Human Rights-A Brief Introduction, 2014 Ed
Human Rights-A Brief Introduction, 2014 Ed
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Human Rights:
A Brief Introduction
Stephen P. Marks
Harvard University
I: Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 1
II. Human rights in ethics, law and social activism ........................................................................ 1
A. Human rights as ethical concerns........................................................................................... 2
B. Human rights as legal rights (positive law tradition) ............................................................. 3
C. Human rights as social claims ................................................................................................ 4
III: Historical milestones................................................................................................................. 5
IV: Tensions and controversies about human rights today ............................................................. 7
A. Why do sovereign states accept human rights obligations? ................................................... 7
B. How do we know which rights are recognized as human rights? .......................................... 8
Table 1: List of human rights .............................................................................................. 9
C. Are human rights the same for everyone? ............................................................................ 11
D. How are human rights put into practice? ............................................................................. 12
1. The norm-creating process ............................................................................................... 12
Table 2: Norm-creating process ........................................................................................ 13
2. The norm-enforcing process ............................................................................................. 13
3. Continuing and new challenges to human rights realization ........................................... 16
Table 3: Means and methods of human rights implementation ........................................ 17
V: Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 17
Selected bibliography.................................................................................................................... 18
Selected websites .......................................................................................................................... 19
Universal Declaration of Human Rights ....................................................................................... 20
science, moral philosophy, and can draw on concepts such as natural law,
jurisprudence. Roughly speaking, invoking social contract, justice as fairness,
the term “human rights” (which is often consequentialism and other theories of
referred to as “human rights discourse” or justice. In all these philosophical traditions,
“human rights talk”) is based on moral a right is conceived as an entitlement of
reasoning (ethical discourse), socially individuals, either by virtue of being human
sanctioned norms (legal/political discourse) or because they are members of a political
or social mobilization (advocacy discourse). community (citizens). In law, however, a
These three types of discourse are by no right is any legally protected interest,
means alternative or sequential but are all whatever the social consequence of the
used in different contexts, depending on enforcement of the right on the wellbeing of
who is invoking human rights discourse, to persons other than the right-holder (e.g., the
whom they are addressing their claims, and property right of a landlord to evict a tenant,
what they expect to gain by doing so. The the right of a business to earn profits). To
three types of discourse are inter-related in avoid confusion, it is helpful to use the term
the sense that public reasoning based on “human right” or its equivalent
ethical arguments and social mobilization (“fundamental right,” “basic freedom,”
based on advocacy agendas influence legal “constitutional right”) to refer to a higher-
norms, processes and institutions and thus order right, authoritatively defined and
all three modes of discourse contribute to carrying the expectation that it has a
human rights becoming part of social reality. peremptory character and thus prevails over
other (ordinary) rights and reflects the
A. Human rights as ethical concerns essential values of the society adopting it.
Human rights have in common an Ethical and religious precepts determine
ethical concern for just treatment, built on what one is willing to accept as properly a
empathy or altruism in human behavior and human right. Such precepts are typically
concepts of justice in philosophy. The invoked in the debates over current issues
philosopher and economist, Amartya Sen, such as abortion, same-sex marriage, the
considers that “Human rights can be seen as death penalty, much as they were around
primarily ethical demands… Like other slavery and inequality based on class,
ethical claims that demand acceptance, there gender or ethnicity in the past.
is an implicit presumption in making Enlightenment philosophers derived the
pronouncements on human rights that the centrality of the individual from their
underlying ethical claims will survive open theories of the state of nature. Social
and informed scrutiny.”1 In moral contractarians, especially Jean-Jacques
reasoning, the expression “human rights” is Rousseau, predicated the authority of the
often not distinguished from the more state on its capacity to achieve the optimum
general concept of “rights,” although in law enjoyment of natural rights, that is, of rights
a “right” refers to any entitlement protected inherent in each individual irrespective of
by law, the moral validity or legitimacy of birth or status. He wrote in Essay on the
which may be separate from its legal status Origin on Inequality Among Men that “it is
as an entitlement. The moral basis of a right plainly contrary to the law of nature…that
the privileged few should gorge themselves
1
Amartya Sen, “Elements of a Theory of Human with superfluities, while the starving
Rights,” Philosophy & Public Affairs, vol. 32, No. 4 multitude are in want of the bare necessities
(2004), p. 320.
of life.”2 Equally important was the concept human rights”3, implying an inherent value
of the universalized individual (“the rights of the concept of human rights, independent
of Man”), reflected in the political thinking of what is established in law. Legal
of Immanuel Kant, John Locke, Thomas positivists would disagree and consider law
Paine and the authors of the American to be constitutive rather than declarative of
Declaration of Independence (1776) and the human rights.
