The Use of Qualitative Content Analysis in Case Study Research

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The Use of Qualitative Content Analysis in Case Study Research
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Volume 7, No. 1, Art. 21 – January 2006
The Use of Qualitative Content Analysis in Case Study Research
Florian Kohlbacher
Abstract: This paper aims at exploring and discus 3.3.1 Collecting evidence
sing the possibilities of applying qualitative content 3.3.2 Analyzing case study evidence
analysis as a (text) interpretation method in case
3.3.3 Reporting case studies
study research. First, case study research as a
research strategy within qualitative social research 4. Content Analysis
is briefly presented. Then, a basic introduction to 4.1 Classical content analysis
(qualitative) content analysis as an interpretation 4.2 Qualitative content analysis
method for qualitative interviews and other data
material is given. Finally the use of qualitative con 4.2.1 Excursus: qualitative research
tent analysis for developing case studies is exam 4.2.2 Philipp MAYRING's approach
ined and evaluated. The author argues in favor of 4.2.3 Quality criteria and validation
both case study research as a research strategy issues
and qualitative content analysis as a method of
5. The Use of Qualitative Content Analysis in
examination of data material and seeks to encour
Case Study Research
age the integration of qualitative content analysis
into the data analysis in case study research. 5.1 Mixed methods and triangulation
5.2 Case study research and qualitative
Key words: case study research, content analy
content analysis
sis, qualitative content analysis, qualitative research
5.2.1 Openness and ability to deal with
1. Introduction: Qualitative vs. Quantitative complexity
Research? 5.2.2 Theory-guided analysis
2. Research Question, Aim and Structure of 5.2.3 Integration of context
the Paper 5.2.4 Integration of different
2.1 Cognitive interest and research material/evidence
question 5.2.5 Integration of quantitative steps of
2.2 Aim, structure and scope of the paper analysis
3. Case Study Research 5.3 Limitations of qualitative content
3.1 The case study as a research strategy analysis
3.2 Designing case studies 6. Outlook
3.3 Conducting case studies Acknowledgments
References
Author
Citation
1. Introduction: Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research?
There has been an ongoing debate on the appropriateness of different approaches and
methods in social research. As a matter of fact, many authors point to the heated discussions,
sometimes even "wars" (the so-called "paradigm war"), between the adherents of quantitative
(so-called "QUANs") and qualitative research (so-called "QUALs") designs (e.g. BRANNEN,
1992, pp.3-5; BRYMAN, 2004, pp.452-454; HAMMERSLEY, 1992, pp.39-41; KELLE, 2001,
[1]-[5]; TASHAKKORI & TEDDLIE, 1998, pp.3-13). One main characteristic of this dispute
seems to be the dichotomous way in which qualitative and quantitative research (methods)
© 2005 FQS http://www.qualitative-research.net/fqs/

Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative Social Research (ISSN 1438-5627)
FQS 7(1), Art. 21, Florian Kohlbacher: The Use of Qualitative Content Analysis in Case Study Research
were presented as well as the resulting strict contraposition of the two (cf. also BRYMAN,
1992, pp.57-59)1. CASSELL and SYMON (1994) for instance give the following list of defining
characteristics for qualitative research:
"a focus on interpretation rather than quantification; an emphasis on subjectivity rather than
objectivity; flexibility in the process of conducting research; an orientation towards process
rather than outcome; a concern with context—regarding behaviour and situation as
inextricably linked in forming experience; and finally, an explicit recognition of the impact of
the research process on the research situation" (p.7). [1]
On the one hand, this definition puts forth the main points of what qualitative research is about,
but it also demonstrates how it is positioned or tries to position itself in contrast to quantitative
research. NEUMAN (1997) goes even further by stating that there are basically two categories
of data collection techniques: quantitative and qualitative (p.30). While the first means col
lecting data in the form of numbers the second means collecting data in the form of words or
pictures (ibid.). This is of course only a very superficial and over-simplified assumption of the
distinction between quantitative and qualitative research methods. [2]
Moreover, qualitative research methods have often faced acceptance problems and academic
and disciplinary resistances, which are partly due to the politics embedded in this field of dis
course (cf. e.g. DENZIN & LINCOLN, 2000, p.7): qualitative researchers are called journalists,
or soft scientists, and their work is termed unscientific, or only exploratory, or subjective. How
ever, great efforts have also been made to reconcile both sides (or, where not possible, at
least to soothe the dispute), thus providing the opportunity to exploit the advantages of both
approaches and opening the way for synergy effects (e.g. MAYRING, 2001, [3]-[9];
TASHAKKORI & TEDDLIE, 1998, pp.16ff). These attempts share the conception that qualit
ative and quantitative methods should be viewed as complementary rather than as rival camps
(JICK, 1979, p.602). This has led to the appearance of mixed method approaches and the use
of triangulation (e.g. BRYMAN, 2004, pp.454ff.; CRESWELL, 2003, pp.208ff.; JICK, 1979,
p.602; cf. also Section 5.1). Besides, in the course of the last century (especially the second
half of it), the development of qualitative methods showed impressive advances and results,
thus helping to gain more acceptance not only in the field of social research (cf. e.g.
MAYRING, 2002, pp.9-18). [3]
This paper also aims at helping to overcome the strict contraposition of qualitative and
quantitative research. As the following sections will show, the combination and mixing of
different research methods bears an enormous potential for the advancement of social
research. [4]
2. Research Question, Aim and Structure of the Paper
This section presents the research question underlying the analysis and discussion in the
following sections and gives a short outline of the paper, explaining its aim, structure and
scope. [5]
2.1 Cognitive interest and research question
Since its development in the beginning of the 1980s, MAYRING's qualitative content analysis
has achieved popularity (TITSCHER, MEYER, WODAK & VETTER, 2000, p.62). However,
this qualitatively oriented approach to content analysis—a discipline traditionally dominated by
quantitative methods—has mainly been discussed and used within the German-speaking
scientific community and does not seem to have attracted as much attention internationally as
it actually deserves2. In fact, GLÄSER and LAUDEL (2004) contend that qualitative content
analysis is hardly used (p.44) and TITSCHER et al. (2000) in their bibliometric survey of the
1 I am indebted to an anonymous reviewer for pointing this fact out to me.
2 In their recent work on expert interviews and qualitative content analysis, GLÄSER and LAUDEL (2004) state that
they (still) do not know of any international proposals for qualitative content analysis (p.192) having stated that
MAYRING's approach is "the only one so far" in 1999 (GLÄSER & LAUDEL, 1999, Abstract). In their bibliometric
survey on the prominence of methods of text analysis, TITSCHER et al. (2000) affirm that the explicit sources for
qualitative content analysis are from German-speaking countries only (p.217).

