Spakman Wortel Transmed 2004
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Reprinted from:
Spakman, W., and R. Wortel, A tomographic view on Western Mediterranean Geodynamics, in: The
TRANSMED Atlas, The Mediterranean Region from Crust to Mantle, Edited by: Cavazza W, Roure F,
Spakman W., Stampfli GM, Ziegler P., p. 31-52, 2004.
1
Chapter 2
Abstract
2
Fig. 2.1 The Western Mediterranean and surrounding regions. Indicated names are used in the text. For an introduction to the main
geological features of the region, see Cavazza et al., this publication.
tomography results of the 3-D structure of the Western 2.2 The global tomography model: BS2000
Mediterranean mantle (Figure 1). The results are
extracted from the global-mantle model BS2000 of Model BS2000 (Bijwaard and Spakman 2000) is the
Bijwaard and Spakman (2000). Details on data analysis successor of the BSE-model (Bijwaard et al. 1998). Both
and tomographic method can be found in Spakman models result from a tomographic analysis of the global
(1993), Spakman et al. (1993), Bijwaard et al. (1998), and data set of 7.5 million P- and pP-phase delay times of
Bijwaard and Spakman (2000). Some results of BS2000 Engdahl et al. (1998). They are determined as seismic
concerning Mediterranean mantle structure were wave-speed anomaly models with respect to the 1-D
presented earlier (Wortel and Spakman 2000, 2001 global reference model ak135 (Kennett et al. 1995).
(Erratum), Gutscher et al. 2002). We will analyse in detail Furthermore, the models are based on exactly the same
what can be learned from imaged mantle structure to help model parameterization. The basic difference results from
unravel the complex geodynamics of the Western the application of 3-D ray tracing and nonlinear inversion
Mediterranean. Based on this new tomographic by a step-wise linearized approach (Bijwaard and
information we adapted some of our earlier Spakman, 1999, 2000). Nonlinear inversion is performed
interpretations. Furthermore, we can confirm, and in some to account for the effects of ray bending caused by 3-D
cases refine, existing interpretations and we will also add wave speed heterogeneity in the mantle and for the effects
some new results such as the identification of the West of an inadequate reference model. BS2000 is a model of
Alpine-Tethys slab (Piedmont ocean slab), a surface the entire mantle based on a special cell-parameterization
reconstruction of the Ligurian ocean, and a new technique in which cell size is adaptive to the local data
qualitative reconstruction of the Betic-Alboran density (Spakman and Bijwaard 2001). Small cells are
subduction history. In our analysis, we include constructed in regions of high data density and larger cells
inferences drawn from tectonic reconstructions of the elsewhere. This effectively allows for solving a
Western Mediterranean, but stay relatively away from tomographic inverse problem for the entire mantle while
detailed comparisons with geology, in particular, timing retaining resolution for the relatively small structural
of events. Rather we like to present, as the title of this detail known from regional mantle studies (e.g. Spakman
contribution states, a tomographic view on Western et al. 1993, Piromallo and Morelli, 1997, 2003). Figure 2
Mediterranean mantle dynamics, leaving the test of our shows examples of the spatially variable cell
propositions to future research. parameterization of the Western Mediterranean mantle.
BS2000 results from a very large-size inverse
32
Chapter 2 . A Tomographic view on Western Mediterranean geodynamics
problem (about 400,000 model parameters) for which 2.3 Interpretation of model BS2000 for the
formal resolution analysis is computationally not feasible. Western Mediterranean mantle
An alternative and approximate method is to assess spatial
resolution through sensitivity analysis with synthetic Our interpretations will concentrate on subduction of
wave speed models (Spakman and Nolet 1988). Synthetic lithosphere. Previous tomographic studies have
data are first computed by integrating a synthetic contributed strongly to unravelling the 3-D geometry of
wave-speed anomaly model along the seismic ray paths of subducted slab in the region (e.g. Spakman 1986a, 1990,
the real data. Usually some Gaussian noise is added and 1991, Spakman et al. 1993, Amato et al. 1993, 1998,
finally the synthetic data are inverted in the same way as Cimini and De Gori 1997, Piromallo and Morelli, 1997,
the actual data. Qualitative inferences about model 2003, Lucente et al. 1999). Model BS2000, however,
resolution are derived from the comparison between the allows to make new inferences on Mediterranean
synthetic model and its tomographic image. Examples are subduction systems. In tomography, subducted
given in Figure 3 showing results of so-called spike- or lithosphere translates into a positive (fast) wave-speed
block tests for synthetic blocks of 1.2 to 2.4 degrees in anomaly, predominantly, due to the temperature contrast
size, at different depths. Synthetic spike tests are between the cold slab and the warmer ambient mantle,
conducted for a wide variety of block sizes ranging from whereas relatively warmer mantle regions lead to a
0.6 degrees to 6.0 degrees. This allows for investigating negative (slow) wave-speed anomaly (e.g. De Jonge et al.
the potential for resolving both small and larger scale 1994, Goes et al. 2000). We first discuss mantle structure
structure at specific locations in the tomographic model in the eastern part of the region
and reduces the risk of misinterpreting sensitivity test (Alps-Apennines-Calabria) and separately discuss imaged
results (e.g. good recovery of detail does not imply good structure of the Betic-Alboran mantle. In the last part of
recovery of larger structures; see Leveque et al. 1993). this paper we analyse our findings in the context of the
Many examples of sensitivity tests are given in Appendix geodynamic evolution of the entire Western
1. The degree of recovery of a variety of synthetic patterns Mediterranean.
is used as a measure of confidence to engage
interpretation of the actual tomogram.
Model BS2000 shows a complex and 2.3.1 Alps, Apennines, and the Western
heterogeneous pattern of seismic wave-speed anomalies Mediterranean
across the entire upper mantle beneath the Western
Mediterranean. Generally, the imaged wave-speed The tomographic image of the upper mantle of this
heterogeneity becomes more smooth from the top of the region is very complex. The 3-D cartoon displayed in
mantle downward (see map view images of Figure 4). Figure 5 shows our schematization of the imaged positive
Amplitudes decrease from 3-4% in the upper 200 km to mantle anomalies and summarizes our geodynamic
1-1.5% at the base of the upper mantle. We deduce from interpretation. This cartoon can be verified against the
sensitivity test results that the noted amplitude decrease imaged positive anomaly patterns as extensively
with depth is real, although amplitudes may be displayed in map view sections (Figure 4), selected cross
underestimated on average. This was also found in other sections (Figures 6, 7, and 8) and cross sections presented
studies (e.g. Spakman et al. 1993, Piromallo and Morelli in Appendix 2. To justify our choices leading to the
2003). Sensitivity tests also indicate a general decrease in geometric and geodynamic interpretation depicted in
spatial resolution from, locally at best, 50 km in the first Figure 5, we start with a brief description (with some
100 km to 100-200 km in the mantle transition zone interpretation) of the larger scale patterns, followed by a
(410-660 km). For reasons of model comparison later in comparison with related work.
