Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Quarry
Quarry
By
N36/2184/2010
May, 2014
i
DECLARATION
This research project report is an original work and has never been submitted in this way or any
…………………. ………………
ii
DEDICATION
Management and the people of Ndarugu area and the County Government of Kiambu.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, I would like to express my deepest appreciation to God for giving me
the opportunity to carry out the research project. I also wish to thank my family; dad, mum and
my sisters for their encouragement and support, the Department of Environmental Planning and
Management for their support throughout this studio. Their support has been invaluable to the
My gratitude goes to the residents of Ndarugu area, Juja constituency for giving me an
opportunity to administer questionnaires in their homes and undertake focus interviews in their
households. I also thank the quarry owners and workers for allowing me to have access to the
quarries.
his availability for consultation during the entire period. My classmates cannot go unmentioned
for their encouragement and continued assistance during this whole period of research.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION .................................................................................................................................... ii
DEDICATION ....................................................................................................................................... iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...................................................................................................................... iv
TABLE OF FIGURES.......................................................................................................................... viii
ABSTRACT........................................................................................................................................... ix
ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................................................. x
CHAPTER ONE ..................................................................................................................................... 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background to the problem ................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Research questions ............................................................................................................................ 3
1.3 Objectives ......................................................................................................................................... 4
1.4 Research premises ............................................................................................................................. 4
1.5 Justification of the study .................................................................................................................... 4
1.6 Significance of the study .................................................................................................................... 5
1.7 Scope of the study ............................................................................................................................. 6
CHAPTER TWO .................................................................................................................................... 7
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................................. 7
2.1 Mining and quarrying ........................................................................................................................ 7
2.2 The bio-physical and socio-economic effects of quarrying activities................................................... 9
2.2.2 The socio-economic effects ........................................................................................................... 12
2.3 Mitigation measures for the management and control of quarrying activities .................................... 13
2.4 Policy and legal frameworks governing mining in Kenya ................................................................. 18
2.4.1 National Environment Policy, 2012: Revised Draft 5 of July 2012 ................................................ 18
2.4.2 The National Minerals and Mining Policy: Revised Final Draft 2010 ............................................ 18
2.4.3 Draft National Education for Sustainable Development Policy, 2011............................................. 18
2.4.4 Mineral Development Policy......................................................................................................... 18
2.4.5 Policies on Legislation Governing Mining Activities..................................................................... 19
2.4.6 Environmental Management and Co-ordination Act no. 8 of 1999................................................. 19
2.4.7 National Land Policy Of 2007 ....................................................................................................... 19
2.4.8 The Kenya National Environment Action Plan (NEAP) report of June, 1994 ................................. 20
2.4.9 Trade Policies ............................................................................................................................... 20
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2.4.10 Resettlement/Land Acquisition Policy Framework of the Government of Kenya ......................... 20
2.4.11 Land Reclamation Policy ............................................................................................................ 20
2.4.12 National Occupational Safety and Health Policy (June 2010) ...................................................... 21
2.5 Gaps from the existing literature ...................................................................................................... 21
2.6 Theoretical and Conceptual Framework ........................................................................................... 21
2.6.1 Theoretical framework .................................................................................................................. 21
2.6.2 Conceptual framework .................................................................................................................. 23
CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................................... 26
3.0 AREA OF STUDY .......................................................................................................................... 26
3.1 Location and extent ......................................................................................................................... 26
3.2 Topography ..................................................................................................................................... 28
3.3 Climate ............................................................................................................................................ 29
3.4 Land use .......................................................................................................................................... 30
3.5 Geology........................................................................................................................................... 30
CHAPTER FOUR ................................................................................................................................. 32
4.0 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ............................................................................. 32
4.1 Sampling frame and design .............................................................................................................. 32
4.2 Nature and sources of data ............................................................................................................... 33
4.2.1 Nature of data ............................................................................................................................... 33
4.2.2 Sources of data ............................................................................................................................. 34
4.2.2.1 Primary and secondary sources of data ....................................................................................... 34
4.3 Data processing and analysis............................................................................................................ 36
CHAPTER FIVE ................................................................................................................................... 37
5.0 DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ......................................................................................... 37
5.1 Policy and legal framework governing quarrying activities in Kenya ................................................ 37
5.2 The bio-physical and socio-economic effects of quarrying activities................................................. 42
5.2.1 Bio physical effects....................................................................................................................... 42
5.2.1.1 Pit flooding ................................................................................................................................ 42
5.2.1.2 Property damage (Effects of dust, noise and vibration) ............................................................... 43
5.2.1.3 Air pollution (dust) .................................................................................................................... 45
5.2.1.4 Noise pollution .......................................................................................................................... 47
5.2.2 The socio-economic effects ........................................................................................................... 48
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5.2.2.1 Sex ............................................................................................................................................ 49
5.2.2.2 Pit flooding versus drowning incidents ....................................................................................... 50
5.2.2.3 Marital status versus income sufficiency .................................................................................... 50
5.2.2.4 Income sufficiency based on the number of dependants .............................................................. 51
5.2.2.5 Education level .......................................................................................................................... 52
5.2.2.5 Education level versus the type of job employed to do................................................................ 54
5.2.2.6 Health related issues .................................................................................................................. 56
5.2.2.6.1 Coughs and colds .................................................................................................................... 57
5.2.2.6.2 Chest aches ............................................................................................................................. 58
5.2.2.6.3 Throat infections ..................................................................................................................... 59
5.2.2.6.4 Stress ...................................................................................................................................... 60
5.3 The state of abandoned quarries and their use................................................................................... 61
5.4 Mitigation measures for the management and control of quarrying activities .................................... 64
CHAPTER SIX ..................................................................................................................................... 67
6.0 SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS........................ 67
6.1 Summary of the findings .................................................................................................................. 67
6.2 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 68
6.3 Recommendations ........................................................................................................................... 69
6.3.1 Short term recommendations......................................................................................................... 69
6.3.2 Long term recommendations ......................................................................................................... 69
6.4 Areas for further studies................................................................................................................... 70
REFERENCES...................................................................................................................................... 71
Appendix I: People living in quarry environs questionnaire ................................................................... 75
Appendix II: Quarry workers questionnaire ........................................................................................... 78
Appendix III: Quarry owners questionnaire ........................................................................................... 81
Appendix IV: List of tables for data analysis and discussion .................................................................. 84
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1-2: Conceptual model ...................................................................................................... 25
Figure 2-3: Juja constituency wards in context from Kiambu County ......................................... 27
Figure 3-3: Quarry sites along Ndarugo River ............................................................................. 28
Figure 4-3: Climatic data for Juja area ......................................................................................... 29
Figure 5-5: Percentage response on pit flooding .......................................................................... 43
Figure 6-5: Percentage response on property damage .................................................................. 44
Figure 7-5: Seriousness of dust as a cause of pollution ................................................................ 46
Figure 8-5: Seriousness of noise as a cause of pollution .............................................................. 48
Figure 9-5: Percentage male and female respondents................................................................... 49
Figure 10-5: Total percentage of respondents' level of education ................................................ 53
Figure 11-5: Percentage on job learning ....................................................................................... 54
Figure 12-5: Percentage response on other sources of income ..................................................... 56
Figure 13-5: Seriousness of coughs and colds .............................................................................. 58
Figure 14-5: Seriousness of chest aches ....................................................................................... 59
Figure 15-5: Seriousness of throat infections ............................................................................... 60
Figure 16-5: Seriousness of stress related problems ..................................................................... 61
Figure 17-5: State of abandoned quarries ..................................................................................... 64
viii
ABSTRACT
Artisanal mining has been for many years disregarded, where large scale mining that
involves large scale extraction of minerals such us valuable metals, oil and gas has been
documented and given much concentration. Small scale mining however has had a significant
role to play in the developing countries, where it takes opportunity of the abundant available
labor while only requiring limited amounts of less than abundant capital. Nevertheless, this
sector of the economy surrounded by much enthusiasm has a lot of problems, which has plagued
it; poor health and safety, wasted mineral resources, and environmental degradation (Noronha,
1998). This sector is not affected by other pollutant problems like those experienced by the
mining industry involved in metals and minerals, because the process of extraction is merely
physical, and more recently involves the use of some machinery to ease the process. However,
this does not mean that stone quarrying does not have its fair share of numerous environmental
effects, which are actually serious.
Ndarugu is among the areas in the country where such quarries exist, and they pose a
blatant disregard for the environment. The research project aims at looking at these
environmental effects, coming up with mitigation measures and recommendations to tackle these
issues. The major effects were examined first by looking at relevant literature, and finally
collecting data on the ground and providing a comprehensive analysis. Data was analyzed and
represented statistically through use of graphs and photographs collected in the field. The
findings show that the quarrying activities are a great source of negative environment impacts.
