Temperate Climate
Temperate Climate
TROPICAL DESIGN
3.4 Design for temperate and upland zones
Climatic conditions
The temperate and upland climate is characterized by three seasons. A hot and dry
season, usually the longest period, is followed by a wet and warm season, the
monsoon period. In the third season, the winter time, depending on the altitude,
temperatures can drop far below the comfort level, especially at night, whereas
daytime temperatures are moderate and the solar radiation intense. (also see Chapter
2.2)
Design objectives and response
This type of climate is the most complex one from the designer's point of view.
Buildings must satisfy conflicting needs of hot-dry and warm-humid periods. Rules
given in the respective previous chapters are hence partly applicable also in the
temperate zone. In addition, in the upland areas, the designer must consider the
principles of heat conservation and solar heat gain, and sometimes active heating as
well.
"Good-natured" buildings
Buildings should be of "good-natured". They have to provide comfort in spite of
climatic conditions which differ strongly with the seasons and in spite of sudden
weather changes. They should not cool down too much during the cold nights and
should not overheat during periods of strong radiant heat gain.
Basic considerations
With conflicting seasonal requirements, different solutions may be equally
appropriate. The advantages and disadvantages should be weighed together,
considering not the extreme, but the prevailing climatic conditions. Buildings can be
arranged rather freely. Settlements should be semi-compact to provide mutual shelter
from wind in the cold season but also to take advantage of the sun radiation.
Nevertheless, the prevailing breezes in humid and hot seasons should not be cut off
and sufficient shade should be provided.
In upland regions, shelter against the wind and orientation for maximum solar
radiation gain are required all the year round. Sites oriented south-southeast and
located in the middle or the lower middle of a slope are preferred. Here solar gain is
best. Excessive wind effects as well as cool air pools should be avoided. The layout of
town structures should follow the same goal of sheltering against winds and utilizing
the effects of the sun's heat.
Fig 3/149
Especially in areas of intensive land use buildings should be located on south slopes,
where the sun exposure is adequate.
Fig 3/150
Depressions should be avoided because cold air accumulates there. Above the bottom
of the valley the microclimate is more favourable.
Fig 3/151
Houses should be located behind a wind shield, but be assured of exposure to the sun.
This shield can be formed by existing or newly planted vegetation, by other structures
or by topography.
Shading mountains
In upland areas, there are naturally often high surrounding mountains shading the
building sites, especially during winter when the sun is low; on the other hand, the
need for warmth is greatest. When selecting a site, therefore, the horizon of the
surrounding mountains together with the sun's path should be studied carefully.
3.4.2.2 Hazards
In this region, floods, storms and earthquakes often have to be considered, too. In
mountainous regions, landslides and rockfalls require special attention.
Settlement pattern
Aspects of proper sun orientation and wind protection should already be considered
while working out the basic pattern of a settlement. This pattern should be of a semi-
compact type.
The plot dimensions should allow the positioning of a building with its wider side
facing south and sufficient distance from the neighbouring buildings. Provision for
row buildings along the east-west axis may also be favoured.
Streets
Streets are best planned in the direction of summer winds, avoiding the direction of
winter winds.
Deciduous plants
Open squares with groups of trees to provide shade are desirable. Planting of
deciduous trees and pergolas with deciduous creepers are a possibility.
Traditional examples
An analysis of traditional settlements provides valuable hints for appropriate
solutions.
A good example is Bhumra, a village in the higher hilly region of West Nepal. This
settlement also provides efficient wind protection and takes full advantage of the sun's
radiation. Flat roofs are actively used as outdoor living and working spaces, where
favourable climatic conditions prevail during the daytime.
Sun orientation
The orientation of the building greatly influences the solar heat gain; it should thus be
carefully considered. Normally, buildings should have an elongated shape along the
east-west axis. The southern front can easily be designed for proper utilization of the
winter sun and for protection against the summer sun. Windows on the eastern side
receive substantial heat during the morning, which may be highly appreciated in
winter time. Usually, larger windows on the west side are to be avoided, as the solar
heat gain through these would coincide with the highest air temperatures.
To achieve a proper sun penetration for natural lighting, solar heat gain and hygiene,
the depth of the interior should not be excessive.
