRY
TIME TO REACH PSEUDO STEADY
STATE
1200f ct re
2 2
1200re
t pss = =
 k
tpss, in hours
SINGLE PHASE FLUID FLOW
• SEE CRAFT,HAWKINS REV BY TERRY
PP.218 - 246
Integrate the above equation
LINEAR FLOW MODEL
Where
L = length of core, cm
A = cross-sectional area, cm2
The following conditions must exist during the
measurement of permeability:
• Laminar (viscous) flow
• No reaction between fluid and rock
• Only single phase present at 100% pore
space saturation
This measured permeability at 100%

saturation of a single phase is called the
absolute permeability of the rock.
For a radial flow, Darcy’s equation in a differential form can be
written as:
Intergrating Darcy’s equation gives:
The term dL has been replaced by dr as the

length term has now become a radius term.
PRODUCTIVITY INDEX (PI)
q
J= STB / day / psi
p  pwf
•―J‖ IS CALCULATED FROM A PRODUCTION TEST AT
PSEUDOSTEADY-STATE CONDITION
•SOMETIMES SPECIFIC ―PI‖ IS USED
J q
SPECIFIC PI = = STB / day / psi / ft
h h( p  pwf )
CAUSES FOR “PI” DECLINE:
a. TURBULENCE AT HIGH FLOW RATES
b. DECREASE OF KRO DUE TO PRESENCE OF GAS
c. INCREASE IN μo WHEN P<Pb
d. REDUCTION IN K DUE TO FORMATION COMPRESSIBILITY
INJECTIVITY INDEX
q
I= STB / day / psi
pwf  p
FOR SALT WATER DISPOSAL INJECTION WELLS
DECLINE CURVE ANALYSIS
SOURCE: WWW.PETROBJECTS.COM
TYPES OF DECLINE CURVES
• USUALLY PLOT OF LOG Q VS.TIME (OR CUM PROD)
• TYPES OF CURVE:
– EXPONENTIAL:PLOT IS A STRAIGHT LINE: CONSTANT
PERCENTAGE DECLINE
– HYPERBOLIC: PLOT IS CONCAVE UPWARD
– HARMONIC: SPECIAL CASE OF HYPERBOLIC
• ADVANTAGES OF DECLINE CURVES FOR
FORECASTING FUTURE PERFORMANCE :
– DATA: EASY TO OBTAIN
– DATA: EASY TO PLOT
– RESULT ON A TIME BASIS
– EASY TO ANALYZE
EQUATIONS OF DECLINE (BY ARPS)
q 1
= bt 
dq D
dt
EXPONENTIAL DECLINE
THE EQUATION OF THE STRAIGHT LINE ON SEMI LOG PAPER:
EXAMPLE OF EXPONENTIAL DECLINE
A WELL HAS DECLINED FROM 100 BOPD TO 96 BOPD
DURING A ONE MONTH PERIOD. ASSUMING
EXPONENTIAL DECLINE:
•PREDICT THE RATE AFTER 11 MORE MONTHS AND
AFTER 22.5 MONTHS.
•ALSO PREDICT THE AMOUNT OF OIL PRODUCED
AFTER ONE YEAR
EXERCISE
GIVEN THE FOLLOWING DATA, USE EXPONENTIAL
DECLINE TO PREDICT THE FLOW RATE IN 5 YEARS.
WHAT IS THE LIFE OF THE WELL IF THE ECONOMIC
LIMIT IS 1 BOPD?
DATE q, STB/DAY
JULY 1969 25
JAN 1970 21
JULY 1970 19.5
JAN 1971 18.0
JULY 1971 16.5
JAN 1972 15.0
JULY 1972 13.2
HYPERBOLIC DECLINE
• IF THE WELL PROD DATA PLOTTED ON
SEMILOG PAPER CONCAVES
UPWARD, IT IS MODELED WITH
HYPERBOLIC DECLINE
EQUATION OF HYPERBOLIC DECLINE
SUMMARY OF EQUATIONS IN
HYPERBOLIC DECLINE
EXAMPLE OF HYPERBOLIC DECLINE
• GIVEN THE FOLLOWING: qi=100 BOPD,Di=0.5/YEAR,
b= 0.9. ASSUMING HYPERBOLIC DECLINE, PREDICT
THE AMOUNT OF OIL PRODUCED FOR FIVE YEARS
HARMONIC DECLINE
• A SPECIAL CASE OF HYPERBOLIC DECLINE (b=1)
• SUMMARY OF HARMONIC DECLINE EQUATIONS
THE USE OF TYPE CURVE
• BY PLOTTING THE PRODUCTION DATA ON LOG-
LOG TYPE CURVE (eg,BY FETKOVICH), WE CAN
OBTAIN qi, D and b , THUS THE RESERVOIR
PERFORMANCE
• PLOT DECLINE CURVE DIMENSIONLESS RATE VS
DECLINE CURVE DIMENSIONLESS TIME
• REF: FETKOVITCH; JPT, JUNE 1980
b=1
b=0
TRACING PAPER
TRACING PAPER
1. First we select a match point 100 months, 1000
BOPM which corresponds to 12, .033
2. Then we calculate qi as follows:
qDd= 0.033 = q(t)/qi = 1,000 BOPM/qi
qi = 1,000 BOPM/0.033 = 30,303 BOPM
3. Then we calculate Di as follows:
tDd = 12.0 = Di*t = Di*100 months
Di = 12.0/100 months = 0.12 months -1
http://www.dofusdaddy.com/sixth-page/decline-curves/
MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION
• FIRST DEVELOPED BY SCHILTHUIS (1936)
• ASSUMPTIONS:
– TANK MODEL
– ZERO DIMENSIONEQUILIBRIUM AT ALL
TIMES
– ISOTHERMAL
• GENERAL FORM
• DATA NEEDED: N,m,WE,WP,FLUID (PVT) DATA
FROM LAB, BO,BG,BW, P
GENERAL FORM OF MBE
FROM START OF PRODUCTION TO ANY TIME ―t‖:
MBE AS A STRAIGHT LINE
AND PLUG INTO