French Declaration of the Rights of Man and
the Citizen (1789). The Enlightenment B. Human rights as legal rights (positive
represents for the West both the affirmation law tradition)
of the scientific method with the related
faith of human progress and the formulation Legal positivists regard human rights as
of the human rights, which define the resulting from a formal norm-creating
freedom and equality on which the process, by which we mean an authoritative
legitimacy of modern governments have formulation of the rules by which a society
henceforth been judged. Karl Marx and (national or international) is governed.
much of socialist thinking questioned the While natural rights derive from natural
“bourgeois” character of a limited order or divine origin, and are inalienable,
interpretation of individual human rights and immutable, and absolute, rights based on
stressed community interests and egalitarian positive law are recognized through a
values. political and legal process that results in a
declaration, law, treaty, or other normative
The ethical basis of human rights has instrument. These may vary over time and
been defined using concepts such as human be subject to derogations or limitations
flourishing, dignity, duties to family and designed to optimize respect for human
society, natural rights, individual freedom, rights rather than impose an absolute
and social justice against exploitation based standard. They become part of the social
on sex, class or caste. All of these moral order when an authoritative body proclaims
arguments for human rights are part of them, and they attain a higher degree of
ethical discourse. The tension between universality based on the participation of
political liberalism and democratic virtually every nation in the norm-creating
egalitarianism, between Locke and process, a process that is law-based but that
Rousseau, between liberty and equality, reflects compromise and historical shifts.
between civil and political rights and Think of the moral and legal acceptability of
economic, social and cultural rights, have slavery, torture, or sexual and racial
been part of the philosophical and political discrimination over most of human history.
ambiguity of human rights since the The product of what has survived “open and
beginning of the modern era. informed scrutiny” (Sen’s expression) is
thus often found not in journals and
Much of human rights discourse is seminars on ethics and normative theory but
essentially ethical and philosophical rather rather at the end of the political process
than legal or political. Sen writes, “Even leading to the adoption of laws and treaties
though human rights can, and often do, relating to human rights, such as the
inspire legislation, this is a further fact, relatively recent abolition of slavery, torture
rather than an constitutive characteristic of and discrimination based on race or sex.
2 3
D.G.H. Cole translation, p. 117. Sen, supra, note 1, p. 319
The “International Bill of Human America, Africa and Asia saw the creation of
Rights” (consisting of the Universal an extraordinary array of human rights groups
Declaration of Human Rights [UDHR] of in the 1980s and 1990s, which have only
1948, and two legally-binding treaties proliferated after the end of the Cold War.
opened for signature in 1966, namely, the
International Covenant on Civil and Political These NGOs emerged as social
Rights and the International Covenant on movements catalyzed by outrage at the
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights), mistreatment of prisoners, the exploitation of
along with the other human rights treaties of workers, the exclusion of women, children,
the United Nations (UN) and of regional persons with disabilities, or as part of
organizations, constitute the primary sources struggles against slavery, the caste system,
and reference points for what properly colonialism, apartheid, or predatory
belongs in the category of human rights. globalization. Such movements for social
These legally recognized human rights are change often invoke human rights as the basis
discussed below in Part IV.B. of their advocacy. If the prevailing theories of
moral philosophy or the extant codes of
C. Human rights as social claims human rights do not address their concerns,
their action is directed at changing the theory
Before they are written into legal texts, and the legal formulations. NGOs not only
human rights often emerge from claims of contributed to the drafting of the UDHR but
people suffering injustice and thus are based also in bringing down Apartheid,4
on moral sentiment, culturally determined transforming the political and legal
by contextualized moral and religious belief configuration of East-Central Europe5 and
systems. Revolt against tyranny is an ancient restoring democracy in Latin America.6 New
tradition. The modern precursor of social norms emerged as a result of such social
mobilization for human rights at the national mobilization during the late twentieth century
level was the response to the unjust regarding self-determination of peoples,
condemnation of Captain Dreyfus in 1894 as prevention and punishment of torture,
a spy for the Germans, which led Emile Zola protection of vulnerable groups and, more
to proclaim in his famous “J’Accuse…!”, an recently, equal treatment of sexual minorities.
impassioned call to action that led to the
creation of the Ligue française des droits de The appeal to human rights in this
l’homme in 1897, and numerous similar advocacy discourse is no less legitimate than
leagues, which became federated in 1922 into the legal and philosophical modes of
the International Federation of Leagues for discourse and is often the inspiration for the
the Rights of Man (now the International latter. Quoting Sen again, “The invoking of
Federation for Human Rights), which human rights tends to come mostly from
spawned its counterpart in the US in 1942, the those who are concerned with changing the
International League for the Rights of Man, world rather than interpreting it… The
now functioning in New York as the colossal appeal of the idea of human rights
International League for Human Rights.
Amnesty International (founded in 1961), the 4
William Korey, NGOs and the Universal
Moscow Human Rights Committee (founded
Declaration of Human Rights: A Curious Grapevine,
in 1970), and Helsinki Watch (founded in pp. 7-8.
