Role of Crystallographic Orientation Perlitic Steel PDF
Role of Crystallographic Orientation Perlitic Steel PDF
A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T
Keywords: The possible effects of crystallographic orientation and grain boundary distributions on fatigue crack initiation
Crystallographic orientation and propagation were studied in used pearlitic rail steels. Microstructure and hardness variation along the depth
Taylor factor distance showed the effect of strain accumulation on microstructure modification. Although no evidence was
Kernel average misorientation shown of a correlation of inclusions and oxides with crack initiation, a high-pressure water environment entering
into a crack can accelerate its propagation. Local crystallographic orientations analyzed closed to the crack path
revealed that {110} grains oriented along the train passage plane, with a high Taylor factor and kernel average
misorientation, are highly prone to crack propagation. This could be explained by the effect of local stress
concentrations due to persistent slip bands.
1. Introduction the high thermal conductivity of the rail, martensite forms by rapid
cooling. Recently, researchers reported that the cementite dissolution of
Pearlitic steels are representative of the strongest steels, and have pearlite by severe deformation and carbon decoration at ferrite grain
been widely used in railroad rails and engineering springs because of boundaries is responsible for WEL formation as a similar mechanism to
their high wear resistance and strength [1,2]. It is well known that the that responsible for cementite dissolution of cold-drawn pearlitic steel
strength of pearlitic steels is associated with a Hall–Petch type re- wires [11–14]. The hard, brittle, and featureless WEL structure formed
lationship with respect to the interlamellar spacing [3,4]. This is ex- at regions close to the running contact surface can increase the wear
plained by a dislocation pile-up model to restrict the dislocation mo- rate. A large amount of surface shear deformation due to the finite
bility. On the other hand, the residual stress, generated from the misfit contact patch size, together with high levels of stress and friction lead to
plastic strain between cementite and ferrite, increased with the lamellar the formation of microcracks, significantly increasing the wear and
spacing, can reduce the toughness. In a heavy-haul railway, the rail and RCF, which may cause early fracture. The development of heavy-haul
wheels are subjected to intense plastic deformation from vertical, tan- railways imposes a considerable materials challenge in terms of the
gential, and longitudinal loads [5,6]. Under conditions where high microstructural stability and wear resistance of the surfaces of rails
contact loads are in action, elastic shakedown is reached, giving ben- [5,15,16]. The aim of this work was to explore the potential effects of
eficial work hardening and compressive stresses, and enhancing the the crystallographic orientation and grain boundary distributions on
monotonic and cyclic performance in the material. An excess of surface the initiation and propagation of fatigue cracks. Initially, micro-
shear stresses may cause rolling contact fatigue (RCF) damage from the structural changes along the depth distance from the surface were
accumulation of plastic strains [6–8], which results in the formation of studied. Then, detailed studies using the electron backscattered dif-
a modified surface structure called a white etching layer (WEL). It has fraction technique (EBSD) were performed to analyze the relation be-
been assumed that heat is generated at the contact zone due to friction tween the crystallographic orientation and prevention or enhancement
during wheel–rail rolling/sliding contact. It is reported that the tem- of crack propagation.
perature at the contact region can reach 700 °C above the eutectic point
due to the energy dissipated in the contact patch associated with lo-
calization of adiabatic shear deformation [9,10]. Consequently, due to
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Masoumi).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2018.03.028
Received 15 January 2018; Received in revised form 5 March 2018; Accepted 6 March 2018
Available online 07 March 2018
0921-5093/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
M. Masoumi et al. Materials Science & Engineering A 722 (2018) 147–155
Fig. 1. (a) Photograph of railway rail showing the head check defects concentrated at gauge corner of the head crown, (b) SEM micrographs indicating the crack fatigue path across cross-
section of the railhead.
2. Material and experimental procedures distance from the running surface. Three categories of pearlite
morphologies, namely featureless, deformed (i.e., fibrous and curly
A used pearlitic rail of near-eutectoid steel with head check defects lamellar), and non-deformed pearlite structure, were characterized as a
(Fig. 1) was removed from a 344 m radius curve after approximately 30 function of depth distance from the railhead surface. Fig. 2b shows the
MTB freight had passed over it. The analyzed chemical composition of heavily deformed superficial featureless WEL at about 30 µm depth
the rail is listed in Table 1. from the surface. Fig. 3 also shows the presence of a WEL region close to
The microstructure of the used rail sample was investigated using a the rail surface, associated with a high etching resistance to the Nital
scanning electron microscope (SEM, FEI-Inspect F50) operating at etchant. The non-uniform carbon content in the solute solution and/or
20 kV. Before the investigations a sample was cut off from the cross- differences in the content and size of the carbide particles can cause the
section of the crown head. The sample surface was ground with SiC formation of non-conventional supersaturated ferrite (WEL structure).