prominence of methods text analysis come to a similar conclusion as far as method literature
citations are concerned (pp.217-218). However, when analyzing the frequency of keywords
considerable deviations from the citation analysis turned up: a marked dominance of
qualitative (and also quantitative) content analysis (TITSCHER et al., 2000, pp.219-221). [6]
Case studies are widely used in organizational studies and across the social sciences, and
there is some suggestion that the case study method is increasingly being used and with a
growing confidence in the case study as a rigorous research strategy in its own right (cf. e.g.
HARTLEY, 1994, p.208; HARTLEY, 2004, p.323). STAKE (2000) concurs, suggesting that
case studies have become "one of the most common ways to do qualitative inquiry" (p.435).
However, there have also been traditional prejudices against case study strategy in such a
way that case studies have been viewed as a less desirable form of inquiry for instance (cf.
e.g. YIN, 2003a, pp.10-11). Besides, it was claimed that case studies lack in rigor and
reliability and that they do not address the issue of generalizability in contrast to quantitative
methods (HARTLEY, 1994, p.208). [7]
The author argues in favor of both case study research as a research strategy—trying to
disprove the critiques just mentioned—and qualitative content analysis as a method of
examination of data material. At the same time he seeks to encourage the integration of
qualitative content analysis into the important step of data analysis in case study research. [8]
Therefore, the research question which is to be answered in the course of this paper is the
following: What is the contribution qualitative content analysis can make as a method of text
analysis (for interpreting interview transcripts and other documents) in case study research?
Or, put more generally: What is the contribution of using qualitative content analysis as an
interpretation and analysis method for developing case studies? [9]
2.2 Aim, structure and scope of the paper
This paper aims at exploring and discussing the possibilities of applying qualitative content
analysis as a (text) interpretation method in case study research3. First, case study research
as a research strategy within qualitative social research is briefly presented. Then, a basic
introduction to (qualitative) content analysis as an interpretation and analysis method for text
documents—especially the transcripts of qualitative interviews—and other data material is
given, with the focus on Philipp MAYRING's approach to qualitative content analysis. Finally,
the use of qualitative content analysis for conducting case study research is examined and
evaluated. [10]
Since this paper only aims to serve as the starting point for a more thorough discussion of the
application of qualitative content analysis for case study research, the scope is rather narrow.
Providing only an introduction to the theoretical argument, the need for further theoretical
discussion as well as the empirical testing of the argument is obvious. Besides, due to the
limited scope of this paper and my own research interests, the focus will mainly be on
organizational and managerial research, even though both qualitative content analysis as well
as case study research can be used in a much wider range of research fields (see also
Sections 3. and 4.2). [11]
3. Case Study Research
Case studies are widely used in organizational studies and across the social sciences, and
there is some suggestion that the case study method is increasingly being used and with a
growing confidence in the case study as a rigorous research strategy in its own right (cf. e.g.
HARTLEY, 1994, p.208; HARTLEY, 2004, p.323). STAKE (2000) concurs, suggesting that
case studies have become "one of the most common ways to do qualitative inquiry," but at the
same time concedes that "they are neither new nor essentially qualitative" (p.435). In any
case, quoting one of the most prominent experts in case study research, Robert K. YIN, we
3 I am indebted to an anonymous reviewer for pointing out the question whether the basic methodological assump
tions of the two approaches (qualitative content analysis and case study research) fit together. I indirectly argue in
Section 5.2 (especially the initial part as well Sections 5.2.1 and 5.2.2) that they do.

can say that "[u]sing case studies for research purposes remains one of the most challenging
of all social science endeavors" (YIN, 2003a, p.1, original emphasis). [12]
This section gives a brief overview of case study research. As the word research implies, the
subject of interest here are research case studies. These must be distinguished from teaching
case studies—i.e. case studies as a pedagogical device—which are widely used particularly in
business and law schools (cf. e.g. HARTLEY, 2004, p.324; REMENYI, MONEY, PRICE and
BANNISTER, 2002, pp.2-4; YIN, 2003a, p.2). The main points of case study research are
presented only as far as they seem to be relevant for the analysis of the research question
(see 2.1). Given this purpose and the scope of the paper, this brief description can by no
means serve as an introduction to case study research. For an extensive review and analysis
of case study research reference should be made to the state-of-the-art literature (e.g.
GILLHAM, 2000; GOMM, HAMMERSLEY & FOSTER, 2000; HAMEL, 1993; STAKE, 1995;
YIN, 2003a). [13]
3.1 The case study as a research strategy
According to YIN (2003a, p.2) "the distinctive need for case studies arises out of the desire to
understand complex social phenomena" because "the case study method allows investigators
to retain the holistic and meaningful characteristics of real-life events," such as organizational
and managerial processes, for example. In fact, case studies seem to be the preferred
strategy when "how or "why" questions are being posed, when the investigator has little control
over events, and when the focus is on a contemporary phenomenon within some real-life
context (YIN, 1981, p.59, 2003a, pp.2, 5-10). In such a setting, a case study would be an
explanatory one (ibid.). Depending on the type of research question posed, the extent of
control an investigator has over actual behavioral events, and the degree of focus on
contemporary as opposed to historical events, there are also exploratory and descriptive case
studies (YIN, 2003a, pp.1, 3-10)4. In contrast to this, STAKE (2000) identifies three types of
case studies—intrinsic, instrumental, and collective—with the distinction between intrinsic and
instrumental (a collective case study is instrumental study extended to several cases)
addressing the degree to which the focus is on the unique or the generalizable features of the
case research (pp.437-438, cf. also HARTLEY, 2004, p.326). As a matter of interest, a
common concern about case studies put forward by their critics is that they provide little basis
for scientific generalization (YIN, 2003a, p.10). YIN's (2003a) answer to this:
"case studies […] are generalizable to theoretical propositions and not to populations or
universes. In this sense, the case study […] does not represent a 'sample', and in doing a
case study, your goal will be to generalize theories (analytical generalization) and not to
enumerate frequencies (statistical generalization)" (p.10). [14]
Before we take a look at the individual steps in the process of conducting case study research,
it is now time to deliver a definition of what case study research actually is. HARTLEY (2004),
for instance, states that case study research "consists of a detailed investigation, often with
data collected over a period of time, of phenomena, within their context," with the aim being "to
provide an analysis of the context and processes which illuminate the theoretical issues being
studied" (p.323). In this respect, it is important to note that case studies have an important
function in generating hypotheses and building theory (cf. e.g. EISENHARDT, 1989;
HARTLEY, 1994, p.211; HARTLEY, 2004, p.325). Finally, YIN (2003a, pp.13-14) offers a
more detailed and technical definition of case studies:
1. "A case study is an empirical inquiry that
• investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when
• the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident
2. The case study inquiry
• copes with the technically distinctive situation in which there will be many more
variables of interest than data points, and as one result
4 The issue of single- and multiple-case studies will not be discussed in this paper.

• relies on multiple sources of evidence, with data needing to converge in a triangul

ating fashion, and as another result
• benefits from the prior development of theoretical propositions to guide data col
lection and analysis". [15]
Given this definition it might be important to note that a case study is not a method but a
research strategy (cf. e.g. HARTLEY, 2004, p.323; TITSCHER et al., 2000, p.43) 5. Or, put
differently: "[c]ase study is not a methodological choice but a choice of what is to be studied.
By whatever methods, we choose to study the case" (STAKE, 2000, p.435). As matter of fact,
case study as a research strategy comprises an all-encompassing method, which means that
a number of methods may be used—either qualitative, quantitative or both (cf. e.g. HARTLEY,
2004, p.324; YIN, 2003a, pp.14-15). Therefore, a case study cannot be defined through its
research methods, but rather in terms of its theoretical orientation and interest in individual
cases (HARTLEY, 2004, p.324; STAKE, 2000, p.435). Besides, case study research design
can be used with other research strategies to address related research questions in different
phases of a research project, and yet a further strategy would be to start with exploratory case
study research and then to test the emerging findings in wider survey-based research
(HARTLEY, 1994, p.215, 2004, pp.326-327). [16]
To sum up, let us once again cite HARTLEY (2004):
"Case study research is a heterogeneous activity covering a range of research methods and
techniques, a range of coverage (from single case study through carefully matched pairs up
to multiple cases), varied levels of analysis (individuals, groups, organizations, organ
izational fields or social policies), and differing lengths and levels of involvement in organ
izational functioning" (p.332). [17]
3.2 Designing case studies
According to HARTLEY (2004) research design is "the argument for the logical steps which
will be taken to link the research question(s) and issues to data collection, analysis and inter
pretation in a coherent way" (p.326, cf. also YIN, 2003a, pp.19-21). YIN (2003a, p.21-28)
identifies the following five components of research design as especially important for case
studies:
• A study's questions;
• its propositions, if any;
• its unit(s) of analysis;
• the logic linking of the data to the propositions;
• the criteria for interpreting the findings. [18]
Subsequently, it will be helpful to consider whether the case study will be exploratory,
descriptive or explanatory and a key decision to be made is whether the research will be
based on a single case study or on multiple cases (HARTLEY, 2004, p.326). However, going
into greater detail concerning these issues would be beyond the scope of this paper. [19]
Furthermore, for case studies, theory development as part of the design phase is essential,
whether the ensuing case study's purpose is to develop or test theory, with theory develop
ment taking place prior to the collection of any case study data being an essential step in
doing case studies (YIN, 2003a, pp.28-29). However, depending on the depth and range of
the extant literature, the initial focus of the case study may be quite focused or broad and
open-ended. Therefore and because the case study strategy is ideally suited to exploration of
issues in depth and following leads into new areas of new constructions of theory, the
theoretical framework at the beginning may not be the same one that survives to the end
(HARTLEY, 2004, p.328). Besides, theory development does not only facilitate the data
collection phase of the ensuing case study, the appropriately developed theory also is the level
5 In contrast to GILLHAM (2000) who sees case study as "a main method" (p.13, original emphasis, cf. also Section
5.1). Interestingly, YIN (2003b) in his companion book to his case study textbook (YIN, 2003a) speaks of the
"case study method" (pp.4ff) in contrast to his usual reference to case studies as a research strategy (cf. also
Section 3.1).

