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1s 2020 GEC-3-Modules-Week-1-6 PDF
1s 2020 GEC-3-Modules-Week-1-6 PDF
Mathematics in the
Modern World
Course
Modules
Weeks 1 – 6
These modules were prepared for use of Isabela State University Faculty
and students in GEC 3: Mathematics in the Modern World for the First
Semester of School Year 2020-2021.
Topics in the modules are suggested to be covered within the first six
weeks of the semester.
Supervision:
Helena B. Florendo
Dean
College of Arts and Sciences
Nanette D. Sayo
ARA Director
ISU Echague Campus
Description:
The first set of modules is designed to cover the first section of the course
which is an introduction to the nature of mathematics as an exploration of
patterns, as a powerful language, and as an application of inductive and
deductive reasoning. By exploring these topics, students are encouraged to
go beyond the typical understanding of mathematics as merely a set of
formulas but as a source of aesthetics in patterns of nature, for example, and
a rich language in itself governed by logic and reasoning.
Module 1
Mathematics in Our World
MODULE 1
The Nature of Mathematics: Mathematics in Our World
1.1 Introduction
Have you ever asked yourself where all mathematics come from? Is it
invented or discovered?
We cannot deny the fact that these days, more mathematics become part
of our daily lives. We feel the need to be cautious of our ways because we
hear news about increasing Covid-19 cases in our country and even in our
locality.
Numbers that are presented to us daily become so powerful that they are
used as bases for decisions and actions of our leaders to prevent Covid-19
cases from increasing.
What we gave as an example is just one of the many mathematics that
we encounter daily. During this very challenging time, we believe that
everyone would value mathematics and would want to know more about it.
For the first section, we will learn about mathematics as a useful way of
thinking about nature and the world. We hope that after this part, you will
understand mathematics as not merely a set of formulas but as a source of
relevant information that can help us in dealing with our daily lives.
1.2 Learning Outcome
After finishing this module, you are expected to
a. identify patterns in nature and regularities in the world,
b. articulate the importance of mathematics in your life,
c. argue about the nature of mathematics, what it is, how it is
expressed, represented and used, and
d. express appreciation for mathematics as a human endeavor.
1.3 What You Need to Know
Mathematics is a broad system of study. Not one mathematician can
define what mathematics is. If you happen to see the picture of an elephant
and the six blind men, the picture somewhat describes what mathematics is.
In the picture, we view the elephant as mathematics and the six men
represent the mathematicians.
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Figure 1.1
Six blind men and an elephant
Each of the six blind men did a good job in describing what they have
sensed. We cannot say that they incorrectly described each part since what
they touched was only part of the whole. The same can be observed in
mathematics. The mathematics that can be described by one mathematician
is just a small part of the whole thing.
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Figure 1.2
Different flowers with corresponding petal count
The same numbers can be found in the spiral patterns of seeds in the
head of a sunflower. This particular pattern was noticed many centuries ago
and has been widely studied ever since, but a really satisfactory explanation
was not given until 1993.
Figure 1.3
Spiral patterns of sunflower seed arrangement
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Figure 1.4
Spiral pattern in a pinecone
With these few examples, we must understand that human mind and
culture had long developed a formal system for classifying, recognizing, and
exploiting patterns. We call it mathematics. Patterns observed paved the way
for the origin of counting, the discovery and creation of geometric patterns,
wave patterns in water and on land, patterns of movement, and fractals: the
new science of irregularity; a never-ending pattern.
Figure 1.5 shows other patterns and regularities in nature.
Figure 1.5
Different patterns in nature
One of the most frequently occurring patterns in nature is the Fibonacci
sequence. It is a sequence of numbers starting with 1, then followed by 1,
and then followed by the sum of 1 and 1 which is 2, followed by the sum of 1
and 2, which 3 and so on. The sequence is given by
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, …
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Leonardo of Pisa, also known as Fibonacci (c. 1170–1250), is one of the
best-known mathematicians of medieval Europe. In 1202, after a trip that
took him to several Arab and Eastern countries, Fibonacci wrote the book
Liber Abaci. This book contains a problem created by Fibonacci that concerns
the birth rate of rabbits. Here is a statement of Fibonacci’s rabbit problem.
Figure 1.6
Rabbit reproduction modeled by the Fibonacci sequence
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left-right-right, we consider it strange to move that way since we are used to
walking with a left-right-left-right pattern. If a tree bears an exceptionally
large fruit, they may treat this as a special phenomenon. Here, we see that
there is deep-seated belief that exceptions to patterns are special.
During this pandemic, we feel strange because some of the patterns we
used to observe have changed. Still, we need to get used to the new and arising
pattern brought about by changes in nature and our surroundings.
1.3.1.3 What is mathematics for?
Nature is full of patterns, most of which are things of beauty. Thus, we
cannot help but sit back and admire them. However, each nature’s pattern is
believed to be a puzzle that needs to be analyzed.
Mathematics makes it possible to solve these puzzles because of its
systematic way of digging out the rules and structures that lie behind these
puzzles of nature. It has a way of organizing patterns, regularities, and
irregularities. It is able to predict or even control weather, epidemics and it
provides tools for calculations. Because of mathematics’ ability to exploit
patterns, it can even provide more questions to think about.
1.3.1.4 What is mathematics about?
When we hear the word mathematics, we usually relate it to numbers. It
is true because numbers are the heart of mathematics. But this is just a
small part of mathematics. We will discuss some important aspects of
mathematics. We start off discussing numbers.
1.3.1.4a Numbers
The simplest numbers are those used in counting. These numbers were
discovered long before the symbols 1, 2, 3, … are used. Back then, they did
not use these symbols for numbers. They used their fingers, twigs, stones,
and objects that can help them count. At present the set of counting numbers
is also called the set of natural numbers.
Between 400 and 1200 AD, the concept of zero was invented and
accepted as denoting a number. History books say that the key idea was the
invention of a symbol for “nothing”.
The next extension of the number concept is the invention of the negative
numbers. A negative number may be thought to represent debt. Many other
interpretations may be used. For example, a negative temperature in Celsius
scale indicate a temperature lower than freezing point. An object with
negative velocity is moving backward. This means that the same
mathematical object can represent more than one aspect of nature.
