Chapter 1 The Structure of English
Chapter 1 The Structure of English
nten
ts
Preface x
Abbreviations xii
Acknowledgements xiv
3 Style 72
3.1 Sentence organisation 72
3.2 Literary and rhetorical devices 77
Contents v
Contents vii
Index 628
Contents ix
The
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r e of English
Open-class words
Nouns
Nouns (N) are traditionally known as naming words; they name people, places
and things. You can test a word to see whether it is a noun:
◗ by trying to place ‘the’ in front of it (‘the ’)
◗ by seeing whether it will fit into the structure ‘do you know about ?’
Although some words will not fit into these structures even though they are nouns,
these tests provide a starting point.
Nouns can be divided in several ways.
Common and proper nouns
Common nouns classify things into types or general categories:
car dog flower chair
Proper nouns refer to specific people and places and are usually written with an
initial capital letter. They do not often appear after the determiners a or the.
Steven Spielberg England Wales Robin Hood
Plurals
In written language, regular nouns add -s to mark the plural. Many nouns, how-
ever, are irregular and therefore follow alternative patterns.
◗ Nouns ending in -y form their plurals by changing the -y into -ies:
story → stories penny → pennies
◗ Nouns ending in -o, -s, -sh, -ss, -tch and -x often form plurals by adding -es:
mistress → mistresses box → boxes flash → flashes
◗ Nouns ending in -f (except -ff ) or -fe change to -ves in the plural:
hoof → hooves (or sometimes hoofs) life → lives
◗ Some nouns form a plural by changing a vowel or using a suffix other than -s:
mouse → mice tooth → teeth ox → oxen child → children
◗ Some nouns are the same in the singular and the plural:
sheep fish (or sometimes fishes)
Collective nouns, although singular in form, refer to groups of people,
animals and things:
crowd family committee
Possessives
In written language, ’s or ’ is added to the noun to mark possession. The following
rules govern use of the possessive ending in written English.
proper common
concrete abstract
1 Read through the extract below and list all the nouns.
December 1984
Monday December 24th
CHRISTMAS EVE
Something dead strange has happened to Christmas. It’s just not the same as it used
to be when I was a kid. In fact I’ve never really got over the trauma of finding out that
my parents had been lying to me annually about the existence of Santa Claus.
To me then, at the age of eleven, Santa Claus was a bit like God, all-seeing, all-
knowing, but without the lousy things that God allows to happen: earthquakes, fam-
ines, motorway crashes. I would lie in bed under the blankets (how crude the word
blankets sounds today when we are all conversant with the Tog rating of continen-
tal quilts), my heart pounding and palms sweaty in anticipation of the virgin Beano
album.
Sue Townsend, True Confessions of Adrian Albert Mole
2 Classify the following nouns, deciding whether they are proper or common nouns,
concrete or abstract.
a parents e Beano i bed
b Christmas f heart j anticipation
c existence g Santa Claus
d quilt h trauma
Irregularity
Some adjectives are irregular, as the following patterns show:
bad → worse → worst good → better → best
ACTIVITY 1.2
Verbs
Verbs (V) are traditionally known as doing words, but this does not cover all their
possible meanings. A more accurate definition would be that verbs can express
actions and states. Stative verbs express states of being or processes in which
there is no obvious action; they are not often used as commands and do not usu-
ally occur after the verb to be with an -ing ending:
to know to believe to remember to realise to suppose to appear
Dynamic verbs express a wide range of actions which may be physical, like
jump; mental, like think; or perceptual, like see. They can be used as commands
and occur after the verb to be with an -ing ending:
to buy → buy! → buying
Transitive verbs must be followed by an object (the person or thing to
which the action of the verb is done) to complete their meaning:
I carried the baby. They found the lost ring. We can make a Christmas cake.
Intransitive verbs do not need to be followed by an object to make sense.
Many verbs describing position (to sit; to lie) and motion (to run; to go) are intran-
sitive – the verb will often be followed by a description of place or destination:
It happened. The children laughed. The girl went to the cinema.