this paper, we note that, from a technical point of view,
the regional mantle models of Spakman et al. (1993) and Imaged upper mantle structure
Piromallo and Morelli (1997, 2003) are closest to
BS2000. The former work employs a spatially uniform The positive anomalies found in the upper 150-200 km
parameterization with 0.8 degree cells and cell beneath the Alps and northern Po plain are dipping to the
thicknesses similar to BS2000, whereas the latter uses a south, beneath the central Alps, and to the east-southeast
detailed node parameterization with a node distance of 0.5 below the western Alps. This is best shown in cross
degrees and 50 km node spacing in depth. This is sections (Figure 8b and Appendix 2). This pattern is
comparable to using 0.25 degrees cells with thicknesses of consistent with overriding of the European margin by the
25 km (Spakman and Bijwaard 2001). Adriatic plate. Beneath the northern Apennines (from
Tuscany to the Po plain) positive anomalies shift
westward with increasing depth, indicative of
lithosphere subduction. Below 400 km this slab anomaly
connects with a broad positive anomaly found in the
upper mantle transition-zone (410-660 km). Under the
central-southern Apennines only negative anomalies
33
Fig 2.2 Cell hit count and model cell-parameterization at selected depths beneath the Mediterranean region. The smallest cells have
lateral dimensions of 0.6 degrees. Lateral dimensions of larger cells are a multiple of 0.6 degrees. The smallest cells have lateral
dimensions of 0.6 degrees and thickness of 35 to 65 km increasing with depth, respectively. Larger cells are found below the sea
areas and northern Africa where station and earthquake density is strongly reduced. Still, the 1.8*1.8 degree cells constructed at a
depth of 628 km in the Western Mediterranen have a thickness of only 65 km. The color contouring quantifies the cell hit count, i.e.
the number of rays passing through each cell. The color coding uses a 10-logarithm scale.The irregular cell grid is specifically
designed to minimize hit-count differences between adjacent cells as well as possible. This is done in a self-adaptive way using a
target hitcount of about 500 rays per cell in the upper mantle (see Spakman and Bijwaard, 2001, for details). This explains why cells
of different volume have similar hit count. The smallest cells used in the grid construction procedure have dimensions of 0.6 degrees
therefore their hit count can exceed the target value.
34
Chapter 2 . A Tomographic view on Western Mediterranean geodynamics
Fig. 2.3 1 Results of a sensitivity test for the recovery of a regular patterns of 1.2, 1.8, and 2.4 degree blocks at different depths in the
upper mantle. Circular lines denote the location of the isolated synthetic blocks with an seismic wave-speed anomaly amplitude of
+5% or -5% with respect to the 1-D reference model ak135 of Kennett et al. (1995). Between these blocks the synthetic anomaly is 0%.
The colors denote the tomographic image of the synthetic block models. Comparison of "input" and "output" model leads to qualitative
assessment of spatial resolution. The figure shows results for the Western Mediterranean taken from a global synthetic mantle model
(model BS2000 is a global mantle model). The synthetic models are only constructed in regions where cell sizes of 1.2 (or 0.6), 1.8, or
2.4 degrees were permitted. This explains, e.g., the absence of synthetic blocks of 1.2 degree below the Western Mediterranean at 145
km depth. Lack of resolution can be detected where significant amplitudes occur between the blocks where block anomalies smear into
the model. Generally the synthetic patterns are well recovered although with systematically smaller amplitudes than the input values.
35
Fig. 2.4 1 Tomographic map view images at twelve selected depths for the upper 710 km of the Western Mediterranean and
surrounding regions. Colors display the percentage deviation of seismic wave speed with respect to the 1-D reference model ak135
(Kennett et al. 1995). Negative (positive) anomalies represent slower (faster) than average wave speed at depth. Reference model
values are different for each depth. Negative (positive) wave speed anomalies likely represent predominantly higher (lower)
temperatures than average (Goes et al. 2000). Temperature anomalies can be as large as 10%-20%. In regions where imaged
amplitudes are larger than the limits of the contouring scale, additional line-contours are plotted for every step in 1%-anomaly value.
Shaded yellow lines indicate outlines of major tectonic features for reference. Capital letters A, B, C, D, at depths of 500 km, or larger
label individual anomaly patterns for discussion in the text.
36
Chapter 2 . A Tomographic view on Western Mediterranean geodynamics
37
Fig. 2.5. Cartoon depicting our interpretation of the geometry and geodynamic significance of imaged upper mantle anomalies below
the Alps, Apennines and the western Western-Mediterranean. See text for further information.
are found in the upper 200-250 km. Below this depth a Cross sections (Figure 6b, Appendix 2) clearly
long positive anomaly appears along the strike of the demonstrate that the Apennines-Calabria slab is turning to
Apennines and connects to the south with the fast horizontal in the transition zone, lying flat on the 660 km
anomaly associated with the well-known Calabria
discontinuity between upper and lower mantle. The
subduction. Since their discovery (Spakman, 1986a,
1990), these positive anomaly structures have been flattening of this slab explains the sudden broadening of
equivocally attributed to subducted lithosphere. The positive anomalies (anomaly C). The Calabria slab is
patterns of relatively elongate wave-speed heterogeneity imaged across the entire mantle beneath Calabria (Figure
in the upper 400 km start to change in the transition zone 6b). In contrast, sections across the central-southern
(410-660 km). There, we distinguish four large positive Apennines (e.g. Figure 7a) demonstrate, as can also be
anomalies (see Figure 4): observed in the map view images, that no positive wave
speed connection exists between slab and Adriatic
A) The broad positive anomaly found beneath the
northern Italy/Adriatic region, the northwestern lithosphere at the surface. Westward subduction below
Mediterranean, southern France, and the Alps; the northern Apennines is imaged as continuous with the
B) the Betic-Alboran anomaly which will be described broad transition zone anomaly A. Compared to the images
later, of flattening subduction below the southern Tyrrhenian
C) a broad anomaly found west of, and connected to, the we observe a distinct difference: The northern Apennine
subduction anomaly beneath the central-southern slab is almost centered above anomaly A (Figure 7b,
Apennines and Calabria, and
Appendix 2) whereas the Apennines-Calabria slab is
D) a broad anomaly imaged under the eastern-Alps and
the Pannonian basin. located to the side of its flat lying portion (anomaly C;
Figures 6b, 7a, Appendix 2). Cross sections taken along
Note that anomaly A also attains significant amplitudes at strike of the Apennines (Figure 8 and Appendix 2) lend
the top of the lower mantle (710-810 km) while the other additional support for large structural differences between
anomalies fade away. Under east Algeria we find a the Apennines-Calabria slab (to the right of the 8-degree
positive anomaly of varying amplitude which trends
tic mark), the northern Apennines slab (to the left of the
northward with increasing depth. In the transition zone,
anomaly C also encompasses the deeper part of this 8-degree tic mark and found in the upper 300 km), and the
east-Algeria anomaly. We observe no other broad anomaly A in the transition zone, suggesting that
(north-)dipping structures connected to the north-African these anomalies result from (at least partly) a difference in
margin. Sensitivity tests results (Figure 3, Appendix 1) geodynamic evolution.
indicate that the spatial resolution in the mantle under the
African margin is sufficient to rule out the existence of
such large positive anomalies.