1978 and expanded into Human Rights Watch 5
Id., pp. 95-116.
in 1988) were among the more effective non-
6
governmental organizations (NGOs). Latin Id., pp. 229-247.
reality of inequality and discrimination. why states even accept the idea of human
rights obligations when they are supposed to
The Second World War was the be sovereign and therefore do what they
defining event for the internationalization of want within their territory. Then we will
human rights. In 1940, H.G. Wells wrote explore (B) what is the current list of human
The Rights of Man or What are We Fighting rights generally accepted, before asking (C)
For?; Roosevelt announced the “four whether they correspond to the basic values
freedoms” (freedoms of speech and worship of all societies or are imposed from the
and freedoms from want and fear) in his outside for ideological reasons. Finally, we
1941 State of the Union address; the UN will examine (D) how they are transformed
Charter established in 1945 an obligation of from word to deed, from aspiration to
all members to respect and observe human practice.
rights and created a permanent commission
to promote their realization; the trial of Nazi A. Why do sovereign states accept human
doctors defined principles that were codified rights obligations?
in the Nuremberg Code in 1946; and the
Nuremberg Trials, in 1945–46, of 24 of the The principle of state sovereignty
most important captured leaders of Nazi means that neither a state nor an
Germany, established individual criminal international organization can intervene in
responsibility for mass human rights another state’s action to adopt, interpret and
violations. Each of these events connected enforce its laws within its jurisdiction. Does
with World War II has had major this principle of non-intervention in
repercussions for human rights today. In the domestic affairs of states mean that they are
War’s immediate aftermath, bedrock human free to violate human rights? Along with the
rights texts were adopted: the Genocide principle of non-intervention, upon joining
Convention and the Universal Declaration of the United Nations, states have pledged
Human Rights in 1948, the Geneva themselves “to take joint and separate action
Conventions in 1949, followed in 1966 by in co-operation with the Organization for the
the International Covenants on Human achievement of the purposes set forth in
Rights and scores of UN and regional Article 55,”17 which include the promotion
human rights texts on issues such as torture, of “universal respect for, and observance of,
the rights of the child, minorities, human rights and fundamental freedoms for
discrimination against women, and disability all without distinction as to race, sex,
rights, along with the creation of language, or religion.”18
investigative and accountability procedures
at the intergovernmental level. Individual State sovereignty is therefore balanced
criminal responsibility for mass violations of with legitimate concern of the international
human rights re-emerged—after the hiatus community about human rights in all
of the Cold War—in the ad hoc tribunals on countries. How that balance is interpreted
Rwanda and former Yugoslavia and finally varies according to theories of international
in the International Criminal Court. relations. For those of the realist school (a
theory that focuses on governments as other end (where identity with and support
autonomous and sovereign actors in for equal rights for all people should hold
international affairs, pursuing their national state sovereignty in check). In practice,
interests through the projection of economic, states have accepted obligations to respect
military and political power, without and promote human rights under the UN
constraints of any superior authority or Charter and various human rights treaties,
global government), only weak countries are whatever their motivations, and, as a result,
under any constraint to allow international a regime has emerged in which human rights
scrutiny of their human rights performance. have progressively become part of the
For the liberal internationalist, global accepted standards of state behavior,
institutions and values, like human rights, functioning effectively in some areas and
matter more, although the international less so in others.
system is still based on state sovereignty.
Theories of functionalism attach importance In order to understand this
to gradual political federation, beginning phenomenon, it is useful to examine the
with economic and social cooperation, current set of recognized human rights
especially through regional organizations. standards.
As these networks of interdependence grow,
sovereign authority shifts to international B. How do we know which rights are
institutions. Under the constructivist theory recognized as human rights?
of international relations, ideas, such as
human rights, define international structure, While it is legitimate to draw on
which in turn defines the interests and philosophical arguments or activist agendas
identities of states. Thus, social norms like to claim any global social issue as a human
human rights, rather than national security, right, it is also useful to identify which
can shape and progressively change foreign rights are officially recognized as such. The
policy. In sum, as Richard Falk and others most reliable source of the core content of
argue, absolute sovereignty has given way to international human rights is found in the
the conception of “responsible sovereignty,” International Bill of Human Rights, which
according to which sovereignty is enumerates approximately fifty normative
conditional upon the state’s demonstrable propositions on which additional human
adherence to minimum human rights rights documents have built. Scores of
standards and capacity to protect its regional and UN treaties have expanded the
citizens.19 scope of recognized human rights, including
in specialized areas such as protection of
These realist, liberal internationalist, victims of armed conflict, workers, refugees
functionalist, and constructivist theories run and displaced persons, and persons with
along a continuum from state-centric disabilities.
approaches at one end (where national
interests prevail over any appeal to universal The International Bill of Human Rights
human rights), to cosmopolitanism at the enumerates five group rights, twenty-four
civil and political rights (CPR), and fourteen
19
economic, social and cultural rights (ESCR).
Richard A. Falk, Human Rights Horizons: The It also sets out seven principles that explain
Pursuit of Justice in a Globalizing World, New York:
Routledge, 2001, p. 69.
how the rights should be applied and
interpreted.