Wind orientation
Buildings should be arranged so that they benefit from summer winds because this
season is usually humid and a proper cross-ventilation is required for cooling and
hygienic reasons (prevention of mould growth). Shelter should be provided from the
winter winds.
Buildings are preferably rather compact. However, because of the conflicting climatic
conditions, several solutions are possible, depending on local topographical conditions
and functional requirements.
Buildings may be large and grouped close together. Row houses or adjoining
buildings have the advantage of reduced heat loss.
Room arrangements
A moderately compact internal room arrangement is of benefit for most of the year.
Courtyard buildings are suitable, terraced buildings facing south may also be
appropriate. In cooler areas, exposure of the main rooms to the winter sun is essential,
whereas in warmer areas these rooms can also be placed north facing.
One solution would be a building type which is also useful in hot-dry and maritime
areas, consisting of a ground floor with massive walls and an upper floor of a light
structure . The ground floor would be relatively cool in the daytime and relatively
warm at night. The light structure on the upper floor would perform the opposite way.
As a consequence, in the winter time the inhabitants would use the upper floor in the
daytime and the ground floor at night. In the summer time the pattern would be
reversed.
(see Chapter 3.2.3.3)
Fig 3/155
It would even be possible to use different sites in different climatic regions - a warm
one in winter and a cool one in summer - and to migrate from one place to the other.
Economic limitation
In reality, however, for both economical and organizational reasons, such day and
night rooms or summer and winter houses are often not feasible, and a building or
room has to be designed to serve all year round. The large range of thermal conditions
requires the utilization of radiation and wind effects, as well as protection from them.
Hence, the arrangements have to play a dual role.
The outdoor space should also be designed as a compromise with ventilation and
shade in summer, and wind protection and solar radiation gain in winter. The
vegetation should be planned accordingly, to provide partly sunny and partly shaded
spaces. Deciduous trees are an excellent medium with which to achieve this goal.
(also see Chapter 3.1.3.4)
The retention of nighttime low temperatures is desirable in the hot-dry season. In the
cold season the retention in the evening of heat gained during the daytime is desirable.
Both can be achieved with a solid floor, wall and roof structure with a time lag of
some 9 to 12 hours. This thermal capacity is preferably provided by internal walls,
floors and roof, permitting the outer walls to be used more freely for large openings
which will help to meet the requirements of the warm-humid period.
If the thermal mass of the west wall is used for balancing the night temperature, its
time lag should be about 6 hours, as it gains heat in the afternoon hours only.
If thermal insulation is used, it should be placed on the outside of walls and roof, so
that the beneficial effect of the thermal storage capacity is not reduced.
Thermal insulation
In upland areas, conductive and radiant heat losses should be minimized. As a
consequence, the use of thermal insulation material may be appropriate.
Airtightness
At least as important is, however, an airtight construction. Thermal insulation is only
effective in a building with no or very little air leakage.
As a rule of thumb, in upland areas, a well insulated and relatively airtight building
requires about 1-kWh heat storage capacity per 1-m² of south facing glazed area.
As a consequence, the outer surfaces should posses absorption capacity but low
emissivity.
Absorbant surfaces are generally darker and non-shiny. Such surfaces should,
however, only be used for buildings with a high thermal capacity. Low thermal
capacity buildings would immediately overheat.
The floor may be in direct contact to the ground, with medium insulation and thermal
storage capacity. In upland regions, materials with low thermal transmission
properties are suitable (e.g. timber). In addition, thermal insulation may be required.
Floor areas receiving direct solar radiation should possess absorption properties and a
heat storage capacity.
3.4.4.2 Walls
(also see Chapter 3.1.4.2)
The cooler the climate, the better the thermal insulation and air-tightness of the outer
walls should be.
A medium heat storage capacity of internal and outer walls is appropriate to avoid
overheating in the daytime and keep the night temperature at comfort level.
Surfaces should generally have medium colors. In warmer regions a bright surface
with higher reflectivity is appropriate. Absorptive, dark surfaces are possible in
recessed areas, where the summer sun does not reach.
Fig 3/156
On the west and north side windows should be small. As a rule of thumb, the total
window area should not exceed 25% of the floor area.