38
Chapter 2 . A Tomographic view on Western Mediterranean geodynamics
39
Fig 2.6. Two BS2000 cross sections through the first 1000 km of the Western Mediterranean mantle. A) section through the Betic-Alboran region and Algerian basin; B) section through the
Tyrrhenian mantle and Calabria. The sections are computed along a great circle segment indicated by a straight red line in the center of the map above each mantle section. Great circle coordinates
are printed in the map. Lateral units are in degrees measured from the start of the section (left); 1 degree=110 km; All dimensions are plotted to scale. White dots indicate major (magnitude >4.8)
earthquakes which occur within 25 km distance of the vertical section. The diamond symbol to the left in the map indicates a compass needle (white pointing north). The small map-inset shows a
larger map of the region with the great circle segment indicated as a red line. For color coding (and line contours) of the tomographic image see caption of Figure 4. Dashed lines in the section
represent the mantle discontinuities at 410 and 660 km depth.
40
tFig. 2.7. . Two BS2000 cross sections through the first 1000 km of the Western Mediterranean mantle. A) section through the southern Apennines and Tyrrhenian basin; B) section through the
northern Apennines and Liguro-Provencal basin. For further explanation see caption of Figure 6.
Chapter 2 . A Tomographic view on Western Mediterranean geodynamics
41
Fig. 2.8. Two BS2000 cross sections through the first 1000 km of the Western Mediterranean mantle taken along strike of the Italian Peninsula: A) section through western Italy and the central
Alps; B) section through the Adriatic basin and the central-eastern Alps. For further explanation see caption of Figure 6.
Comparison with other tomographic work even if resolved in some models, cell amplitude errors
may still lead to unequivocal interpretations. All these
The general patterns described above are broadly factors of uncertainty have prompted Wortel and
consistent with previous tomographic models which are Spakman (2000, 2001) to put a question mark on their
based on inverting data from both regional and earlier suggestion regarding slab detachment in the
teleseismic earthquakes (Spakman 1991, Spakman et al. northern Apennines.
1993, Piromallo and Morelli, 1997, 2003, Bijwaard et al.
1998). However, the more detailed morphology of imaged Central-southern Apennines
patterns still differs among the more recent models. The A very consistent feature of regional and global
reason should be found in differences in data selection and tomography studies (Spakman 1991, Spakman et al. 1993,
processing, tomographic techniques and model Piromallo and Morelli, 1997, 2003, Bijwaard et al. 1998)
parameterization, and inversion regularization, as is a zone of negative wave-speed anomalies which is
discussed hereafter. imaged in the top 200-250 km under the central-southern
Apennines. A local teleseismic-tomography study
Alps (Cimini and De Gori, 2001) corroborate this result. We
The S-dipping European lithosphere below the central note, however, that teleseismic studies can produce quite
Alps and ESE-dipping under the Western Alps is well different results for the same region. For instance,
known from interpretations of deep seismic sounding and Lucente et al. (1999) find on average zero anomalies for
geology (e.g Waldhauser et al. 1998, Schmid and Kissling the upper 170 km under the central-southern Apennines.
2000) and has - for the central Alps - also been inferred Teleseismic tomography studies are intrinsically
from mantle tomography (Spakman 1986b, Kissling hampered by a poor depth resolution (only steeply
1993, Kissling and Spakman 1996). European plate emergent seismic rays are used) and, for the Italian region,
geometry was similarly imaged in the models of by the fact that relative travel-time residuals are
Piromallo and Morelli (1997, 2003). We also find a inverted. The latter implies that the average wave-speed
clearly S-dipping European margin below the eastern anomaly for a particular depth is invisible, and thus a
Alps (Figure 8b, Appendix 2) which contrasts with the low or high wave-speed layer cannot be imaged properly.
recent proposition of north dipping lithosphere along the Overall, results from independent studies mostly lend
Trans-Alp transect by Lippitsch et al. (2003). See also support for the case that no positive-anomaly connection
Transect VI of this publication. exists between the Adriatic plate and the deeper positive
anomaly imaged below 200-250 km. Proposed
Northern Apennines interpretations of this feature include (i) a slab window
The patterns imaged in the upper 250 km beneath the (absence of slab or subducted continental lithosphere;
northern Apennines show subtle but important differences Amato et al. 1993); (ii) subduction of a promontory of
among models. Originally, Panza et al. (1980) discovered continental lithosphere (Lucente et al. 1999, Lucente and
the deep lithospheric root beneath the northern Apennines Speranza, 2001); (iii) lithosphere attenuated by a hot
from an analysis of surface waves. Spakman (1990) and asthenospheric wedge (Amato et al. 1993, Cimini and De
Spakman et al. (1993) also imaged a root and observed Gori, 2001); (iv) deep (250 km) slab detachment (Lucente
that, similar to the central-southern Apennines, no and Speranza, 2001), in which case the low velocities
positive wave speed connection exists between the above 250 km depth are still assigned to subducted
Adriatic lithosphere and positive anomalies imaged continental lithosphere; and (v) shallow slab detachment
deeper under this region. Beneath Tuscany the gap is (Wortel and Spakman, 1992, 2000, Cimini and De Gori,
smallest, only about 50 km wide (e.g. Figure 16 of 2001, Panza et al. 2002), in which case the low
Spakman et al. 1993). This pattern was adopted by Wortel wave-speed anomaly represents mobile (asthenospheric)
and Spakman (1992) as the premise for their hypothesis of mantle.
slab detachment under the entire Apennines and of lateral
migration of a slab tear from north to south. Subsequent Calabria
teleseismic tomography studies of the Italian peninsula The Calabria slab is imaged across the entire upper
(e.g. Amato et al. 1993, 1998, Cimini and De Gori, 1997, mantle in regional/global mantle models (e.g. Spakman et
Lucente et al. 1999), however, showed continuous al. 1993, Amato et al. 1993, Cimini and De Gori, 1997,
positive anomalies under the northern Apennines. The Piromallo and Morelli 1997, 2003, Bijwaard et al. 1998,
regional mantle models of Piromallo and Morelli (1997, BS2000) and detailed local tomography models (e.g.
2003) exhibit local evidence for a continuous slab at the Selvaggi and Chiarabba 1995). Compared to the studies of
same location where Spakman et al. (1993) find the the eighties and early nineties, the broad positive
smallest gap. The model of Bijwaard et al. (1998) and anomalies in the transition zone, particularly the falt lying
BS2000 also possess evidence for a continuous positive portion of the Calabria slab (Anomaly C in Figure 4), are
anomaly in the upper 200 km (Figure 4, 7b, Appendix 2). imaged more clearly in the recent tomographic models.