If the counting numbers, zero, and the negative counting numbers are
combined, a new set of numbers is formed. This is the set of integers.
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These numbers are not enough; we need fractions especially for most
commercial transactions. Positive and negative fractions together with the
integers are called rational numbers.
Numbers that cannot be expressed as fractions having a unique property
of non-terminating and non-repeating decimals are given the name
“irrational”. An example of an irrational number is the square root of 2,
denoted as √2. If we use the calculator, we will obtain √2 =1.4142135624…,
a decimal which is non-terminating and non-repeating.
Rational numbers and irrational numbers combined form a larger
number set called the set of real numbers.
The introduction of square roots of negative numbers led to the invention
of the imaginary and complex numbers.
So now we have five number systems, each more inclusive that the
previous: natural numbers, integers, rationals, real numbers, and complex
numbers.
1.3.1.4b Operations
Mathematics is not only about numbers. We are familiar with addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division. These are called operations. In
general, an operation is something we apply to two or more mathematical
objects to get another mathematical object. So if you add, say, 2 and 3, you
will get a third number, which is 5.
1.3.1.4c Function
If you start with a number and form its double, you get another number.
So if you start with 5, you will get 10. The term for such an “object” is
function. You can think of a function as a mathematical rule that starts
with a mathematical object – usually a number – and associates to it another
object in a specific manner. In the given example, the association is the rule
of doubling the number.
Functions are often defined using algebraic formulas but they may also
be defined in other convenient ways. Another term with the same meaning
as “function” is transformation: the rule transforms the first object into the
second.
1.3.1.4d Thingification of Processes
The dictionary term for “thingification” is reification. However, in the
discussion the term “thingification” is chosen for emphasis.
Mathematical “things” have no existence in the real world: they are
abstractions. But mathematical processes are also abstractions, so processes
are no less “things” than the “things” to which they are applied. The number
“2”, for example, is not actually a thing but a process – the process you carry
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out when you associate two cats with the symbols “1, 2” recited in turn. A
number is a process that has long ago been thingified so thoroughly that
everybody thinks of it as a thing.
Mathematics is not just a collection of isolated facts: it is more like a
landscape; a geography where users get to travel through what seem to be an
impermeable forest. There is a metaphorical feeling of distance. For instance,
the fact that the circumference of a circle is 1𝜋 (pi) times its diameter is very
close to the fact that the circumference of a circle is 2𝜋 times its radius. The
connection between these two facts is immediate: the diameter is twice the
radius.
Unrelated ideas are more distant from each other. For example, the fact
that there are exactly six different ways to arrange three letters of the alphabet
is distant from facts about circles.
1.3.1.4e Proof
The link between ideas in mathematics is made possible by proof. Proof
determines the route from one fact to another. Textbooks of mathematical
logic say that a proof is a sequence of statements, each of which either follows
from previous statements in the sequence or from agreed axioms unproved
but explicitly stated assumptions that in effect define the area of mathematics
being studied. A proof can be equated to a novel which must tell an interesting
story, rather than just a sequence of sentences.
A mathematical proof is a story about mathematics that works. The story
must not have gaps, and it certainly must not have an unbelievable plot line.
The rules are stringent: in mathematics, a single flaw is fatal. Moreover, a
subtle flaw can be just as fatal as an obvious one.
1.3.1.5 How is mathematics done?
Mathematics is done out of curiosity, with penchant for seeking patterns
and generalities, with a desire to know the truth, with trial and error, without
fear of facing more questions and problems to solve.
1.3.1.6 Who uses mathematics?
Practically, everyone uses mathematics.
The Mathematicians: pure and applied use mathematics to further
explore undiscovered concepts and information in this field. Dr. Guido David
and his team use mathematics to predict the number of Covid-19 cases for
the succeeding months. This was used by the government to decide on actions
to be done.
Scientists: natural and social uses mathematics to describe a certain
phenomenon and to decide on the results of their research. These are just
few examples of people who use mathematics. All of us has a particular use
of mathematics in our lives.
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Thus, different people use different mathematics at different times, for
different purposes, using different tools, with different attitudes.
We can use the Fibonacci numbers to create this spiral that is so common in nature.
Read the directions to help you draw squares on the graph paper. If you follow each step
carefully, you will make a Fibonacci spiral!
1. Look at the graph paper. The first number in the Fibonacci sequence, 1, has
been drawn for you.
2. Go to the square to the right of 1. Outline that little square to represent the
next number in the pattern, another 1.
3. Use the line above the two 1 squares to outline a square that is 2 little squares
long and 2 little squares high. This represents the next number in the sequence
which is 2.
4. Now move to the right of the squares 1 and 2. Use the right side of the 2 squares
and the right side of the second 1 square to draw a square that is 3 little squares
high and 2 little squares long. 3 is the next number I Fibonacci’s pattern.
5. Use the bottom of both 1 squares and the bottom of the 3 square to make the
next number in the pattern – a big square that is 5 little squares long and five
little squares high.
6. Move to the left of the 2 square, the 1 square, and the 5 square. Use their left
edges to make the 8 square.
7. Finally use the top of the 8 square long with the top of the 2 and 3 square to
make a 13 square.
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Learning Activity 1 Patterns in Nature continued
If you followed directions, you will have used the entire graph paper to
make Fibonacci’s Rectangle, also known as the Golden Rectangle. The ratio of
length to that of the width of the golden rectangle is equal to the Golden Ratio,
φ, which is approximately equal to 1.618. The golden ratio is also known as the
divine proportion.
The next step is to draw Fibonacci’s spiral. You just have to connect one
corner of each square with the opposite corner of that square with a sweeping
curve. You may need to practice a few times to get it right.
Compare what you have made to patterns in nature. Try to spot this spiral
in your surroundings. Make a list of animals, plants, and man-made objects
that have this spiral.
Materials:
Procedure:
1. Using coins of the same size, try to cover as much area of a piece of paper
with coins.
2. Arrange the coins in a square formation.
3. Count and record the number of coins you can place to cover the area of
the bond paper.
