LANGUAGE IN THE USA

LANGUAGE VARIATION – PART TWO

HANDOUT

Correct or incorrect? Decide whether the following statements are correct or incorrect. If
incorrect, state why.

1. Let’s keep this just between you and I.

2. Tell the student that they can come in.
3. Who did you see at the party last night?
4. Smoking in the elevator? That’s something I can’t put up with!
5. The majority of U.S. citizens speak English.

THE OUR FATHER

_ _
Faeder ure, thu the eart on heofonum
Father our you that are in heaven
_ _ _
Si thin naman gehalgod
Be your name blessed
_ _ _ _ _
Urne gedaeghwamlican half syle us to daeg (A.D. 1000)
Our daily bread give us to day

Fader oure that is i heuen, blessed be this name. Oure ilk day bred gif us to day. (A.D.
1300)

Our Father, who is in heaven, blessed be your name. Give us our daily bread today.

HISTORICAL LANGUAGE RELATIONSHIPS

LATIN

FRENCH SPANISH ITALIAN PORTUGUESE ROMANIAN

ENGLISH

STANDARD LANCASHIRE CORNWALL NOTTINGHAMSHIRE SCOTS

ENGLISH ENGLISH ENGLISH ENGLISH ENGLISH

1
LANGUAGE IN THE USA

LANGUAGE VARIATION – Part Two

Languages Always Change

Although we find it natural that words and expressions come and go with time--for
example, what was the bee’s knees in the 1920s was swell in the 1930s, keen in the
1950s, groovy in the 1960s, neat in the 1970s, wicked in the 1980s, sweet in the 1990s
and is currently hot—it is less apparent how linguistic features at the phonetic,
phonological, morphological and syntactic levels, in addition to lexicon, change over
time. Nevertheless, they do. They may change slowly, sometimes taking longer than a
speaker’s lifetime, but they are in constant flux. The changes can be so significant that,
in the course of a thousand years (and often many fewer), languages become distinct.
(Handout example: The Our Father)

When a feature of language—a sound, a sentence structure, the meaning of a word--

begins to change, the new form doesn’t replace immediately the older one; the two co-
exist. Over time, the new version gradually replaces the old one until the time comes
when no one uses the old form anymore. At this point what was once considered ‘wrong’
or ‘sloppy’ language use is the ‘proper’ or ‘correct’ form. Departures from the norm,
then, are nothing more or less than language changes seen from up close. Language
change is not corruption; it is better characterized as transformation.
(Example: Where does the simple future in Italian come from? Example: American
English: did you eat?  jeet?)

When people speaking the same language split into two groups, for example to migrate
elsewhere, the language keeps changing. The changes that happen in each group will not
necessarily (or even likely) follow the same path. Furthermore, each group may come
into contact with speakers of other languages, which then influence each of them, making
the original two groups even more dissimilar, even to the point of becoming different
languages. (Handout examples: Latin, English)

Language standards

From a linguistic standpoint, no one dialect or language is better, more correct, or more
logical than any other. The notion of standard dialect is an idealization. In descriptive
terms, the standard dialect is the language variety used by political leaders, the media and
speakers from higher socioeconomic classes. Every language has at least one standard
dialect, which serves as the primary means of communication across dialects.

In fact, a single standard dialect does not exist. Instead, many different varieties of what
people consider the standard coexist. What these varieties share is prestige. In social
terms, the standard dialect is the dialect of prestige and power. The prestige of a

2
language variety depends upon the prestige of the speakers who use it, not on any
linguistic feature.

Standard American English (SAE)

The standard dialect of the United States is called Standard American English (SAE).
SAE is an idealization. It does not refer to a single, homogenous dialect. Instead, it
comprises a number of language varieties that share grammatical features, more than
pronunciation. So, varieties of SAE are spoken with northern accents, southern accents,
New England accents, etc. Although differences in accent alone do not distinguish
standard from nonstandard dialects, this does not mean that Americans do not make
judgments based on accent. They do. However, they tend to be more tolerant of
variation in accent than of variation in linguistic structure (grammar).