The differences between tomographic models concern These flat anomalies, or parts of them, in the transition
the 50-km detail in the depth continuation of zone of the western Mediterranean were already present
north-Adriatic lithosphere subduction. Mantle structure of in the models of Cimini and De Gori (1997), Piromallo
this scale is at the current limit of model resolution and, and Morelli (1997, 2003), and Lucente et al. (1999)
42
Chapter 2 . A Tomographic view on Western Mediterranean geodynamics
although with a different morphology and depth extent as Calvert et al. 2000), (ii) removal of thickened continental
compared to our models BSE (Bijwaard et al. 1998) and lithosphere (Platt and Vissers, 1989), and (iii) subducted
BS2000. lithosphere (Blanco and Spakman 1993, Spakman et al.
1993). Gutscher et al. (2002) combined the positive
2.3.2 The Betic-Rif and Alboran region anomaly of model BS2000 with marine-seismic
observations of a deforming fore-arc west of Gibraltar.
Beneath the Betic-Rif and Alboran region a positive They propose a still active eastward-dipping subduction
anomaly is found from the base of the crust across the system involving a continuous slab. Blanco and Spakman
entire upper mantle (Figure 4). The deeper part of the (1993) and Spakman et al. (1993) proposed an
anomaly extends more to the ENE of the Alboran region. interpretation of a completely detached slab because only
At the base of the upper mantle it underlies a large part of low velocities were imaged above 200 km in their models.
the east Iberian margin and the Valencia basin. Figure 6a The recent tomography results, which are based on much
displays a W-E cross section through the anomaly which more accurate data, weaken the basis for their detachment
clearly shows an eastward dip and confinement of the interpretation, at least where complete slab break-off is
anomaly to the upper mantle. Cross sections with a more concerned.
N-S orientation exhibit no dip. Figures of Appendix 2
allow to follow this anomaly along many W-E directed 2.4 Analysis: The geodynamic evolution of the
slices. Western Mediterranean
Previous tomographic studies, based on different
tomographic approaches and data sets, have already Several detailed reconstructions of the tectonic evolution
imaged a positive anomaly in the upper mantle of the of the Western Mediterranean s.l. have been published
Betic-Rif/Alboran region. Blanco and Spakman (1993) which are based on interpretations of geology, magnetic
and Spakman et al. (1993) find the anomaly from a depth anomalies, and marine seismics in the overall context of
of 200 km downward, whereas Seber et al. (1996), Africa-Europe convergence (e.g. Dercourt et al. 1986,
Bijwaard et al. 1998, and Calvert et al. (2000) image the Dewey et al. 1989, Lonergan and White 1997, Gueguen et
anomaly locally from sub-Moho depth downward. The al. 1998, Jolivet and Faccenna, 2000, Gelabert et al. 2002,
latter authors prefer a division into two separate bodies Rosenbaum et al. 2002a, Frizon de Lamotte et al. 2000,
which however are not imaged in BS2000. Piromallo and Mantovani et al. 2002, Cavazza and Wezel 2002). Also
Morelli (1997, 2003) find a positive anomaly connection attempts were made to combine tectonic reconstructions
below northern Morocco, but most of the positive with inferences made from seismic tomography (e.g.
anomaly is overlain by low wave-speed anomalies. Wortel and Spakman 1992, De Jonge et al. 1994,
Figure 9 shows a 3-D cartoon schematically Carminati et al. 1998, Wortel and Spakman 2000,
depicting the geometry of the positive anomaly in model Faccenna et al. 2001a, 2001b, 2003). These kinematic and
BS2000. Several options exist for its interpretation, each geodynamic models differ considerably in detail,
associated with a different geodynamic process: (i) basically because the scarcity of data allows for degrees of
delamination of the lithospheric mantle (Seber et al. 1996, freedom in their interpretation. But they all share the
43
notion that slab roll-back is invoked as the most during the Eocene between the slowly converging African
prominent process for reshaping the region in the past and European plates, roll-back of the gravitationally
25-30 Ma. Roll-back started in the northwest, along the unstable Ligurian ocean lithosphere eventually took over
Oligocene Iberian-margin, and progressed outward to the as the dominant mode of subduction (Le Pichon 1982,
southwest, south, and southeast. As a result the Wortel and Spakman 1992, 2000, Jolivet and Faccenna
Liguro-Provençal basin was opened in the central 2000). In the following, the remnants of subducted
Western Mediterranean, the Alboran-Algerian basin in lithosphere found in the mantle under the Western
the south and, as a second phase, the Tyrrhenian basin in Mediterranean and Alps region will be identified as parts
the southeast (see Transect III, this publication). Details of the Ligurian ocean and of West Alpine-Tethys.
of the roll-back evolution are still poorly known.
Most of the above cited kinematic and geodynamic 2.4.1 Tomographic evidence for slab roll-back
models focus on the Cenozoic evolution. Reconstructions
of the pre-Cenozoic evolution (e.g Stampfli and Borel Seismic tomography has basically substantiated the
2002, Stampfli et al. 2002, Stampfli and Borel, this publ., presence of subducted lithosphere in the Western
Schettino and Scotese, 2002) show the origin of the Mediterranean mantle and, importantly, has provided the
oceanic areas that were involved in west Mediterranean missing evidence for slab roll-back by means of the
and Alps subduction processess since the observed flat-lying character of the Apennines-Calabria
Mid-Cretaceous. Two small oceans bordered the south slab. Slabs that flatten in the transition zone have been
Iberian-European margin since the Late Triassic. To the observed under back-arc basin behind several other
southwest, the Ligurian ocean opened between Africa, retreating subduction systems such as the Izu-Bonin
Iberia, and Adria, as the result of a left-lateral transform subduction (Van der Hilst et al. 1991), the
motion between Iberia and Africa-Adria associated with Tonga-Kermadec subduction (Van der Hilst, 1995,
the opening of the central Atlantic. The northern limit of Bijwaard et al. 1998), and behind the Melanesian Arc in
the Ligurian ocean is assumed to be more or less in line the region east of Australia (Hall and Spakman, 2002).
with the North-Pyrenees fault system (Schettino and Convection modeling studies (e.g. Olbertz et al. 1997,
Scotese, 2002, Stampfli and Borel, this publ.). North-east Christensen, 1995, 2001, Cizkova et al. 2002) and tank
of the Ligurian ocean, and north of the Adria block, the experiments (e.g. Griffitts et al. 1995, Becker et al. 1999)
Alpine Tethys either already existed as the most western conclusively demonstrated that slab roll-back of more
part of the Neo-Tethys (Schettino and Scotese, 2002), or than a few cm/yr may cause subducted slab to flatten
was opened since the Late Triassic as a result of the same above the upper-to-lower mantle transition as a result of
transform motion that caused the Ligurian ocean encountering (initial) resistance against lower-mantle
(Stampfli and Borel, this publ.). In both reconstructions, penetration by the slab.