It is important to realise that many verbs can be both transitive and intransitive:
Irregular verbs
Irregular verbs often have five forms:
Types of verbs
There are two main types of verbs: lexical and auxiliary. Lexical verbs (lex)
express the meaning in a verb phrase:
the boy ran to school the dog jumped and frisked
Auxiliary verbs (aux) can be used to construct different timescales, questions
and negatives, to add emphasis or to give information about the mood or attitude
of a speaker or writer. The primary verbs (prim) to be, to have, and to do can act
as auxiliaries:
I have gone. The girl has swum. Do you want to go to the cinema?
I did not watch television. The baby does want food.
The modal verbs (mod) can/could, may/might, must/shall/should and will/
would convey a range of attitudes and moods about the likelihood of an event tak-
ing place:
◗ Ability I can swim.
◗ Intention You will do as you are told.
◗ Necessity/obligation You must go at once. You should do as you are told.
◗ Permission Can I leave the classroom, please? May I leave the room?
◗ Prediction He will come today, I’m sure. I shall finish tonight.
◗ Possibility I can go. I may go.
Future time
In order to create a sense of future time, English can use a range of structures.
The simple present:
I leave tomorrow. She starts next week.
The modal verbs shall or will + base form verb:
I shall go to town later. They will go on holiday soon.
Be going + infinitive:
I am going to visit France next year. We are going to travel by train.
To be + present participle:
My friend is coming to tea tomorrow night.
They are moving to Australia next year.
Will or shall + be + present participle:
I shall be writing again next week. We will be waiting for you.
Voice
The action of a verb and the person(s) or thing(s) responsible for it can be con-
veyed in two ways using voice: the active voice and the passive voice.
The active voice is more common: it expresses the action of the verb,
directly linking it to the person or thing carrying out the action.
The car stopped suddenly. The girl picked up a book.
The passive voice changes the focus of the sentence by reordering the elements.
The basic structure of the passive is as follows:
the subject or actor of the active sentence (the person or thing doing the verb)
is moved to the end of the passive sentence and becomes the optional passive
agent (i.e. by + subject of active sentence)
the object of the active sentence (the person or thing receiving the action
of the verb) is moved to the front of the passive sentence and becomes the
subject
the active verb is replaced by a verb in the passive form: to be + past partici-
ple or have + to be + past participle.
Active: The police hit the rioter.
Passive: The rioter was hit [by the police].
Active: The young child threw the ball and broke the window.
Passive: The ball was thrown and the window was broken [by the child].
If the actor is a long phrase that seems awkward at the start of the sentence, it
can be placed at the end for fluency:
A tremendous meal was prepared and [was] served by the cooks and waiters from
the local hotel who trained at the college.
ACTIVITY 1.3
2 List the verbs in the following sentences and decide whether each is finite or non-
finite. Then use the diagram in Figure . to describe their forms exactly.
The boy runs to school.
runs: finite; present tense; third person; singular.
a The eagles flapped their wings. c You have gone mad.
b She laughs at herself. d I carried the child away.
finite non-finite
past present 1st 2nd 3rd singular plural present participle past participle
I you he I we
we she you you
it she/he they
they it
3 Rewrite the following active sentences in the passive voice, including the passive
agent.
a The strong waves lifted the boat above the dangerous sandbank.
b The monks rang the bells to warn the surrounding villagers of the impending
danger.
c After the disturbance, the police shut the pub.
4 Rewrite the following active sentences in the passive, omitting the passive agent.
Comment on the effect created in each case.
a The guards beat the prisoners.
b The bully left the child face down in the playground.
c The scientists discovered the way to split the atom and created the first atom
bomb.
Answers on page
ACTIVITY 1.4
Read the passage below and answer the questions that follow it.
Wednesday December 26th
BOXING DAY
I was woken at dawn by the sound of Grandad Sugden’s rusty Ford Escort refus-
ing to start. I know I should have gone down into the street and helped to push it
but Grandma Sugden seemed to be doing all right on her own. It must be all those
years of flinging sacks of potatoes about. My parents were wisely pretending to be
asleep …
Went back to sleep but the dog licked me awake at 9.30, so I took it for a walk past
Pandora’s house. Her dad’s Volvo wasn’t in the drive so they must still be staying
with their rich relations. On the way I passed Barry Kent, who was kicking a football
up against the wall of the old people’s home. He seemed full of seasonal goodwill for
once and I stopped to talk with him. He asked what I’d had for Christmas …
Sue Townsend, True Confessions of Adrian Albert Mole
3 Find an example of the passive voice and rewrite the sentence in the active voice.
4 Find one example of the progressive aspect and one of the perfective aspect.
5 Find one example of the present tense and one of the past tense.
6 Find two examples of a finite verb and two examples of a non-finite verb.
Answers on page
Adverbs
Adverbs (Adv) are modifying words. They give information about time, place
and manner, and can express a speaker’s attitude to or evaluation of what is being
said. They can modify:
◗ verbs The car drove slowly.