In upland areas, as many windows as possible should be located on the south side of
the building to utilize the heating effect of solar radiation. However, the glazed area
should not exceed 50% of the south elevation because of extensive heat loss at night.
Excessive glazing can lead to overheating. This can be counteracted by
Windows should be equipped with tightly closing glazed panels, which provide
protection against heat loss during the cold season and also against flow of heat and
dusty air during the dry and hot season.
a) Joints
The joints between the window frames and the adjoining walls are an often neglected
detail. They should be airtight and, therefore, carefully sealed.
b) Double glazing
Double glazed leaves could be an advantage. However, it is not easy to build them to
function properly, because the space between the two glazed panels needs to be
accessible for cleaning.
c) Air-tightness
More important than double glazing is good workmanship, particularly with regard to
the grooves. To achieve air-tightness is the most crucial point, because the loss of
warm air trough the grooves usually accounts for much more than the loss of heat by
conduction through window panes. Double-groove window panels could bring a
considerable improvement, suitable hinges, however, are often not available.
Fig 3/158 Double groove window
d) Double leaves
e) Solid shutters
Instead of a second glazed leave a solid timber panel can also be used. This would
provide a better heat insulating effect for cold nights as well as for hot daytime
conditions.
f) Curtains
For additional thermal insulation at night heavy drapes closing rather tightly against
the window frame can also be used.
g) Insulated shutters
A very efficient, but rather expensive solution is the use of insulated internal shutters,
placed inside or outside of the window leaves.
h) Timber quality
For the construction of windows and doors it is very important to use well-seasoned
timber. Only then will panels remain straight and airtight.
3.4.4.4 Roofs
(also see Chapter 3.1.4.4)
Waterproofing
The roof should protect the building from precipitation and therefore be carefully
waterproofed.
Thermal insulation
The roof should provide protection against heat gain in summer and heat loss in
winter. The roof should, therefore, have thermal insulation properties.
Reflectivity
Usually a multilayer construction is required. The reflectivity and emissivity of the
outer surface is then of minor importance.
Heat storage
The construction should have a medium heat storage capacity to balance temperature
fluctuations between the daytime and evening hours, and also in case of sudden
weather changes. This storage mass must be situated inside the insulation layer.
Airtightness
In upland regions the construction should be airtight, the joints between construction
elements requiring special care.
Design
In the hot period, windows must be protected from solar radiation and glare. In the
cold season, however, solar heat gain through openings is desired. Hence, shading
devices should be movable, which involves a somewhat complicated mechanism and
also the attendance of the inhabitants. (see example in Chapter 4.9)
An other possibility is a well-balanced design aiming at an optimal direct solar gain in
winter and good shading in summer. (see example in Chapter 4.6)
A careful climatic analysis will provide an assessment, at what time direct gain is
desirable and when not. To determine the shape and size of appropriate shading
devices, design aids as described in Chapter 2.2.1 are given.
Shading of walls
Walls do not need extra shading devices in this type of climate, provided they possess
reasonably good insulation and reflective properties.
Vegetation
Deciduous trees are suitable for shading purposes. Such shading trees are best located
on the east and west side of a building. Vegetation which is too dense and too close to
the building should be avoided because of dampness effect.
Fig 3/161 Deciduous trees provide access to winter sun but protect against summer
sun
In winter time, a dense green coverage can be a disadvantage because desired the
solar heat gain may be reduced. By using deciduous plants this effect can be avoided.
Relation to winds
Protection against cold winter winds should be balanced by proper ventilation during
hot and humid periods. Therefore, regulated air movement is a primary requirement.
This can be achieved by well planned openings with shutters.
Ventilation openings
Preferably, special openings for ventilation should be provided. Two small openings,
one at a high level and one at a low level, or ventilating stacks may be solutions (see
Chapter 3.1.4). The disadvantage of such special arrangements lies in the fact that
they are often neglected by the inhabitants, with the result that warm or cold air enters
the room at undesired times.
The warmer the climate and the higher the humidity, the more important is it to
provide cross-ventilation.
Vegetation
To counteract the winter wind direction, evergreen windbreakers are desirable.