the Ligurian ocean connected in the north with the Alpine
Tethys. Spreading in the Ligurian ocean came to a halt 2.4.2 Northern Apennines and Alpine -Tethys
during the Early/Mid-Creteceous and the basin became subduction
incorporated as a passive embayment in the
Iberia-Africa-Adria domain. Since the Mid-Cretaceous, Below the Po plain and the northernmost Apennines, the
this entire domain experienced a counter-clockwise southward underthrusting Eurasian plate meets with
rotation with respect to central Europe associated with the the westward dipping north-Apennines slab. The
opening of the South Atlantic (e.g. Stampfli and Borel, European margin may reach a depth of 200 km but is
this publ.). As a result of this motion the western tomographically difficult to distinguish from the Adriatic
Alpine-Tethys (Piemont/Valais ocean) was overrriden by plate under the Po plain. However, for the steeply dipping
the Adria block and perhaps also by the northern part of anomalies reaching a depth of 300 km beneath this region,
the Ligurian ocean. This convergence culminated in the close inspection of cross sections (Appendix 2) suggests
closure of the Pyrenees-Valais basin and western/central the geometry of subducted/overriden Ligurian-Adriatic
Alps orogeny during the Eocene-Oligocene period when lithosphere which is strongly curving to the west below
Adria collided with Europe. the Po plain and continues up to the Western Alps. In our
Destruction of the western Alpine-Tethys cartoon (Figure 5) we indicate this interpretation with a
effectively locked the Ligurian ocean between Africa, question mark.
Iberia, central Europe, and Adria. Continuing Slightly to the south-east, Lucente et al. (1999) and
convergence between the African and European plates Lucente and Speranza (2001) propose the presence of a
may have caused the onset of NW-directed subduction of long (700 km) westward subducted slab below the
the Ligurian ocean along the east Iberian margin. northern Apennines (Tuscany). The Oligocene-to-present
According to some studies initiation of this subduction extension in the northern Liguro-Provençal basin amounts
system may have commenced earlier (Late Creteaceous; to only about 250 km (Faccenna et al. 2001a) and thus
Schettino and Scotese, 2002, Faccenna et al. 2001a) cannot explain the inferred slab length. Faccenna et al.
whereas many other reconstructions assume initiation of (2001a) combine these inferences with the geological
subduction during the Tertiary. The latter timing is related development of the north-east Iberian margin and propose
to the Late Oligocene opening of the Valencia basin. that initiation of Ligurian ocean subduction dates back to
Because the Ligurian ocean got trapped (land-locked) about 80 Myr. The tomography results presented here
44
Chapter 2 . A Tomographic view on Western Mediterranean geodynamics
45
The detachment gap becomes smaller toward the tomography shows no north-dipping slab between east
Calabria arc. Whether the Calabria slab is still attached to Algeria and Sicily. This development along the African
the Ionian basin (Neo-Tethys) lithosphere is questionable. margin is in line with the original suggestion made by
Although tomographic mantle models mostly show a Lonergan and White (1997): they propose that southward
continuous slab up to the crust, none of these models roll back of Ligurian ocean toward the African margin
possesses the spatial resolution to exclude a small came to a halt in the middle Miocene after which plate
detachment gap as would result from shallow and recent rupture initiated below the African margin and progressed
(e.g., past million year) slab detachment. Indicative for a in two directions: to the east facilitating slab roll-back
continuous slab would be progressing slab roll back toward present-day Calabria (creating the Tyrrhenian
which can be expected because Ionian oceanic lithosphere basin), and to the west facilitating slab roll back toward
is still found east of the trench. Wortel and Spakman Gibraltar (creating the Alboran-Algerian backarc basin)
(2000) argue on the basis of space geodetic observations (Fig. 11).
of crustal motion that at present evidence for strong Westward migrating slab-detachment below
roll-back is absent. These observations show a distinct Algeria is proposed by Coulon et al. (2002) who observe a
contrast between the speed of Aegean roll-back (about 3 distinct change from calc-alkaline subduction-related arc
cm/yr, Noomen et al. 1996, McClusky et al. 2000) and volcanism (12-9 Ma) to more alkaline volcanism (4-0.8
southern Apennines-Calabria-Sicily motion which more Ma) with a distinct asthenospheric/plume contribution.
closely follows the motion of Africa ( < 1 cm/yr) relative Slab detachment along the entire African margin is in
to the European plate (Noomen et al. 1996, Oldow et al. accord with the observation that this margin is under
2002). The observed small (<< 1cm/yr) eastward compression since the Pleistocene as a result of
component of southern-Apennines motion (Oldow et al. continuing Africa-Europe convergence (Frizon de
2002) cannot be uniquely attributed to roll back since it Lamotte et al. 2000, Bracene and Frizon de Lamotte
can also be explained by extrusion of a crustal block, as a 2002). All of these observations are consistent with the
result of continuing Africa-Europe convergence, above a fact that no north-dipping slab is found under the African
detached-slab setting. margin (except locally below the east Algerian margin).
Importantly, all geological interpretations invoke the
2.4.5 The north African margin presence of lithosphere slab below this margin at some
period in the past. The subducted lithosphere, however, is
Below northern Sicily we find the free edge of the now found at the base of the upper mantle and as dipping
Apennines-Calabria slab. Tomography does not show slabs at either extremity of the present Western
subducted slab beneath the African margin except for a Mediterranean.
zone beneath east Algeria. This corresponds to the
location where the Kabylies (derived from the Iberian 2.4.6 Betic-Rif and Alboran region: I. Subduction
margin) accreted around 15 Ma ago with the African and roll-back of predominantly oceanic
margin (e.g. Frizon de Lamotte et al. 2000). Carminati et lithosphere
al. (1998) propose that vertical slab tearing, east of the
Kabylies, initiated the last phase of slab roll-back which In line with Gutscher et al. (2002) we prefer to explain the
led to the opening of the Tyrrhenian basin. Detachment Betic-Alboran BS2000 anomaly by subduction of
tearing of the slab along the African margin may have (mostly) oceanic lithosphere. The alternatives of
turned into a lithosphere (surface) tear-fault along the convective removal of thickened lithosphere and of
African margin propagating toward Sicily (Carminati et delamination of the continental lithospheric mantle are
al. 1998, Wortel and Spakman 2000). Faccenna et al. attractive processes, and perhaps may have contributed to
(2001b) observed in tank experiments an acceleration of the mantle anomaly, but fail to explain the origin of the
slab roll back after the slab starts to interact with the 660 largely oceanic Neogene Alboran-Algerian basin. More
km discontinuity. They propose that this interaction can promising in this respect is a westward roll-back model
explain the accelerated opening of the Tyrrhenian basin (Royden 1993, Lonergan and White 1997) in which the
after an apparent stalling of the roll-back process. A Alboran-Algerian basin can develop as a backarc basin
combination of slab interaction with the 660 km (which may include thinning of the continental Alboran
discontinuity and slab rupture processes should be microplate). Roll-back should have involved
considered possible. Eastward migration of slab predominantly oceanic lithosphere because lithosphere
detachment 1 and lithosphere tearing explains why delamination (or a convective removal mechanism)
would have left at least the upper crust at the surface in the
entire Alboran-Algeria basin, which is not observed. A
1 With slab detachment we mean lateral tearing of the slab retreating southward toward the African margin
subducted slab beneath depths of say 40-50 km along a more or would provide an alternative for creating the Algerian
less horizontal fault plane cutting the slab (see Wortel and basin. However, no north-dipping slab is observed with
Spakman 2000). Lithosphere tearing cuts the surface and
propagates along a more vertical fault plane. The horizontal
slab-detachment fault can turn into a vertical lithosphere fault strike of the continental margin; perpendicular strikes would
and visa versa. This depends for instance on the development of favor lithosphere tearing whereas a parallel strike would favor
the angle between the strike of the roll-back system and the local detachment.