paper from 100 to 2500 grit, followed by polishing using 6, 3, and 1 µm A combination of the normal load (weight) and tractions stresses gen-
diamond suspensions. Finally, the sample was etched with a 2% solu- erated by the vehicle steering forces in the contact surface gives rise to
tion of nitric acid in ethanol (Nital) for 20 s. Electron backscattered shear stresses in the rails [18]. The intense shear and the compressive
diffraction (EBSD) analysis was performed to investigate the local stresses introduced by train passage reduce the interlamellar spacing
crystal orientation and boundary distributions. Before the EBSD test, (i.e. ferrite – cementite) and reorients the pearlite morphology parallel
the samples were prepared according to the standard preparation and to the axis of train passage. The extremely high dislocation densities at
polished with 50 nm colloidal silica slurry for 3 h. Kikuchi patterns were the WEL generated in the contact rail surface provoke cementite dis-
acquired by using a TSL EDAX system installed on a FEI-SEM with solution, leading to a featureless structure. The required energy for
20 kV, a working distance of about 12 mm and 50 nm step size. Then, cementite dissolution is provided by two possible sources: i) the for-
the data was processed and displayed using TSL OIM analysis 7. It is mation of an additional area of cementite/ferrite boundaries as a result
notable that EBSD was not able to detect very fine cementite particles of shear deformation [19,20] and ii) trapping of the carbon atoms by
within the pearlitic lamellae [17]. In addition, the variations in hard- dislocations that pile up at the ferrite/cementite phase boundaries
ness through the depth of the rail were measured by a Shimadzu (HMV- [21,22]. In other words, the intense plastic deformation at the rail
2TADW) microhardness tester with a load of 2.97 N (300 g) for 15 s surface introduces a large number of dislocations so that the carbon
(HV0.3). atoms dissolve from the cementite and then preferentially sit at the
dislocation walls in the ferrite structure, relieving the strain on the
lattice. Fig. 2c shows the distorted pearlite structure with a fibrous la-
3. Results and discussion
mellar area below the superficial WEL about 50 µm below the railhead
surface. It was shown that the pearlite lamellae became thinner and
Fig. 2 shows the changes of pearlite morphology as a function of
aligned along the train passage direction by increasing the loading load
and service time. Embury and Fisher [23] reported that the fibre
Table 1
Chemical composition obtained by emission spectrometry technique of the tested rail
structure acts as a strong barrier to dislocation motion, leading to sig-
steel (in wt%). nificant increases in strengthening. The non-deformed, as-hot rolled
pearlite morphology located 1 cm below the contact surface is pre-
C Si Mn P S Al Cr Ni sented in Fig. 2d. Fine pearlite with no preferred colonies orientation
0.75 0.22 1.03 0.019 0.005 0.002 0.21 0.05
was observed in this region, which is attributed to the fabrication and
heat treatment processes.
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Fig. 2. (a) Photograph of railway rail sample, (b) superficial WEL, (c) distorted and realigned pearlite morphology at ≈ 50 µm from the surface, and (d) non-deformed pearlite
morphology located at 1 cm below the contact surface.
Fig. 3. Microstructural features visible using optical microscopy, etched by 2% nital so-
lution.
Fig. 4 shows the variation of Vickers microhardness along the depth Fig. 4. Variation of Vickers microhardness as a function of distance from the contact
distance. The results showed that the hardness decreased with in- surface.
creasing depth distance. The superficial WEL subjected to intense
plastic deformation had the highest hardness value (approximately HV0.3. This was attributed to the maximum shear and compression
574 ± 25 HV0.3). Then, a continuous reduction of hardness was ob- stresses concentrated on the surface, precipitation hardening from
served at ≈ 6 mm from the surface, reaching the value of 375 ± 5 broken cementite particles, and work hardening at the rail surface.
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Fig. 7. OIM maps for different regions at the same distance from the surface: (a, b) non-cracked and (c, d) closed to the cracked regions.
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Fig. 10. (a-d) Taylor factor maps, and (e) distribution of Taylor factor in different regions. The “a” to “d” identification is related to Fig. 7.
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Fig. 11. Distribution of: (a) boundary types and (b) KAM values in three different regions: non-deformed, and closed the contact surface including non-cracked, and cracked regions.
Fig. 12. Schematic illustration of mutual interaction between intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms of crack-tip, measured EBSD regarding each region, and variation of misorientation angle
at perpendicular direction of crack propagation.
the crack by cleavage, intergranular cracking, and microvoid coales- affected plastic zone. As a summary, the strain energy induced by dy-
cence mechanisms. The effects of lattice distortion due to residual namic rotation recrystallization generates a new set of ultrafine grains
plastic deformation on the variation of dislocation densities and lattice in the vicinity of the crack path. In addition, the crystallographic or-
distortion in the perpendicular direction of crack propagation are re- ientations can promote the generation of dislocations, providing ade-
presented in Fig. 12. The local stress concentration around the crack quate slip systems and dislocation multiplications. The effect of local
and crystal defects promote the formation of an asymmetric lattice stress concentrations by persistent slip bands accelerates the rate of
disclination and enhance lattice distortion. Consequently, the formation crack growth, as reported by Brown [40], which is in agreement with
of ultra-fine grains with a higher number of HABs leads to the increase the results presented here, where the main slip {110} systems were
of the average misorientation to about 55° in this zone. Misorientation predominant around the cracked regions.
between neighbouring points indicates the mismatch and lattice dis- Under cyclic deformation due to train passage, lattice mismatches in
tortion, made up of arrays of dislocations due to lattice rotation during the different crystalline structure from one grain to another hinder the
the cyclic or tensile deformation. This is because the misorientation dislocation movements; hence, the dislocation pile-ups are created at
angles, increased by dislocation pile-up to higher than 15°, result in the random high grain boundaries. The mentioned phenomena, besides the
formation of ultrafine grains. In general, the grain boundary energy and dislocation multiplication and dislocation–dislocation interactions on
dislocation densities increased around the crack path due to the the slip bands, enhanced intergranular crack propagation in the
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