at which the generalization of the case study results will occur. This role of theory has been
characterized by YIN (2003a) as "analytic generalization" and has been contrasted with a
different way of generalizing results, known as "statistical generalization" (pp.31-32, cf. also
above, Section 3.1, and also HARTLEY, 2004, p.331). [20]
Last but not least, a major issue in designing case study research is the maximization of
conditions related to design quality, i.e. the criteria for judging the quality of research designs.
The four conditions or tests are (cf. e.g. YIN, 2003a, pp.19, 33-39):
• Construct validity;
• internal validity;
• external validity;
• reliability. [21]
A detailed explanation of these concepts can be found in numerous textbooks on social
science methods (e.g. ATTESLANDER, 2003; BRYMAN, 2004; CRESWELL, 2003; DIEK
MANN, 2003) and would go beyond the scope of this paper. However, these issues will be
addressed again in Section 4.2.3 in relation to quality criteria for qualitative content analysis. [22]
3.3 Conducting case studies
This section will give a short overview of the main steps in undertaking case studies, drawing
mainly from YIN (2003a)'s seminal work on case study research. [23]
3.3.1 Collecting evidence

According to YIN (2003a) there are six possible sources of evidence for case studies:
documents, archival records, interviews, direct observation, participant-observation, and physi
cal artifacts (pp.83, 85-96). Indeed, the case study's unique strength is "its ability to deal with a
full variety of evidence—documents, artifacts, interviews, and observations" (YIN, 2003a, p.8).
Case studies do not imply the use of a particular type of evidence and they can be done using
either qualitative or quantitative evidence (or both) (EISENHARDT, 1989, pp.534-535; YIN,
1981, p.58; see also above, Section 3.1). Nevertheless, while quantitative data often appears in
case studies, qualitative data usually predominates (PATTON & APPELBAUM, 2003, p.60). [24]
YIN (2003a, pp.83, 97-105) contends that the benefits from these six sources can be
maximized if three principles are followed:
• Use of multiple sources of evidence;
• creation of a case study database;
• maintaining a chain of evidence. [25]
Finally, YIN (2003a, pp.78-80) recommends conducting a pilot case study as a final
preparation for data collection. This will help to refine the data collection plans with respect to
both the content of the data and the procedures to be followed. [26]
GILLHAM (2000) also sees the use of multiple sources of evidence as a "key characteristics of
case study research" (p.2) because "[a]ll evidence is of some use to the case study
researcher: nothing is turned away" (p.20). As another fundamental characteristics he puts
forth that "you do not start out with a priori theoretical notions" (ibid., original emphasis). [27]
3.3.2 Analyzing case study evidence

According to HARTLEY (1994, 2004) data collection and analysis are "developed together in
an iterative process," which can be a strength as it allows for theory development which is
grounded in empirical evidence (p.220; p.329). Besides, a careful description of the data and
the development of categories in which to place behaviors or process have proven to be
important steps in the process of analyzing the data. The data may then be organized around
certain topics, key themes or central questions, and finally the data need to be examined to
see how far they fit or fail to fit the expected categories (ibid.). [28]

YIN (2003a) maintains that data analysis consists of "examining, categorizing, tabulating,
testing, or otherwise recombining both quantitative and qualitative evidence to address the
initial propositions of a study" (p.109). In general, "data analysis means a search for patterns
in data" (NEUMAN, 1997, p.426). NEUMAN (1997, pp.426ff) states that once a pattern is
identified, it is interpreted in terms of a social theory or the setting in which it occurred and that
the qualitative researcher moves from the description of a historical event or social setting to a
more general interpretation of its meaning. In fact, "the ultimate goal of the case study is to
uncover patterns, determine meanings, construct conclusions and build theory" (PATTON &
APPELBAUM, 2003, p.67). According to YIN (2003a, pp.111-115) there are three general
analytic strategies for analyzing case study evidence:
• Relying on theoretical propositions;
• thinking about rival explanations;
• developing a case description. [29]
He contends that any of these strategies can be used in practicing five specific techniques for
analyzing case studies: pattern matching, explanation building, time-series analysis, logic
models, and cross-case synthesis (YIN, 2003a, pp.109, 116-137). [30]
Finally, checking the findings with the case study participants can be a valuable part of the
analysis and can enhance validity (HARTLEY, 2004, p.330). Besides, the analyzing of data is
enhanced by reference to the existing literature and using this to raise questions about
whether the researcher's findings are consistent with or different from extant research (ibid.).
[31]
3.3.3 Reporting case studies

In a final step—or a final series of steps—the results and findings of a case study need to be
brought to closure. This step is called reporting, with numerous forms of reports being avail
able, and the typical case study report being a lengthy narrative (YIN, 1981, p.64, 2003a,
p.141). STAKE (2000, p.436) notes that a "case study is both a process of inquiry about the
case and the product of that inquiry," namely the report. [32]
4. Content Analysis
This section provides a brief introduction to qualitative content analysis as a (text) analysis
method for qualitative social research. The presentation will focus on qualitative content
analysis as it was developed by Philipp MAYRING in Germany (see Section 4.2.2), with other
approaches being touched only marginally (see Section 4.2.2.3). At the end of this section,
quality criteria and validation issues relevant for qualitative content analysis will be highlighted
(see Section 4.2.3). [33]
4.1 Classical content analysis
According to TITSCHER et al. (2000), content analysis is "the longest established method of
text analysis among the set of empirical methods of social investigation" (p.55). However,
there does not seem to exist a homogenous understanding of this method at present, but
originally the term "referred only to those methods that concentrate on directly and clearly
quantifiable aspects of text content, and as a rule on absolute and relative frequencies of
words per text or surface unit" (TITSCHER et al., 2000, p.55). Later, the concept was
extended to include all those procedures which operate with categories, but which seek at
least to quantify these categories by means of a frequency survey of classifications (ibid.). [34]
According to BABBIE (2001), content analysis can be defined as "the study of recorded
human communications" (p.304). It is "essentially a coding operation," with coding being "the
process of transforming raw data into a standardized form" (BABBIE, 2001, p.309). In fact,
RYAN and BERNARD (2000) see content analysis as one of the "major coding traditions"
(p.780). They contend that "coding forces the researcher to make judgments about the
meanings of contiguous blocks" and that coding is "the heart and soul" of (whole) text analysis