DEFINING
THE EQ. ABOVE
YIELDS:
LET:
THUS WE OBTAIN::
THE FOLLOWING CASES ARE CONSIDERED:

• NO GAS CAP, NEGLIGIBLE COMPRESSIBILITIES, AND
NO WATER INFLUX:
• ,NEGLIGIBLE
COMPRESSIBILITIES, AND
NO WATER INFLUX:
A PLOT OF ―F/Eo― VS ―Eg/Eo― WOULD YIELD A STRAIGHT

LINE WITH SLOPE EQUAL TO ―mN‖ AND INTERCEPT
EQUAL TO ―N‖
• INCLUDING COMPRESSIBILITIES AND WATER INFLUX,
LET:
DIVIDING THROUGH BY D, WE GET :
A PLOT OF ―F/D‖ VS ―We/D‖ WOULD YIELD A STRAIGHT

LINE WITH SLOPE EQUAL TO ―1‖ AND INTERCEPT
EQUAL TO ―N‖
DRIVING INDEXES FROM THE MBE
TO DETERMINE THE RELATIVE MAGNITUDE OF EACH OF
THESE DRIVING MECHANISMS, THE COMPRESSIBILITY
TERM IS NEGLECTED:
DIVIDING THROUGH BY THE RIGHT HAND SIDE OF THE

EQUATION YIELDS:
USING PIRSON’S ABBREVIATION:

DDI = DEPLETION DRIVE INDEX
SDI = SEGREGATION DRIVE INDEX
WDI = WATER DRIVE INDEX
MBE EXAMPLE NO. 1
DATA OF AN OIL FIELD
THE SEGREGATION DRIVE INDEX (SDI) IS GIVEN BY:
MBE EXAMPLE NO 2
MBE EXAMPLE NO 3
• GENERAL FORM
• AFTER RE-ARRANGING:
NmBti
N ( Bt  Bti )  ( Bg  Bgi )  (We  Wp Bw ) = N p [ Bt  ( R p  Rsoi ) Bg ]
Bgi
• DIVIDING THROUGH BY THE TERM ON

THE RHS OF THE EQUATION:
NmBti
( Bg  Bgi )
N ( Bt  Bti ) Bgi
 
Np[ Bt  ( Rp  Rsoi ) Bg ] Np[ Bt  ( Rp  Rsoi ) Bg ]
(We  WpBw)
=1
Np[ Bt  ( Rp  Rsoi ) Bg ]
DDI + SDI + WDI = 1

DDI = DEPLETION DRIVE INDEX
SDI = SEGREGATION DRIVE INDEX
WDI = WATER DRIVE INDEX
STRAIGHT LINE MBE
• BY HAVLENA & ODEH:
F = N ( Eo  mEg  E f ,w )  We Bw
•PLOT OF F AS THE Y COORDINATE AND (Eo + mEg)
AS THE X COORDINATE WOULD YIELD A STRAIGHT
LINE WITH SLOPE N AND INTERCEPT EQUAL TO
ZERO
•THIS COULD BE USED AS A PREDICTIVE TOOL

MBE FOR SINGLE PHASE GAS
RESERVOIR
• FORMATION & WATER
COMPRESSIBILITIES << GAS
COMPRESSIBILITIES
• NO WATER PRODUCTION
p pi pi
= Gp 
z zi G zi
•PLOT OF p/z (ORDINATE) VS Gp (ABSCISSA) WOULD YIELD
A STRAIGHT LINE WITH SLOPE = (-pi/ziG) AND Y INTERCEPT=
pi/zi. IF p/z = 0, THEN GP = G
•COULD BE USED AS A PREDICTIVE TOOL
VOLUMETRIC GAS RESERVOIR
GAS RESERVOIR WITH WATER INFLUX
RESERVOIR FUTURE PERFORMANCE
• BY MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION (MBE)
– FOR DEPLETION DRIVE RESERVOIRS:
• TARNER METHOD (TRIAL & ERROR):
1. MBE FOR P ≥ Ps, INCLUDING GAS CAP AND
WATER ENCROACHMENT:
Bg We  W p Bw
mBti (  1)  ( Bt  Bti )  ( )
Np Bgi N
=
N Bo  ( R p  Rs ) Bg
N ps Bo  Boi
AND = SINCE m, We & Wp = 0,
Bt = Bo AND Rp = Rs
Ns Bo
MBE FOR P < Ps TO ABANDONMENT PRESSURE:
Np Bt  Bti
=
N Bo  ( R p  Rs ) Bg
TOTAL OIL PRODUCED: N pt = N ps  N p