13. Right to personhood under the law 3. Right to form and join trade unions
14. Equality before the law 4. Right to strike
15. Freedom of assembly 5. Social security
16. Freedom of association 6. Assistance to the family, mothers, and
17. Right to marry and found a family children
18. Rights of children 7. Adequate standard of living (including
19. Right to practice a religion food, clothing, and housing)
20. Prohibition of war propaganda and hate 8. Right to the highest attainable standard
speech constituting incitement of physical and mental health
21. Right to hold office 9. Right to education towards the full
22. Right to vote in free elections development of human personality
23. Right to be elected to office 10. Free and compulsory primary education
24. Equal access to public service 11. Availability of other levels of education
12. Participation in cultural life
Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights
13. Protection of moral and material rights
(ESCR)
of creators and transmitters of culture
1. Right to gain a living by work freely 14. Right to enjoy the benefits of scientific
chosen and accepted progress
2. Right to just and favorable work
conditions
been questioned.20 For example, it is often
Finally, the seven principles of claimed that CPR are absolute and
application and interpretation include the immutable, whereas ESCR are relative and
principles of (1) progressive realization of responsive to changing conditions.
ESCR (states must take meaningful However, all rights are proclaimed on the
measures towards full realization of these expectation that they will be of lasting value
rights); (2) immediate implementation of but in fact all have emerged when social
CPR (states have duties to respect and pressures have been strong enough to
ensure respect for these rights); (3) non- challenge power relations and expand the
discrimination applied to all rights; (4) an list. Consider, for example, that torture was
effective remedy for violation of CPR; and an accepted means of obtaining a
(5) equality of rights between men and confession, that slavery was widely
women. The International Bill also specifies practiced and accepted for centuries, and
that human rights may be subject to (6) that women were treated as chattel in many
limitations and derogations and that the (7) societies and only received political rights in
rights in the Covenants may not be used as a the last century. Thus, these CPR have not
pretext for lowering an existing standard if been permanent features of society. It is also
there is a higher one under national law. argued that CPR are to be implemented by
states immediately, may be enforced through
These rights are traditionally grouped in judicial remedies, and are relatively cost-
two major categories of human rights (CPR free since they merely require the state to
and ESCR, with a third category of leave people alone (so-called “negative
solidarity rights—development, clean
environment, humanitarian assistance, etc.—
20
See Stephen P, Marks, “The Past and Future of the
sometimes added), but the reasons for Separation of Human Rights into Categories,”
separating them into these categories have Maryland Journal of International Law, vol. 24
(2009), pp. 208-241.
civilizations” argument that only the liberal All human rights are universal,
West, among the roughly seven civilizations indivisible and interdependent and
in the world, is capable of realizing human interrelated. The international
rights since the other civilizations lack community must treat human rights
globally in a fair and equal manner, on
sufficient sense of the individual and the
the same footing, and with the same
rule of law.24 This issue of compatibility of emphasis. While the significance of
human rights with diverse belief systems national and regional particularities and
and religions has special geopolitical various historical, cultural and religious
repercussions in relation to Islam, for backgrounds must be borne in mind, it is
example, on which views are divided25 and the duty of States, regardless of their
has been of considerable interest since the political, economic and cultural systems,
“Arab Spring” of 2011, in which both to promote and protect all human rights
Islamic and human rights values motivated and fundamental freedoms.26
peoples across the Middle East and North
Africa to overthrow deeply entrenched This statement nevertheless captures an
dictatorships. important feature of human rights today,
namely, that they are universal but must be
The World Conference on Human realized in the context of the prevailing
Rights (Vienna, June 1993) addressed the values of each society. To understand fully
general question of balancing universal and the challenge such contextualization
cultural claims with this compromise represents we need to examine the means
language: and methods through which universally
accepted human rights are put into practice.
Imperialism: Using Human Rights to Sell War, D. How are human rights put into
Monthly Review Press, 2007, pp. 35-90; Makau practice?
Mutua, Human Rights: A Political and Cultural
Critique Philadelphia, PA: University of Human rights are traditionally studied
Pennsylvania Press (Pennsylvania Studies in Human
Rights), 2002, Chapter 2: “Human Rights as an in a global context through (1) the norm-
Ideology,” pp. 39-70. creating processes, which result in global
24
See Samuel Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations
human rights standards and (2) the norm-
and the Remaking of World Order, New York: Simon enforcement processes, which seek to
& Schuster, 1996. translate laudable goals into tangible
25
See, for example, Abdullahi An-Naim (2004) practices. In addition, there are (3)
"‘The Best of Times’ and ‘The Worst of Times’: continuing and new challenges to the
Human Agency and Human Rights in Islamic effectiveness of this normative regime.