(ibid.). According to them, classical content analysis "comprises techniques for reducing texts
to a unit-by-variable matrix and analyzing that matrix quantitatively to test hypotheses" and the
researcher can produce a matrix by applying a set of codes to a set of qualitative data (e.g.
written texts etc), with the assumption being that the codes of interest have already been
discovered and described beforehand (RYAN & BERNARD, 2000, p.785). More will be said on
the topic of coding in Sections 4.2.2.3 and 4.2.3. [35]
The development of content analysis is fundamentally connected to the development of mass
media and international politics and content analysis has gained significance in the first half of
the twentieth century with the dramatic expansion of mass communication (MAYRING, 2002,
p.114; TITSCHER et al., 2000, p.55). In fact, the theoretical basis of the first moves towards
analyses of contents was Harold D. LASSWELL's model of mass communication, and later on
also the news transmission model of SHANNON and WEAVER (TITSCHER et al., 2000,
pp.56-57). But even before that, different approaches to analysis and comparison of texts in
hermeneutic contexts (e.g. Bible interpretations), early newspaper analysis, graphological
procedures and even Freudian dream analysis can be seen as early precursors of content
analysis (MAYRING, 2000a, [6]). According to GILLHAM (2000), the "essence of content
analysis is identifying substantive statements—statements that really say something" (p.71,
original emphasis). BERELSON (1971) defined content analysis like this: "Content analysis is
a research technique for the objective, systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest
content of communication" (p.18). [36]
Obviously, classical content analysis is essentially a quantitative method with the core and
central tool being its system of categories (cf. also Section 4.2.2.3). The simplest type of
evaluation consequently consists of counting the numbers of occurrences per category
(assuming there is a relationship between frequency of content and meaning). Besides,
different indices which correlate two separate measurements and contingencies, more
complex procedures can also be used for analysis (TITSCHER et al., 2000, pp.57-61). [37]
4.2 Qualitative content analysis
According to TITSCHER et al. (2000, p.62), in the 1950s a controversy about research
strategies in content analysis was setting off. BERELSON's book "Content analysis in
communication research" (first published 1952) was the first compendium of the methods and
goals of quantitative content analysis which had been developed up to that time, and which
concentrated on assessment on the basis of frequency analyses (BERELSON, 1971).
KRACAUER's 1952 article "The challenge of qualitative content analysis" can be seen as a
critical reaction to BERELSON's book (KRACAUER, 1952). He contended that the quantitative
orientation neglected the particular quality of texts and that it was important to reconstruct
contexts. According to him, it is not by counting and measuring that "patterns" or "wholes" in
texts can be demonstrated but by showing the different possibilities of interpretation of
"multiple connotations" (GLÄSER & LAUDEL, 2004, p.192; KRACAUER, 1952, pp.637f.; cf.
also TITSCHER et al., 2000, p.62). MAYRING (2000a, [6]) even speaks of "a superficial analy
sis without respecting latent contents and contexts, working with simplifying and distorting
quantification." These critiques finally led to the development of qualitative approaches to
content analysis (e.g. ALTHEIDE, 1996; MOSTYN, 1985; RITSERT, 1972; RUST, 1980;
WITTKOWSKI, 1994). [38]
RITSERT (1972, pp.19-31), for instance, criticized that especially the following four aspects
are not taken into account appropriately by quantitative content analysis:
• The context of text components;
• latent structures of sense;
• distinctive individual cases;
• things that do not appear in the text. [39]
MAYRING's qualitative content analysis tries to overcome these shortcomings of classical
quantitative content analysis by applying a systematic, theory-guided approach to text analysis
using a category system (cf. e.g. MAYRING, 2002, p.114; see also below Sections 4.2.2.2 and

4.2.2.3). In fact, qualitative content analysis claims to synthesize two contradictory methodo
logical principles: openness and theory-guided investigation (GLÄSER & LAUDEL, 1999, p.3).
[40]
BRYMAN (2004) states that qualitative content analysis is "probably the most prevalent ap
proach to the qualitative analysis of documents" and that it "comprises a searching-out of
underlying themes in the materials being analyzed" (p.392). Being a little bit more specific he
defines qualitative content analysis in the following way:
"An approach to documents that emphasizes the role of the investigator in the construction
of the meaning of and in texts. There is an emphasis on allowing categories to emerge out
of data and on recognizing the significance for understanding the meaning of the context in
which an item being analyzed (and the categories derived from it) appeared" (BRYMAN,
2004, p.542). [41]
However, this seems to be rather the description of a general approach to analyzing docu
ments qualitatively. In contrast to this, MAYRING's qualitative content analysis is not only an
approach to analyzing documents but also a sophisticated and concretely described method at
the same time. [42]
4.2.1 Excursus: qualitative research

Before presenting MAYRING's qualitative content analysis, a short overview of the basic
assumptions and definitions of qualitative research will be given. [43]
"Qualitative research is many things to many people" (DENZIN & LINCOLN, 2000, p.8). This
statement of DENZIN and LINCOLN (2000) in their handbook of qualitative research already
shows the breadth of the term qualitative research and the multitude of its methods, but also
the vagueness of this concept. In fact, as it cuts across disciplines, fields and subject matters,
a "complex, interconnected family of terms, concepts and assumptions surround the term
qualitative research" (DENZIN & LINCOLN, 2000, p.2, original emphasis). Thus, a clear and
concise definition of qualitative research can hardly be found. [44]
The "word qualitative implies an emphasis on the qualities of entities and on processes and
meanings that are not experimentally examined or measured (if measured at all) in terms of
quantity, amount, intensity, or frequency" (DENZIN & LINCOLN, 2000, p.8, original emphasis).
CASSELL and SYMON (1994, p.1) judge qualitative methods to be very appropriate to re
search questions focusing on organizational processes, outcomes, and trying to understand
both individual and group experiences of work. According to them, organizational dynamics
and change are major areas of interest in organizational research, and only qualitative
methods are sensitive enough to allow the detailed analysis of change, while quantitative
methods are only able to "assess that a change has occurred over time but cannot say how
(what processes were involved) or why (in terms of circumstances and stakeholders)"
(CASSELL & SYMON, 1994, p.5). [45]
Generally, it can be said that qualitative techniques emerge form phenomenological and
interpretive paradigms, with the emphasis being on constructivist approaches where there is
no clear-cut objectivity or reality (CASSELL & SYMON, 1994, p.2). This has important
implications on what is perceived to be the nature of knowledge, with the qualitative paradigm
negating the existence of objectively true knowledge and proposing an interpretive approach
to social knowledge, which recognizes that "meaning emerges through interaction and is not
standardized from place to place or person to person" (RUBIN & RUBIN, 1995, p.31). [46]
According to CASSELL and SYMON (1994, p.4), qualitative research is "less likely to impose
restrictive a priori classifications on the collection of data," and thus research is "less driven by
very specific hypotheses and categorical frameworks and more concerned with emergent
themes and idiographic descriptions." This is also why, according to the qualitative research
paradigm, it is only in the course of doing field research that one can find out which (research)
questions can reasonably be asked and it is only at the end that the researcher will know
which questions can be answered by a study (LUEGER, 2000, p.51). Therefore, qualitative
methods are often used when the field of research is yet not well understood or unknown and
aim at generating new hypotheses and theories, while quantitative methods are frequently

used for testing hypotheses and evaluating theories (cf. e.g. ATTESLANDER, 2003, pp.83-85;
GLÄSER & LAUDEL, 1999, p.2; KELLE, 1994, pp.41-52; MAYRING, 2003, pp.20-23). [47]
Based on this background it should not be too difficult to grasp DENZIN and LINCOLN’s
(2000) generic definition of qualitative research:
"Qualitative research is a situated activity that locates the observer in the world. It consists
of a set of interpretive, material practices that make the world visible. These practices trans
form the world. They turn the world into a series of representations, including field notes,
interviews, conversations, photographs, recordings, and memos to the self. At this level,
qualitative research involves an interpretive, naturalistic approach to the world. This means
that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense
of, or to interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them" (p.3). [48]
4.2.2 Philipp MAYRING's approach