2. OIL SATURATION EQUATION
REMAINING OIL VOLUME
So =
TOTAL PORE VOLUME
( N  N p ) Bo
=
NBos /(1  S wi )
 N p  Bo
= 1   (1  S wi )
 N  Bos
3. INSTANTANEOUS GOR EQUATION
k g o Bo
R=  Rs
ko  g Bg
• PROCEDURE FOR RESERVOIR PERFORMANCE
PREDICTIONS (REF:COLE:RESERVOIR ENGINEERING MANUAL,GULF, 1969)
I. ASSEMBLE PRODUCTION AND RESERVOIR FLUID DATA:
A. RESERVOIR FLUID DATA
1. OIL FVF (Bo)
2. GAS SOLUBILITY (Rs)
3. GAS DEVIATION FACTOR (Z): FROM LAB.MEASRUMENT,OR GAS
COMPOSITION, OR GAS SPECIFIC GRAVITY
4. RESERVOIR OIL VISCOSITY (µo)
5. RESERVOR GAS VISCOSITY (µg)
PREPARE GRAPHS OF ALL THE ABOVE FACTORS VS. PRESSURE
B. PAST PRODUCTION DATA
1. OIL PRODUCTION DATA
2. GAS PRODUCTION DATA
3. WATER PRODUCTION DATA
4. NET WATER INFLUX
PREPARE GRAPHS OF THE ABOVE DATA VS. PRESSURE
C. FLUID FLOW DATA:
1. LABORATORY REL PERM DATA (kg/ko VS So) OR (kw/ko VS So)
2. FIELD REL PERM DATA. CALCULATED FROM PAST PRODUCTION
DATA USING THE INSTANTANEOUS GAS-OIL RATIO EQUATION
AND THE OIL SATURATION EQUATION
D. GEOLOGICAL DATA
1. INITIAL OIL IN PLACE (N)
2. RATIO OF GAS ZONE SIZE TO OIL ZONE SIZE (m)
3. INTERSTITIAL WATER SATURATION (Swi)
4. POROSITY (Ø)
II. ARRANGE THE MBE IN THE FOLLOWING FORM:

N ( Bt  Bts )  N p ( Bt  Rss Bg )
N p Rp =
Bg
WHERE: NpRp=CUMULATIVE GAS PRODUCED
III. USING THE PAST PRODUCTION HISTORY OF THE
RESERVOIR, AND THE BEST AVAILABLE DATA, PREDICT
RESERVOIR BEHAVIOR, AS IF THE ACTUAL RESERVOIR
BEHAVIOR IS UNKNOWN, AND COMPARE THIS
PREDICTED PERFORMANCE WITH THE ACTUAL
RESERVOIR PERFORMANCE. THIS TECHNIQUE IS A
NECESSARY PRELIMINARY STEP IN ANY RESERVOIR
STUDY
IV. FIRST PREDICTION STEP
(SEE THE FOLLOWING FLOW CHART)
V. SECOND PREDICTION STEP
FOLLOW THE SAME PROCEDURE AS 1ST STEP
•THIS STEP-WISE PROCEDURE IS CONTINUED UNTIL THE ECONOMIC LIMIT HAS
BEEN REACHED
•THE FINAL RESULTS OF THIS SERIES OF CALCULATIONS ARE USUALLY
SHOWN IN THE FORM OF GRAPHS OF R VS Np/N AND p VS Np/N
•IT MAY BE MORE CONVENIENT TO ASSUME VALUES OF Np IN TERMS OF N (EG,
NP=0.01N)
SELECT A ASSUME A
FUTURE RES. VALUE OF N
PRESSURE Np
CALCULATE CALCULATE DETERMINE