Societies," Muslim World Journal of Human Rights,
vol. 1: issue 1, Article 5. Available at: 1. The norm-creating process
http://www.bepress.com/mwjhr/vol1/iss1/art5; Bat
Ye’or, “Jihad and Human Rights Today. An active
The norm-creating process refers to
ideology incompatible with universal standards of
freedom and equality,” National Review Online, July authoritative decision-making that results in
1, 2002. Available at specific rights and obligations in a given
http://www.nationalreview.com/comment/comment-
yeor070102.asp]; Mohamed Berween, “International
26
Bills of Human Rights; An Islamic Critique,” United Nations, World Conference on Human
International Journal of Human Rights, Vol. 7:4 Rights. The Vienna Declaration and Programme of
October 2004, pp. 129 –142; Action. June 1993, para. 5.
all levels. Second is standard-setting, the violations. The quasi-judicial bodies (such
drafting of human rights texts, in which the as the Human Rights Committee or the
UN Commission on Human Rights, African Commission on Human and
established in 1946, played a central role Peoples’ Rights) utilize various forms of
until it was replaced in 2006 by the Human fact-finding and investigation and issue their
Rights Council. Numerous other bodies in views so that governments can take action to
the UN system, such as the Commission on live up to their human rights obligations.
the Status of Women, and UN Specialized
Agencies (such as the International Labour “Special procedures” refer to UN
Organization and UNESCO), as well as the working groups, independent experts and
regional organizations (Council of Europe, special rapporteurs or representatives
Organization of American States, African mandated to study countries or issues,
Union, League of Arab States, Association including taking on cases of alleged
of Southeast Asian Nations) adopt and violations, going on mission to countries and
monitor other international human rights institutions, and to report back on their
texts. The third preventive or promotional findings and request redress from
means of implementation is national governments. The “thematic” rapporteurs
institution building, which includes are specifically mandated to study issues
improvements in the judiciary and law such as forced disappearances, summary
enforcement institutions and the creation of executions, torture, toxic waste, and the
specialized bodies such as national rights to health, adequate food and housing.
commissions for human rights and offices of As of 2014 there were some 37 “thematic
an ombudsman. mandates”. In addition, there were 14
“country mandates” covering Cambodia,
The protection of human rights involves Côte d’Ivoire, Democratic People’s
a complex web of national and international Republic of Korea, Haiti, Islamic Republic
mechanisms to monitor, judge, urge, of Iran, Myanmar, Palestinian Territories,
denounce, and coerce states, as well as to Somalia, Sudan and Syrian Arab Republic.
provide relief to victims. Monitoring
compliance with international standards is The second means of protection is
carried out through the reporting and adjudication of cases by fully empowered
complaints procedures of the UN treaty courts, the main international ones being the
bodies and regional human rights International Court of Justice (which can
commissions and courts. States are required only decide cases between states that agree
to submit reports and the monitoring body— to submit their dispute to the Court), the
often guided by information provided by International Criminal Court (which can try
NGOs—which examines progress and individuals for genocide, crimes against
problems with a view to guiding the humanity, war crimes and the crime of
reporting country to do better. The Human aggression), as well as the regional courts,
Rights Council also carries out a Universal namely, the European Court of Human
Periodic Review of all countries, regardless Rights (open to persons within the 47
of treaty ratification. Several optional member states of the Council of Europe);
procedures allow individuals and groups the Inter-American Court of Human Rights
(and sometimes other states) to petition (open to the 25 states parties to the
these bodies for a determination of American Convention on Human Rights);
and the African Court of Justice and Human
© Harvard University 2014
Marks 15 Human Rights
Rights (open to the African Commission on massive amounts of aid, along with the
Human and Peoples’ Rights, individuals and International Committee of the Red Cross,
accredited NGOs from those of the 54 the International Organization for Migration
African Union members that have ratified (IOM), the United Nations Children’s Fund
the protocol establishing the Court, (UNICEF), the World Food Programme
numbering 27 in 2014). (WFP), the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP), the UN Office for the
Political supervision refers to the acts Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
of influential bodies made up of (OCHA) and other agencies, as well as
representatives of states, including major NGOs like Oxfam, Care, and the
resolutions judging the policies and International Rescue Committee.