This section offers a short introduction to the main points of MAYRING's qualitative content
analysis. Its development (Section 4.2.2.1), basic ideas (Section 4.2.2.2), procedures (Section
4.2.2.3) and quality criteria (Section 4.2.3) will be presented subsequently. [49]
4.2.2.1 Development
MAYRING's concept of qualitative content analysis was developed in the 1980s in a
longitudinal study about psycho-social consequences of unemployment, when about 600
open-ended interviews yielded more than 20,000 pages of transcripts, which had to be
analyzed in a qualitatively oriented way (cf. MAYRING, 2000a, [1]). Since then MAYRING's
works seem to have become standard literature on qualitative content analysis and some
regularly appear in new editions (e.g. MAYRING, 2002 [first published 1990], 2003 [first
published 1983]). The main idea in the development of MAYRING's approach is "to preserve
the advantages of quantitative content analysis as developed within communication science
and to transfer and further develop them to qualitative-interpretative steps of analysis"
(MAYRING, 2000a, [2]). [50]
According to TITSCHER et al. (2000), MAYRING's qualitative content analysis "has achieved
popularity" (p.62), while at the same time it has become difficult to separate it from other
methods of text analysis, particularly those oriented towards ethnographic methods or
grounded theory (p.55). [51]
4.2.2.2 Basic ideas

The object of (qualitative) content analysis can basically be any kind of recorded communi
cation, i.e. transcripts of interviews/discourses, protocols of observation, video tapes, written
documents in general etc. However, not only the manifest content of the material is analyzed,
but also so-called latent content as well as formal aspects of the material (MAYRING, 2000b,
pp.468-469, 2000a, [4]). Given this background, MAYRING (2000a) offers the following defi
nition of qualitative content analysis: "an approach of empirical, methodological [sic!] controlled
analysis of texts within their context of communication, following content analytical rules and
step by step models, without rash quantification" ([5]). [52]
Obviously, the strength of qualitative content analysis is that it is strictly controlled methodo
logically and that the material is analyzed step-by-step. Central to it is a category system which
is developed right on the material employing a theory-guided procedure. By using this cat
egory system, the aspects, which are to be filtered from the material, are defined (MAYRING,
2002, p.114). TITSCHER et al. (2000) put it like this:
"The core and central tool of any content analysis is its system of categories: every unit of
analysis must be coded, that is to say, allocated to one or more categories. Categories are
understood as the more or less operational definitions of variables." (p.58)6 [53]
6 I am indebted to an anonymous reviewer who—very correctly—pointed the following out to me: "This statement is
formulated too strict: Not all units of analysis (depends on the sort of unit and the concrete technique) must be
coded; and inductive categories are not operationalizations of variables; but it is true, that the interpretative but
rule guided process of assigning categories to text portions is crucial for qualitative content analysis."

Above, we said that qualitative content analysis aims to preserve the advantages of quant
itative content analysis but at the same time apply a more qualitative text interpretation (see
Section 4.2.2.1). MAYRING (2003, pp.42-46) emphasizes the following central points:
• Fitting the material into a model of communication: It should be determined on what
part of the communication inferences shall be made, to aspects of the communicator
(his experiences, opinions, feelings), to the situation of the text production, to the
socio-cultural background, to the text itself or to the effect of the message.
• Systematic, rule-based analysis: The material is to be analyzed step by step, following
rules of procedure, devising the material into content analytical units.
• Categories in the center of analysis: The aspects of text interpretation, following the
research questions, are put into categories, which were carefully founded and revised
within the process of analysis (feedback loops).
• Subject-reference instead of technique: instead of merely being a set of techniques for
text analysis, the connection to the concrete subject of analysis is a very important
point for qualitative content analysis. This implies that the procedures of content analy
sis cannot be fixed but have to be adapted depending on the subject and its context.
• Verification of the specific instruments through pilot studies: Due to the subject-
reference, fully standardized methods are abstained from. That is why the procedures
need to be tested in a pilot study. Inter-subjective verifiability is a case in point here.
• Theory-guided analysis: Technical fuzziness of qualitatively oriented research needs to
be balanced by theoretical stringency. This means that the state-of-the-field of the
respective research subject as well as subjects closely related are required to be taken
into account and integrated into the analysis.
• Inclusion of quantitative steps of analysis: Quantitative analyses are especially import
ant when trying to generalize results. As a matter of fact, this notion of triangulation to
argue in favor of an integration of qualitative and quantitative methods is not limited to
content analysis but has been raised by many researchers (cf. e.g. DIEKMANN, 2003,
p.18; KELLE, 2001, [6]; MAYRING, 2001; cf. also Section 5.1).
• Quality criteria of reliability and validity (see also Section 4.2.3): The procedure has the
pretension to be inter-subjectively comprehensible, to compare the results with other
studies in the sense of triangulation and to carry out checks for reliability. [54]
This rule-based approach of qualitative content analysis is supposed to guarantee that the
whole empirical basis is systematically dealt with and that the analysis is reproducible to a
certain extent (GLÄSER & LAUDEL, 1999, pp.2-5). As a matter of fact, it is this kind of sys
tematics what distinguishes content analysis from more interpretive, hermeneutic processing
of text material (MAYRING, 2002, p.114). [55]
4.2.2.3 Method and procedures

The seven components of content analysis listed above (see Section 4.2.2.2) form the basis
for a qualitatively oriented procedure of text interpretation (MAYRING, 2000a, [8]). Conse
quently, MAYRING has developed a sequential model of qualitative content analysis and puts
forward three distinct analytical procedures which may be carried out either independently or in
combination, depending on the particular research question (MAYRING, 2002, p.115, 2003,
pp.42-99; TITSCHER et al., 2000, pp.62-64):
a. Summary: attempts to reduce the material in such a way as to preserve the essential
content and by abstraction to create a manageable corpus which still reflects the orig
inal material. For this the text is paraphrased, generalized or abstracted and reduced.
b. Explication: involves explaining, clarifying and annotating the material. As a first step a
lexico-grammatical definition is attempted, then the material for explication is deter
mined, and this is followed by a narrow context analysis, and a broad context analysis.
Finally an "explicatory paraphrase" is made of the particular portion of text and the
explication is examined with reference to the total context.

c. Structuring: corresponds more or less to the procedures used in classical content

analysis and is also viewed as the most crucial technique of content analysis, the goal
of which is to filter out a particular structure from the material. Here the text can be
structured according to content, form and scaling. The first stage is the determination
of the units of analysis, after which the dimensions of the structuring are established on
some theoretical basis and the features of the system of categories are fixed.
Subsequently definitions are formulated and key examples, with rules for coding in
separate categories, are agreed upon. In the course of a first appraisal of the material
the data locations are marked, and in a second scrutiny these are processed and
extracted. If necessary the system of categories is re-examined and revised, which ne
cessitates a reappraisal of the material. As a final stage the results are processed. [56]
Obviously, the central part of the process—structuring—is derived from classical content
analysis, because here, too, units of coding and evaluation are set up and arranged in a
schema of categories (TITSCHER et al., 2000, p.64). However, the basic difference between
classical content analysis and structuring within qualitative content analysis is the development
and use of the coding agenda 7. In contrast to this, GLÄSER and LAUDEL (2004)—who have
modified MAYRING's approach after experiencing problems when putting the method to
practice—contend that the core and central part of the process is what they call "extraction"
(p.194). However, "extraction" seems to be closely related to MAYRING's structuring since it
literally means the extraction of the relevant information from the text by the means of using a
category system. Thus, the material is reduced and a new basis of information separate from
the original text comes into existence (ibid.). The main difference to MAYRING's approach lies
in the handling of the category system. GLÄSER and LAUDEL (1999; 2004) criticize that the
closed, ex ante determined category system is only adapted to the empirical material in a first
process cycle with only part of the texts—a procedure they disqualify as methodologically
arguable and technically too elaborate (p.5; p.193). Therefore they argue in favor of a theory-
based category system, which is more open and can be changed during extraction when
relevant information turns up but does not fit into the category system. Both the dimensions of
existing categories can be modified and new categories can be designed. Since the category
system can now be adjusted at any point of the analysis, the trial cycle becomes redundant
(GLÄSER & LAUDEL, 1999, p.10, 2004, p.195). However, it is important to mention that
GLÄSER and LAUDEL (1999) might have misunderstood MAYRING's qualitative content
analysis as having to follow all procedures described by him. It is actually a package of
techniques from which the analyst can chose and then adapts to his research question8. [57]
Figure 1 shows the basic proceeding of qualitative content analysis from the initial theory to
the final analysis and interpretation.
7 I am indebted to an anonymous reviewer for pointing this fact out to me.