NpRp So Kg/ko FROM
(TOTAL GAS REL .PERM
PRODUCED) CURVE
FROM MBE
CALCULATE CALCULATE
TOTAL GAS GOR (R)
COMPARE
PRODUCED
TOTAL GAS
NOT @ 1ST PERIOD
PRODUCED
THE  Ri  Ri 1 
SAME   N p1
SAME  2 
ASSUMED Np
IS CORRECT
SOURCE:
COLE:RES
ENG
MANUAL,
GULF, 1961
SUTTON CORRELATION
GAS CAP DRIVE RESERVOIRS
CHARACTERISTICS:
• LARGE GAS CAP
• LITTLE OR NO WATER DRIVE
• PRESSURE DECLINES LESS RAPIDLY THAN
DEPLETION DRIVE RESERVOIRS
• NO WATER PRODUCTION
• RAPIDLY INCREASING GOR IN STRUCTURALLY
HIGH WELLS
GAS CAP EXPANSION IS ACTUALLY FRONTAL
DRIVE DISPLACEMENT
AS THE GAS CAP INCREASES, THE ULTIMATE OIL RECOVERY WILL
ALSO BE INCREASED
• BY MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION (MBE)
– FOR GAS CAP DRIVE RESERVOIRS:
• TARNER METHOD (TRIAL & ERROR):FOLLOW
THE SAME PROCEDURE AS FOR DEPLETION
DRIVE RESERVOIRS.
MBE FOR GAS CAP DRIVE RESERVOIRS:
  Bg  Bgi 
N Bt  Bti   mBti    N p Bt  Rsi Bg 
 B 
  gi 
N p Rp =
Bg
– FOR WATER DRIVE RESERVOIR:
• ESTIMATE RESERVOIR PRESSURE
• CALCULATE WATER INFLUX (We) AS A
FUNCTION OF P FROM A MODEL
• PLOT F/Eo VS We/Eo
• USE STRAIGHT LINE MBE TO CHECK:
F We
= N 
Eo Eo
• IF PLOT IS STRAIGHT LINE, We IS CORRECT.
IF NOT, THE PROCEDURE IS REPEATED WITH
A NEW We CALCULATION MODEL (STEADY, UN-
STEADY STATE) BY SCHILTHUIS,HURST&VAN EVERDINGEN
WATER INFLUX
• STEADY STATE MODEL (BY SCHILTHUIS):
t
We = k   pi  p dt WHERE:
We = GROSS WATER INFLUX, BBLS
0 pi = INITIAL BOUNDARY PRESSURE,PSI
p = BOUNDARY PRESSURE AT SOME LATER
dWe
= k  pi  p 
TIME,PSI
t = TIME, DAYS
dt k = WATER INFLUX CONSTANT,BBL/DAY/PSI
WATER INFLUX RATE = RESERVOIR VOIDAGE RATE

dWe RATE OF ACTIVE RATE OF FREE GAS RATE OF WATER
= OIL VOLUMETRIC + VOLUMETRIC + VOLUMETRIC
dt VOIDAGE VOIDAGE VOIDAGE
dWe dN p dN p dWp
= Bo  R  Rso  Bg  Bw
dt dt dt dt
WATER INFLUX
IN TERMS OF TWO-PHASE VOLUME FACTORS:
dWe dN p dN p dWp
= Bt  R  Rsoi Bg  Bw
dt dt dt dt
ONCE k HAS BEEN FOUND, IT MAY BE APPLIED TO BOTH STABILIZED
AND CHANGING RESERVOIR PRESSURE
IF THE PRESSURE STABILIZES AND THE WITHDRAWAL RATES ARE
NOT REASONABLY CONSTANT, THE WATER INFLUX FOR THE PERIOD
OF THE STABILIZED PRESSURE:
We = Bt N p  Gp  RsoiN p Bg  BwWp

We
k=
t  pi  ps 
WHERE (pi-ps) IS THE STABILIZED PRESSURE DROP
WATER INFLUX
• UNSTEADY STATE MODEL FOR EDGE WATER
DRIVE (VAN EVERDINGEN & HURST):
 2 p 1 p f ct p
 =
r 2
r r 0.0002637k t
THEN:
 2 pD 1 pD pD
 =
r D rD rD t D
2
WHERE:
kt
DIMENSIONLESS TIME : t D = 0.0002637
f ct rR2
r
DIMENSIONLESS RADIUS : rD =
rR
pi  p
DIMENSIONLESS PRESSURE : pD =
pi  pwf
WATER INFLUX
• SOLUTIONS ARE IN DIMENSIONLESS CUMULATIVE WATER
INFLUX VALUES (WeD) AND DIMENSIONLESS TIME (tD)
• WATER INFLUX IS THEN CALCULATED BY: We = B' pWeD

WHERE: B' = 1.119fc r h
2
t R
360
WATER INFLUX
• UNSTEADY STATE MODEL FOR BOTTOM WATER DRIVE (BY
COATS, THEN BY ALLARD & CHEN):
 2 p 1 p 2 p f ct p
  Fk 2 =
r 2
r r z 0.0002637k t
WHERE Fk = RATIO OF VERTICAL TO HORIZONTAL
PERMEABILITY
z
 pD 1 pD  pD pD
2 2
zD =
THEN:
  2 = WHERE:
rR Fk1/ 2
rD rD rD
2
z D t D
We = B' pWeD WHERE: B' = 1.119fhct rR2
THE SOLUTIONS WeD ARE FUNCTIONS OF TWO DIMENSIONLESS PARAMETERS:
re h
r 'D = AND z 'D =
rR rR Fk1/ 2
EVALUATION OF THE CONSTANT ―B‖ FROM THE UNSTEADY STATE EQUATION
SOURCE: COLE
SLOPE
We
y = N  1
 Bg 
mBti   1  Bt  Bti 
B 
 gi 
We = B  p Qt 
Q(t)= WeD=DIMENSION-
LESS WATER INFLUX
SOURCE:COLE
APPLICATION OF SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE TO SELECT ΔPi
SOURCE: CRAFT, HAWKINS