The issue is greatly accelerated by the fact that the quarries are abandoned after use and no
elaborate rehabilitation plan is available, and furthermore the sector is highly unregulated with
no proper legislations and policies.
ix
ABBREVIATIONS
x
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Mining can be described as the extraction of valuable minerals as well as the removal of
other of geological materials from the earth. Mining is an activity that has been carried out since
the prehistoric times, where stone and other metals were extracted from the earth. The process of
mining has to prove profitable to the miner seeking to gain from the extract, and involves
prospecting for the extracts, analyzing the profitability of the mine, the process of extraction and
finally but not in all cases the reclamation of the land. For many years, these mining processes
have led to adverse negative environmental effects either during the mining process or long after
the mines have been closed. Stone as one of the valuable mineral extract has always been used
since the beginning of civilization to make early tools and weapons (Hartmann and Howard L,
1992)
Mining techniques are divided into two excavation types, which include surface mining
and subsurface mining. In the current times, surface mining is more common. In relation to
extraction of rocks, surface mining is employed, and a technique known as open pit mining is
used. Surface mining began in the mid sixteen centuries, and has been continually employed
throughout the world; although it is majorly employed in the North American continent, where
today, surface mining is much more common, and produces, for example, 85% of minerals
(excluding petroleum and natural gas) in the United States, including 98% of metallic ores
(Hartmann, 2002). This technique is used when the deposits of the useful rock are found near the
surface. The open pits that produce building materials and dimension stones are commonly
referred to as quarries. Extraction of materials using this method involves the use of heavy
1
equipment that moves the earth and other huge machines that extract the final product, which in
itself results to negative effects to the surrounding environment through noise, dust, and
vibrations that are as a result of the activity, where also in some cases additional logging of
forests is done in the vicinities of the mines to create room for the storage of debris and soil
excavated.
Stone has always been used for building and decorations because of its resistance to
weather and for its aesthetic appeal. For example, India’s use of stone for construction purposes
can be traced back to 3200 B.C. The country’s many innumerable temples and ancient palaces
have been carved out of locally available stone. One of the most famous buildings, the TajMahal
at Agra, portrays a long age tradition of stone architecture in the country (UNESCO World
large quantities, especially in our country Kenya. The demand for quarried aggregates is
that involves the construction of homes, factories and schools among other developments
underpin the necessity of quarrying as an activity in the country. The quarrying and aggregate
production industry is therefore a major player in the important role of steering the nation’s
economy through the provision of essential building materials and providing employment
opportunities. Housing demand in Kenya supports the fact that there is an enormous reliance on
stone aggregates, and bearing in mind that the population growth is placed at 4.2% per annum,
which accelerates urban migration gives a projection of an annual increase of housing units,
2
Areas like Ngong and Mwiki supply Nairobi’s area with building stone and are home to
artisanal stone quarrying, however Juja Township is also another location in Kenya that is home
to the industry, and has seen exponential growth in the recent years, since the quarries in the area
became active in the 1940’s and late 1950’s. During those early times, there were seven stone
quarries that were in operation, however, the number has increased to the present 207 quarries.
The quarries are distributed along the Ndarugo river, with the largest quarry covering 20 ha of
land and the smallest 0.01 ha (George et al., 2003). The quarries relatively vary in depth ranging
from 2- 50 m deep.
The quarries are undeniably of economic significance; however they are also a source of
environmental problems throughout their whole phase of operation. Both active and abandoned
quarries are a threat to the surrounding environment, and more significantly result to the
degradation of land, drainage problems and visual intrusion because many are not rehabilitated
after use.
2. What happens to the quarry sites after they have been fully utilized?
3. What rehabilitation measures have been undertaken in the past or in the present for the
quarries?
4. What steps are being taken or have been taken in the past to prevent negative
environmental effects?
5. What are the socio-economic issues that arise as a result of quarrying in the area?
3
1.3 Objectives
2. To assess the bio-physical and socio-economic effects of quarrying activities in the area
3. To examine the state of the abandoned quarries and what use they are put to
4. To identify and explain mitigation measures that should be adopted to manage and
1. The existing policies and legal frameworks governing the quarrying activities are
2. Abandoned quarry sites in Ndarugu area are not put to any use and there is a reluctance to
3. There are numerous negative bio-physical and socio-economic effects of quarrying in the
area.
4. There are no proper mitigation measures and sound action plans to curb both negative
an exponentially growing industry in the housing sector. The study focuses on quarries dealing
with artisanal stone mining; in an era where stone is the most common type of building material.
However quarrying has come with a lot of negative effects where, there is a lot of open-pit, and
derelict land that has been left open in the areas where it is being practiced. Ndarugu is one such
4
area, where this practice has raised a lot of issues both in the environment and to the society
around the area. This is an opportunity to exploit especially now that people are looking for
serene environments and the fact that ecologically sound environs are diminishing by day; where
the land is free from pollution, and a new ecosystem can be created altogether. Furthermore, it
being an unexploited opportunity to rehabilitate these lands, new ecosystems that will create
diverse flora and fauna like a case example of Bamburi’s Haller Park, which will go a long way
in boosting the economy of Kiambu County, through establishment of nature trails and
agricultural based projects considering Ndarugu’s location, which will in turn, create value for
Quarrying has had an impact both economically and socially, where it contributes to the
economy as an industry, and has created many job opportunities for many people. However
many people have had to suffer due to the negative effects, especially those people that live
around the quarry sites. They are faced with these negative impacts on a daily basis. Juja
Township being a home to many people stands to benefit from mitigating these impacts such as
arising pollution which causes a lot of problems such as health issues. Further the society that
lives around the area will get value for their land, and safety of their houses thus enjoying a
serene and conducive environment. The county government is also going to benefit from this
study because the study deals with how to manage derelict lands by rehabilitating them. There is
a lot of opportunity to be exploited by the county government as there is a lot of land that can be
utilized once these lands have been rehabilitated, and also will serve as an opportunity to control
pollution in that part of the county. Finally the industry movers of the sector can also refer to the
study on how to mitigate the forthcoming negative impacts as they continue their quarrying
5
activities, and can also learn of the benefits accruing from rehabilitating quarry sites, as is learnt
The study is going to be carried out in the study area, which is the Ndarugo area in Juja
location which covers an area of about 4,000 km2, and its effects toward the people of Juja
Township where the quarries are located. Since the quarries are located along Ndarugu River, it
shall also be included in the study, but the negative effects do not solely revolve around the river
system. The study is going to focus on the issues related with negative environmental impacts
employed to mitigate the adverse effects and finally the policies and legislations governing the
6
CHAPTER TWO
Mining just like agriculture is one development feat by the human race, which marked
the start of early civilization. It is one of the basic industries that fueled civilization, and as a fact
being second from agriculture as the agrarian revolution commenced in 1500 B.C and it in the
1700 B.C has continually supplied all the basic resources that are in use by modern civilization
(Hartmann and Howard L, 1992). According to Madigan, mining has played a chief role in the
existence of the human race (Madigan, 1981), whereby the term mining is in its broadest terms to
mean the extraction of any naturally occurring minerals, be they in gas, liquid or solid state.
Many important cultural eras are earmarked by the development of mining, and the
derivatives of the activities associated with the industry. The eras can be outlined as; Stone Age
(prior to 4000 B.C.E), the Bronze Age (4000 to 5000 B.C.E), the Iron Age (1500 B.C.E. to 1780
B.C.E), the Steel Age (1780 to 1945), and the Nuclear Age (1945 to the present). There are many
uses of minerals, for different purposes and occurring in different ages by the human race.
Active and abandoned mines and quarries have been a source of negative environmental
effects which have led to erosion, formation of sinkholes, and contamination of soil,
groundwater, and surface water, and also the loss of biodiversity. All these problems arise from
contamination of the chemicals used in mining and the neglect of environmental awareness while
operating the mines and quarries. Increasingly, there are abandoned quarries and mines
throughout the world because of low running reserves and this leaves so many open pits after the
extraction process is finished, where many of the mining companies are reluctant to properly
rehabilitate a site after they have exploited it fully. In the United States alone, there are more
7
than 560,000 abandoned mines on publicly and privately owned land (Kertes, 1996). These open
mines are a danger to those that may want to explore them, especially to those people that do not
have the proper knowledge and skills on how to approach them safely, and this forms a majority
Minerals have also been a great source of wealth that has enabled many countries with
the rich abundance of the natural resources accumulate wealth and form great economies. Those
countries that do have them obtain valuable currencies from the countries that do not have. It has
also been estimated that only a fraction of 1% of the earth’s surface is underlain with mineral
deposits that can be exploited for monetary value (National Mining Association, 1998).
In the modern times, the consumption of minerals has been on the rise, as the society is
drastically changing because people are relying now more on airplanes, trains and vehicles for
transportation; mobile phones, computers and radios for communications; heavy machinery and
fertilizers for agricultural output; industrial minerals for home building; and nuclear plants, and
coal for electric power. This kind of use for industrial services has led to the over exploitation of
minerals.
However, this kind of use has spurred a lot of public reaction, where people have become
more aware of the need to conserve energy, minerals and the environment. Countries like the
United States have compelled their mining industry to endorse a policy that favors the extraction
Mining in Kenya is however not that large, and it is dominated by exploitation of non-
metallic minerals such as soda ash, diatomite, gypsum, limestone, fluorite, constructional stone
8
and sand harvesting. The large percentage of mining in the country is done by the artisanal
Majorly the type of activity under quarrying in Kenya is the extraction of stone. This
activity is a very significant activity in the country under the informal sector or popularly known
as the Jua Kali sector. It involves a number of stakeholders that include land owners, quarry
owners, concession holders (who lease land and extract stone for sale) and quarry workers who
constitute both the skilled and unskilled. The sector is believed to employ over 40,000 workers
nationally, where in Nairobi alone it employs 10,000 people (Asher shadmon, Sam, 1999).