8 I am indebted to an anonymous reviewer for pointing this fact out to me. Examples for this can be found from
MAYRING and GLÄSER-ZIKUDA (2005) as well as from http://psydok.sulb.uni-saarland.de/portal/klagenfurt/.

Figure 1: Basic proceeding of qualitative content analysis (Source: Author based on GLÄSER &
LAUDEL, 1999, p.4) [58]
Going into greater detail, this process of MAYRING's qualitative content analysis can also be
divided into nine different stages (MAYRING, 2003, pp.42-99; TITSCHER et al., 2000, p.64):
• Determination of the material;
• analysis of the situation in which the text originated;
• the formal characterization of the material;
• determination of the direction of the analysis;
• theoretically informed differentiation of questions to be answered;
• selection of the analytical techniques (summary, explication, structuring);
• definition of the unit of analysis;
• analysis of the material (summary, explication, structuring);
• interpretation [59]
Among the procedures of qualitative content analysis MAYRING (2000a, [8]) hallmarks the
following two approaches as central to developing a category system and finding the
appropriate text components as a result: inductive category development and deductive
category application. [60]
Inductive category development
Quantitative content analysis does not provide satisfactory answers to the question where the
categories are derived from, and how the system of categories is developed. But within the
framework of qualitative approaches it is essential to develop the aspects of interpretation—
the categories—as closely as possible to the material, and to formulate them in terms of the
material. As a result, procedures of inductive category development were compiled
(MAYRING, 2000a, [9], [10]). The steps of inductive category development are displayed in
Figure 2.

Figure 2: "Step model of inductive category development" (Source: MAYRING, 2000a, [11]) [61]
The main idea of the procedure is to formulate a criterion of definition, derived from the
theoretical background and the research question, which determines the aspects of the textual
material taken into account. Following this criterion the material is worked through and
categories are deduced tentatively and step by step. Within a feedback loop the categories are
revised, eventually reduced to main categories and checked in respect to their reliability
(MAYRING, 2000a, [12]). [62]
Inductive category development belongs to the procedure of summary (MAYRING, 2003,
pp.74-76). Or, put the other way round: the technique of content analytical summary can be
used furthermore for an inductive category development (MAYRING, 2002, p.115). [63]
Deductive category application
Deductive category application works with previously formulated, theoretically derived aspects
of analysis, which are brought into connection with the text. The qualitative step of analysis
consists of a methodologically controlled assignment of the category to a passage of text
(MAYRING, 2000a, [13]). Figure 3 shows the steps of deductive category application.

Figure 3: "Step model of deductive category application" (Source: MAYRING, 2000a, [14]) [64]
According to MAYRING (2000a, [15]; 2001, [15]) the main idea here is to give explicit
definitions, examples and coding rules for each deductive category, determining exactly under
what circumstances a text passage can be coded with a category. Finally, those category
definitions are put together within a coding agenda. [65]
4.2.3 Quality criteria and validation issues

Any kind of social research asserts its claims to fulfill certain quality criteria for measuring and
collecting data. It is widely accepted that measurement or the methods of measurement
should be as objective, reliable and valid as possible (cf. e.g. DIEKMANN, 2003, p.216). In
fact, the research strategy that is regularly pursued in content analysis is governed by these
traditional criteria of validity and reliability, where the latter is a precondition for the former (but
not vice versa) (TITSCHER et al., 2000, p.65). Since arguments concerning the content are
judged to be more important than methodical issues in qualitative analysis, validity takes
priority over reliability (MAYRING, 2003, p.45). However, according to MAYRING (2003,
p.109), concerning content analyses that have been conducted up to now, there is a dearth in
statements about the reliability and validity of the results achieved. Two specific problems of
content analysis that are often discussed in this context are problems of inference and
problems of reliability (TITSCHER et al., 2000, p.65):
a. Problems of inference relate to the possibility of drawing conclusions, on the one hand,
about the whole text on the basis of the text sample and, on the other hand, about the
underlying (theoretical) constructs such as motives, attitudes, norms, etc., on the basis
of the text. As a result, inference in content analysis confines itself only to specific
features of external and internal validity.
b. Problems of reliability: here, particular attention is paid to the trustworthiness of the
coding. The so-called inter-coder reliability shows to what extent different coders agree
in the coding of the same text and intra-coder reliability explains how stable the coding
of one coder is. [66]
Because of the problems of reliability, the coding of texts is usually assigned to multiple coders
so that the researcher can see whether the constructs being investigated are shared and
whether multiple coders can reliably apply the same codes (MAYRING, 2003, p.110; RYAN &

BERNARD, 2000, p.785). Apart from inter-coder reliability, in his seminal work on qualitative
content analysis, MAYRING (2003, pp.111-115) discusses the following specific quality criteria
for content analysis according to KRIPPENDORF (2004, pp.214-216, 318-338):
1. Validity 2. Reliability
a. Material-oriented a. Stability
i. Semantic validity b. Reproducibility
ii. Sampling validity c. Accuracy
b. Result-oriented
i. Correlative validity
ii. Predictive validity
c. Process-oriented
i. Construct validity
Semantic validity relates to the meaning reconstruction of the material, and is expressed in the
appropriateness of the category definitions, the key examples and the rules for coders.
Sampling validity refers to the usual criteria for precise sampling and correlative validity refers
to the correlation with some external criterion (e.g. the results of other methods like test,
experiment or observation). Predictive validity can only be used as a quality criterion if
predictions can reasonably be made from the material (in this case verification is usually easy
and significant). Construct validity relates, for instance, to previous success with similar
constructs, established models and theories, and representative interpretations. Stability refers
to whether the same results are obtained in a renewed application of the analytical tool to the
same text and reproducibility is the extent to which the analysis achieves the same results
under different circumstances, for instance with different coders. It can be measured through
inter-coder reliability for which a range of measures and indices have been developed. Finally,
accuracy assumes stability and reproducibility and denotes the extent to which the analysis
meets a particular functional standard (KRIPPENDORFF, 2004, pp.214-216, 318-338; MAY
RING, 2003, pp.111-115; cf. also TITSCHER et al., 2000, pp.65-66). [67]
MAYRING (2003) additionally notes another quality criterion that has gained in significance
recently: communicative validation (p.112). The main idea behind this concept is to dis
cursively achieve mutual consent and accordance about the results of the analysis between
the researchers and the researched. [68]
Last but not least, a further criterion is generalizability, which refers to "the degree to which the
findings are applicable to other populations or samples" (RYAN & BERNARD, 2000, p.786).
Thus, it draws on the degree to which the original data were representative of a larger
population (ibid). [69]
KRIPPENDORFF (2004) identifies the following four sources of error that may lead to a lack of
reliability (pp.211ff, cf. also MAYRING, 2003, p.115; TITSCHER et al., 2000, p.66):
a. Features of the units of evaluation: It will be examined whether the problem locations,
where there is some disagreement about coding, differ systematically from the
material.
b. Properties of individual categories: The question is whether instances of disagreement
are particularly common with particular categories.
c. Differentiation of categories: It will be checked whether the distinctions between
categories are too fine.
d. Properties of the coders: If the lack of reliability cannot be attributed to a), b), or c),
then the problem is usually with the coders and may perhaps be solved by more
careful selection, more thorough training, shorter operation periods, etc. [70]
Finally, MAYRING (2003, p.115) proclaims the need for a content analytical theory of errors in
order to establish a systematic compilation of quality criteria. The further development of new
quality criteria calls for an analysis of where and what kind of other errors can be made or
occur in (conducting) content analysis (ibid). [71]