WATER INFLUX
• PSEUDOSTEADY-STATE MODELS (BY FETKOVICH)

qw Bw = J  p  pR 
ma GENERALIZED EQUATION FOR
FLOW RATE FROM THE AQUIFER
Wei  
Jpi t

We =  pi  pR 1  e ei 
W
pi  
Wei  
Jpi t n

Wen =  pn 1  pRn 1  e W ei 

pi  
 We  pRn 1  pRn
pn 1 = pi 1   pRn =
 Wei  2
We =  Wen
GAS AND WATER CONING
• CONING IS A TERM USED TO DESCRIBE THE
MECHANISM UNDERLYING THE UPWARD
MOVEMENT OF WATER AND/OR THE DOWN
MOVEMENT OF GAS INTO THE PERFORATIONS OF
A PRODUCING WELL
• CONING CAN SERIOUSLY IMPACT THE WELL
PRODUCTIVITY AND INFLUENCE THE DEGREE OF
DEPLETION AND THE OVERALL RECOVERY
EFFICIENCY OF THE OIL RESERVOIRS
PROBLEMS OF WATER AND GAS CONING:
• COSTLY ADDED WATER AND GAS HANDLING
• GAS PRODUCTION FROM THE ORIGINAL OR SECONDARY
GAS CAP REDUCES PRESSURE WITHOUT OBTAINING THE
DISPLACEMENT EFFECTS ASSOCIATED WITH GAS DRIVE
• REDUCED WELL PRODUCTIVITY
• REDUCED EFFICIENCY OF THE DEPLETION MECHANISM
• THE WATER IS OFTEN CORROSIVE AND ITS DISPOSAL
COSTLY
• THE AFFLICTED WELL MAY BE ABANDONED EARLY
• LOSS OF THE TOTAL FIELD OVERALL RECOVERY
HOW CAN WE DELAY THE ENCROACHMENT AND PRODUCTION

OF GAS AND WATER TO MAXIMIZE FIELD’S ULTIMATE OIL
RECOVERY?
• CONING IS PRIMARILY THE RESULT OF MOVEMENT OF
RESERVOIR FLUIDS IN THE DIRECTION OF LEAST
RESISTANCE, BALANCED BY A TENDENCY OF THE FLUIDS TO
MAINTAIN GRAVITY EQUILIBRIUM
• THREE FORCES THAT MAY AFFECT FLUID FLOW
DISTRIBUTIONS AROUND THE WELL BORES:
– CAPILLARY FORCES
– GRAVITY FORCES
– VISCOUS FORCES
• CAPILLARY FORCES COULD BE NEGLECTED IN CONING
• GRAVITY FORCES ARISE FROM FLUID DENSITY DIFFERENCES
• VISCOUS (DYNAMIC) FORCES REFER TO PRESSURE
GRADIENTS ASSOCIATED WITH FLUID FLOW
• WHEN THE VISCOUS FORCES AT THE WELLBORE EXCEED THE
GRAVITY FORCES, A CONE CAN OCCUR:
P 0.433 w   o Db
• STABLE CONE:
– CONSTANT PRODUCTION RATE
– CONSTANT PRESSURE GRADIENT
– DYNAMIC FORCES ARE LESS THAN GRAVITY FORCES
– THE CONE NEITHER ADVANCES, NOR RECEDES
• UNSTABLE CONE:
– THE PRESSURE IS IN UNSTEADY STATE CONDITION
– IF THE FLOWING PRESSURE DROP AT THE WELL IS
SUFFICIENT TO OVERCOME THE GRAVITY FORCES, THE
UNSTABLE CONE WILL GROW AND BREAK INTO THE WELL
• CRITICAL PRODUCTION RATE:THE RATE ABOVE
WHICH THE FLOWING PRESSURE GRADIENTS AT
THE WELL CAUSES WATER ( OR GAS) TO CONE
INTO THE WELL
PROBLEMS THAT ENGINEERS OFTEN FACE:
• PREDICTING THE MAXIMUM FLOW RATE WITHOUT
WATER AND/OR FREE GAS
• DEFINE THE OPTIMUM LENGTH AND POSITION OF
THE INTERVAL TO BE PERFORATED IN A WELL IN
ORDER TO OBTAIN THE MAXIMUM WATER AND
GAS-FREE PRODUCTION RATE
GAS CONING
• VERTICAL WELL CRITICAL RATE CORRELATIONS
(MEYER-GARDER):
Qoc=CRITICAL OIL RATE FOR GAS CONING, STB/DAY