4. Arrange the coins in hexagonal formation.
5. Record the number of coins you can place.
6. Compare the results in Step 3 and Step 5.
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Recommended learning materials and resources
Arithmetic and Geometric Sequences
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MSAWzIlPlkg
Nature by Numbers
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kkGeOWYOFoA
Mathematics in Nature
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ig9RUaJe00c
Golden Ratio
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c8ccsE_IumM
Assessment Task
Before you answer the following questions, make sure to watch the
Youtube videos given below:
Nature by Numbers
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kkGeOWYOFoA
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B. Write a 2- to 3-page synthesis focusing on one of the following aspects of
mathematics:
1) Mathematics helps organize patterns and regularities in the world.
2) Mathematics helps predict the behavior of nature and phenomena in
the world.
3) Mathematics helps control nature and occurrences in the world for our
own ends.
Your answers will be graded according to the given standards/basis for
grading:
Score Criteria
Unable to elicit the ideas and concepts from the learning activity, material,
0
or video
Able to elicit the ideas and concepts from the learning activity, material, or
1
video but shows erroneous understanding
Able to elicit the ideas and concepts from the learning activity, material, or
2
video and shows correct understanding
Able to elicit the correct ideas from the learning activity, material, or video
3 and also shows evidence of internalization and consistently contributes
additional thought to the core idea
References
Books:
Aufmann, et. al. 2013. Mathematical Excursions. Third Edition. Cengage
Learning, USA
Stewart, Ian. 1995 The Unreal Reality of Mathematics Nature’s Numbers.
BasicBooks New York
Internet sources:
The Great Math Mystery
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mpcpzXuzdQk
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Module 2
Mathematical Language
and
Symbols
MODULE 2
The Nature of Mathematics: Mathematical Language and Symbols
2.1 Introduction
The nature of mathematics has become clear to us when we learned in
the first part how it is used to understand nature and our surroundings
because of its ability to explain the different patterns in nature.
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The language of mathematics is concise. It is able to say things briefly
because it has in it different symbols. For example, the sentence “Two plus
three is equal to five” may be expressed concisely as 2 + 3 = 5.
In English, nouns are used to name things we want to talk about (like
people, places, and things); whereas sentences are used to state complete
thoughts. A typical English sentence has at least one noun, and at least one
verb.
A mathematical expression is a correct arrangement of mathematical
symbols to represent the object of interest, does not contain a complete
thought, and does not possess a truth value (one will not know if it is true or
false).
The mathematical analogue of a sentence is also called a sentence. A
mathematical sentence must state a complete thought. The table below
shows the analogy.
ENGLISH MATHEMATICS
Name given to an NOUN (person, place, thing) EXPRESSION
object of interest: 1
Examples: Mario, Isabela, book Examples: 2, 3 + 5, 3
Frequently, we need to work with numbers which are most common types
of mathematical expressions. Even a single number can have numerous
names. For example, the expressions
6 4+2 12 ÷ 2 (4 − 1) + 3 1+1+1+1+1+1
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all look different, but are all just different names for the same number.
Just like English sentences, mathematical sentences also have verbs. In
the mathematical sentence ‘4 + 2 = 6’, the verb is ‘ = ’. If you read the sentence
as ‘four plus two equals six’, then it is easy to identify the verb. The equal sign
is one of the most popular mathematical verbs.
Learning Activity 1
Examples
2𝑥 + 5𝑦 ME
Three is a crowd. ES
Start Here:
1. cat
2. 2
3. The word ‘chat’ begins with the letter ‘t’.
4. 5 + 2 = 4
5. 7 − 3
6. 5 − 3 = 2
7. The cat is white.
8. 𝑥
9. 𝑥 = 1
10. 𝑥 − 1 = 0
11. 𝑡 + 3
12. 𝑡 + 3 = 3 + 𝑡
13. This sentence is false.
14. 𝑥 + 0 = 𝑥
15. 1 · 𝑥 = 𝑥
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Note that sentences state a complete thought, but nouns and expressions
do not. For example, read aloud: 7. What about 7? Now read aloud: 9 − 2 = 7.
This states a complete thought about the number 7.
Sentences can also be true or false. The notion of truth, the property of
being true or false, is of fundamental importance in mathematics.
Mathematical sentences are declarative in nature and we can determine
whether they are true or false.
We have mentioned earlier that the mathematical language is precise. In
order to communicate effectively, we must agree on the meanings of certain
words and phrases because confusion may result from ambiguities. Consider
the following conversation in a car at a noisy intersection:
Mario: “Turn left!”
Mario: “Right!”
Question: Which way will Dana turn? It depends on how she interprets
the word ‘right’. If she interprets ‘right’ as the opposite of ‘left’, then she will
turn right. If she interprets ‘right’ as ‘correct,’ then she will turn left. The word
‘right’ caused confusion.
There is much less ambiguity allowed in mathematics than in English.
Ambiguity is avoided because mathematics has in it the use of definitions. By
defining words and phrases, it is assured that everyone agrees on their
meaning. Here is our first definition:
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In mathematics, some expressions can have many different names. The
name depends on what we are doing with the expression. An example is the
number 1 which goes with the following names:
1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1
+ 2−1 + + + +
2 2 3 3 3 3 2 4 4
1 1
The name 2 + 2, for example, is appropriate if we need to divide a chocolate
1 1 1
bar evenly for two kids. The name + 3 + 3 is appropriate if we only have a
3
one-third cup measure but needs 1 cup of sugar. Do you know when it is
1 1 1
appropriate to name 1 as 2 + 4 + 4 ?
Learning Activity 2
Direction. Give a name for the number ‘3’ that would be appropriate in each
situation:
Examples:
Start Here:
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The notion of ‘simpler’ can have different meanings:
An expression is simpler if Example
it has fewer symbols Both expressions 2 + 3 + 4 and 9 are names for
the same number but 9 uses fewer symbols.
it has fewer operations Both expressions 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 and 5 ∙ 3 are
names for the same number but the latter has
fewer operations.
it is better suited for current use 1 foot
The name 12 inches is a great name for the
number 1 if we need to convert units of inches
to units of feet.
it follows the preferred style or 2 1
The expressions 4 and 2 are both names for the
format 1
same number. People usually prefer 2 because
it is in the ‘reduced form’ or ‘simplest form’.
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• Alternately, you can ask yourself the question: Does it make sense to
ask about the TRUTH of this object? Consider again the number ‘ 1 +
2 ’ . Is ‘ 1 + 2 ’ true? Is ‘ 1 + 2 ’ false? These questions do not make
sense, because it does not make sense to ask about the truth of an
expression.