5. The Use of Qualitative Content Analysis in Case Study Research

"[E]mpirical research advances only when it is accompanied by theory and logical inquiry
and not when treated as a mechanistic or data collection endeavor" (YIN, 2003a, p.xv).
This section explores and discusses the possibilities of applying qualitative content analysis as
a (text) interpretation method in case study research and thus tries to find an answer to the
research question initially posed (see Section 2.1). [72]
5.1 Mixed methods and triangulation
The rising popularity of mixed methods approaches and the use of triangulation have already
been mentioned briefly in the introduction of this paper. Having its origin in navigation, military
strategy and (geodetic) surveying, the term triangulation in social research is used in a less
literal sense to describe the use of multiple methods and measures of an empirical phe
nomenon (cf. e.g. BRANNEN, 1992; JICK, 1979; KELLE, 2001; TASHAKKORI & TEDDLIE,
1998; WOLFRAM COX & HASSARD, 2005 for an overview and review)9. According to
WOLFRAM COX and HASSARD (2005), the implicit assumption in much of the social science
literature on triangulation "is of developing a more effective method for the capturing and fixing
of social phenomena in order to realize a more accurate analysis and explanation." (p.111) Just
like multiple viewpoints allow for greater accuracy in geometry, (organizational) researchers
"can improve the accuracy of their judgments by collecting different kinds of data bearing on
the same phenomenon" (JICK, 1979, p.602). Data accumulated by different methods but
bearing on the same issue are part of what is called the "multi-method approach": "Different
methods have different strengths and weaknesses. If they converge (agree) then we can be
reasonably confident that we are getting the true picture" (GILLHAM, 2000, p.13, original
emphasis). In fact, the "effectiveness of triangulation rests on the premise that the weaknes
ses in each single method will be compensated by the counter-balancing strengths of another"
(JICK, 1979, p.604). Therefore, triangulation "can potentially generate what anthropologists
call "holistic work" or "thick description" (JICK, 1979, p.609). [73]
In the case of using qualitative content analysis in case study research, triangulation takes
actually place on two different levels. On the first and more obvious level, data is triangulated
by integrating different material and evidence (see Section 5.2.4)—often also collected by
using various methods—as well as by integrating quantitative and qualitative steps of analysis
(see Section 5.2.5). On second level, triangulation takes place by applying a method of
analysis (qualitative content analysis) that has not been particularly developed for this purpose
to a different research design (case study research). [74]
5.2 Case study research and qualitative content analysis
As was already shown in Section 3.1 the case study will provide a multi-dimensional per
spective that may be used to create a shared view of the situation being studied (REMENYI et
al., 2002, p.5). Therefore, case studies offer the "opportunity for a holistic view of a process"
(PATTON & APPELBAUM, 2003, p.63). Besides, we also saw that case study research has a
major function in generating hypotheses and build theory. EISENHARDT (1989) states that
"[a]nalyzing data is the heart of building theory from case studies, but it is both the most
difficult and the least codified part of the process" (p.539). In fact, a theory or theoretical
framework first emerges through the inductive approach of studying an empirical case or
object, not through a deductive process. "The key point is that before a theory can be
validated, it must be constructed" (PATTON & APPELBAUM, 2003, p.65). As the author tried
to demonstrate in Section 4.2.2, Philipp MAYRING's qualitative content analysis could be such
an inductive approach and offers a range of rule-based procedures for a systematic analysis
of data material. Hence, qualitative content analysis might be an appropriate analysis and
interpretation method for case study research. As a matter of fact, its quantitative counterpart
—classical content analysis—is repeatedly mentioned as a method of analyzing data in the
9 Different types of triangulation as well as other issues concerning this subject go beyond the scope of this paper
and thus are not discussed here.

context of conducting case study research (cf. e.g. YIN, 2003a, p.110). REMENYI et al. (2002)
state that techniques such as content analysis may be used "to transform what is essentially
qualitative evidence into some sort of quantitative evidence" (pp.5-6). Even though they
concede that this is "not a particularly satisfactory approach," they claim that "it is not
infrequently used" (REMENYI et al., 2002, p.6). [75]
In Section 4.2 we stated that MAYRING's qualitative content analysis tries to overcome these
shortcomings of classical quantitative content analysis by applying a systematic, theory-guided
approach to text analysis using a category system. Besides it preserves the advantages of
quantitative content analysis but at the same time apply a more qualitative text interpretation.
Therefore, it can be argued that qualitative content analysis could prove to be a useful tool for
analyzing data material in case study research. In fact, the contribution of using qualitative
content analysis in case study research will be demonstrated on the basis of the following
points: [76]
5.2.1 Openness and ability to deal with complexity

One of the strengths of qualitative content analysis is the way it tries to synthesize openness—
as claimed by the qualitative research paradigm—and theory-guided investigation—usually
demanded by the hypothetical-deductive paradigm. In fact, despite this openness, qualitative
content analysis is strictly controlled methodologically and the material is analyzed in a step-
by-step process (see Section 4.2.2). It is this combination that fosters its strong ability to deal
with complexity. Qualitative content analysis takes a holistic and comprehensive approach
towards analyzing data material and thus achieves to (almost) completely grasp and cover the
complexity of the social situations examined and social data material derived from them. At the
same time, qualitative content analysis uses a rule-based and methodologically controlled
approach in order to deal with the complexity and gradually reduce it. The procedures of
summary, explication and structuring step-by-step reduce complexity and filter out the main
points of analysis in an iterative process. Therefore, qualitative content analysis perfectly fits
the credo of case study research: helping to understand complex social phenomena (see also
Section 3.1). [77]
5.2.2 Theory-guided analysis

We just mentioned theory-guided analysis as one of the special strengths of qualitative
content analysis (see above, Section 5.2.1). The important point here is the same as with case
study research: "The central idea is that researchers constantly compare theory and data—
iterating toward a theory which closely fits the data" (EISENHARDT, 1989, p.541). Besides, an
essential feature of theory building is comparison of the emergent concepts, theory or
hypotheses with the extant literature because tying the emergent theory to existing literature
enhances the internal validity, generalizability, and theoretical level of theory building from
case study research (EISENHARDT, 1989, pp.544-545). That is why GLÄSER and LAUDEL
(1999, abstract) state that qualitative content analysis could be "an interesting form of data
analysis for projects that aim to start from theory and contribute to it." [78]
Theory-guided analysis also offers the chance to compare and complement the primary data
collected within the research project with secondary data. In fact, experts in social research
recommend to conduct interpretations of results on two levels: interpretation of the results of
one's own survey and comparative interpretation of results and conclusions of existing theories
and research results (cf. e.g. ATTESLANDER, 2003, pp.329, 355; MAYRING, 2003, pp.109-
115). This analysis of complementing secondary data can help to ensure the quality of content
analysis, especially validity (MAYRING, 2003, p.109). [79]
5.2.3 Integration of context

One of the key features of qualitative content analysis in contrast to classical quantitative con
tent analysis is that the context is also central to the interpretation and analysis of the material.
In fact, it is not only the manifest content of the material that is important but also the latent
content as well as formal aspects need to be taken into consideration (cf. also Section
4.2.2.2). This is again in order to achieve a holistic and comprehensive analysis of complex

social phenomena. As we have seen in Section 3.1, "the key feature of the case study ap
proach is not method or data but the emphasis on understanding processes as they occur in
their context" (HARTLEY, 1994, p.227, 2004, p.332). Therefore, research questions about
"how" and "why" rather than "what" or "how much" are best suited to the case study strategy
(ibid.). [80]
5.2.4 Integration of different material/evidence