WATER CONING
THE ABOVE
TWO EQUATIONS
WERE COMBINED
BY PIRSON
CHANEY, NOBLE, HENSON, AND RICE METHOD:
• DEVELOP ANALYTICALLY AND EXPERIMENTALLY
• PRESENTED IN CURVES
• THE VALUES USED IN PREPARATION OF THE CURVES:
– k=1000 MD
– µo= 1.0 CP
– Δρ = 0.30 GM/CC
• THEREFORE, TO CONVERT TO SURFACE-OIL RATE AND TO
OTHER CONDITIONS, USE:
qcurve k  w  o 0.00333

qc = STB / D
o Bo
CRITICAL PRODUCTION-RATE CURVES FOR SAND THICKNESS
OF 12.5 FT,WELL RADIUS OF 3 IN,AND DRAINAGE RADIUS OF
qcurve 1,000 FT. WATER CONING CURVES:A, 1.25 FT PERFORATED IN-
TERVAL, B, 2.5 FT ;C,3.75 FT;D, 5.00 FT; AND E, 6.25 FT.
GAS CONING CURVES: a, 1.25 FT PERFORATED INTERVAL; b.
2.5 FT; c. 3.75 FT; d. 5.00 FT, AND e, 6.25 FT (FROM CHANEY ET
AL)
SOURCE:SMITH, TRACY,FARRAR P 13-6
DISTANCE FROM TOP PERFORATION TO

TOP OF SAND OR GAS/OIL CONTACT-IN FEET
qcurve CRITICAL PRODUCTION-RATE CURVES FOR SAND THICKNESS
OF 25 FT,WELL RADIUS OF 3 IN,AND DRAINAGE RADIUS OF
1,000 FT. WATER CONING CURVES:A, 2.5 FT PERFORATED IN-
TERVAL, B, 5 FT ;C, 7.5 FT;D, 10 FT; AND E, 12.5 FT.
GAS CONING CURVES: a, 2.5 FT PERFORATED INTERVAL; b. 5
FT;c. 7.5 FT; d. 10 FT, AND e, 12.5 FT (FROM CHANEY ET AL)

1,000 FT. WATER CONING CURVES:A, 5 FT PERFORATED IN-
TERVAL, B, 10 FT ;C, 15 FT;D, 20 FT; AND E, 25 FT.
GAS CONING CURVES: a, 5 FT PERFORATED INTERVAL;
b. 10 FT;c. 15 FT; d. 20 FT, AND e, 25 FT (FROM CHANEY ET AL)
qcurve

1,000 FT. WATER CONING CURVES:A, 7.5 FT PERFORATED IN-
TERVAL, B, 15 FT ;C, 22.5 FT;D, 30 FT; AND E, 37.5 FT.
GAS CONING CURVES: a, 7.5 FT PERFORATED INTERVAL;
b. 15 FT;c. 22.5 FT; d. 30 FT, AND e, 37.5 FT (FROM CHANEY ET AL)
qcurve

1,000 FT. WATER CONING CURVES:A, 10 FT PERFORATED IN-
TERVAL, B, 20 FT ;C, 30 FT;D, 40 FT; AND E, 50 FT.
GAS CONING CURVES: a, 10 FT PERFORATED INTERVAL;
b. 20 FT;c. 30 FT; d. 40 FT, AND e, 50 FT (FROM CHANEY ET AL)
qcurve

EXAMPLE PROBLEM FOR CHANEY ET AL MODEL:
k=100 MD, OIL ZONE THICKNESS, h=50 FT, COMPLETION INTERVAL THICK-
NESS, D = 10 FT, ρw=1.05 GM/CC, ρo=0.8 GM/CC, µo= 1.0 CP, Bo=1.2 BBL/STB,
re= 745 FT, rw=0.25 FT
SOLUTION:
AS IT IS 50 FT FROM THE TOP OF THE OIL ZONE DOWN TO THE OWC, THE FIGURE
IN
PAGE 13-8 WILL BE USED. SINCE THE PERFORATED INTERVAL IS 10 FT, CURVE B IS
USED. IT IS ASSUMED THAT THE COMPLETION INTERVAL IS AT THE TOP OF THE OIL
ZONE (AS FAR AWAY FROM THE UNDERLYING WATER AS POSSIBLE); THEREFORE,
THE HORIZONTAL AXIS VALUE IS ZERO. HENCE, qcurve=280 RB/D. INSERTING THIS
VALUE AND OTHER APPROPRIATE DATA INTO EQUATION
qcurve k  w  o 0.00333

qc = STB / D
o Bo
YIELDS:
qc =
2801000.250.00333 = 19.4STB / D
11.2
• ALTHOUGH PRODUCING A WELL AT OR BELOW
THE CRITICAL RATE PRECLUDES CONING, MANY
FEEL THAT IT ALSO RULES OUT PROFIT
• THERE ARE MODELS TO DETERMINE THE TIME TO
BREAKTHROUGH (OF WATER) WHEN PRODUCING
A WELL AT A RATE GREATER THAN THE CRITICAL
RATE
• DIMENSIONLESS CONE HEIGHT (BY SOBOCINSKI &
CORNELIUS:
Z=
 