Here are some more examples of mathematical sentences and their truth
values.
The first sentence, 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑥 + 2), is true for all real numbers following
the distributive axiom. The second sentence, 𝑥 + 2 < 𝑥 − 3, is false for all real
numbers. No real number will make the sentence true. The last sentence,
𝑓 (2) = 3, is true if we define 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 + 1 so that 𝑓(2) = 2 + 1 = 3. However, if
we define 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 then 𝑓 (2) = 6 ≠ 3 which makes the given sentence false.
Thus, this sentence is sometimes true/sometimes false.
Learning Activity 3
Direction. Classify the truth of each sentence: always true (T); always
false (F); or sometimes true/sometimes false (ST/SF).
Examples
1+2 =3 T
ST/SF; The
sentence is
𝑥+5=2 true if 𝑥 = −3.
Otherwise, it is
false.
Start Here:
1. 𝑥 ÷ 3 = 2
2. 3 + 5 + 4 = 2 + 7 + 3
3. 𝑥 − 1 = 3
4. 5 − 1 = 5
5. 5 − 1 ≤ 5
6. 5 − 1 < 5
7. 1 + 2 + 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1 + 2
8. 5𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 7
9. 3 − 5 = 4
10. 3 × 7 + 3 ÷ 3 = 8
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2.3.4 Grammar in the Mathematical Language
These differences are reflected in the fact that the sentences do not
resemble each other when they are written in a more symbolic way.
Thus, we give the corresponding sentences in symbols below.
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The third sentence used the symbol ϵ which indicates membership
to a set (the concept of sets will be discussed in detail in the succeeding
topics). The sentence would normally not be written symbolically
because the concept of a prime number is not quite basic enough to
have universally recognized symbols associated with it. However, it is
sometimes useful to do so which means we need to invent a suitable
symbol. In this case, we may use the letter 𝑃 to denote the set of all
primes.
Learning Activity 4
Examples
3
2 is the √8. E
2𝑥 is less than or equal to 5 I
3 is an integer. M
Start Here:
1. 𝑥 divided by 3 is 2.
2. 5 minus 1 is not equal to 5.
3. 1 plus 2 plus 𝑥 is equal to 𝑥 plus 1 plus 2
4. 5 is a natural number.
5. 2 is in the set of all even integers.
6. 5 minus 1 is less than 5.
7. 4 is a multiple of 2.
2
8. 5 is a rational number.
9. 3 plus 5 is less than 10.
10. 3 times 7 plus 3 divided by 3 is 22.
I saw the road sign AH26 when I travelled from Manila to Isabela.
Jonathan is number 26 in the Mathematics class.
I gained 26 points from my recent purchase.
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that AH26 is a better highway than other Asian Highways. This means
that the number 26 in the first sentence is of nominal type.
Learning Activity 5
Examples:
Start Here:
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3. The words “and” and “or” mean differently in mathematics from its
English use.
The verb in this sentence, love, is plural, while the verb in the
previous sentence, equals was singular. So the word plus seems to take
two objects and produce out of them a new, single object four, while and
conjoins Mario and Dana in a looser way, leaving them as distinct
people.
We found out that the conjunction and has two very different uses.
One is to link two nouns whereas the other is to join two whole
sentences together, as in
may be paraphrased to
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2.3.5 Four Basic Concepts
2.3.5.1 Sets
A set may also be empty, that is, it has no elements. We call this set the
empty set or the null set. The symbols used to denote the empty set are ∅ and
{ }.
1. Roster method. Some sets have few elements which makes it possible
to provide a list of its members. One way of denoting a set is by the
roster method where we list its elements inside curly brackets:
{2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19}, for example, is the set whose elements are the
eight numbers 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, and 19.
2. Use of dots. Most sets are too large and they are often infinite. A second
way to denote sets is to use three dots to imply a list that is too long to
write down: for example, the expressions {1, 2, 3, … , 100} and {2, 4, 6, 8, … }
represent the set of all positive integers up to 100 and the set of all
positive even numbers, respectively. The three dots are collectively
called ellipsis.
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𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 < 10}. Why is there a need for such if it is easier
to understand 5 < 10? In some instances, doing so would be convenient.
Sets allow one to reduce the number of parts of speech that one needs,
turning almost all of them into nouns. For example, with the help of the
membership symbol ϵ one can do without adjectives. The translation of 5 is a
prime number (where “prime” functions as an adjective) will simply be 5 ϵ 𝑃.
An ordered pair is a list (𝑥, 𝑦) of two things 𝑥 and 𝑦, enclosed in parentheses and
separated by a comma.
We take note that (2,4) is an ordered pair different from another ordered
pair (4,2). We write (2,4) ≠ (4,2). Right away you can see that ordered pairs
can be used to describe points on the plane, as was done in calculus, but they
are not limited to just that. Letters, for example, may be expressed as ordered
pairs like (𝑚, 𝑙). Now we are ready to define the Cartesian product.
The Cartesian product of two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 is another set, denoted as 𝐴 × 𝐵 and
defined as 𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑎, 𝑏) ∶ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵} .
𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑘, 1), (𝑘, 2), (𝑙, 1), (𝑙, 2), (𝑚, 1), (𝑚, 2)}
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Learning Activity 6
Example
{2,4,6,8,10} {2𝑛 ∶ 𝑛 ϵ ℤ , 1 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 5}
Start Here:
Sets have other properties. It can happen that all elements of some set
𝐴 are also elements of another set 𝐵. For example, each element of 𝐴 = {1,3,4}
is also an element of 𝐵 = {0,1,2,3,4}. When 𝐴 and 𝐵 are related this way we say
that 𝐴 is a subset of 𝐵.
We write 𝐴 ⊈ 𝐵 if 𝐴 is not a subset of 𝐵, that is, if it is not true that every element
of 𝐴 is also an element of 𝐵. Thus 𝐴 ⊈ 𝐵 means that there is at least one element
of 𝐴 that is not an element of 𝐵.
In words, the union 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 is the set of all things that are in 𝐴 or in 𝐵 (or in both).
The intersection 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 is the set of all things in both 𝐴 and 𝐵. The difference 𝐴 − 𝐵
is the set of all things that are in 𝐴 but not in 𝐵.