As shown above (Section 4.2.2.2), the object of qualitative content analysis can basically be
any kind of recorded communication, i.e. transcripts of interviews/discourses, protocols of
observation, video tapes, written documents in general etc. This means that in a
comprehensive study which aims at analyzing different kinds of data material, the same
method can be applied to different types of evidence—a major advantage not only from a
pragmatic point of view, but also as far as quality criteria are concerned. Of course, case study
research usually corresponds to such a comprehensive study. According to YIN (2003a) a
major strength of case study data collection is the opportunity to use many different sources of
evidence because the use of multiple sources of evidence in case studies allows an
investigator to address a broader range of historical, attitudinal, and behavioral issues (YIN,
2003a, pp.97-98). In fact, GILLHAM (2000) states that case study "is a main method," within
which different sub-methods are used: interviews, observations, document and record
analysis, work samples etc (p.13, original emphasis). [81]
Furthermore, qualitative or expert interviews are a very common field of application for qualit
ative content analysis (cf. e.g. GLÄSER & LAUDEL, 1999, p.5, 2004, p.44; MAYRING, 2003,
p.46). According to YIN (2003a) one of the most important sources of case study information
is the interview: "most commonly, case study interviews are of an open-ended nature, in which
you can ask key respondents about the facts of a matter as well as their opinions about
events" (YIN, 2003a, p.90, original emphasis). Therefore, qualitative content analysis offers a
rule-based, theory-guided method for analyzing interview transcripts, just in the way it is
required by the principles of case study research. [82]
Finally, MAYRING (2000a, [28]) contends that qualitative content analysis can be combined
with other qualitative procedures. This is certainly a great advantage when dealing with
various, heterogeneous types of data material. However, he fails to go into greater detail
concerning this matter. [83]
5.2.5 Integration of quantitative steps of analysis

As was discussed above (Sections 4.2.2 and 5.2) qualitative content analysis preserves the
advantages of classical quantitative content analysis, and thus also includes quantitative steps
of analysis. These are especially important when trying to generalize results. According to
GILLHAM (2000), "[c]ase study research does not equate qualitative (descriptive, inter
pretative) methods and data only. They are predominant, but quantitative data and its analysis
can add to the overall picture" (p.80). According to JICK (1979), "[q]ualitative data and analysis
function as the glue that cements the interpretation of multimethod results" (p.609). Moreover,
the combination of qualitative and quantitative analyses has also been addressed in the field
of case study research (see above, Sections 3.1 and 3.2). As has already been mentioned,
many experts in the field of socio-scientific research suggest using and combining several
methods—so-called triangulation or cross-examination—in order to obtain more valid results
(see Sections 1. and 5.1). Especially the combination of qualitative methods and quantitative
methods seems to be appropriate in order to gain deeper insight and a more general view of
the object of research (cf. e.g. DIEKMANN 2003, p.18). In fact, triangulation by integrating dif
ferent material/evidence as well as quantitative and qualitative steps of analysis, helps re
searchers to be more confident of their results and can also lead to a synthesis or integration
of theories (cf. e.g. JICK, 1979 pp.608-609). [84]
5.3 Limitations of qualitative content analysis
According to TITSCHER et al. (2000) content analysis will always be used if communicative
content is of greatest importance, if operational schemata of categories can be formulated in
advance or if the analysis is concerned only with the lexicon of a text (p.66). The procedures of
qualitative content analysis seem less appropriate, if the research question is highly open-
ended, explorative, variable and working with categories would be a restriction, or if a more
holistic, not step-by-step ongoing of analysis is planned (MAYRING, 2000b, p.474, 2000a,
[27]). In fact, MAYRING (2002) recommends his qualitative content analysis in the case of
theory-guided text analysis but rather not in the case of merely explorative-interpretive
interpretation of the material (p.121). [85]
Furthermore, due to the fact that qualitative content analysis first extracts the relevant parts of
the (text) material and then analyzes them (cf. also Section 4.2.2), it can only be used if the
text itself is not the subject of examination (cf. e.g. GLÄSER & LAUDEL, 1999, p.5, 2004,
p.200). [86]
Last but not least, when using qualitative content analysis in case study research, one should
be aware of the fact that "[r]eplicating a mixed-methods package […] is a nearly impossible
task" (JICK, 1979, p.609). [87]
6. Outlook
This paper tried to explore and discuss the possibilities of using qualitative content analysis in
case study research. It highlighted the strengths of qualitative content analysis as a method
that achieves to respect the credos of openness and theory-guided analysis at the same time.
In fact, with its rule-based logic and methodologically controlled step-by-step procedures of
analysis it manages to combine the advantages of classical quantitative content analysis with
a qualitatively oriented approach taking also context and other important points into consider
ation. Therefore, qualitative content analysis can be viewed as a comprehensive approach to
data analysis, which seems to be especially suitable for case study research. It can certainly
contribute to adding and enhancing rigor, validity and reliability of case study research. [88]
Nevertheless, qualitative content analysis is still a young discipline and further development
and improvement might be advisable and appropriate as some of the amendments, critiques
and limitations of MAYRING's approach show (see above Sections 4.2.3, 5.3 and also
GLÄSER & LAUDEL, 1999, 2004). Besides, papers and essays in English are crucial to help
qualitative content analysis gain attention and dissemination internationally as well. Last but
not least, empirical testing and experience will be indispensable to ensure methodological and
practical advances of this method. Therefore, the author strongly recommends all researchers
who are conducting case studies to use and apply qualitative content analysis in their research
endeavors. [89]
Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank Angelika SCHMIDT and Jürgen MÜHLBACHER for their kind
support and advice. All mistakes are solely mine.
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Author
Florian KOHLBACHER, Associate Research Contact:

Partner, Department of Change Management &
Florian Kohlbacher
Management Development, Vienna University
of Economics and Business Administration. Vienna University of Economics and
Research Interests: Knowledge Management, Business Administration
International Business, International Marketing, (Wirtschaftsuniversität Wien)
Consumer Behavior, Qualitative Research Department of Change Management &
Methods, Case Study Research Management Development
Augasse 2-6
A-1090 Vienna, Austria
E-mail: [email protected]
Citation
Please cite this article as follows (and include paragraph numbers if necessary):
Kohlbacher, Florian (2005, December). The Use of Qualitative Content Analysis in Case Study
Research [89 paragraphs]. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative Social
Research [On-line Journal], 7(1), Art. 21. Available at: http://www.qualitative-research.net/fqs-
texte/1-06/06-1-21-e.htm [Date of Access: Month Day, Year].
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The Use of Qualitative Content Analysis in Case Study Research

1. Introduction: Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research?

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2. Research Question, Aim and Structure of the Paper

2.1 Cognitive interest and research question

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2.2 Aim, structure and scope of the paper

3. Case Study Research

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3.1 The case study as a research strategy

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• relies on multiple sources of evidence, with data needing to converge in a triangul­

3.2 Designing case studies

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3.3 Conducting case studies

3.3.1 Collecting evidence

3.3.2 Analyzing case study evidence

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3.3.3 Reporting case studies

4.1 Classical content analysis

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4.2 Qualitative content analysis

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4.2.1 Excursus: qualitative research

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4.2.2 Philipp MAYRING's approach

4.2.2.2 Basic ideas

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4.2.2.3 Method and procedures

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c. Structuring: corresponds more or less to the procedures used in classical content

7 I am indebted to an anonymous reviewer for pointing this fact out to me.

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4.2.3 Quality criteria and validation issues

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5. The Use of Qualitative Content Analysis in Case Study Research

5.1 Mixed methods and triangulation

5.2 Case study research and qualitative content analysis

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5.2.1 Openness and ability to deal with complexity

5.2.2 Theory-guided analysis

5.2.3 Integration of context

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5.2.4 Integration of different material/evidence

5.2.5 Integration of quantitative steps of analysis

5.3 Limitations of qualitative content analysis

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© 2005 FQS http://www.qualitative-research.net/fqs/

Florian KOHLBACHER, Associate Research Contact:

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• relies on multiple sources of evidence, with data needing to converge in a triangul