Nonstandard Dialects

All dialects that are not considered varieties of the standard are called nonstandard
dialects. It is important to keep in mind that ‘nonstandard’ does not mean ‘substandard’
or ‘inferior.’ Linguistically speaking, all dialects are equivalent. Because prestige and
power are associated with the standard dialect, nonstandard dialects are often associated
with lower socioeconomic status. In addition, nonstandard dialects are usually
stigmatized as being ‘incorrect,’ ‘bad,’ or ‘improper.’ This happens because the
systematic variation—inherent in all languages—of the nonstandard dialect is compared
to the systematic variation of the standard and, being different, is judged ‘wrong.’
Remember that such evaluations are linguistically unfounded.

Overt vs. Covert Prestige

Often people who do not adapt to the standard dialect are considered ‘uneducated’ or
‘lazy’ speakers. Speakers of nonstandard dialects are told that their language is ‘wrong.’
When children of nonstandard dialects go to school they must make not only the
transition from ‘home language’ to ‘school language,’ but also from nonstandard to
standard language. Some children make the adjustment and become bidialectal
speakers, having a mastery of two dialects, one standard and one nonstandard. Others
become marginally fluent in the standard; still others master the standard and reject the
nonstandard. Which outcome occurs depends on a number of factors. One is prestige, in
particular the distinction between overt and covert prestige. Overt prestige is the value
attached to a particular language variety by the wider community, which defines how
people should speak to gain status in that community. Another type of prestige, covert
prestige, instead defines how people should speak to be considered members of those
communities that speak a nonstandard variety. The desire to ‘belong’ to this group may
override the desire to gain status in the wider community. Language variety is a marker
of group identification.

3
Language, then, is not just a means of communication; it is a ‘social badge.’ It plays a
major role in our social identity. Variation does not degrade a language or make it
imperfect. It is natural that languages have different ways to express the same meanings.
From a linguistic perspective, the relationship between standard and nonstandard dialects
is not one of ‘good vs. bad’ or ‘right vs. wrong.’ Dialects reflect different ways of
speaking, defined by social structure and function.

Variation in Speech Style

You probably don’t speak in the same way to your professor as you do to your neighbor’s
two year old, or the same way to your friends as you do to your doctor. No speaker
speaks the same way all the time. We use different speech styles depending on the
context of the encounter. Speech styles are variations in speech based on factors such as
topic, setting and addressee, and they are normally described in terms of degrees of
formality (formal/careful or informal/casual). Automatically adjusting from one speech
style to another is known as style shifting. Speech styles differ in at least three major
ways: in pronunciation, in syntax and in vocabulary.

Pronunciation

“Casual” or “fast speech” phonology is characterized by a number of reductions. A

common one in English is ‘dropping g’s’ (actually changing final [n] to [n]
(goinggoin’, fishingfishin’). Another is the use of contractions; e.g., cannot  can’t,
she is she’s, he would have he’d’ve.

Syntax

In casual speech the following modifications are made:

There’s sandwiches in the fridge. (vs. There are sandwiches in the refrigerator)
Where’s it at? (vs. Where is it?)
the use of active constructions (vs. passives, which are used in more ‘formal’ discourse)

Vocabulary

The most obvious style shifts involve changes in vocabulary. Taboo words are common
in casual speech. Use of jargon or technical language is another way of style shifting.
Every job, field of study hobby and sport has its own technical terms. Within its own
areas, jargon is clear and economical; to outsiders it can be incomprehensible.

Very informal, colloquial language, often marked by colorful usage, is known formally as
slang. There are two types of slang: common slang and in-group slang. Common slang
is informal and widely used; e.g., tv for television. In-group slang is more specialized; it
is used by a particular group at a particular time. In-group slang, like technical jargon,
can be used to keep insiders together and exclude outsiders. Some slang is very short-

4
lived, but some lasts long enough to become accepted even in formal use. (For example,
fan appeared as a ‘slangy’ shortening of fanatic in the XVI century.) Slang responds to a
need in people to show group membership. It is a legitimate sociolinguistic phenomenon
and linguists study it as such.
(Handout: Slang expressions for drinking and vomiting)