How do we use Philosophy to figure out what is true?

In today's society, we are often bombarded with a lot of information. Most of

these are helpful, but there are some that seem to mislead us or are even utterly false.
These kinds of information often have a negative impact in our lives. People have been
misled by claims of "miracle drugs" which were eventually proven to have no
significant effects on health. This is most dangerous when the people who believe
these claims suffer from life-threatening illnesses. So-called news on the Internet and social media sites often
rely on sensational headlines which often twist and manipulate the truth. These often result to bitter online
debates and feuds, and in some cases, innocent individuals becoming targets of harassment because of false
claims and testimonials issued online.
Every day we are confronted with news, claims and announcements from our peers, family members,
figures of authority, the government, and media. How do we know that what they are telling us is true?
Philosophers often grapple with the concept of truth. Truth lies at the heart of any inquiry.
Knowledge must be truthful to gain validity and acceptance. But the concept of truth remains a
controversial and much-discussed topic among philosophers.
What is true, or even a definition of truth, is a tricky concept in Philosophy. Philosophers agree that there is
no absolute measure of truth. There are, however, various views which can help us tackle the concepts of
knowing and truth, and arrive at a reasonable assessment if a statement, idea, or event is believable.
The first concept about truth is rooted in an ancient Greek philosophy's concept of knowledge as
"justified, true belief." This concept states that something is true because you believe it to be true, and that
there is justification for such belief. A belief may be justified by using one's perception and senses by
appealing to authority or using reasoning. Later philosophers developed more theories on the nature of
knowledge and truth, each providing a basis for establishing if a statement or an idea is true.
The correspondence theory states that something is true if it corresponds to reality or the actual state
of affairs. Theory assumes a direct relationship between an idea and reality and that a statement can be taken
as "fact."

DISCUSS
Analyze the following headlines using the Correspondence Theory.

Manananggal Terrorizes Iloilo Man Gives Birth to Twins

Are these headlines believable? Why do you think so?

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For example, the statement: "A mammal is an animal which is warm-blooded, has hair, and feeds its
young with milk" is considered to be true. That "a dog barks" is also true. The statement "pigs can fly,"
however, is false since in reality pigs do not have the capability to fly. Whenever we look up definitions in the
dictionary, we accept these definitions primarily because of correspondence. We expect that objects and
concepts are defined as they are real life.
 The coherence theory proposes that something is true if it makes sense when placed in a certain
situation or context. Based on this perspective, there is a possibility that there will be varied "truths" from
different perspectives. An idea or statement is true because it makes sense in its own context, and that if as a
certain degree of consistency which renders it truthful.
Muslims have a belief that certain animals like pigs are unclean. For Muslims, this fact prevents them
from eating pork and-other types of made from unclean animals. The belief that eating pork will render them
unclean makes sense in the context of Islamic faith. Non-Muslims, however, do not share this belief and thus
do not subscribe to this practice of not eating pork.
Coherence and consistency are also important in the context of law and politics Laws make sense if
they conform to previous laws and to a set of general principles like justice, democracy, and liberty. Within a
democratic society, only democratic laws and practices are accepted to be true if the government tries to
introduce undemocratic laws such as limitations on the freedom speech, many citizens will oppose that law
since it is considered in conflict with the democratic ideal and is, therefore, unacceptable.
Relativism is a philosophical concept which contends that there are no absolute truths. An idea or
principle is only true within a particular context, and thus it is possible for alternative truths to exist in various
contexts or situations.

DISCUSS

Analyze the headline using the Coherence Theory.

Pope Francis Says Abortion is Acceptable Practice for Catholics

1. What makes you think this statement is unreliable or untrue?

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2. Can you give other examples of statements or ideas which rely mostly on coherence for it to be
true?
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The constructivist theory, holds that knowledge is shaped by social forces and influenced by
culture and history. What is true, or what a person considers true, is shaped by his society and culture.
The constructivist perspective also believes that knowledge is gained as part of social experience and
requires interaction and collaboration. This perspective also holds that it is possible for knowledge and truth
to change, given that what is true may be influenced by historical developments and social struggles.
Take, for instance, how different societies consider marriage. In some societies, marriage is a
highly important social institution. It is not merely a union of individuals but a merging of families. Such
societies assign high importance to marriage and this is reflected in laws and traditions. Philippine society, for
instance, considers the family as "the foundation of the nation" as stated in the 1987 Constitution. Our
government has long been resistant to recognizing divorce as a legitimate means to end a marriage, as society
assigns great value to the sanctity of marriage. In other countries, particularly in the West, marriage is viewed
as a contract between two consenting adults; in most cases, such union can be nullified through lawful means.