Page 14 of 31
2.3.5.2 Relations
Mathematical phrases such as “equals”, “is less than”, and “is an element
of” are some examples of relationships in mathematics. It is important, when
specifying a relationship, to be careful about which objects are to be related.
The term relation is used to describe a relationship between two mathematical
objects. Usually a relation comes with a set 𝐴 of objects that may or may not
be related to each other. For example, the relation < might be defined on the
set of all positive integers. In this case, we say 5 < 10, which satisfy the
defined relationship.
Sometimes relations are defined with reference to two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵. For
example, if the relation is ϵ, then 𝐴 might be the set of all positive integers and
𝐵 the set of all sets of positive integers as well. The formal definition of relation
follows.
Page 15 of 31
Learning Activity 7
Let 𝐴 = {0,1,2,3,4,5} and 𝑅 expresses > 𝑅 = {(1,0), (2,0), (3,0), (4,0), (5,0),
on 𝐴. (2,1), (3,1), (4,1), (5,1), (3,2),
(4,2), (5,2), (4,3), (5,3), (5,4)}
Note: (1,0) is in 𝑅 because 1 > 0.
Start Here:
2.3.5.3 Functions
Consider the function 𝑓 (𝑛) = |𝑛| + 2 that converts integers 𝑛 into natural
numbers |𝑛| + 2. Its graph is 𝑅 = {(𝑛, |𝑛| + 2) ∶ 𝑛 ϵ ℤ} ⊆ ℤ × ℕ.
Figure 1
The function 𝑓 (𝑛) = |𝑛| + 2
Page 16 of 31
A function may be viewed as:
Some of you may have used the vertical line test: Any vertical line
intersects a function’s graph at most once. It means that for any input value
𝑥, the graph contains exactly one point of form (𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥)). The formal definition
that follows captures all these ideas.
Learning Activity 8
Directions. Write out the defined function 𝑓 on the given sets as a set of
ordered pairs.
Example
Page 17 of 31
Some important concepts of functions include domain, codomain, and
range. Their definitions are given below.
For a function 𝑓 ∶ 𝐴 → 𝐵, the set 𝐴 is called the domain of 𝑓 . The set 𝐵 is called
the codomain of 𝑓 . The range of 𝑓 is the set {𝑓 (𝑎): 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴} = {𝑏 ∶ (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑓} .
Learning Activity 9
Directions. Write the domain and range of the given functions in set
notation.
Example
Start Here:
Page 18 of 31
is a function that takes pairs of elements of 𝐴 and produces elements of 𝐴
from them. It is a function with the set of all pairs (𝑥, 𝑦) of elements of 𝐴 as its
domain and with 𝐴 as its range. The symbol for the operation comes between
𝑥 and 𝑦 rather than before them: we write 𝑥 + 𝑦 rather than +(𝑥, 𝑦).
Now that we have discussed some conventions in mathematics, it is
essential to also acquire the skill of translating phrases and sentences to
mathematical notations.
Page 19 of 31
Operation or
Keyword/Phrase Example Translation
Connector
Plus A number plus seven 𝑥+7
Page 20 of 31
In translation problems, the words sum, total, difference, product and
quotient imply at least two parts – use parentheses when a sum or difference
is multiplied. For example, the phrase "the sum of three times a number and
five" translates to "3𝑥 + 5," while the phrase "three times the sum of a number
and five" translates to "3(𝑥 + 5)."
Other common issues in converting English phrases and sentences to
mathematical expressions and sentences are summarized in the following
table.
Using the wrong key word for the One half of twenty
problem 1 1 20
20 ÷ ∗ 20 or
2 2 2
3(𝑥 + 4)
Page 21 of 31
Here are more examples of translations to mathematical symbols.
Example Translation
1
One-half is a rational number. 2
ϵℚ
𝑥 ϵ {7𝑛 ∶ 𝑛 ϵ ℕ}
𝑥 ϵ {7𝑛 ∶ 𝑛 ϵ ℤ}
The number 𝑥 is a multiple of seven.
𝑥 = 7𝑛 for some 𝑛 ϵ ℤ
𝑥 = 7𝑛, 𝑛 ϵ ℤ
𝑥 ϵ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ϵ 𝐵
The element 𝑥 belongs to both sets 𝐴 and 𝐵. 𝑥𝜖𝐴∩𝐵
Learning Activity 10
Start Here:
Page 22 of 31
2.3.7 Some Elementary Logic
Page 23 of 31
Learning Activity 11
Start Here:
Type of Symbolic
Statement Connective Truth value
statement form
True if 𝑝 and 𝑞 are
Conjunction 𝑝 and 𝑞 And 𝑝𝑞
both true
True if either 𝑝 or 𝑞 is
Disjunction 𝑝 or 𝑞 Or 𝑝𝑞
true
True except when 𝑝 is
Conditional If 𝑝, then 𝑞 if … then 𝑝 → 𝑞
true and 𝑞 is false.
True if 𝑝 and 𝑞 are
Biconditional 𝑝 if and only if 𝑞 if and only if 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 both true of if 𝑝 and 𝑞
are both false
2.3.7.3 Negation
The negation of the statement is its opposite. For example, the negation
of the statement “Five is a rational number” is the statement “Five is not a
rational number.” The tilde symbol (~) is used to denote the negation of a
statement. If the statement 𝑝 is true, its negation ~𝑝 is false, and if the
statement 𝑝 is false, its negation ~𝑝 is true. Meaning, the truth value of the
negation of a statement is always the reverse of the truth value of the original
statements.
Page 24 of 31
A popular theorem facilitates negation of compound statements of the
forms 𝑝 𝑞 and 𝑝 𝑞. It is called De Morgan’s Laws which are stated as
follows:
1. ~(𝑝 𝑞) is equivalent to ~𝑝 ~𝑞
2. ~(𝑝 𝑞) is equivalent to ~𝑝 ~𝑞
The statement ~𝑝: A number 𝑥 is not greater than a number 𝑦 means that
either 𝑥 is less than 𝑦 or 𝑥 equals. However, ~𝑞: A number 𝑥 is not equal to a
number 𝑦 tells us that 𝑥 cannot be equal to 𝑦. Thus, the negation is “ a
number 𝑥 is less than 𝑦.