◗ adjectives The house was very pretty.
◗ other adverbs The mural was painted particularly carefully.
◗ sentences Certainly, the work will be completed on time.
I went home; my friend, meanwhile, stayed to chat.
Circumstance adverbs (or adjuncts) modify verbs, giving details of circum-
stances such as time, manner and place:
◗ manner He was sleeping well; the cat was fighting furiously.
◗ time You must go to school now; afterwards, you can go swimming.
◗ frequency I always visit my grandmother on Sundays; I never stay at home.
◗ place Go there to get a coat; upstairs they have shirts too.
To test for an adverb of manner, ask yourself the question ‘how?’
◆
◆ To test for an adverb of frequency, ask yourself the question ‘how often?’
Irregular adverbs
Some adverbs are irregular:
badly → worse → worst little → less → least
much → more → most well → better → best
Position
There are three main positions for adverbs.
The front of the sentence:
Actually, I have loved this place for a long time.
The middle of a sentence – after the first auxiliary, after the verb to be as a lexi-
cal verb, or before the lexical verb:
I have actually loved this place for a long time.
I am actually in love with this place.
I actually loved the place.
Underline the adverbs in the following passage and identify them as:
1 circumstance adverbs
2 degree adverbs
3 sentence adverbs.
The sun shone brightly there on that crisp December morning. Nevertheless, I could
not help feeling that the day would not go well. Again and again, I was aware of
the completely isolated nature of the spot here and anxiously I waited for the others
to arrive. I knew I was being really silly, but generally my intuitions were correct. I
had found recently that things happened as I knew they would. It made me very sus-
picious and often I would look around warily. Sometimes, however, I was wrong and
I hoped desperately that I was being over-sensitive this time. I tried to relax and to
think about something else. What would take my mind off my premonitions? Perhaps
the beauty of the day could make me forget. Actually, I was here on holiday and I had
to make sure that I enjoyed my stay properly.
Answers on page
Closed-class words
Pronouns
Pronouns (pron) are used instead of nouns, noun phrases or noun clauses. There
are seven main types of pronouns.
Personal pronouns
Subject pronouns are used for the actor of the sentence:
◗ first person singular I ◗ first person plural we
◗ second person singular you ◗ second person plural you
◗ third person singular he/she/it ◗ third person plural they
The next-door neighbour visited today. She was in a good mood.
Children should always be seen and not heard. You should be seen and not heard.
When a pronoun replaces the noun that receives the action of the verb (object),
an object pronoun is used:
◗ first person singular me ◗ first person plural us
◗ second person singular you ◗ second person plural you
◗ third person singular him/her/it ◗ third person plural them
The people carried their parcels indoors. The people carried them indoors.
Give your brother the book. Give him the book.
Possessive pronouns
Possessive pronouns are used when you need to show possession of
something:
◗ first person singular mine ◗ first person plural ours
◗ second person singular yours ◗ second person plural yours
◗ third person singular his/hers ◗ third person plural theirs
Reflexive pronouns
Reflexive pronouns are used when the same person is the actor (subject)
and receiver of the action (object) in a sentence. They can also be used to create
emphasis:
◗ first person singular myself ◗ first person plural ourselves
◗ second person singular yourself ◗ second person plural yourselves
◗ third person singular himself/ ◗ third person plural themselves
herself/itself
You should wash yourself carefully.
You yourself know how dangerous it is.
He said he saw her worry herself unnecessarily.
Demonstrative pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns are used to ‘point’ to the relationship between the
speaker and a person or a thing. They are said to have a ‘deictic’ function. There
are four demonstrative pronouns:
◗ this and these point to something that is close to the speaker
◗ that and those point to something that is distant from the speaker.