46
Chapter 2 . A Tomographic view on Western Mediterranean geodynamics
tomography. Instead the prime candidate to fuel regional observations and the geology of the Balearic margin,
geodynamics is found below the Betic-Rif region, which Acosta et al. (2002) infer southeast migration of the
in fact implies that a northward dipping slab, creating the Alboran microplate during the Late Oligocene and
Algerian basin, may have eventually rolled westward. Miocene and opening of the Alboran-Algeria basin
For the sake of clarity we emphasize that, as for behind it, while in the north the Valencia basin is opening
the Apennines subduction systems, the Betic-Alboran and the Balearic islands undergo clockwise rotation. Also,
slab does not result from west-east convergence between these authors report a transition from calc-alkaline to
plates but should be viewed as unstable lithosphere alkaline volcanism pointing at early slab detachment or
sinking passively into the mantle (with possible south- southwestward lithosphere tearing along the Balearic
and westward components of retreat) and being replaced margin.
at the surface by a back-arc basin which may contain Tectonic reconstructions place Betic-Alboran
continental fragments (Alboran microplate). fragments in the Oligocene Balearic margin (e.g.
Delamination of continental mantle (Seber et al. 1996, Lonergan and White 1997, Rosenbaum et al. 2002A,
Calvert et al. 2000) may start to get involved in the Stampfli and Borel, this publ.) implying at least 400 km of
subduction process in its advanced stage when slab westward transport to the present Betic-Rif system. The
roll-back has reached the present Betic-Rif region. This Early-Miocene orogenic collapse event of Platt and
depends on the distribution of oceanic and continental Vissers (1989) occurred along the Balearic margin where
lithosphere in the region between Africa and Iberia. it evolved in a tectonic environment of WSW directed
Recent paleogeographic reconstructions (Rosenbaum et slab roll-back which was likely accommodated by SW
al. 2002b; Stampfli and Borel, this publ; Schettino and propagating slab detachment or lithosphere tearing.
Scotese, 2002) all suggest that, since about 150 Myr, at Although more research needed, lithosphere tearing may
least a small stripe (less than 200 km) of Ligurian ocean cause considerable subsidence (juxtaposed to uplift at the
lithosphere separated Iberia and Africa until it became other side of the lithosphere tear) and may allow for
involved in the Betic-Alboran subduction. Still, at present exhumation of mantle rock (Ronda peridotite) along the
continental lithosphere may also be involved by lithosphere tear (Duggen et al. 2003). These observations
delamination in the roll-back process. along the Balearic margin are consistent with the absence
Many arguments for slab roll-back in the of a north (or south) dipping slab under this margin, and
Alboran region are given by Lonergan and White (1997) with the observed east-dipping Betic-Alboran slab found
and will not be repeated here. We like to add the following to the southwest.
inferences which are all in line with a model of WSW
directed slab retreat and consistent with observed mantle 2.4.7 Betic-Rif Alboran region: II. Development of
structure. 1) The conspicuous arcuate geometry of the arc geometry and subduction roll-back
slab anomaly in the upper few hundred kilometers
(particularly around a depth of 200 km) is quite similar to The shape of the Betic-Alboran slab, e.g. at a depth of 200
that of the retreating Calabria slab. 2) Platt et al. (2003) km, correlates quite conspicuously with the asymmetry
demonstrate that, in the Middle-Miocene, the Alboran in arcuate shape between the Betic and Rif orogens - the
domain was at least about 250 km to the ESE of its present Betic orogen being much larger than the Rif orogen - and
position with respect to Iberia and 200 km to the ENE of with the spatial distribution of Neogene volcanism (e.g.
its present position with respect to the African margin. Lonergan and White 1997). The reconstruction of
They suggest that convergence of the Alboran Domain Betic-Rif shortening by Platt et al. (2003) leads to
with Iberia and Africa results from lithosphere roll-back shortening directions roughly perpendicular to the slab (as
in a westerly direction (coeval with Africa - Iberia imaged at 200 km depth). These observations point at a
convergence in a roughly NNW direction). The WNW possible relation between the shape of the slab and the
convergence of the Alboran domain with Iberia proves to (creation of) arcuate geometry of the Betic-Rif orogen.
be about perpendicular to the arcuate geometry of the slab Duggen et al. (2003) propose that part of the Iberian
anomaly imaged at a depth of 200 km (Figure 4). 3) continental lithosphere, attached to the Ligurian ocean,
Duggen et al. (2003) combine the evidence for an delaminated in the roll-back process in the Late Miocene.
east-dipping Betic-Alboran slab (Gutscher et al. 2002) In this case, at least the top part of the slab (e.g. from 145
with the spatial-temporal evolution of calc-alkaline to to 250-300 km) could consist of delaminated lithosphere.
alkaline volcanism in the Betic-Rif / Alboran region. They In map view (Figure 4), the arcuate geometry of the slab
propose to explain their observations by a model of can more or less be followed with increasing depth from
westward slab retreat which invokes lithosphere rupture which we infer that it rather is a deep feature of the slab,
along the north African and Betic-Balearic margin independent of lithosphere delamination. In the
allowing for inflow of asthenospheric mantle in the following, we will relate this feature to the evolution of
lithosphere tear-zones. 4) From detailed marine-seismic the roll-back process.
47
Fig. 2.10. Kinematic evolution of slab roll-back in the Betic-Rif-Alboran region. Grey shaded area gives the present location of the
Betic-Alboran slab at a depth of 200 km (compare to Figure 4). The location of the African margin is denoted by dashed/dotted lines
for 10 and 23 Ma ago (after Gueguen et al. 1998). The dashed line on the right indicates the outline of that part of the Ligurian ocean
that rolled-back to form the Betic-Alboran slab (see Figure 11). Curved lines denote the location of the subduction trench through
time, starting at the Balearic islands and ending at the time of slab detachment under the Betic (Late Miocene). Initially, south- and
southwest-ward roll-back moved the trench in a roughly SW direction while slab bending progressed. Lithosphere tearing along the
Balearic margin in a WSW direction occurred already in the Early Miocene and facilitated slab roll-back. During the Middle Miocene
the trench reached the African margin in the south after which slab detachment initiated and migrated to the west along the African
continental margin. This lithosphere rupture facilitated the westward turning of the roll-back system. When the angle between trench
and margin became large enough, slab detachment evolved into lithosphere tearing along the African margin eventually leading to a
margin-perpendicular trench (slab). Along the Balearic margin, lithosphere tearing came to a halt at some time during the
Middle-Early Miocene perhaps as the combined effect of 1) encountering a southward-directed turn in the continental
Iberian-Balearic margin, i.e. a strong narrowing of the Africa-Iberia corridor (see Bos et al. 2003 for an analogous situation in the
Taiwan region), 2) and of faster slab roll-back to the south. The trench rotated and turned parallel to the Iberian margin while
lithosphere tearing and faster roll-back along the African margin continued. Such a slab-bending process seems necessary to
facilitate subduction to pass through the narrow corridor between Africa and Iberia and basically caused the present-day geometry of
the slab as imaged at 200 km depth. When the trench became more or less parallel to the Iberian margin, Early-Miocene slab
detachment allowed the slab to tear away and deflect under the Betic by which it facilitated the last phase of roll-back to the west,
leading to the geometry as imaged by tomography.