DISCUSS
1. What ideas or beliefs in your view are given primarily importance in Philippine
culture? Why is this so?
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2. What ideas in Philippine society and politics have undergone significant changes over
the past few decades? What brought about these changes?
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THINK

List down ideas and statements you know that are primarily based on consensus.
Identify the authority or group which arrived at this consensus. 1Jse the table below.

Idea/ Statement Group/Authority

 The consensus theory views knowledge as based on agreement, and that something is true if almost
everyone agrees that it is true. Certain beliefs, traditions, and practices are often the product of consensus as
they may be imposed by influential groups or institutions such as governments or religious organizations.
Consensus is also used to determine the truth of scientific claims, where experts must agree on a certain
phenomenon before it can be established as true.
An example of consensus influencing knowledge is the decision of the International Astronomical
Union (IAU) in 2006 to change the planet Pluto's classification into a "dwarf planet." In this instance, the IAU
is the recognized authority with regard to the designation of planets and other heavenly bodies, and is
composed of professional astronomers and astronomy educators. This decision, however, was controversial
and a number of astronomers voiced their opposition to Pluto's new designation. At present, the classification
of Pluto isomers voiced their much debate among astronomers and may not yet be taken as truth.

The Pragmatic theory holds the view that something is true if we can put it into practice or is useful
in real life. It also believes that ideas should be continually tested to confirm their validity. A related theory,
verificationism, considers that ideas must be verified using the senses or experience. The scientific method,
where experiments are designed to test hypotheses or confirm conclusions, is an example of a pragmatic
approach in determining truth.
The pragmatic theory was used in the study of yellow fever during the late 19th century. This disease
was first thought to be transmitted through the air. This idea, however, was refuted in 1886 by Dr. Carlos
Finlay, a Cuban doctor. Based on his examination of tissue samples from victims, Finlay believed that the
disease affected the blood and that mosquitoes were its carriers. In 1898, during the Spanish-American War,
many American soldiers died from yellow fever and a team of army doctors were sent to Cuba to investigate
the disease. One of the members of the team, Dr. Jesse Lazear, heard of Finlay's theory and decided to test it.
He had mosquitoes hatched and fed with blood samples infected with yellow fever. Then he had himself and
other volunteers bitten by the mosquitoes. Lazear and the volunteers developed symptoms of yellow fever,
definitively proving that mosquitoes were indeed the carriers of the disease. The theories on knowledge
provide us varied perspectives in analyzing truth. Not one of these theories, however, can claim to be the most
accurate measure of truth. In determining the validity and reliability of ideas, statements, and claims, we need
to use a combination of these theories to arrive at a reliable assessment of what is truth.

DISCUSS
1. Why is testing and verification important in determining truth?

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2. Have you ever used practical means to figure out the truth about something? Share your
experience.
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What other things should we consider in determining the truth?

In determining the truth of any statement or claim, we must be familiar with how ideas are presented.
Ideas and claims are often presented in the form of arguments, and these arguments are phrased in such a
way that they seem reasonable. However, a number of arguments may be based on faulty reasoning. These
kinds of arguments are called fallacies. Some of these fallacies may be intentional, as the person making the
claim is desperate to convince you to accept his or her argument. The following are examples of fallacies.

Fallacy Characteristics Example

ad hominem attacking the person making the “Of course, he believes that the government
argument instead of the argument itself is flawed. He is a rebel and a communist!”

Appeal to force Using the threat of force or an “If this peace agreement will not be signed
undesirable event to advance an n\by the government, then we will have no
argument recourse but to go to war.”

Appeal to Using emotions such as pity or “All these charges are baseless; this is just
emotion sympathy plain harassment—can’t you see how this is
affecting his family?”

Appeal to the idea is presented as acceptable “Every boy your age already has a girlfriend,
popular because a lot of people accept it you should go and find one.”

Appeal to The idea is acceptable because it has “Marriage should be between a man and a
tradition been true for a long time woman. It has been so for so long in this
country; it should remain that way”

Begging the Assuming the thing or idea to be proven “I have a right to free speech, therefore, you
question is true; also known as “circular cannot stop me from talking.”
argument”

Cause-and- Assuming a “cause-and-effect” “Ever since you brought that sweater,

effect relationship between unrelated events everything has been going wrong in your
life. You should get rid of it.”

Fallacy of Assuming that what is true for a part is “These cases of robberies in this district have
composition true for the whole convinced me that the city has become a den
of thieves and criminals.”

Fallacy of Assuming that what is true for the “You come from a family of doctors and
division whole is true for its parts intellectuals! Surely you can do better in this
course!”