0.00307    k hhw o  h c
o Bo qo
kh=HORIZONTAL FORMATION PERMEABILITY, MD
h= OIL ZONE THICKNESS,FT
hc=CONE HEIGHT AT BREAKTHROUGH (DISTANCE FROM THE INITIAL
OWC TO BOTTOM PERFORATION), FT
• DIMENSIONLESS TIME TO BREAKTHROUGH (BY BOURNAZEL
Z
td bt
& JEANSON:
=
3.0  0.7 Z
• AT Z=4.28, (td)bt => ∞,THUS IT CAN BE USED TO CALCULATE
THE CRITICAL RATE BY REARRANGING THE ABOVE (FOR Z)
EQUATION, THEN SUBSTITUTING Z=4.28:
0.000717kh  w  o hhc
qc =
o Bo
• CALCULATION OF ACTUAL BREAKTHROUGH TIME (DEV BY S
& C; EDITED BY B & J): of k  d bt
hF t
t=
0.00137 w  o kh 1  M  
WHERE: α = 0.7; Fk=RATIO OF HORIZONTAL TO VERTICAL
PERMEABILITY, M=MOBILITY RATIO= (kw/µw)/(ko/µo)
EXAMPLE:
SOLUTION:
SOURCE:VAN POLLEN
ET AL:RES MODELING
BY RESERVOIR SIMULATION
• CALCULATED PARAMETERS OF THE PAST IS
MATCHED WITH REAL OBSERVED DATA BY
VARYING INPUT
• WHEN REASONABLE MATCH IS AGREED,
PREDICTION OF FUTURE PERFORMANCE CAN BE
RUN FOR VARIOUS CASES:
– BASE CASE (DO NOTHING)
– IOR (IN-FILL DRILLING, DEVIATED WELL, MULTI LATERAL
WELL)
– EOR (WATERFLOOD,IMMISCIBLE GAS INJECTION,
MISCIBLE INJECTION, CHEMICAL INJECTION,THERMAL
RECOVERY, MICROBIAL EOR)
– WORKOVER
– ETC
PRODUCE ONE CALCULATE
INPUT DATA PHASE AT OB- PRESSURE &
SERVED RATE PROD RATE OF
OTHER PHASES
MODIFY
COMPARE CALCU-
NO LATED AND OBSER-
MATCH ?
VED PRESSURE &
RATES
YES
PREDICTION
RESERVOIR SIMULATION PROCESS

RESERVOIR SIMULATION
• MODELING RESERVOIR WITH
DISCRETE GRID BLOCKS
• TYPES:
– GAS
– BLACK-OIL
– COMPOSITIONAL
– CHEMICAL
– THERMAL
INPUT DATA FOR • FLUID CHARACTERISTICS:
Bo VS P
EACH NODE IN THE Bw VS P µo VS P Rso VS P ρo
GRID SYSTEM: µ VS P
Bg VS P w
µg VS P
Rsw VS P
LGR VS P
ρw
ρg
• PERMEABILITY
• POROSITY • FLUID-ROCK INTERACTION IS
• THICKNESS GIVEN BY SATURATION
DEPENDENT FUNCTIONS: Kr FOR
• ELEVATION EACH PHASE;Pcow,Pcog
• GRID DIMENSIONS
• INITIAL SATURATION FOR EACH • WELL DATA:
PHASE – PRODUCING INTERVAL
• INITIAL PRESSURE – qo VS t
• ROCK COMPRESSIBILITY – qw VS t
– qg VS t
– P VS t
• DIMENSION: 1D, 2D, 3D
• PHASE: 1 (GAS), 2, 3 (So+Sg+Sw=1)
• WHAT IS IN THE BLACK BOX?
– SET OF INFORMATION AND EQUATIONS
(DISCRETIZED) REPRESENTING RESERVOIR
DYNAMICS
• OUTPUT:
– PRESSURE
– SATURATIONS
– PRODUCING GOR & WOR
– PROD & INJ RATE FOR EACH WELL AT AND OF TIME STEP
EQUATIONS IN RESERVOIR SIMULATION
DESCRIBING PHYSICAL LAWS
• MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION (MASS
CONSERVATION OR CONTINUITY
EQUATION): ρv
• DARCY’S LAW: v = f(p) IN POROUS MEDIUM
• FLUIDS EQUATION OF STATE : ρ = f(p)
MASS CON-
EQUATIONS DESCRIBING
DARCY’S PHYSICAL LAWS IN RESER-
SERVATION
LAW
EQUATION VOIR MODEL
ρv v
EQUATION OF
STATE
F = f (p,ρ)
ρ = f (p)
DIFFUSIVITY
EQUATION
SOLUTION
 p c p
2
= P = f (xi,t)
xi
2
k t
FINITE DIFFERENCES
• PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQS (PDE) IN ENGINEERING
PROBLEMS ARE NOT USUALLY SOLVED BY ANALYTICAL
MEANS
• THEY ARE USUALLY SOLVED BY FINITE DIFFERENCE (FD)
METHODS
• FD APPROXIMATION TO A PARTIAL DERIVATIVE BY TAYLOR
SERIES EXPANSION:
f h 2  2 f
f x  h  = f x   h   ........
x 2! x 2
WHERE h IS THE INCREMENT SIZE