Slab roll-back can transport continental fragments smaller distance. We suggest that the strong curvature of
over large distances (e.g. Betics, Corsica-Sardinia, the slab at 200 km depth is the result of the narrow(ing)
Kabylies, Calabria, Alboran microplate) but does not corridor between the African and Iberian margins. Along
necessarily imply the building of mountain belts. Special the African margin roll-back is more advanced toward the
circumstances are needed, for instance effects of west, as reflected by the position of the slab under the Rif
continental margin geometry or continental margins orogen compared to that below the Betic Cordillera.
entering the trench, to lead to orogenic activity. The Lithosphere tearing has accommodated faster westward
BS2000 results show that the slab is located only slightly roll-back along the African margin whereas roll-back /
under the Rif margin whereas it largely underlies the lithosphere tearing was inhibited or stalled temporarily
Betics (e.g. at a depth of 200 km). The Rif orogen is against the Betic margin. This leads to an evolution of
created at the location where the African margin turns trench positions as depicted qualitatively in Figure 10. In
toward a NW strike (Figure 1), thus, where westward slab the late Miocene, detachment below the eastern Betics,
roll-back (accommodated by E-W lithosphere tearing) possibly involving continental lithosphere, must be
would start to involve the continental margin (and invoked to allow the slab to deflect to its position under
possibly lithosphere delamination). The slab's north-south the Betic region. Slab detachment under the Betics is
extent is narrowing in the top 200 km toward Gibraltar. At consistent with the noted trends from calc-alkaline to
200 km depth, the slab width along strike is 400 +/- 50 km alkaline volcanism and the recent uplift of Neogene
wheras Africa and Iberia have been separated by a much basins along the Betic margin (e.g. Lonergan and White
48
Chapter 2 . A Tomographic view on Western Mediterranean geodynamics
1997, Duggen et al. 2003). The position of the slab under Calabria subduction the corridor for slab roll-back
Fig. 2.11. Surface reconstruction of the Ligurian ocean based on the amount and geometry of subducted slab as estimated from the
BS2000 tomography model. Dash-dotted line denote the African margin at about 10 Ma, while dotted lines denote the location of
the Balearic islands, Corsica and Sardinia, and the African margin in the Late Oligocene / Earliest Miocene (after Gueguen et al.
1998). The reconstruction assumes a short 300-400 km north-Apennines slab, a 1000-1100 km Calabrian slab (measured along a
NW-SE line) and a 700-800 km long Betic-Alboran slab. This leaves space for the East-Algeria slab as imaged by tomography.
We note that part of the Calabria slab may actually derive from Ionian (Neo-Tethys) lithosphere; by how much is unknown. The
remnant of the West Alpine-Tethys (anomaly A; Figure 4) is not used for this reconstruction. The thick solid line gives an
impression of the trench location at about 15 Ma, after which slab detachment initiated along the African margin. B) Schematic
indication of where we propose that slab detachment and lithosphere tearing occurred to facilitate the overall development of
roll-back of the Ligurian ocean. Continuous slab is assumed below Gibraltar and the northern Apennines. Continuity of the Calabria
slab is doubtful.
the African margin is consistent with small, but narrowed between the Adriatic and African margin. In
continuing, NNW-directed motion of Africa. this comparison, the Apennines are in a similar position as
Lastly, we remark that, in map view, the the Betic orogen (including slab detachment) whereas
Betic-Rif slab geometry is like a mirror-image of the the free end of the Calabria slab below Sicily compares
Calabria slab (e.g. at a depth of 200 km). Also for the well with that of the Betic-Alboran slab under the Rif
49
orogen (including the lithosphere tearing along the The counter-clockwise rotation of Corsica and Sardinia is
African margin). The angle between the continental much larger than the clockwise rotation of the Balearic
margins of Africa and Iberia is however much smaller margin. This suggests much larger initial roll back in the
than the angle between the margins of Africa and Adria former region which points at a quite early decoupling
which may entail a different evolution of slab geometry between the two major subduction systems. Particularly,
and crustal response in both regions. to accommodate the southeastward roll-back of narrow
Betic-Alboran slab it seems geometrically necessary to
2.4.8 Synthesis of tomographic constraints on initiate early tearing of the Ligurian ocean lithosphere
the geodynamic evolution of the W along the Balearic margin. The work of Acosta et al.
Mediterranean region (2002) suggests that lithosphere tearing may have
commenced already in the Early Miocene, coeval with the
The surface area occupied by the Ligurian ocean can be extensional event of Platt and Vissers (1989). A
reconstructed by restoring the Betic-Alboran and transpressive stress regime associated with tear
Apennines slabs to their former position at the surface propagation -due to continuing convergence between
(Figure 11a). We estimate from the E-W tomographic Africa and Europe- would give an explanation for the
cross sections a length of about 700-800 km for the observed compression in Majorca coeval with Valencia
Betic-Alboran slab which defines its extent along the basin extension (Gelabert et al. 1992).
African margin. Because the anomaly broadens with In Figure 11b, we schematically indicate the
depth toward the NE we expect that the part of the consequences of slab retreat for the development of slab
Ligurian ocean associated with this subduction extended detachment below the north African margin developing
more to the NE (along the Balearic margin). For the into propagating lithosphere tearing in the west and east
Calabrian subduction we estimate a slab length between (as suggested earlier by Carminati et al. 1998 for the
1000 and 1100 km in a NW direction. This is shorter than eastern segment and by Duggen et al. (2003) for the
the estimate of 1200 km of Faccenna et al. (2001a) which Betic-Alboran region). Beneath Gibraltar and the
is based on the tomographic model of Lucente et al. northern Apennines the slabs are assumed to be
(1999). The difference is related to our interpretation of continuous as evidenced by continuing fore-arc
the flat lying anomaly A (West Alpine-Tethys) which we deformation (Gutscher et al. 2002, Lucente and Speranza
do not incorporate in the length estimate. With these 2001, Carminati et al. 2003).
estimates, space is left in the surface reconstruction for the
east Algeria slab. The length of the northern Apennines
slab we estimate to be between 300 and 400 km. Figure 2.5 Summary
11a shows the entire area of the Ligurian ocean region
affected by subduction in the past 30 Myr. The three slab Our interpretation of Western Mediterranean mantle
surfaces of the southern systems meet at the surface structure leads to a surface reconstruction of the Ligurian
between the Balearic islands and Sardinia. This ocean prior to its subduction which is in good agreement
configuration of the Ligurian ocean is in agreement with with the starting configuration of many independent
the starting geometry of many tectonic reconstructions. tectonic reconstructions of the Western Mediterranean.