practices of states. The UN Human Rights
Council, the UN General Assembly, the Finally, the use of coercion is available
Committee of Ministers of the Council of only to the UN Security Council, which can
Europe, the Assembly of the Organization of use its powers under Chapter VII of the UN
American States, all have adopted politically Charter to impose sanctions, cut off
significant resolutions denouncing communications, create ad hoc criminal
governments for violations of human rights tribunals, and authorize the use of force by
and demanding that they redress the member states or deploy UN troops to put an
situation and often that they provide end to a threat to international peace and
compensation to the victims. Parliamentary security, which it has on occasion
Commissions and National Human Rights interpreted to include human rights
Commissions, as well as local and violations. Human rights considerations
international NGOs, also follow-up their were part of the use of Chapter VII in
investigations with firmly worded and Cambodia, Haiti, Somalia, Bosnia, Iraq and
politically significant demands for change. other locations.27 This forceful means of
This form of sanction may appear toothless protecting human rights is complex and can
since it is not backed up with coercive force; have harmful health consequences, as has
nevertheless, in practice many governments been the case with sanctions imposed on
take quite seriously the pronouncements of Haiti and Iraq in the 1990s. If used properly,
such bodies and go to considerable lengths Chapter VII action can be the basis for
to avoid such political “naming and implementing the “Responsibility to
shaming,” including improving their human Protect”, a doctrine adopted at a 2005 UN
rights performance. Summit that reaffirms the international
community’s role to prevent and stop
The seventh means of responding to
human rights violations is through
27
humanitarian relief or assistance. Provision See Bertrand G. Ramcharan, The Security Council
of food, blankets, tents, medical services, and the Protection of Human Rights, Martinus
Nijhoff, 2002; Bardo Fassbender, Securing Human
sanitary assistance, and other forms of aid Rights: Achievements and Challenges of the UN
saves lives and improves health of persons Security Council, Published to Oxford Scholarship
forcibly displaced, often as a result of large- Online: January 2012, publication date: 2011,
scale human rights violations. Refugees and available at:
internally displaced persons come under the http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acp
rof:oso/9780199641499.001.0001/acprof-
protection of the UN High Commissioner 9780199641499
for Refugees (UNHCR), which deploys (DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199641499.001.0001).
© Harvard University 2014
Marks 16 Human Rights
genocides, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and most salient challenges to the effectiveness
crimes against humanity when a national of human rights at the global level relate to
government fails to do so.28 The the reliance on the state to take
responsibility to protect (R2P) was explicitly responsibility for correcting its ways;
referred to in Security Council Resolutions structural issues of the global economy
concerning the Great Lakes region, Sudan, favoring the maximization of profits in ways
Libya, Côte d’Ivoire, Yemen, Mali, South over which human rights machinery has
Sudan, Central African Republic, and little or no control or impact; and cultural
Syria,29 but only in Darfur30 and Libya31 was conditions based on patriarchy, class, caste
it used to authorize enforcement action. The and ethnicity, which only change slowly
way R2P was applied in Libya explains in over time as power relations and mentalities
part the reluctance to use it for enforcement change. In all these arenas, human rights are
action in the civil war in Syria.32 highly political: to the extent that they are
truly relevant to people’s lives they
These eight means and methods of challenge the state, the political economy
implementation are summarized in Table 3 and cultural traditions. At the same time,
below. they offer a normative framework for
individuals and collectivities to organize for
3. Continuing and new challenges to human change, so that state legitimacy is measured
rights realization by human rights performance, the political
economy is freed from gross economic
The adoption of norms and the disparities and social inequities, and cultural
implementation of accountability procedures identity is preserved and cherished in ways
are not enough to eliminate the deeper that are consistent with prevailing values of
causes of human rights deprivation. The individual autonomy and freedom. Appeals
to human rights in bringing about such
change is usually supported, at least
28
The doctrine was affirmed by the UN General rhetorically, by the community of nations
Assembly in paragraphs 138 and 139 of the 2005 and, in progressively more meaningful and
World Summit Outcome Document and reaffirmed in
its resolution A/RES/63/308 of September 2009. effective ways, by networks of solidarity
that have profoundly changed societies in
29
For references to Responsibility to Protect (RtoP or the past. That is how practices such as
R2P) in Security Council Resolutions, see slavery, apartheid, colonialism, and
http://www.responsibilitytoprotect.org/index.php/co exclusions of all sorts have been largely
mponent/content/article/136-latest-news/5221--
references-to-the-responsibility-to-protect-in- eliminated. Similarly, environmental
security-council-resolutions (accessed 25 Apr 2014).
degradation, poverty, terrorism, non-
representative government, discrimination
30
Security Council Resolution 1706 of 31 August based on sexual orientation and an
2006.
expanding array of other challenges in the
31
Security Council Resolution 1970 of 26 February
21st century will continue to test the value of
2011, and Security Council Resolution 1973 of 17 human rights as a normative and
March 2011.
institutional guide to policy and practice.
32
See Spencer Zifcak, “The Responsibility to Protect
after Libya and Syria,” Melbourne Journal of
International Law, vol. 13, (2012), pp. 2-35.
Promotion
Protection
people have risen up against injustices for facing the 21st century.
millennia and made respect for dignity
integral to ethical and religious thinking, In the coming decades, we can expect
whereas the enumeration of codes of gaps to be filled in the institutional
universal human rights has a much shorter machinery of Africa and Asia, and in
history, dating primarily from the 18th making ESCR genuinely equal in
century and especially from the inaugural importance to CPR, as well as in the
moment of the UDHR in making human clarification of human rights standards in
rights an explicit feature of the post World such areas as sexual orientation and
War II international legal order. We have advances in science and technology, while
examined what “universal” means in a world refining the means and methods of human
of conflicting ideologies, religions, beliefs rights promotion and protection. The
and values and reviewed the content of the essential value of human rights thinking and
normative propositions accepted as action, however, is unlikely to change: it has
belonging to this category of “universal served and will continue to serve as a gauge
human rights,” while sounding a cautionary of the legitimacy of government, a guide to
note about taking their separation into two setting the priorities for human progress, and
major categories too literally. Finally, we a basis for consensus over what values can
examined the processes by which human be shared across diverse ideologies and
rights norms are recognized and put into cultures.
practice and referred to several challenges
World, New York: Routledge, 2001.