The truth value of a simple statement is either true (T) or false (F) but not
both. For compound statements, the truth value depends on the truth values
of its simple statements and connectives.
The truth table is a table that shows the truth value of a compound
statement for all possible truth values of its simple statements. The following
table gives the truth values of compound statements with two simple
statements 𝑝 and 𝑞.
𝑝 𝑞 p𝑞 𝑝𝑞 𝑝 → 𝑞 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞
T T T T T T
T F F T F F
F T F T T F
F F F F T T
Page 25 of 31
2.3.7.5 Writing Compound Statements in symbols
Consider the compound statement “Two and three are rational zeroes of
the function 𝑓.” Here, the word “and” suggests that the compound statement
may be paraphrased as “Two is a rational zero of 𝑓 and three is a rational zero
of 𝑓.” Thus, we may represent the simple statements as
For the connector “and”, we use the symbol . Thus, the statement in
symbol is given by 𝑝 𝑞.
𝑝 : An integer is odd.
𝑞 : An integer is not divisible by 2.
Learning Activity 12
Example:
𝑛 𝑛
If 2 is an integer, then 𝑛 is an 𝑝: 2 is an integer. 𝑝→𝑞
even integer. 𝑞: 𝑛 is an even integer
Start Here:
3. Either 𝑓 is an odd or 𝑝:
even function. 𝑞:
Page 26 of 31
2.3.8 Quantifiers
In a statement, the word some and the phrases there exists and at least
one are called existential quantifiers. Existential quantifiers are used as
prefixes to assert the existence of something. In a statement, the words none,
no, all, and every are called universal quantifiers. The universal quantifiers
none and no deny the existence of something, whereas the universal
quantifiers all and every are used to assert that every element of a given set
satisfies some condition. The following table shows the symbols for universal
and existential quantifiers and their translations.
The statement “for all 𝑥, 𝑃(𝑥),” is symbolized by ∀𝑥, 𝑃(𝑥). The symbol
is used to denote the universal quantifier. The statement “∀𝑥, 𝑃(𝑥)”is true if
only if 𝑃(𝑥) is true for every value of 𝑥.
Page 27 of 31
The truth values for quantified statements are given in the following
table.
The following English statements are paired with their translations into
symbolic form. Their truth values are also included. It must be clear that 𝐸(𝑛)
represents the set of even integers and 𝑂(𝑛) the set of odd integers.
Statement Translation Truth Value
Every integer that is not odd is ∀𝑛 ∈ ℤ, ∼ (n is odd ) → True
even. (n is even)
∀𝑛 ∈ ℤ, ∼ 𝑂(𝑛) → 𝐸(𝑛)
There is an integer that is not ∃𝑛 ∈ ℤ, ∼ 𝐸(𝑛) True
even.
For every real number 𝑥, there ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ, ∃𝑦 ∈ ℝ, 𝑦 3 = 𝑥 True
is a real number 𝑦 for which 𝑦
3 = 𝑥.
Given any two rational ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℚ, 𝑎𝑏 ∈ ℚ True
numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏, it follows
that 𝑎𝑏 is rational.
Every integer is even. ∀𝑛 ∈ ℤ, 𝐸(𝑛) False
There is an integer 𝑛 for which ∃𝑛 ∈ ℤ, 𝑛2 = 2 False
𝑛2 = 2.
For every real number 𝑥, there ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ, ∃𝑦 ∈ ℝ, 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 False
is a real number 𝑦 for which
𝑦 2 = 𝑥.
Given any two rational ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℚ, 𝑝 𝑎𝑏 ∈ ℚ False
numbers a and b, it follows
that √𝑎𝑏 is rational.
If we consider the statement, “All dogs are mean.”, we may think that the
negation is “No dogs are mean.”, but this is also a false statement. Thus the
statement “No dogs are mean.” is not the negation of “All dogs are mean.” The
negation of “All dogs are mean,” which is a false statement, is in fact “Some
dogs are not mean,” which is a true statement. The statement “Some dogs are
not mean” can also be stated as “At least one dog is not mean” or “There exists
Page 28 of 31
a dog that is not mean.” What is the negation of the false statement, “No
doctors write in a legible manner”?
Learning Activity 13
Directions. Write the following as English sentences. Say whether they are
true(T) or false(F)
Example:
For all real number 𝑥, the negative of 𝑥 False
∀𝑥 𝜖 ℝ, −𝑥 < 0. is less than zero.
Start Here:
1. ∀𝑥 𝜖 ℝ, 𝑥 2 ≥ 0
2. ∀𝑥 𝜖 ℝ, ∃𝑛 𝜖 ℕ, 𝑥 𝑛 ≥ 0
3. ∃𝑎 𝜖 ℝ, ∀𝑥 𝜖 ℝ, 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑥
Page 29 of 31
2.6 Assessment Task
A. Write your answer on the blank after each item.
B. Essay:
1. What is the nature of mathematics as a language?
2. What is the most useful about the language of mathematics?
3. Give your reaction to the following statements:
a. Mathematics is not a language, but a useless set of formal rules and
alien symbols.
b. Mathematics confuses the communication of concepts and ideas.
c. Mathematics is full of unnecessary symbols, rules, and conventions.
Page 30 of 31
Your answers in Essay will be graded according to the given
standards/basis for grading:
Score Criteria
Unable to elicit the ideas and concepts from the learning activity, material,
0
or video
Able to elicit the ideas and concepts from the learning activity, material, or
1
video but shows erroneous understanding
Able to elicit the ideas and concepts from the learning activity, material, or
2
video and shows correct understanding
Able to elicit the correct ideas from the learning activity, material, or video
3 and also shows evidence of internalization and consistently contributes
additional thought to the core idea
2.7 References
Books and Lecture Notes
Aufmann, et. al. 2013. Mathematical Excursions. Third Edition. Cengage
Learning, USA
Fischer, Carol Burns. The Language of Mathematics. One Mathematical Cat
Please.
Hammack, Richard. 2013 Book of Proof. Department of Mathematics and
Applied Mathematics. Virginia Commonwealth University
Jamison, R.E. 2000 Learning the Language of Mathematics. Language and
learning across the disciplines
Sirug, Winston. (2018) Mathematics in the Modern World. Mindshapers Co.,
Inc. Publishing Company
Internet source:
https://www.dpmms.cam.ac.uk/~wtg10/grammar.pdf
date: 08-17-2020
Page 31 of 31
Module 3
Problem Solving
and
Reasoning
MODULE 3
The Nature of Mathematics: Problem Solving and Reasoning
3.1 Introduction
Example 1. Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in the lists.