The country has a very great demand for stone because of the ever growing construction
industry, and stone from mechanized quarries is in high demand. Many of these quarries are
found in Juja, but recently those that that serve Nairobi (the Ngong division of Kajiado district,
approximately 13 kilometers southwest of Nairobi) have been surveyed, and according to Asher
Shadmon (1999) the results have revealed that the local stone reserves can sufficiently supply
The process of quarrying is greatly related to the negative environmental effects of the
activity. There are several processes that are involved in quarrying and they include; clearing of
overburden of soil, drilling, blasting, splitting and dressing of stone. The process uses various
tools for extraction which are categorized into two, namely, hand tools and machine tools. The
hand tools include; jacks, levers, hammers, and chisels for extraction; and hammers, chisels
(including pneumatic), drills, saws, grinding stones and polishing powder for stone-working
(Shadmon 1989). On the other hand, machine tools include: jack-saws, saws, wire-saws, and
9
chainsaws, mechanical chisels for extraction; and guillotines, saws, planers or fraisers, grinders
and polishers for manufacturing (Shadmon 1989). Every stage in the operation of a mine ahs its
habitats, loss of scenery, enhancement of soil erosion; Drilling leads to the generation of dust,
and generation of noise; Blasting causes ground vibrations, fly rock generation of dust,
generation of noise, surface land disruption, and explosive fumes (gases); Splitting causes flying
stones pieces, while Stone dressing causes the generation of dust (Mines and Geology).
The bio-physical effects are associated with the environmental impacts because the fact
that many of the quarry sites are uncontrolled and that insufficient techniques of mining are used,
it produces a degradation of both land and stone reserves. In many cases there is lack of resource
allocation planning in quarry land, a situation that results to quarry sites being located
haphazardly without any proper development and guidance. In the end there is a myriad of
mineral surface workings that show a lack of resource and environmental management (Savery,
1997).
Artisanal stone quarries are also known for the high waste to recovery ratio, which is
influenced by among other factors, the natural formation of the rocks and the method used to
extract the stones. The situation is such that the estimated amount of stone wasted in the country
ranges from 50 – 90%. The situation is influenced by use of manual mining techniques, although
blasting is also used in areas where the rock is much harder before the stone is split and sized.
These wasteful methods of both quarrying and processing of the stones aggravate the situation
10
There is also aesthetic pollution, which happens if there is no screening of current
operations and proper restoration of abandoned mines. Visual aftermath of quarrying is equal to
the poor utilization of resources in small-scale artisanal quarrying (Savery, 1997). Introduction of
potentially discordant features into the landscape also result to visual intrusion and affect the
landscape character e.g. quarry face, plant, lighting and quarry face.
Another effect is that quarries can contribute to air pollution in a number of ways that
include; ammonium nitrates form the fuel mix used in blasting and from engines, dust from the
quarry or the roads that lead to the quarry site, as well as the dust and fumes from the lorry traffic
and dust from the blasting process may cause discharge of pollutants to the atmosphere. Dust is
one of the most visible, invasive and potentially irritating impact associated with quarrying. Dust
concentrations, potential impacts and deposition rates tend to decrease rapidly away from the
source (Howard and Cameron, 1998). However, its visibility tends to raise concerns that are not
usually directly proportional to its impacts on human health and the environment (Howard and
Cameron, 1998).
Noise is another of the effects which is as a result of the use of explosives, processing
equipment and earth moving equipment and the situation is worsened with quarries being at
close proximities to each other. The impact of noise on the sound receiver is often from the
source which is characterized by the rhythm, pitch of noise, beat and distance (Langer, 2001).
The use of explosives may also trigger ground vibration which is also a cause of disturbance.
In cases where rivers are located near river or other drainage systems, they lead to water
pollution which is also another effect and can be attributed to the amount of lead in oil,
petroleum spills and waste metals on soil without treatment, in the quarry mining and
11
transportation machinery. Quarries can also be a cause for water table alterations, where the
quarries go deep enough to affect ground water aquifers. Formation of dams at quarry sites is
also a common feature in abandoned quarry sites (Agevi and Ogero, 1990)
problems in land use by the communities that are found around areas where such activities take
place. A study conducted in the Niagra escarpment on quarrying, revealed that there is a struggle
between the industry, the quarry operators who are in charge of producing the construction
materials and the local communities that have new uses and value for the same land (Sandra and
Andes, 2005).
conducted. The studies have focused on resource utilization, restoration and respiratory dusts
created by lorry traffic, and are aimed at improving productivity and environmental sensitivity of
artisanal quarrying (Savery, 1997; Agevi and Agero, 1990; Mjaria, 1997; Ng’ang’a, 1997;
construction sector, as well as providing a livelihood for land owners, quarry owners, concession
holders, quarry workers, and people in the transport industry. Another report by Kenya Quarry
and Mine Workers Union (1996), it indicated that the sector was providing a livelihood for about
12
Constraints facing the expansion of the industry, in meeting both the existing and
potential demand for dimension stone, have been captured in a report titled socio-economic and
There are potential risks associated with quarrying that cannot be ignored, but have been
underplayed in many of the reports, and include health risks. Quarries located near residential
areas have been connected to posing health issues especially because of the clouds of dust
produced. A certain report in Palestine indicated that the locals living near quarries were
suffering from increased levels of asthma and acute bronchial infections (Foundation of Middle
2.3 Mitigation measures for the management and control of quarrying activities
The extraction of materials from the earth’s crust inevitably impacts on the surrounding
natural and social environment. Particularly, the removal of soil and changes in topography of
the area are likely to affect local ecosystems and watersheds. However, throughout the years
these impacts have been successfully addressed and mitigated through the development and
and social benefits, an example in our country being Bamburi Cement Mines in the coast (CSI,
2011).
The CSI through its published work by the WBCSD indicates that quarrying activity
carries with it the obligation to rehabilitate both the site and, wherever necessary, the
surrounding area while operating and upon completion of operations. The success of
rehabilitation also carries commercial benefits for the operating companies. The license to
13
operate for both the industry as a whole and for individual companies is dependent on ensuring
that land used for quarrying purposes is rehabilitated in an effective and responsible manner,
taking into account the needs and expectations of stakeholders, and the influence of regional and
local planning requirements. Those that adopt the best practices in this regard have a greater
their operations and competitive advantage, which far outweigh the short-term financial costs
CSI ESIA guidelines also points out principles that guide an effective rehabilitation plan are as
follows:
• The post-closure land use needs to be clearly assessed when initiating a quarry
rehabilitation plan, even if this can evolve over the lifetime of the quarry. A quarry
rehabilitation plan needs to be based on a clear set of objectives reflecting the legislative
requirements (as the highest priority), and encompassing the local social, economic and
environmental (including biodiversity) considerations for the future use of the site. The
• Legal compliance must be the minimum requirement when establishing each quarry
rehabilitation plan. The rehabilitation guidelines should never be in conflict with, but
• The rehabilitation plan will ensure the site is left in a safe and stable condition. The safety
of the rehabilitated quarry includes the stability of slopes, roads and raw materials piles.
14
• Stakeholders should be listened to, and relevant stakeholders need to be involved at all
stages. The quarry rehabilitation plan must address stakeholder expectations, and be
aligned with, or leverage from, the stakeholder view, experience, culture and customs.
measurement of the changes that may arise as a result of quarrying activity. The
assessment of baseline conditions includes air and water, flora and fauna, site safety,
• The rehabilitation plan shall be developed prior to the commencement of mining for new
sites, but should also be developed for operating quarries, where such a plan does not
already exist. It should be aligned with the mining plan. Depending on the objectives and
priorities set, the development and monitoring of management plans for biodiversity
• A monitoring plan and appropriate corrective measures (if necessary) should be included
Other mitigation measures have been explored by many scholars and organizations and are as
outlined below:
to designate such areas, then the classification of the protected areas by the International Union
for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) is one of the prominent systems that
exist for such purpose. There was a resolution that was passed on October 2000 by the world
15
congress in Amman, Jordan, that recommended the member states to prohibit by law, all
explorations and extraction of mineral resources in protected areas that corresponded to the
EIA’s and ESIA’s are another mitigation measure where there are internationally
accepted tools that have enabled mining companies to adequately factor in environmental and
social considerations in investment decisions. For many of the companies internationally they
have become an integral part of investment assessment methodologies that had previously been
focused largely on financial criteria. There has been a re-emphasis on the use of impact
and development in 1992, which as a result reinforced the aspirations of the Berlin guidelines of
1991 on environmental stewardship. The impacts of assessments cover the effects on flora and
fauna and on human health, as well as broad socio-economic impacts of mining both directly and
indirectly.
Public participation is another very important part of regulating the environmental and
social impacts of mining activities and an effective mitigation measure, which ensures
accountability. There are key benefits that do arise from public participation, where the decision
on whether a project has a significant impact on the environment as well as social effects and
should be allowed to proceed is based on the local knowledge that is often valuable information
often missed by the experts and it also legitimizes the project that would otherwise prove to be a
16
It is also now law that whenever anyone is carrying out an environmental and social
impact assessment, that they include a public participation component. This is supported by the
fact that many of the African countries provide for the right to a clean environment in their
constitutions. This kind of provisions can actually found claims of a right of a member of the
public to be heard before any decisions are made on projects that could have significant adverse
effects on them.