James Griffin, On Human Rights, Oxford,
Selected bibliography UK: Oxford Univ. Press, 2009.
Philip Alston and Ryan Goodman, Lynn Avery Hunt and Lynn Hunt, Inventing
International Human Rights, Oxford: Human Rights: A History, New York: W.W.
Oxford University Press, 2012. Norton & Co., 2008.
Upendra Baxi, The Future of Human Rights, Micheline Ishay (ed.), The Human Rights
2nd ed., New Delhi ; New York : Oxford Reader: Major Political Essays, Speeches,
University Press, 2006. and Documents from Ancient Times to the
Present, Second Edition, New York:
Sabine C. Carey, The Politics of Human Routledge, 2007
Rights: The Quest for Dignity, Cambridge,
Micheline Ishay, The History of Human
UK: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2010.
Rights: From Ancient Times to the
Andrew Clapham, Human Rights: A Very Globalization Era, New York: Norton and
Short Introduction (Very Short Co., 2008.
Introductions), New York: Oxford Univ.
Paul Gordon Lauren, The Evolution of
Press, 2007.
International Human Rights: Visions Seen,
Jack Donnelly, Universal Human Rights in 3rd ed. Philadelphia: University of
Theory and Practice, 2nd ed., Cornell Pennsylvania Press, 2011.
University Press, 2003.
Hersch Lauterpacht, International Law and
Richard A. Falk, Human Rights Horizons: Human Rights, with an introduction by
The Pursuit of Justice in a Globalizing Isidore Silver. New York: Garland, 1950
© Harvard University 2014
Marks 19 Human Rights
Everyone
has
the
right
to
life,
liberty
and
(1)
Everyone
charged
with
a
penal
offence
security
of
person.
has
the
right
to
be
presumed
innocent
until
proved
guilty
according
to
law
in
a
public
trial
Article
4.
at
which
he
has
had
all
the
guarantees
necessary
for
his
defence.
No
one
shall
be
held
in
slavery
or
servitude;
slavery
and
the
slave
trade
shall
be
(2)
No
one
shall
be
held
guilty
of
any
penal
prohibited
in
all
their
forms.
offence
on
account
of
any
act
or
omission
which
did
not
constitute
a
penal
offence,
Article
5.
under
national
or
international
law,
at
the
time
when
it
was
committed.
Nor
shall
a
No
one
shall
be
subjected
to
torture
or
to
heavier
penalty
be
imposed
than
the
one
that
cruel,
inhuman
or
degrading
treatment
or
was
applicable
at
the
time
the
penal
offence
punishment.
was
committed.
Article
6.
Article
12.
Everyone
has
the
right
to
recognition
No
one
shall
be
subjected
to
arbitrary
everywhere
as
a
person
before
the
law.
interference
with
his
privacy,
family,
home
or
Article
7.
correspondence,
nor
to
attacks
upon
his
honour
and
reputation.
Everyone
has
the
All
are
equal
before
the
law
and
are
entitled
right
to
the
protection
of
the
law
against
such
without
any
discrimination
to
equal
interference
or
attacks.
protection
of
the
law.
All
are
entitled
to
equal
protection
against
any
discrimination
in
Article
13.
violation
of
this
Declaration
and
against
any
(1)
Everyone
has
the
right
to
freedom
of
incitement
to
such
discrimination.
movement
and
residence
within
the
borders
Article
8.
of
each
state.
Everyone
has
the
right
to
an
effective
remedy
(2)
Everyone
has
the
right
to
leave
any
by
the
competent
national
tribunals
for
acts
country,
including
his
own,
and
to
return
to
violating
the
fundamental
rights
granted
him
his
country.
by
the
constitution
or
by
law.
Article
14.
Article
9.
(1)
Everyone
has
the
right
to
seek
and
to
enjoy
in
other
countries
asylum
from
No
one
shall
be
subjected
to
arbitrary
arrest,
detention
or
exile.
persecution.
Article
10.
(2)
This
right
may
not
be
invoked
in
the
case
of
prosecutions
genuinely
arising
from
non-‐
Everyone
is
entitled
in
full
equality
to
a
fair
political
crimes
or
from
acts
contrary
to
the
and
public
hearing
by
an
independent
and
purposes
and
principles
of
the
United
impartial
tribunal,
in
the
determination
of
his
Nations.
rights
and
obligations
and
of
any
criminal
charge
against
him.
Article
15.