• SOLVE FOR THE FIRST DERIVATIVE:
f f x  h   f x  h  f 2 TO BE TRUNCATED, ERROR
=   .........
x h 2! x 2
FINITE DIFFERENCES
• FORWARD DIFFERENCE: f x  = f x  h  f x 
• BACKWARD DIFFERENCE: f x  = f x   f x  h
 h  h
• CENTRAL DIFFERENCE: f x  = f  x    f x 
 2  2
IN THE EXPLICIT SOLUTION TECHNIQUE THE
VALUES OF U ON THE LHS ARE FROM THE PRE-
VIOUS TIME STEP (n); THE RHS USES BOTH A
VALUE FROM THE PREVIOUS TIME STEP (n) AND
THE NEW TIME STEP (n+1).
IN THE IMPLICIT SOL TECH,THE VALUES OF U ON
THE LHS ARE TAKEN TO BE THOSE AT THE NEW
TIME LEVEL, n+1
• HISTORY MATCHING PARAMETERS:
– PRESSURE
– RATE
– GOR
– WOR

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RESERVOIR SYSTEM

The term ―trap‖ was first applied to a

Hydrocarbons—crude oil and natural gas—

As the sediments were deposited and the rocks were being

where fa = absolute porosity.

The effective porosity is the percentage of interconnected

where f = effective porosity.

SOURCE: Dr.S.A.ABU KHAMSIN,UPM,S.ARABIA

where A = areal extent, acres

WHERE ―a‖ AND ―b‖ ARE EMPIRICAL

THE EQUATION DESCRIBES THE CHANGE IN VOLUME

Water at 25 °C (undrained)[3] 4.6×10–10

NOTE: 1 psi = 6.894757 kPa ≈ 7 kPa = 7000 Pa

(FOR 0.02 < Φ < 0.23)

(FOR 0.02 < Φ < 0.33)

SOURCE: Dr.S.A.ABU KHAMSIN,UPM,S.ARABIA

Va ACTUAL VOLUME OF n MOLES OF GAS AT T AND p

– REDUCED TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE:

IF THE COMPOSITION OR CRITICAL PROPERTIES OF

REDUCED PRESSURE (PR)

FOR P>Pb: STANDING CORRELATION

Bo = Bob exp[co ( pb  p)]

REQUIRED STRENGTH WEAKNESS

•FIELD OR •FAST NOT ACCU-

•FOR EACH •COULD •COSTLY

•FOR EACH •CAN PREDICT •GOOD HISTORY

7758.VB .f.(1  SWI )

Calculate the Initial Oil in Place

•The initial oil in place is given by:

RF=0.114+0.272 LOG K+0.256 SW - 0.136

SOURCE: A.K.PERMADI,DIKTAT TEK RES I

Substituting the relationship, q/A, in place of

where q = flow rate through the

SOURCE: CRAFT, HAWKINS ,REV BY TERRY

This measured permeability at 100%

The term dL has been replaced by dr as the

AND PLUG INTO

THE FOLLOWING CASES ARE CONSIDERED:

A PLOT OF ―F/Eo― VS ―Eg/Eo― WOULD YIELD A STRAIGHT

DIVIDING THROUGH BY D, WE GET :

A PLOT OF ―F/D‖ VS ―We/D‖ WOULD YIELD A STRAIGHT

DIVIDING THROUGH BY THE RIGHT HAND SIDE OF THE

USING PIRSON’S ABBREVIATION:

• DIVIDING THROUGH BY THE TERM ON

DDI + SDI + WDI = 1

•THIS COULD BE USED AS A PREDICTIVE TOOL

TOTAL OIL PRODUCED: N pt = N ps  N p

II. ARRANGE THE MBE IN THE FOLLOWING FORM:

CALCULATE CALCULATE DETERMINE

WATER INFLUX RATE = RESERVOIR VOIDAGE RATE

We = Bt N p  Gp  RsoiN p Bg  BwWp

SOURCE: CRAFT, HAWKINS

HOW CAN WE DELAY THE ENCROACHMENT AND PRODUCTION

Qoc=CRITICAL OIL RATE FOR GAS CONING, STB/DAY

qcurve k  w  o 0.00333

SOURCE:SMITH, TRACY,FARRAR P 13-6

DISTANCE FROM TOP PERFORATION TO

SOURCE:SMITH, TRACY,FARRAR P 13-7