Last but not least is access to information as outlined in Principle 10 of the Rio
declaration that states that “each individual shall have the appropriate access to information
hazardous material and activities in their communities and the opportunity to participate in
decision making processes. States shall facilitate and encourage public awareness and
participation by making information widely available”, expresses the relationship between access
to information and participation in decision making. This is also further expressed in the UN
decision making and access to justice in environmental matters (the Aarhus Convention), which
In South Africa, their promotion of access to information act (2000) and its regulations
establish a scheme to facilitate access to information held by public and public institutions. To
monitor and enhance the implantation of the act, the South African human rights commission is
17
2.4 Policy and legal framework governing mining in Kenya
The policy aims to provide a holistic framework to guide the management of the
environment and natural resources in Kenya. Its core goal is to advance better quality of life for
present and future generations through sustainable management of the environment and natural
resources.
2.4.2 The National Minerals and Mining Policy: Revised Final Draft 2010
The objectives of this draft policy that is awaiting parliament’s enactment covers several
facets of mining in Kenya such as the regulatory framework, stimulation of investment in the
mining sector in Kenya, ensure harnessing of minerals contributes optimally to vision 2030 and
national development. Additionally, the policy also recognizes the need to bring into the
This is a policy document prepared by the ministry of environment and mineral resources
on November 2011 (Ministry of Environment and Mineral Resources, 2011, p. 14). Education of
the general public around the mineral rich areas is critical for them to understand the benefits,
opportunities and effects of the mining activities. This policy is crucial in preparing the people
This policy covers the National Development Plan of 1994-1996, titled Resource
Mobilization for Sustainable Development. The National Environment Action Plan Committee
18
inter alia, for the development of a five year national environment action plan. The national
environment action plan shall contain among other aspects analysis of the natural resources of
Kenya and their distribution, quantity and various uses. It shall also recommend legal and fiscal
incentives for business that incorporate environmental requirements into their planning and
The Mining Act Cap 306 of 1940 is outdated and does not apply to standard mining
regulation procedures. The industry wants to see a new law that aims to remedy the problems by
stating the timeframes and procedures to be followed when access to land is unreasonably
denied. The current Mining Act, which dates back to the 1940s, has been termed as a major
The policy process culminated into the Draft Sessional Paper No. 6 of 1999 entitled
“Environment and Development.” The legislative process gave forth the Environment
Management and Coordination Act (EMCA) (Act No. 8 of 1999) as Kenya’s first framework
environmental law. Both the Draft Policy and Act added to a large number of existing sectoral
laws and policies dealing with various facets of the environment, such as water, forests, minerals
To address this problem, the Government has come up with a National Land Policy 2007
whose vision is to guide the country towards efficient, sustainable and equitable use of land for
prosperity and posterity. This policy will ensure that all land is put into sustainable and
19
productive use. The policy has so far received Cabinet’s approval and is currently waiting for
2.4.8 The Kenya National Environment Action Plan (NEAP) report of June, 1994
This policy is covered in the Draft Sessional Paper on Environment and Development of
1996, Sessional Paper No.1 of 1994 on Recovery and Sustainable Development to the Year
2010, and the Report of the East African Cooperation Meeting of National Environment
Institutions of November, 1997. This policy was updated in 2009 by the National Environment
Management Authority (NEMA) in a document titled the “The National Environment Action
Although most of the minerals are exported in their raw form, the government policy is to
encourage value addition within the country for higher returns, support of industrialization and
employment creation.
The objective of the policy is to outline the manner in which the people in areas where
This policy was not drafted by the ministry concerned with mining and minerals in Kenya
rather it is a product of the Ministry of Water and Irrigation. Nevertheless, it has been included
here since it affects the mining sector especially on the aftermath of mining activities and not on
the onset of mining. For instance, in mining fro limestone and even sand, huge holes are left
20
2.4.12 National Occupational Safety and Health Policy (June 2010)
This policy aims at promoting safe and healthy environment in places of work especially
mining sector which not only uses dangerous chemicals in extraction of minerals but also
Health and safety issues in and around the quarry sites have not been explored as well as
there are no proper policies and legislative frameworks to govern the sector in the country.
The theory guiding this study is the systems theory. This section reviews the theory with
a view to bringing out the salient attributes that would enable this study to fit in. Similarly, the
concept of land degradation is also incorporated to further buttress the effect of mining within
the system. The general systems theory developed by Bertalanfy (1951), argue that the natural
geology consist of mutually related subsystems and the destruction of one of the subsystem lead
to the modification of the entire system. The environment is the sum total of all the external
factors that influences the life of an organism, here the physical environment which comprise the
land is considered. Consequently in the strive for economic growth, the physical and social
environments are subjected to pressure that affect the entire system. He emphasized that real
systems are open to, and interact with, their environments, and that they can acquire qualitatively
new properties through emergence resulting in continual evolution. Thus rather than reducing an
entity e.g. (environment) to the properties of its parts or element e.g. (land, social and economic
setup), system theory focuses on the arrangement of and relations between the parts which
21
The systems theory conceptualizes land degradation and negative social and economic
effects as the response of the mining to the demand of the environment. The theory sees land
degradation as well as negative social and economic effects as an output of the mining. Land
degradation such as loss in vegetation cover, changes on the landscape and negative social
effects such as health related issues is seen as the reaction of the mining to environmental
demands and pressures. The theory shows that the relationships that unite the part to form a
Man affects his environment as he responds to the changing condition set by the
environment and the environment responds to human manipulation, thereby creating a state of
dynamic equilibrium that continues to adjust and readjust in space with time (Olofin, 1989). The
systems theory was chosen against other theories because, the world is made up of components
and the components are interrelated. Nothing is independent on its own. A change in one will
have repercussions on the other parts. With respect to this study therefore, because man depend
on the mining and the mining is being done on the land, the environment is in turn affected by
such activity and land degradation sets in. The relationship between the two is that the mining as
an input was converted into land degradation as the output in this case. The three interrelated
components resulted into land degradation. Land is one of the major resources in both developed
and developing countries, and forms the basis of economic sustenance. Degradation is therefore
the diminution of the biological productivity expected of a given tract of land (Ayuba, 2005).
Land degradation which includes degradation of vegetation and soil has been identified as a
major problem in Africa (FAO, 1980). From the foregoing therefore, the systems theory sees
22
2.6.2 Conceptual framework
Human beings are part of the biosphere or its ecological component and play a central
role in modifying and interfering with the physical environment through their activities. Human
systems tend to influence these activities, whereby socio-economic aspects that include
indirectly influence what we do. These in turn lead to the development of man-made systems that
are strongly influenced by human beings, and includes the development of physical structures,
public infrastructure, parks, man-made lakes, mines and rock quarries, so as to satisfy the needs
and wants in society. Quarrying as one of the developments interacts with the aspects of the
physical environment or otherwise the natural systems that includes physical phenomena that do
not originate from human activities; including water, air and climate. The ecosystem as part of
the natural system is also affected. Human beings as the sole generator of these effects are also
affected, where the effects on the physical environment can also impact on the socio-economic
aspects of quarrying, including loss of lives, poor health and diseases, accidents, reduction of
Quarrying as an activity that involves the extraction of earth materials for economic
value, takes place within the physical environment and therefore has impacts both on the
physical and socio-economic environment, however there are also positive aspects of mining
framework for integrated monitoring, namely Integrated Environment and Health Monitoring
(IEHM) framework developed by WHO (world health organization), 2010 with that of a
theoretical framework by Law and Smith on the principal components of the environment. The
23
synthesis has modifications in line with the researcher’s conceptualization of quarrying as an
activity that has both socio-economic and environmental impacts (see figure 1-2).
24
Figure 1-2:Conceptual
Figure 1-2: Conceptualmodel
model
Man-made system
Quarrying
REHABILITATION PLAN
Source: Adapted and modified from WHO Integrated Health and Monitoring Framework (2010)
25
CHAPTER THREE
Ndarugo area is found in Kalimoni sub-location, Juja location of Thika district, Kiambu
County, in central Kenya and is located at about 30 km north of Nairobi city. Juja location is
divided into three sub-locations namely Kiaora, Kalimoni and Komo. The location covers an
area of about 4,000 km2 and is home to a population of about 200,000 people (KNBS, 2009). It
lies within 1 11’ 0’’ South, 37 7’ 0’’ East, and is placed at an altitude of 1560 m above sea level
(see figure 2-3). Kalimoni is home to most of the hand operated quarries, while most of the
machine operated quarries are found along Ndarugo River (figure 3-3).
26
Figure 2-3:
3: Juja constituency wards in context from Kiambu County
27
Figure 3-3: Quarry sites along Ndarugo River
3.2 Topography
The slope of the area is oriented to the northeast- southwest direction and its
physiographic consists of scarps that are formed by the extensive quarry activities going on in
the area. The underlying bedrock in Ndarugo area is formed of granite, which is suitable for
building stones.