However, trees should not block the prevailing summer breezes. Evergreen trees are
best for wind protection, whereas deciduous trees are suitable for shading purposes.
The way plants can be arranged to achieve the desired ventilation effect is described
in detail in Chapter 3.1.5.2.
This section deals only with heating. Cooling methods are described in Chapter
3.1.5.3 and 3.2.5.3.
The basic idea was formulated by Socrates, who designed a concept with three
elements:
1. Summer sun
2. Winter sun
3. Covered verandah
4. Living room
5. Storeroom as thermal buffer zone
6. Insulated wall towards the north
Green effect
The function of the solar gain process using glazed surfaces is based on the
"greenhouse effect". This means that solar radiation can easily pass through glass.
When it strikes an absorptive surface behind the glass, it is converted into longwave
heat radiation which cannot pass directly through the glass anymore. As a result the
materials behind the glass heat up.
Using direct solar energy in a building requires that the majority of windows are
located on the south elevation. The sun's rays enter the building through the windows
and strike the floors, walls and objects in the rooms, where the greatest part is
absorbed and converted into heat.
Fig 3/164 The floor as collector and heat storage mass
Storage capacity
In order to retain the heat and to avoid overheating of the rooms in daytime heat
storage capacity is needed. This implies that the major part of the materials used in the
inside of the building (inside the thermal insulation) must have good heat absorption
and heat storage properties.
Indirect solar gain
The sun's rays are captured by various kinds of solar collectors, where the
accumulated heat can be transferred to the room in a controlled way.
a) Trombe wall
A massive wall with a dark surface is placed behind a glazed surface. It absorbs the
sun's rays and conducts the heat slowly through the wall to the inside of the building.
From here the heat is transferred to the rooms both by radiation and by convection.
Adobe and burned clay bricks are the materials with the best properties for trombe
wall constructions.
A disadvantage of the trombe wall is that it covers a great part of the south facing
elevation and thus prevents the provision of windows on this side.
b) Solar wall
The solar wall consists of highly absorptive, light materials between a glazed surface
and heat insulation. Solar radiant heat is collected. This is then emitted to the air
between the glasspane and the surface of the collector, which transfers the heat to the
rooms.
Solar walls can be constructed of corrugated, matt black painted metal sheeting or
other building materials which heat up quickly and which are resistant to high
temperatures. They can be incorporated into the building elevation, but they can also
be arranged in a detached way. In order to prevent the heat from escaping to the
outside, the glazed window walls in front of the solar walls have to be constructed in a
well sealed way. The system is also known as air-loop heating.
(see example in Chapter 4.9)
Fig 3/168 Solar wall as an air heating device with internal storage mass
During the warm period of the year, solar walls can be used as a cooling device,
creating increased ventilation.
(also see 3.2.5.3)
c) Solar collector
Solar collectors using water as a heat transmitting medium are the most efficient ones.
The system also offers more flexibility in the design because water can easily be
transported to the desired place in a controlled manner. However, the technology
requires more expertise and skill than the construction of thermal walls. At high
altitudes, there is a danger of freezing.
Fig 3/170 Solar collector as detached device
Danger of freezing
In mountainous regions, with temperatures far below freezing point, the use of water
as a heat transmitting medium is not possible. An anti-freezing agent would be
required, but in many cases its availability and use cannot be guarantied. Here,
systems using air as a transmitting medium are appropriate. However, such systems
are less efficient.
d) Water wall
(see Chapter 3.1)
Instead of masonry the wall consists of a metal tank filled with water. Compared to
the trombe wall this system conducts heat much more rapidly because the wall has far
less thermal lag and the water convects during heating. The great heat capacity of
water permits for rather thin walls.
Fig 3/171
e) Roof pond
(see Chapter 3.1)
Water walls and roof ponds could be suitable, but are technically demanding.
A greenhouse is built onto the south wall of a house and functions as a solar collector.
During the day excess heat is transferred by convection into the house, where it is
stored in the floor, walls or ceiling, or in a special heat storage element. The
greenhouse can also be combined with the principles of a trombe or solar wall.
Fig 3/172 Solar gain by attached greenhouse shown during day and night function