(2)
No
one
shall
be
arbitrarily
deprived
of
his
(1)
Everyone
has
the
right
to
freedom
of
nationality
nor
denied
the
right
to
change
his
peaceful
assembly
and
association.
nationality.
(2)
No
one
may
be
compelled
to
belong
to
an
Article
16.
association.
(1)
Men
and
women
of
full
age,
without
any
Article
21.
limitation
due
to
race,
nationality
or
religion,
have
the
right
to
marry
and
to
found
a
family.
(1)
Everyone
has
the
right
to
take
part
in
the
They
are
entitled
to
equal
rights
as
to
government
of
his
country,
directly
or
marriage,
during
marriage
and
at
its
through
freely
chosen
representatives.
dissolution.
(2)
Everyone
has
the
right
of
equal
access
to
(2)
Marriage
shall
be
entered
into
only
with
public
service
in
his
country.
the
free
and
full
consent
of
the
intending
spouses.
(3)
The
will
of
the
people
shall
be
the
basis
of
the
authority
of
government;
this
will
shall
be
(3)
The
family
is
the
natural
and
fundamental
expressed
in
periodic
and
genuine
elections
group
unit
of
society
and
is
entitled
to
which
shall
be
by
universal
and
equal
protection
by
society
and
the
State.
suffrage
and
shall
be
held
by
secret
vote
or
by
equivalent
free
voting
procedures.
Article
17.
Article
22.
(1)
Everyone
has
the
right
to
own
property
alone
as
well
as
in
association
with
others.
Everyone,
as
a
member
of
society,
has
the
right
to
social
security
and
is
entitled
to
(2)
No
one
shall
be
arbitrarily
deprived
of
his
realization,
through
national
effort
and
property.
international
co-‐operation
and
in
accordance
with
the
organization
and
resources
of
each
Article
18.
State,
of
the
economic,
social
and
cultural
rights
indispensable
for
his
dignity
and
the
Everyone
has
the
right
to
freedom
of
thought,
free
development
of
his
personality.
conscience
and
religion;
this
right
includes
freedom
to
change
his
religion
or
belief,
and
Article
23.
freedom,
either
alone
or
in
community
with
others
and
in
public
or
private,
to
manifest
(1)
Everyone
has
the
right
to
work,
to
free
his
religion
or
belief
in
teaching,
practice,
choice
of
employment,
to
just
and
favourable
worship
and
observance.
conditions
of
work
and
to
protection
against
unemployment.
Article
19.
(2)
Everyone,
without
any
discrimination,
has
Everyone
has
the
right
to
freedom
of
opinion
the
right
to
equal
pay
for
equal
work.
and
expression;
this
right
includes
freedom
to
hold
opinions
without
interference
and
to
(3)
Everyone
who
works
has
the
right
to
just
seek,
receive
and
impart
information
and
and
favourable
remuneration
ensuring
for
ideas
through
any
media
and
regardless
of
himself
and
his
family
an
existence
worthy
of
frontiers.
human
dignity,
and
supplemented,
if
necessary,
by
other
means
of
social
(2)
Motherhood
and
childhood
are
entitled
to
(1)
Everyone
has
duties
to
the
community
in
special
care
and
assistance.
All
children,
which
alone
the
free
and
full
development
of
whether
born
in
or
out
of
wedlock,
shall
enjoy
his
personality
is
possible.
the
same
social
protection.
(2)
In
the
exercise
of
his
rights
and
freedoms,
Article
26.
everyone
shall
be
subject
only
to
such
limitations
as
are
determined
by
law
solely
(1)
Everyone
has
the
right
to
education.
for
the
purpose
of
securing
due
recognition
Education
shall
be
free,
at
least
in
the
and
respect
for
the
rights
and
freedoms
of
elementary
and
fundamental
stages.
others
and
of
meeting
the
just
requirements
Elementary
education
shall
be
compulsory.
of
morality,
public
order
and
the
general
Technical
and
professional
education
shall
be
welfare
in
a
democratic
society.
made
generally
available
and
higher
education
shall
be
equally
accessible
to
all
on
(3)
These
rights
and
freedoms
may
in
no
case
the
basis
of
merit.
be
exercised
contrary
to
the
purposes
and
principles
of
the
United
Nations.
(2)
Education
shall
be
directed
to
the
full
development
of
the
human
personality
and
to
Article
30.
the
strengthening
of
respect
for
human
rights
and
fundamental
freedoms.
It
shall
promote
Nothing
in
this
Declaration
may
be
understanding,
tolerance
and
friendship
interpreted
as
implying
for
any
State,
group
among
all
nations,
racial
or
religious
groups,
or
person
any
right
to
engage
in
any
activity
and
shall
further
the
activities
of
the
United
or
to
perform
any
act
aimed
at
the
Nations
for
the
maintenance
of
peace.
destruction
of
any
of
the
rights
and
freedoms
set
forth
herein.
(3)
Parents
have
a
prior
right
to
choose
the