1, 3, 6, 8, 11, ?
Solution.
The first two numbers differ by 2, the second and the third by 3, the third
and fourth by 2 again. It appears that when two numbers differ by 2, the next
difference would be 3, followed again by 2, then by 3. Since the difference
between 8 and 11 is 3, we predict the number next to 11 to be a number 2
more than 11, which is 13.
Solution.
We may construct a table to examine the results.
Original number Result
5 10
6 12
7 14
10 20
100 200
If you pick the number 5, the procedure will give a result of 10. For 6, it
will give 12; for 7, 14; for 10, 20; and for 100, 200. We observe that the
resulting numbers are twice the original number. Thus, we conjecture that
the process will produce a number which is twice the original.
Page 2 of 20
Example 3. Consider the polynomial 𝑛2 + 19𝑛 − 19 where 𝑛 is a counting
number.
𝑛 𝑛2 + 19𝑛 − 19
2 23
3 47
4 73
5 101
6 131
7 163
We notice that the results are prime numbers. Thus, we conjecture that
for 𝑛 ≥ 2, then 𝑛2 + 19𝑛 − 19 is a prime number. To test our conjecture, we
need to check results for other values. We have
𝑛 𝑛2 + 19𝑛 − 19
8 23
9 47
10 73
11 101
12 131
We see that the results are consistent and that our conjecture seems
correct. If we continue checking on the next results, we get 397, 443, 491,
541, 593, and 647. All these numbers are prime. However, if 𝑛 = 19, we get
703 which is the product of 19 and 37. This makes us conclude that our
conjecture is incorrect.
Figure 3.1
Maximum number of regions formed by connecting dots on a circle
Page 3 of 20
Results may be summarized in the following table.
Number of dots 1 2 3 4 5 6
Maximum number of regions 1 2 4 8 16 ?
Using the information in the table, we see that as the number of dots
increase, the number of regions inside the circle is doubled. Thus, we expect
that for 6 dots, there will be 16 ∙ 2 = 32 regions. However, if we perform the
procedure, we find out the only 31 regions are formed as shown in Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2
Maximum number of regions formed by connecting 6 dots on a circle
Learning Activity 1
Start Here:
Page 4 of 20
Observed patterns and formed ideas are better understood when one
knows how to communicate these ideas into meaningful statements. The
ability to analyze and convey the ideas formed is an essential part of the
problem solving process. In the succeeding discussion, we recall concepts on
truth of statements and familiarize with how we can justify the truth or falsity
of a statement.
A statement is true if it is true for all cases. If you can find one case
where the statement is not true, then it is considered a false statement. The
instance for which the statement becomes false is called a counter-example.
One can verify that a statement is false by using a counter-example. This is
illustrated in the next example.
Solution.
Learning Activity 2
Example:
1
∀ real numbers 𝑥, 𝑥 > .
𝑥
Answer:
1 1
Consider the real number 1. Then 1 ≯ since 1 = . We have
1 1
found a counter-example. Therefore, the given statement
1
“∀ real numbers 𝑥, 𝑥 > 𝑥.” is false.
Start Here:
1. ∀ real numbers 𝑥, 𝑥 3 ≥ 𝑥.
2. ∀ real numbers 𝑥, |𝑥 + 3| = |𝑥 | + 3.
Page 5 of 20
3.3.1.2 Deductive Reasoning
Solution.
If we let 𝑛 be the number, the procedure will give a result of 2𝑛. Thus,
we conclude that the procedure produces a number which is twice the original
number.
John, Jenny, Sheila, and Jason were recently elected as new class
officers (president, vice president, secretary, treasurer) in a National High
School. From the following clues, determine which position each holds.
1. Jason is younger than the president but older than the treasurer.
2. John and the secretary are both the same age, and they are the
youngest members of the group.
Page 6 of 20
Solution.
From clue 1, Jason is neither the president nor the treasurer. We put a
mark “X” on positions Jason do not hold.
From clue 2, John is not the secretary. And since he is one of the
youngest in the group, he cannot be the president. From here, we also
conclude that Jason is not the secretary since he is older than the treasurer.
Thus, Jason must be the vice president and John must be the treasurer.
Page 7 of 20
Learning Activity 3
Example
Start Here:
⋮
𝑎𝑛 represents the nth term of a sequence.
Page 8 of 20
A difference table is often used to show differences between successive
terms of the sequence. The following table is the difference table for the
sequence
2, 5, 8, 11, 14, …
Sequence 2 5 8 11 14
First difference 3 3 3 3
In this case, the first differences are all the same. Thus, if we use the
difference table above to predict the next number in the sequence, we shall
be working upward by adding 3 to 14. Thus, 14 + 3 = 17 is the next term of
the sequence. The following table shows how this is done.
Sequence 2 5 8 11 14 17
First difference 3 3 3 3 3
From the table, we see that the first differences are not the same since
14 − 5 = 9, 27 − 14 = 13, 44 − 27 = 17, and 65 − 44 = 21. Thus, we check on the
second differences and observe if we see a pattern. In this case, the second
differences are all the same. We have 13 − 9 = 4, 17 − 13 = 4, and 21 − 17 = 4.
The common second difference is 4.
Sequence 5 14 27 44 65 90
First difference 9 13 17 21 25
Second difference 4 4 4 4
Page 9 of 20
Example 8. Use a difference table to predict the next term in the sequence.
Solution.
Sequence 2 7 24 59 118 207 332
First differences 5 17 35 59 89 125
Second differences 12 18 24 30 36
Third differences 6 6 6 6
Learning Activity 4
Start Here:
𝑎1 = 3(1)2 + 1 = 4,
𝑎2 = 3(2)2 + 2 = 14,
𝑎3 = 3(3)2 + 3 = 30,
which means that the first term is 4; second term is 14; and third term is
30.
Page 10 of 20
Example 9. Assume the pattern shown by the square tiles in the following
figure continues.
a. What is the 𝑛𝑡ℎ-term formula for the number of tiles in the 𝑛𝑡ℎ figure
of the sequence?
b. How many tiles are in the eighth figure of the sequence?
c. Which figure will consist exactly 320 tiles?