28
There are two small rivers that can be located in the area, and they join the Nairobi River
at the lower boundary of the wider Juja. The quarry sites are located along river Ndarugo, which
is recognized for its diverse flora and fauna, and also offers a mild climate and natural beauty to
the area. It is a freshwater river that is both ecologically and economically beneficial to the
residents of the area. The river is provides water for both domestic and agricultural use.
3.3 Climate
The area receives an annual rainfall of 856 mm and experiences two rainy seasons; that is
the long-rains that occur between March and May, while short-rains occur between October and
December. The mean annual temperature of the area is 19.60c, with the hottest month which is
March with 21.30c, and the coldest month which is July with 18.40 c (see figure 4-3).
29
3.4Land use
The quarries are placed under a lease tenure system, where the developers lease the land
from the owners at an agreed fee until the quarry work is finished.
The main land uses in the area can be categorized into two; that is quarrying and
agriculture. As mentioned earlier, the granite deposit that underlies the area are suitable for
building stone exploration, therefore suitable for commercial quarrying of stone as well as quarry
dust. Apart from the quarries there are also agricultural activities around the area, with mostly
subsistence and cash crop farming. The cash crops planted in the area are coffee and horticultural
flowers and products. Penta flower is the major flower grower and has a farm by the name
Ndarugu farm, whereas horticultural products are grown by one farm known as Benvar Limited,
3.5Geology
The Proterozoic Mozambique Belt that is most extensive in Kenya Central, North to
Marble, kaolin and a variety of gemstones are found together with minerals associated with basic
and granitic rocks, such as mica and iron ore. The general rock formation in Juja is tertiary basic
igneous rock that consists of olivine basalts, phenelites, granite and other older basic turf. The
presence of such rock formation provides an abundance of suitable stone that can be used as
building material. The igneous rocks are used in the production of coarse aggregates, which are
used in making of concrete. As for other rocks that are relatively soft compared to the igneous
rocks, they are used as building stones sourced from the quarries, and are exploited either
through hand or machine methods. The soils in the area are moderately well drained, shallow,
and friable, as dictated by the presence of gravely clay or petrophithenite with pockets of
30
murramwith lithesol. There are also pockets of poor drained deep to very deep petrophithite,
vestrols, undifferentiated and verticgleyosols. This type of geological formation provides a rich
31
CHAPTER FOUR
This chapter concerns itself with the methodology used in this study. The information
includes the sampling frame and design, and then covers data collection, processing and analysis.
The instruments of data collection are also outlined as well as the limitation of the study.
The respondents for this study were drawn from quarries in Ndarugo and its environs.
The sampling frame is inclusive of all quarries in Ndarugo area. Since most of the quarries are
closely located to each other, the systematic random sampling was employed. Most of the
quarries assume similar characteristics and the same quality of stones are mined. According to
the mines and geology department of Kenya, the quarries in the area can be termed as large scale
quarries, based on the kind of technology and scale of operation. The stones are extracted
through machines such as crushers, bulldozers and run in a 24 hour cycle, thus assuming the term
large scale quarries. The socio economic considerations for all the quarries are assumed to be
similar.
The socio economic data was collected from quarry workers, quarry owners and those
people living within the quarries. The choice of the number of respondents was through simple
random sampling, and a total of 30 Workers from the quarry sites were interviewed. The
availability and willingness to respond was determined by who the respondents were. The work
done in the quarries is tedious and it demands a lot of commitment to the extent that by the end
of the day most of the workers are too tired to respond to an interview or even fill in a
questionnaire. The researcher had to take advantage of the short sessions of rest during the day
collect data.
32
Another sample of 5 respondents was taken from the quarry owners. This is because most
of the owners of the quarries have their offices outside the area of study, which presented
difficulty in accessing them as their locations are not well defined. This reduced the number of
the intended respondents from 10 to 5. Lack of cooperation also posed a great challenge, just as
in the case of the quarry workers. Most were very negative and suspicious of the researcher.
There have been a lot of complaints in the recent past about the problems caused by quarrying
activities, and these complaints are a threat to the activity. The researcher was viewed as a spy
with a motive of getting information from the public so as to take it to the government. Many of
Another 30 respondents were interviewed for people living within 3 kilometers of the
quarry sites. The quarries are located on individuals’ land which is leased. Purposive random
sampling was used in selecting these respondents as the data was to be used to determine the
effects of quarrying on people living within quarry environs. The presence of respondents, which
was determined by availability of settlement structures close to the quarries, was significant.
Most of the people were living in their own plots of land, which were found just adjacent to the
quarry sites.
The data collected for the study is qualitative data because it is descriptive in nature,
where the data collected was focused on individual people rather than the use of numbers and
figures to answer the study research questions. The study aims to evaluate the descriptions and
responses given by the respondents and this place the respondents’ responses as paramount in the
research approach.
33
4.2.2 Sources of data
The data collected in the study was based on both primary and secondary data. The
primary data collected was gathered from the use of instruments such as; questionnaires,
interview schedule, photography, and direct observation. The secondary sources of information
• Questionnaire
Three questionnaire schedules appendices I, II, and III were administered to various
respondents. Questionnaire A was administered to quarry workers, B to the quarry owners, and C
to people living within 3 km of the quarry sites. 30 questionnaires were administered to quarry
workers, 5 to quarry owners, and 30 to people living within 3 km of the quarry sites. The
questionnaires were used to elicit primary data on both socio economic aspects such as sex, age,
level of education, direct employment generation, income and wealth generation, welfare of
those involved, welfare of those living nearby, support of quarrying to other social aspects and
The respondents were randomly selected depending on their availability and willingness
• Interview schedule
The interview schedule was used alongside the questionnaires. It was used on all
respondents whenever the researcher felt it was necessary in the process of filling the
34
questionnaires. It proved to be a vital tool in eliciting information that could not be obtained
through the use of questionnaires. Moreover the level of education of most of the respondents
commanded the use of this tool. Most of the respondents could not afford time to fill the
questionnaires by themselves as payment of their work is pegged on the amount of work done.
• Photography
This method of data collection was an effective tool and was used to capture some of the
information relevant to the study such as dust in the quarry sites, the abandoned quarries, as well
• Direct observation
This was also employed and as one of the most important tool, it was aided by the use of an
Secondary data was used to cover the dimensions of the study was also used. This
included data from academic journals, NGO reports, government policy documents, the
meteorological department of Kenya, newspaper reports and the internet. The data used was that
obtained from studies on socio-economic aspects of quarrying, policy documents, and quarry
rehabilitation practices in general from any part of the world, and one case study in Kenya which
was mentioned.
35
4.3 Data processing and analysis
Data from the various sources was edited and then coded for analysis using the SPSS
analysis tool. This was done in order to find answers to the research questions and then draw the
conclusions from the objectives of the study. Data collected using questionnaires was first used
Secondary sources and observation provided data on bio-physical characteristics of the site as
36
CHAPTER FIVE
The respondents both the quarry owners and people living within the quarry environs
were asked whether they knew of any policies or legislations that govern the quarrying sector in
the country during the interviews, the quarry owners said that they had the knowledge of some
laws that state the fact that the quarries have to be reclaimed after use. They also pointed out that
laws governing quarrying are not properly developed and that the national environmental
management authority (NEMA) usually makes random visits to the sites to ensure that they are
not doing any harm to the environment. The owners also pointed out to the fact that it is a
recommendation that they develop an EIA and clearly set out mitigation measures.
Many of the people living within the quarry environs said that they had not heard of any
laws or policies that govern quarrying. They said that the quarry owners did not regard any
environmental regulations as they blatantly disregard the safety of the surrounding environment
as there are no authorities that control them other than the fact that the local county council
Those that work in the quarries are not safeguarded in any case of accidents occurring in
the quarries as the quarry owners ignore the fact that health and safety laws exist, whereby the
workers operate in the quarries without any protective gear, and as a result of this they are
Mining activities in the country have not been well coordinated as there are many
artisanal mining groups that do not adhere to environmental policies and guidelines. There has
37
been a major setback in the policy implementation, which is caused by having fragmented
stakeholders and oversight authorities. Many of these policies have been faced with the challenge
of lack of adequate up to date regulations addressing the bright of key stakeholders such as
communities in rich mineral areas, and in addition the present laws are outdates and full of
loopholes that have provided lee ways for fragmented mining activities that are hazardous
especially to the inexperienced miners. Some of the key policies that could be directly linked
with quarrying activities are as outlined below, and the gaps in the policies discussed.
The law is supposed to ensure that land is put into sustainable and productive use, but it is
inconsistent with mining and minerals bill of 2009 that states “a mineral right shall not be
granted under this Act on, under or over private land without the consent of the owner.” Whereas
the land policy states that all private land harboring mineral resources shall be repossessed by
commissioner of department of mines and geology grants both exploration and mining licenses
to companies and individuals who want to explore minerals in Kenya in areas that are
agricultural lands, gazette forests, urban areas, areas set aside for commercial activities, ranches,
private lands, trust lands and so on. The laws are in contradiction, and the policy does not
provide for a clear framework where all stakeholders are supposed to communicate and execute
The policy outlines resettlement measures undertaken in areas where minerals have been
found, and though this is the case, there has not been a clear way forward for resettling people
38
found in such areas. The problem is aggravated by the lack of adequate awareness by the people
though it is the responsibility of the government in conjunction with the ministry of lands. Many
of the people found living in the quarry environs are surrounded by quarries in very close
distances, a situation which puts the people in huge risks. Because the land owners have
operating licenses, they disregard the people living near the quarries, where they explore for
stones near residential areas and many of the people that are found too close are forced to move
The policy is not drafted by the ministry concerned with mining and minerals in Kenya
but rather the former ministry of water and irrigation. Therefore, there is a very big issue as it
does provide a conceptual framework on how the ministry concerned with minerals and mines
can be involved. The lack of this networking framework means that the policy is only as good as
it is on paper. The quarry owners do not reclaim the quarried land at all, and because this issue is
disregarded by the concerned ministry, the owners do not bare any responsibility for their
actions.