We note that the transition zone anomaly A is not needed The Betic-Alboran and Apennines-Calabria subduction
for this reconstruction. This also attests for its different are the two governing systems in the geodynamic
origin independent of Ligurian ocean subduction. We also evolution of the Western Mediterranean during the last 30
note that part of the Calabria slab may in fact consist Myr. An unknown part of the Calabria slab may derive
Neo-Tethys ocean. Plate tectonic reconstructions (e.g. from subducted Ionian (Neo-Tethys) lithosphere.
Stampfli and Borel, this publ., Schettino and Scotese, Large scale roll-back, as evidenced by
2002, Rosenbaum et al. 2002) do not agree on how the tomography, must be invoked to explain the present
Ligurian ocean was connected in the SE to the location of the subducted slabs. Southward roll-back of
Neo-Tethys ocean which makes it difficult to distinguish the Ligurian ocean reached the African-Maghrebian
between Ligurian and Neo-Tethys contributions to the margin, at least in its central portion (Kabylies in Algeria).
Calabria slab. Because no N-dipping slabs are imaged beneath either
In figure 11a we assume that initiation of Ligurian side of this region, slab detachment and/or lithosphere
ocean subduction occurred along the Sardinia-Corsica tearing along the African margin must have assisted the
segment which we consider to be the zone of greatest slabs in retreating toward their present position. This
lithosphere weakness considering its proximity to the independently confirms the original suggestion by
Pyrenees orogeny (up to Eocene) and the Lonergan and White (1997).
Pyrenees-to-Alps suture left after Alpine collision s.s. in Following our earlier work (Carminati et al. 1998)
the Eocene. Dissociation of the Betic-Alboran slab, the we stress the important role of lithosphere rupture (i.e.
east Algerian slab, and the Apennines slab is a necessary slab detachment or lithosphere tearing) in the more
result of accumulating tensional stresses due to surface detailed, late stage, development of slab roll-back in the
enlargement during subduction roll-back. It may have Western Mediterranean. In particular, we propose that
occurred along preexisting weakness zones and even lithosphere rupture is a key element in the evolution of
before the late Miocene opening of the Tyrrhenian basin. Betic-Alboran slab roll-back toward the present-day
50
Chapter 2 . A Tomographic view on Western Mediterranean geodynamics
51
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Appendix 1:
This appendix contains seven figures summarizing the results of sensitivity tests for different synthetic models. See Section 2 and the
caption of Figure 3 for general information. Inspect Figure 4 for cell dimensions as constructed for model BS2000 in the upper mantle
below the Western Mediterranean. See Spakman and Nolet 1988, Spakman et al. 1993, and Leveque et al. 1993 for more information
on sensitivity analysis with synthetic models.
Figure 2.A1.1 Spike test for block size of 0.6 degrees and about 50 km thickness in the upper 300 km. Note that the BS2000 model does
not possess these cell dimensions directly below the Western Mediterranean basins. Generally the sensitivity for “60km”-detail is good
below the land areas. The amplitude response decreases with increasing depth but note that the pattern is still reasonably well recovered
at 320 km although the individual blocks are below the limit of being resolved
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Chapter 2 . A Tomographic view on Western Mediterranean geodynamics
Fig. 2. A1.2 Spike test for block size of 1.2 degrees and about 50 km thickness in the upper 710 km. As for the 0.6 degree cells, the 1.2
degree cells are not constructed everywhere in the BS2000 model. Note that where 0.6 degree cells are used in the BS2000 model, we
can perform a sensitivity test for 1.2 degree structure. With increasing depth, the sensitivity for 1.2 degee (50 km thick) detail
decreases, although it stays good below the European land areas and the Adriatic. Below the Western Mediterranean detection of this
“detail” is highly variable with position in the mantle. Specifically, this “detail” is difficult to image in the westernmost Mediterranean
and under Iberia.
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Fig. 2. A1.2 Continued
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Chapter 2 . A Tomographic view on Western Mediterranean geodynamics
Fig 2.A1.3 Spike test for block size of 1.8 degrees and about 100 km thickness in the upper 710 km. This “detail” is very well
recoverable in the synthetic test, although not perfect. But it is sufficient to interpret mantle anomalies such as the Betic-Alboran slab
57
Fig. 2. A1.4 Spike test for block size of 2.4 degrees and about 120 km thickness in the upper 710 km. This “detail” is generally well
recovered. Some anomaly smearing occurs, particularly, in locations where the sensitivity for smaller scale detail is reduced.
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Chapter 2 . A Tomographic view on Western Mediterranean geodynamics
Fig. 2.A1.5 Spike test for block size of 3.0 degrees and about 120 km thickness in the upper 710 km. Similar to the 2.4-degree blocks,
3.0 degree structures are generally well recovered.
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Fig. 2.A1.6 The sensitivity for different scales of detail at a depth of 710 km (uppermost lower mantle). Note that the penetration of the
West Alpine-Tethys anomaly (anomaly A) is well detectable.
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Chapter 2 . A Tomographic view on Western Mediterranean geodynamics
Appendix 2:
Three sets of upper-mantle cross sections (Figure A2.2, 2.3, and 2.4) are presented, each sweeping in detail across the BS2000 model
(see Figure A2.1 for general locations). For description of the layout of cross sections see the caption of Figure 6. All cross section are
plotted to scale. Small tics along the vertical axis are plotted at every 100 km of depth increase; large tic at 500 km. Along the
horizontal axis small tics are placed at every 1 degree (110 km) and large tics at every 5 degrees. Above each of the cross sections a
small map is plotted for geographical reference with Figure A2.1. Anomalies are labelled with the following letters: B=Betic-Alboran
slab; Al=East Algeria slab; C=Calabria slab; A=West Alpine-Tethys remnant; Ad= northern Apennines subduction of
oceanic-to-continental lithosphere; D=positive anomaly related to the Eastern-Alps-Dinarides-Pannonian system, interpreted as a
remnant of the East Alpine-Tethys (not discussed in detail in this paper); Eu= European continental lithosphere.
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Fig 2. A2.1 Map indicating the location of the three cross section sweeps displayed in Figures A2.2, A2.3, and A2.4.
Fig 2. A2.2 A sweep of 20 West-East parallel sections across the Western Mediterranean from the African margin (a) to southern
France-Alps (t). See for reference the labeling in Figure A2.1.
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Chapter 2 . A Tomographic view on Western Mediterranean geodynamics
63
Fig. 2. A2.3 A sweep of 10 NW-SE parallel sections across the Alps-Apennines-Tyrrhenean region. See for reference the labelling
in Figure A2.1.
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Chapter 2 . A Tomographic view on Western Mediterranean geodynamics
Fig. 2. A2.4 1 sections across the Alps, Po-plain and northernmost Apennines. See Figure A2.1 for labeling
.
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