Solution.
a. If we count the tiles in each term, we get the sequence 2, 5, 8, 11, … which
has a common difference of 3. Thus, we may consider 3𝑛 such that 𝑛 =
1, 2, …. However, using this would give 3 as the first term.
b. Using the formula we derived from (a), we can get the number of tiles
in the eighth term of the sequence. In this case, 𝑛 = 8 and 𝑎8 = 3(8) −
1 = 24 − 1 = 23 tiles.
c. To determine which figure in the sequence will have 320 tiles, we will
use the formula we derived in (a) and solve for 𝑛. Here, we expect the
𝑛𝑡ℎ-term to have 320 tiles. Thus, we solve 3𝑛 − 1 = 320.
3𝑛 − 1 = 320
3𝑛 = 321
𝑛 = 107
Do you have your own way of solving this problem? It will help if you
write your own solution and compare the results.
Page 11 of 20
3.3.2.3 Types of Sequences
There are different types of sequences in mathematics. The succeeding
discussion will illustrate some of these sequences.
Arithmetic Sequence
Geometric Sequence
Here, each term in the sequence is 2 times the previous term. A sequence
such as this is called a geometric sequence.
𝑎, 𝑎𝑟, 𝑎𝑟 2 , 𝑎𝑟 3 , …
Page 12 of 20
Thus, the sequence
can be expressed as
By adding another row of dots and counting all the dots we can find the
next number of the sequence. Thus, the 5th term in this sequence is:
Learning Activity 5
Direction. Find the 𝑛𝑡ℎ-term formula for the sequence with the given
representation below.
Page 13 of 20
3.3.3 Polya’s Problem Solving Strategy
A great discovery solves a great problem but there is a grain of discovery in the solution of any problem. Your problem may
be modest; but if it challenges your curiosity and brings into play your inventive faculties, and if you solve it by your own
means, you may experience the tension and enjoy the triumph of discovery.
George Polya
We will discuss each step by giving some guide on how we can complete
the problem solving process devised by George Polya.
3.3.3.1 Understand the Problem
Once we have found a solution, we check the solution and make sure
that the solution is consistent with the facts of the problem. We must interpret
the solution in the context of the problem and figure out whether there are
generalizations of the solution that could apply to other problems.
Page 14 of 20
Example 10. Apply Polya’s strategy to solve the following problem.
Determine the digit 100 places to the right of the decimal point in the
4
decimal representation 27.
Solution.
Understand What are the given The number
4
7
the Problem information?
100 places to the right of the decimal point
What is asked? 100𝑡ℎ number to the right of the decimal point in the decimal
4
representation of .
7
Review the Are we sure that As an alternative solution, we see that the above table
Solution our answer is illustrates additional patterns. For instance, if each of the
correct? location numbers in column 1 is divided by 3, a remainder 1
is produced. If each of the location numbers in column 2 is
divided by 3, a remainder of 2 is produced. Thus, we can
find the decimal digit in any location by dividing the location
number by 3 and examining the remainder. Thus, to find
4
the digit in the 100th decimal place of , we merely divide
27
100 by 3 and examine the remainder, which is 1. Thus, the
digit 100 places to the right of the decimal point is a 1.
Page 15 of 20
Example 11. Apply Polya’s strategy to solve the following problem.
A paper fan and a visor together cost ₱100.00. The visor costs ₱ 90.00
more than the paper fan. What are the individual costs of the visor and the
fan?
Solution.
Understand What are the given The price of a paper fan and a visor together is ₱100.00.
the Problem information? The visor costs ₱90.00 more than the paper fan.
What is/are the Visor’s price must be higher than the price of the paper
property/ies of the fan.
final answer? Both prices must be less than ₱100.00.
Unit of cost is in ₱.
Devise a What steps are 1. Represent the cost of visor and paper fan using a variable.
Plan needed to solve 2. Translate the statement to mathematical equation.
the problem? 3. Solve for the cost of the visor and the paper fan.
Carry Out What are the 1. We let ℎ be the cost of the paper fan. Since the visor costs
the Plan results after we ₱90.00 more than the visor, we represent its cost by ℎ +
take the steps in 90.
solving the 2. The cost of paper fan and visor altogether is ₱100.00. This
problem? can be expressed ℎ + ℎ + 90 = 100.
3. Solving this equation, we have
ℎ + ℎ + 90 = 100
2ℎ + 90 = 100
2ℎ = 100 − 90
2ℎ = 10
ℎ=5
The cost of the paper fan is ₱5.00 and the cost of the visor
is
₱ 5.00 + ₱ 90.00 = ₱ 95.00.
Review the Are we sure that Checking the sum of the costs we get ₱ 5.00 + ₱ 95.00 =
Solution our answer is ₱ 100.00
correct? The difference of the costs of the visor and the paper fan
is ₱95.00 − ₱5.00 = ₱90.00.
Page 16 of 20
Learning Activity 6
Understand the
problem
Devise a plan
Review the
solution
Understand the
problem
Devise a plan
Review the
solution
Page 17 of 20
3.4 Recommended learning materials and resources
Remote (asynchronous)
Page 18 of 20
B. Write the answer to the questions on the space provided after each
item.
C. Problem Solving. Solve the following problems using Polya’s four steps
to problem solving or your alternative(systematic) process.
2. The bacteria in a petri dish grow in a manner such that each day
the number of bacteria doubles. On what day will the number of
bacteria be half of the number present on the 12th day?
Page 19 of 20
3. The number of ducks and pigs in a field total 35. The total
number of legs among them is 98. Assuming each duck has
exactly two legs and each pig has exactly four legs, determine
how many ducks and how many pigs are in the field?
Score Criteria
0 You did not make any attempt to solve the problem.
1 You identified what is asked in the problem.
You identified what is asked in the problem as well as other needed
2
information.
You identified what is asked in the problem, the needed information, and
3
used a correct process. However, you did not obtain the correct answer.
You were able to completely solve the problem using a correct process.
4
However, you did not give a justification that your solution is indeed correct.
You were able to completely solve the problem using a correct process and
5
with a review of your solution.
3.7 References
Books:
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