The policy aims at promoting a safe and healthy environment in the places of work. In
relation to quarrying, it would ensure that workers are not exposed to health hazards such as dust,
but due to the lack of a clear framework governing mining in Kenya, there lies a gap in the
implementation strategy of the policy as it is conclusive and concrete. Many accidents do occur
in the mining sector and especially in the quarrying sector as the owners disregard the provision
of safety equipment and gear for their workers. When the quarry workers were asked through the
39
questionnaires what they would like to be improved in the quarries, 98% of the workers stated
that they wanted the owners to provide them with safety gear and equipment to prevent them
Quarrying legislations
Though no specific mention or reference to quarrying has been made in any mining
legislations, some laws however point indirectly to some legislations that ensure proper
governance of quarries and efficient extraction of stone and rock. Some of these laws are as
follows;
The policy process culminated into the Draft Sessional Paper No. 6 of 1999 entitled
“Environment and Development.” The legislative process gave forth the Environment
Management and Coordination Act (EMCA) (Act No. 8 of 1999) as Kenya’s first framework
(EMCA, 1999 part II & 7). NEMA is charged with enforcing EMCA’s provisions as well as the
subsidiary legislation that has been passed over the last decade. The subsidiary legislation
includes water quality, waste management, controlled substances, biodiversity, wetland, river
and seashore, and environmental impact assessment (EIA) regulations. Most of the provisions
contained in EMCA, as well as the subsidiary legislation, are intended to provide regulations for
the usage and type of allowable activity in the different ecosystems and habitats of Kenya. Thus,
NEMA’s main task is to review and grant licenses to proponents that plan to change land-use.
40
Under EMCA, 1999 and the subsidiary 2003 regulations, NEMA is required to review
the EIA report and solicit comments from the relevant lead agencies and the public. Nonetheless,
NEMA’s review process faces many challenges that could allow proponents of ill-prepared
reports to get EIA licenses. Some of the quarry owners do have these licenses and they do not
have proper reports, while some do not even have these reports.
The Mining Act 1940 (chapter 306 of the Laws of Kenya) (the “Mining Act”) regulates
all mining activities in Kenya. The Commissioner of Mines and Geology (the “Commissioner”),
heads the Department of Mines and Geology and is responsible for overseeing mining research
The law does not include stone and rock. Consequently, artisanal stone quarrying has
operated outside this legislation with no governing body, no overall framework governing land
use planning, and no environmental control. The absolute bereft of quarrying control is
illustrated by the fact that stone quarrying can commence on private land without reference to
any authority. Such operations are unrecorded, unregulated and have no environmental
obligations. It should be noted however that quarries operating on government of Kenya forestry
land do require a license and are required to restore the land at closure.
41
5.2 The bio-physical and socio-economic effects of quarrying activities
The analysis was based on the responses of those people that lived within the quarry sites
as they were deemed to understand the surrounded environment better, therefore all the
responses are based on appendix 1. There was evidence of flooded pits near the quarry sites that
are found just opposite the Thika super highway, where water had filled the abandoned quarries
after the companies exploiting the stone resources had vacated as shown in plate 1-5.
People living around the quarry environment were asked whether the abandoned quarries
experienced pit flooding. 90% of the respondents said that the abandoned pits experienced
flooding after rains, and since the floor of the quarry is covered by stone, the water takes time
before it percolates, and that it takes a long time for the water to subside especially for the
42
abandoned quarries, and as a result pits flooded with water are seen even through the dry period.
10% of the respondents said that they had not seen the pits flooding because they had moved
recently in the vicinity and had not explored the area (figure 5-5).
The respondents living in the quarry environs were asked whether there was any property
that had been affected either by noise, dust or vibration and that had caused damage, and 86.7%
of the respondents reported that indeed some of their properties had been damaged, majorly by
the appearance of cracks on their houses as well as accumulation of dust inside their houses. The
respondents who responded in this manner had been living in the area for a significant number of
years, and were living in close proximity to the quarry sites, with those living within a 500m to
43
1km radius being the most affected. 10% of those questioned said that they had not seen any
damages on their property because they were not in close proximity to the quarries and most had
moved into the area less than a year ago. 3.33% of the respondents did not give any answer as
Many of the houses in the area had to be closed, that is the doors and windows, for the
better part of the day because dust was an issue as the roads are not made of tarmac and when
trucks ferrying the stones pass on these roads they leave huge clouds of dust and as the winds
blow they carry the dust in the houses, especially for those that are found in close proximity to
the road. Houses that had been in the area for a long time were being affected by the fact that
new quarries that were being developed near the residential, were producing a lot of vibrations
and cracks had started to develop on both the floors and walls of the houses (plate 2-5). Noise
44
from the heavy machinery was also a big nuisance for the residents living around the quarry
sites, especially those that were found in close proximity of within 500m to the quarries.
The respondents, that is people living around the quarry environs were asked about the
seriousness of dust as a cause of pollution around the environs as a result of the quarrying
activities and 63.33% of the respondents stated that the issue of dust was very serious, and was a
great source of air pollution in the area while 33.33% stated that it was a serious issue and 3.33%
gave no answer. The level of seriousness decreased based on the distance of the residents home
from the quarries, where those that were within a radius of 500m said the issue was very serious,
and those that were within a radius of 1km and 3km said that it was a serious issue (figure 7-5).
45
Figure 7-5: Seriousness of dust as a cause of pollution
The issues was aggravated because of the fact that the roads in the area were plain earth
and are very dusty and because of the constant passage of the heavy trucks, the earth becomes
loose and dust particles are always seen suspended in the air especially when there is a lot of
wind blowing. Quarry dust produced after cutting stones was also another serious cause of air
pollution in the area as a lot of dust is produced in the quarry process, and it is not moved where
it is just scattered on the quarry floors. When strong winds blow over the quarry sites, a lot of
dust is lifted in the air and it causes a lot of nuisance around the area (plate 3-5).
46
Plate 3-5: Dust lifted into air
Respondents who were the people living around the quarry environs were asked on the
seriousness of noise in their environment, and 23.33% stated that the issue of noise pollution was
very serious, while 50% of the respondents said that the issue was serious, whereas 23.33% said
it was slightly serious, and 3.33% said that it was not serious, as shown in figure 8-5. Those that
attested to the issue being very serious were those that were close to the quarry sites within a
radius of 500m, and as the distance increased the issue decreased in seriousness with those
residents living within a 1km radius not being subjected to much noise, which is a result of the
working of some heavy machinery and blasting of stone, with the later occurring rarely.
47
Figure 8-5: Seriousness of noise as a cause of pollution
These are the effects that are related to the functional society and their livelihoods, and
the information gathered was derived from the quarry workers, and therefore the responses are
48
5.2.2.1 Sex
Overall, 86.67% of the respondents were male, while 13.33% were female. Much of the
work in the quarry is physical, where digging of soil, loading of stones and blasting of rocks, are
the day to day activities, activities which are more preferable to men than women (figure 9-5).
49
5.2.2.2 Pit flooding versus drowning incidents
In order to understand the occurrence of drowning incidents based on the fact that there
was pit flooding that occurred in the quarry pits, a cross tabulation was derived indicating the
relationship between pit flooding and drowning incidents. From the tabulation, 83.3% of those
respondents that had agreed to pits flooding stated that that indeed there were drowning incidents
in the flooded pits, whereas 6.7% of the respondents said that they had not heard of any
drowning incidents. This was because some of the respondents had just moved into the area.
10% of the respondents said that they had not seen any flooded pits and thus had not heard of
any drowning incidents. This was majorly because those respondents had just moved into the
area and had not had a chance to explore their environs. Many of the respondents also revealed
that children were more prone to drowning because they are found playing near these abandoned
quarries, and the situation is aggravated further by the fact that most of these abandoned quarries
are not fenced and if they are it is done poorly, and as a result increases the risk not only for the
children but also the rest of the population especially at night when the ability to see clearly is
low.
In order to better understand whether the income earned by respondents, that is those who
were working in the quarries, was sufficient to support their livelihoods based on their marital
status, a cross tabulation between these variables was derived. The results showed that, 60% of
those workers that were single and earning an income between ksh.10,001 – ksh.20,000 said that
they had a sufficient income, while 40% in the same income range and assuming the same
marital status said that the income was not sufficient to cater for their needs. 60% of the
respondents was majorly comprised of those respondents that were below 25 years as they did
50
not have that much responsibility, while 40% were those respondents were those aged above 25
years as they had an increased pressure of being more responsible towards different areas of their
life such as owning some property and wanting to settle down into marriage life.
Results on workers that were married and were earning an income of between ksh.10,001
– ksh.20,000 indicated that 50% of the respondents said that they did not have sufficient income,
which was because of the increased responsibilities that they had as they were supporting their
families, where most of them were the sole bread winners. 14.3% of those workers that were
married and earning an income of more than ksh.20,000 stated that the income was sufficient,
whereas 28.6% of the same category of respondents stated that the income was insufficient,
whereas 7.1% gave no answer. This shows that many of the respondents do not have a sufficient
income to take care of their needs and the work they do is tedious and demands a lot from them.
One of the respondents was a widower and stated that the income earned was insufficient.
Information on whether the income earned was sufficient enough to support those
respondents that had dependants was sought, and the results indicated that out of those
respondents that said that the income earned was sufficient 30% had no dependants at all, while
3.3% had one dependant and the other 3.3% had three dependants. Of the respondents that said
that the income earned was not sufficient, 10% had no dependants, 16.7% had one dependant,
13.3% had two dependants, 20% had three dependants, and 3.3% had four dependants. This
shows that the more the number of dependants that the workers have, the more they feel that the
income they earn is not sufficient, which is because of the burden they have to bear in taking o
their dependants.
51
5.2.2.5 Education level
To understand the education level of those workers in the quarries, respondents were
asked what is the highest education level that they attained and 10% said they had reached
primary school level, 70% had completed secondary school, 16.67% had got to college or
university level, and 3.33% gave no answer to the question asked (figure 10-5). When asked why
most of them had only had a primary education and secondary education as the highest level of
education, they said that they did not have funds or their families could not facilitate a further
education for them, and as a result thy decided to go work at the quarries. This is because most to
the work that they were employed to do was informal and did not require specialized skills.
52
Figure 10-5: Total percentage of respondents' level of education
In order to understand the level of skills required to do the different kind of works in the
quarries because many of the workers had pointed out the fact that they had only attained a
secondary education and some of them a primary education as the highest level of education, the
respondents were asked how they learned of their job and the results showed that 76.67% of the
respondents, that is the quarry workers, had learned to do their job by watching others, or what is
known as apprenticeship or Jua Kali which is the informal sector, where it included stone
blasters, soil diggers, and stone cutters. 23.33% of the respondents went to school to learn
53
whatever they were doing and it included those in the administration of the quarries, machine
operators and quarry supervisors. Much of the work that is done in the quarries is largely
informal, and skilled labor is only required when operating the heavy machinery and general
According to the survey results, a comparison on the type of job the workers were
employed to do based on their level of education, revealed that 10% of the workers were
employed to carry out soil digging in the quarries, and they had only attained a primary school
education. Those that had attained a secondary school education were employed to do various
54
works such as blasting, stonecutting, soil digging and small administrative duties, and they
education were employed to do administrative jobs and office accounting, and they comprised of
16.7% of the respondents. 3.3% of the respondents gave no answer. Much of the work in the
quarries requires hard labor, and for the greater part it is unskilled labor which only requires
physical strength to carry out the jobs that mainly involve digging soil, loading trucks with stone,
and blasting the hard rock, and is a choice of many dropouts and those who do not have access to
In order to further understand whether the respondents had any other source of income to
support them, because of the fact that much of the work is on casual and informal basis and is
mostly unpredictable especially for those that are unskilled, it was important to gather the
information and the results showed that, 63.33% said no, while 36.67% said yes. Many of the
people working in the quarries are not married and do not have many dependents, as they are
people who have left school at primary level and secondary school level and are relatively young
(figure 12-5).
55
Figure 12-5: Percentage response on other sources of income
Respondents in the study were asked about health related issues and the major health
issues were coughs and colds, chest aches, throat infections, and stress. Each of the mentioned
56
5.2.2.6.1 Coughs and colds
According to the results, the highest percentage of the respondents declared the health
issue to be very serious and serious, which translated to 36.67% for the former and a similar
36.67% for the later (figure 13-5). The quarry is filled with dust which is left behind during the
quarrying process, and there is a lot of dust in the air within those quarries, which accelerates the
issue. The workers in the quarries are prone to inhaling the dust throughout the day as they work
because they do not have any protective equipment like dust masks to cover themselves as they
work. Those loading the stones to the Lorries are most affected as they have to follow the stone
cutter machine as it cuts the stones, and blows a lot of dust as it moves on the rails.
57
Figure 13-5: Seriousness of coughs and colds
Majority of the respondents having been asked on the issue concerning chest aches, the
highest percentage replied that the issue was serious, which was at 53.33% (figure 14-5). The
issue is accelerated with the presence of dust and the fact that most of the workers do tedious
58
Figure 14-5: Seriousness of chest aches
The highest percentage of the respondents that replied on the issue of throat infection
indicated that the issue was serious, which was at 46.67% (figure 15-5). Just like the other cases,
dust is the major cause of the problem, where during the whole process of quarrying a lot of dust
59
Figure 15-5: Seriousness of throat infections
5.2.2.6.4 Stress
The respondents having been asked on the issue of stress, the highest majority said that
the issue was serious, which translated to 40% of the total respondents (figure 16-5). Stress
related issues occurred due to the kind of tedious work that the workers are subjected to because
the amount they earn is dependent on the amount of work done. The levels of noise, vibrations,
60
Figure 16-5: Seriousness of stress related problems
According to the survey results, all the respondents asked about the issue of the state of
quarries after their lifecycle, said that the owners left them as open pits which translated to 100%
of all the respondents, as shown in figure 17-5. The owners leave the quarry pits open and most
of the abandoned ones have been filled with a very small layer of stone rubble and dust where no
further rehabilitation takes place, as shown in plate 4-5. The quarry owners said that filling up of
the quarries after use is an expensive exercise which would not translate to good profits, as the
61
depth of the quarries is large, where some quarries are more than 50m in depth and 100m wide.
Also the fact that the land is majorly leased to the quarry owners, and the lessors are after
gaining financially from the lease, they do not provide that the land be rehabilitated once the
Plate 4-5: Abandoned quarry pit with small layer of stone rubble
pollution, and it involves land preparation where the land is leveled using bulldozers, shovels and
tippers. After this is done, the stone cutting machine is guided through rails where actual stone
cutting starts. Noise and vibrations are produced throughout the process and the major product is
quarry dust, which is often left behind. This whole process is filled with a lot of negative
implications to the environment, as the land that is being turned into a quarry site does not blend
in with the rest of the environment because of the huge rubbles and quarry dust that is left
62
behind, often creating aesthetic intrusion around the areas where they exist. The noise, dust and
vibrations that are produced during the process, leave behind a huge trail of both environmental
pollution and socio effects in terms of diseases; such as air pollution caused by the heavy
presence of dust for the former and coughs and chest aches for the later. After the exploitation is
complete, the quarries are left open because as explained by one of the quarry owners, the filling
up of the pit is more expensive than the actual exploitation because there would be need of a lot
of metric tons of soil and gravel to fill it up. Because this does not make economic sense to the
owners, which if they did actually fill the pits up would mean more expenses that income, they
63
Figure 17-5: State of abandoned quarries
5.4 Mitigation measures for the management and control of quarrying activities
All of the quarry owners attested to having elaborate rehabilitation plans after they are
done exploiting the quarries, where they said that the quarries are to be filled with loam soils for
the purposes of farming but no quarry has done this. The quarries are partially filled with the
quarry dust and stone debris left behind after the quarrying process. The major hindrance to this
is the fact that the policies and legislations governing the sector have so many loop holes as
64
discussed and a large part of mitigation measures for the management and control of quarrying
This means that there is need for harmonization of sectoral policy instruments with
EMCA and the Constitution: There are several sectoral policies and laws relating to the
environment which are not harmonized with both the EMCA and the Constitution. These include
policies concerning agriculture, water, forests, trade and industry, which have significant
implications for the environment. It is imperative that policy instrument in these sectors are
harmonized with the EMCA and the Constitution and requirements made that they be subjected
Implementation of Land Policy: Striking the right balance between land tenure and
environmental imperatives is critical for sustainable development. The National Land Policy and
the Constitution provide a critical basis for addressing the long-standing tensions around land
tenure and use in Kenya. However, they need effective legislation to ensure implementation.
hardly reflected in pricing of marketed goods and services. Environmental and natural resources
are largely considered as public goods. This is symptomatic of market failure. Integrating
environmental considerations into the behavior of enterprises and consumers would reflect a
resources remains low among policy makers partly due to inadequate appreciation of the total
economic value of the sector. Thus there is less public investment in the sector. Rehabilitation
and restoration of environmentally degraded areas: There are several degraded areas in Kenya
which require rehabilitation and restoration. These include wetlands, riverbanks, deforested
65
areas, eroded shoreline, hilltops, and disused quarries and mines. An example is a case scenario
and the services they provide. The most important causes of loss of biodiversity include habitat
bio-piracy and introduction of invasive and alien species. Public participation, environmental
education and awareness: Broad public participation in decision making processes is one of the
fundamental preconditions for sustainable development. This presupposes access to timely and
66
CHAPTER SIX
From the information collected and analyzed, it is evident that the quarrying process in
the area causes both negative environmental and socio-economic effects, as a result of the
quarrying process which uses some heavy machinery and leaves behind a lot of debris and
quarry dust which an environmental nuisance. Issues to with open pit flooding, property damage,
air pollution and noise pollution are some of the bio-physical effects that are evident, and have
been a nuisance to the surrounding community. Socio-economic effects on issues to with the
quarry workers as discussed reveal that the workers are highly affected by the presence of dust as
many of them complain about various infections such as coughs and chest aches. Casual workers
in this sector are also not well compensated and many of them have only attained a secondary
school level education and learn the work through apprenticeship, showing that the sector is
highly informal, and a situation that makes it prone to exploitation by those controlling the
sector. Those that leave around the quarry are also directly affected by the negative effects
arising from quarrying, as they suffer directly the consequences of pollution and property
damage, because of the fact that the quarries are in close proximity with the residential areas,
The results from the discussions also show that the quarry owners are in total disregard of
the environment evidenced by the fact that the quarries are left as open pits without being
rehabilitated. The quarries are also in close proximity to the area residential areas and safety
issues are ignored by the owners, creating a huge risk to the community residents.
67
It is also evident that the quarrying sector is highly unregulated, where the county
council only collects levies from the trucks leaving the sites as they transport materials, and there
is also a lack of policies and legislations to govern the activity, as only mining regulations for
other minerals exist. Because of this, the quarry owners ignore the responsibility of
rehabilitating quarries after their use as well as disregard of safety measures and regulations for
the workers, and lack of the general respect of the environment as well the surrounding
community.
6.2 Conclusion
area, Kiambu county, it can be deduced that; in an effort by quarry owners who seek to exploit
minerals through quarrying activities, for the highly demanded stone commodity, there are
numerous abandoned quarries that have been put to no use. This is because there is a general
reluctance by the owners to restore or to rehabilitate the abandoned quarries. For the active
quarry sites, there are numerous negative environmental impacts both bio-physical and socio-
economic which affect both the people living in close proximity to the mining sites and the
workers who work in the sites. This has led to the development of many risks both health wise
and exposure to risky sites that leaves the community highly affected. However this is not only
limited to active sites but also abandoned quarries have hugely contributed to the degradation of
the environment as well as posing numerous risks associated with open pits.
Several mitigation measures have been laid out to mitigate mining activities at worldwide
level and also locally in the country with Agenda 21, The National Environmental Action Plan,
National Environmental Policy and also rehabilitation plans that have been successful, but the
issues to do with artisanal or small scale quarrying have not been properly addressed and the
68
policies and legislative frameworks go silent when it comes to issues of concern to quarrying.
This has resulted to a blatant disregard of the environment in a highly unregulated industry,
where those that assume the role of controlling the sector, who being the local authority have no
6.3 Recommendations
• The quarry owners should adopt methods that are less wasteful
• There should be use of technologies that are user and environmental friendly
• Adoption and emphasis of use of safety equipment to reduce accidents and health risks
value to how the locals respond to the quarrying process and negative environmental
impacts
• Quarrying activities should be under one government department under the newly
activities in the country are currently licensed by the local authority that do not have the
capacity to do so. They operate from revenue collection and land allocation only without
any regard of the actual activities carried out. They are unable to assess the quantity and
69
production capacity and hence duration of quarrying to go hand in hand with
development plans. They are unable to assess the environmental degradation and
• The government should re-establish mining cooperative societies for the small scale and
artisanal mining. This is because individuals may not be able to handle the environmental
• Policy and legislative framework gaps in the governing of quarrying in the country
70
REFERENCES
Agevi and Ogero B.B. (1990).Stone quarrying in Kenya: a socio-economic and institutional
Program.
Asher Shadmon, Sam G. (1999). Training and policy guidelines for artisanl quarrying.ITDG.
Ashurst, J. and Dimes, G. (1977).Stone in building: its use and potential today. London: The
Architectural Press.
CAHF. (2012). Housing Finance in Africa - a review of some of African’s housing finance
FAO.(1980). Natural resources and the human environment for food and agriculture.
(Text).htm.
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Government of Kenya.(2012).ACT NO. 8 of 1999 - Environmental Management and
Printers.
Hartmann, Howard L. (1992).SME Egineering Handbook, Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and
Exploration Inc.
Howard Bob and Cameron Ian.(n.d.). Dust Control: Best Practice Environmental Mnagement
in Mining.
ILO.(1999).Social and labour issues in small-scale mines. Report for discussion at the Tripartite
Meeting on Social and Labour Issues in Small-scale Mines Geneva. International Labour
Office.
Kertes N. (2007).U.S abandoned mine count still a mystery-General Accounting Office Report.
72
Ministry of Environment and Mineral Resources.(2012).National environment policy, 2012.
Mjaria J. (1997).The artisanal stone quarry workers in Nairobi region: Baseline survey report.
Noranha I. (1998).The smallscale Indian laterite stone quarry and working sector: A case study
Olofin, E.A.(1989).Human response to the natural environment in the kano region. Kano and
Saevery S.P.A. (1997).Training and policy guidelines for artisanal quarrying: Report on field
Bath/ODA.
report).ITDG/University of Bath/ODA.
73
UNESCO World Heritage Centre.(n.d.). Taj-Mahal - UNESCO World Heritage Centre.
74
APPENDICES
The questionnaire will be administered to people living within 3km diameter of the
sampled quarries
Respondent Name_______________________________________________________________
1. Age
2. Sex
1. Male 2.Female
75
PROBLEM SEVERITY
chest ache
backache
throat infections
breathing
problems
Stress
Malaria
Cholera
dysentery
Typhoid
Noise
dust
accidents
vibrations
other problems
76
8. Is there any property that is affected by noise or dust or vibration?
1 Yes 2 No
9. Do quarry pits in this location become flooded during the rains?
1 Yes 2 No
10. Any incidences of drowning in flooded quarry pits in this locality?
1 Yes 2 No
11. What benefits do you enjoy as a result of this activity in this area?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
12. What uses are abandoned quarries put to?
1 Derelict 2 rehabilitated
13. Are you aware of any policies or legal frameworks governing quarrying activities?
1 Yes 2 No
If yes, which ones ………………………………………………………………….
77
Appendix II: Quarry workers questionnaire
2 Female
1. Residence
2. Marital status
1 Blaster
2 Stonecutter
3 Soil digger
4 Assistant
5 Other (specify)
78
8. How much are you paid?
1 0 – 2000 2 2001 – 5000 3 5001 – 10000 4 10001 – 20000 5 20001 >
9. Is the amount of money you are paid sufficient to cater for your needs?
1Yes 2 No
10. Any other source of income for the family?
1 Yes 2 No
11. Is there any other job you would choose instead of quarrying?
1 Yes 2 No
12. To what degree do the following problems related to quarrying affect you
PROBLEM SEVERITY
Coughs and
colds
Chest ache
Backache
Throat infections
Breathing
problems
Stress
Malaria
Cholera
Dysentery
Typhoid
79
Noise
Dust
Accidents
Vibrations
Other problems
80
Appendix III: Quarry owners questionnaire
Name of quarry____________________________________________
Respondent Name___________________________________________________________
1. Age
2. Sex
1 Male 2 Female
3. Residence
4. Marital status
1 It is part of my land
81
2 I have rented it form a private landowner
4 Other (specify)
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
82
18. Where do the buyers come from?
________________________________________________________________________
19. How do you attract buyers to your quarry since there are many quarries?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
20. Where do you operate from?
________________________________________________________________________
21. Does the noise and dust disturb you? 1 Yes 2 No
22. Do you experience any health problems which you think are connected to quarrying?
1 Yes 2 No
________________________________________________________________________
25. Are there any rehabilitation plans put in place once the quarry productive life is over?
1 Yes 2 No
If yes, which are they?
________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
26. Are you aware of any policies or legal frameworks governing quarrying activities?
1 Yes 2 No
If yes, which ones ………………………………………………………………….
83
Appendix IV: List of tables for data analysis and discussion
Valid Cumulative
Frequency Percent Percent Percent
84
Table 3-5: Noise
Drowning Incidents
Yes No Total
85
No Count 0 3 3
Total Count 25 5 30
Sufficiency Of
Income
Total Count 9 6 15
86
% of Total .0% 50.0% 50.0%
No answer Count 0 1 1
Total Count 2 12 14
Total Count 1 1
87
Number Of Dependants
0 1 2 3 4 Total
No Count 3 5 4 6 1 19
Total Count 12 6 4 7 1 30
Valid Cumulative
Frequency Percent Percent Percent
88
College/Universit
5 16.7 16.7 96.7
y
Job Type
Count 0 0 3 0 0 3
Primary
% of
.0% .0% 10.0% .0% .0% 10.0%
Total
Educatio
Count 5 7 7 0 2 21
n Level
Secondary
% of
16.7% 23.3% 23.3% .0% 6.7% 70.0%
Total
College/ Count 0 0 0 1 4 5
89
University
% of
.0% .0% .0% 3.3% 13.3% 16.7%
Total
Count 0 0 1 0 0 1
No
answer
% of
.0% .0% 3.3% .0% .0% 3.3%
Total
Count 5 7 11 1 6 30
Total
% of
16.7% 23.3% 36.7% 3.3% 20.0% 100.0%
Total
90