I like the apples. I like these. The lady over there is my aunt. That is my aunt.
Relative pronouns
relative pronouns follow directly the nouns they describe. They introduce
relative clauses, although sometimes the pronoun itself is omitted. There are five
forms: that, which, who, whom and whose.
The man who has white hair lives close to me.
I went to the library to return the book that you got out for me.
I saw a car which drove the wrong way down a one-way street.
Indefinite pronouns
Indefinite pronouns have a less certain reference point than the other pro-
nouns listed here. There are two types:
◗ of pronouns: all of, both of, each of, either of, neither of and some of are
followed by a noun, an object pronoun, or a relative pronoun:
I want all of the books. I want all of them.
I will buy a shirt and a jacket, both of which must be very colourful.
ACTIVITY 1.6
List the pronouns in the following passage and identify them as:
1 personal pronouns 5 interrogative pronouns
2 possessive pronouns 6 relative pronouns
3 reflexive pronouns 7 indefinite pronouns.
4 demonstrative pronouns
We enjoyed our days at the beach that summer. It had been glorious weather and
everyone had relished the warmth and light after the harshness of a long winter which
had seemed endless. Some ran the length of the sand to the sea; some lay peacefully
on their towels. I decided to paddle, and covered myself in suntan lotion before walk-
ing lazily to the sea which shimmered before me. Why was it not like this all the time?
Everything seemed perfect. The day was ours to do with as we wished. As I turned
back to the beach, a small boy sat on my towel.
‘Get off,’ I shouted. ‘That is mine.’ He stood up suddenly and shouted something.
Who could he be talking to? Then I saw the girl a short distance away. He had clearly
thought the towel was hers.
I lay back down and closed my eyes to think of the girl that I had met earlier in the
day. What was she doing now, I wondered? I still had her book and I would have to
return it to her.
Answers on page
Determiners
Determiners (det) precede nouns. There are five main types.
Articles
Articles can be definite (the) or indefinite (a or an). The former specifies some-
thing particular, while the latter does not:
the dog a dog the house a house
Possessive determiners
Possessive determiners are used to suggest ownership of a noun. There are
seven forms: my, your, his, her, its, our and their.
my book our suitcases their motives
Demonstrative determiners
Demonstrative determiners express a contrast, establishing either a close or
a more distant relationship.
This week is going slowly.
The shop assistant said that she wanted these things kept aside for her.
Numbers
When numbers precede nouns, they are functioning as determiners. Both car-
dinal numbers (one, two, three, and so on) and ordinal numbers (first, second,
third, and so on) can be used as determiners.
First place goes to Jack. Six sheep have escaped from the farm.
Both children are really hard workers. Both are really hard workers.
det pron
ACTIVITY 1.7
List the determiners in the following passage and try to classify them under the
headings below:
1 articles: definite and indefinite 4 indefinite determiners
2 possessive determiners 5 numbers.
3 demonstrative determiners
The old lady reached the doorstep of her home and put her bag down to search for
a key in her pocket. This search was always the worst part of any trip out. However
hard she tried, she could never find either key – she always carried one key for the
front door and one key for the back door in case of emergencies. On many occasions
she had been sure that both keys were lost. But this time was an exception.
She skilfully slotted one key into the lock and turned it carefully. In two minutes she
was indoors, but for the second time that day, she drew her breath sharply. Every day
recently she had had some visitors, but enough was enough. There was more mess
than even she could bear and for the rest of that day, she concentrated on making
her home her own again.
Answers on page
Prepositions
Prepositions (prep) describe relationships that exist between elements in sen-
tences. They convey the following relationships:
ACTIVITY 1.8
Conjunctions
Conjunctions (conj) are joining words, and there are two types.
Co-ordinating conjunctions
Co-ordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, neither … nor and either … or) link
lexical units of equal value.
The girl and the boy. They saw and understood.
N N V V
The dog was gentle and friendly. The day was wet and the trip was ruined.
Adj Adj sentence sentence
Subordinating conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions join a subordinate clause to a main clause.
They often give information on when, where, why, if or how an action takes place. A
clause introduced by a subordinating conjunction cannot stand alone.
ACTIVITY 1.9
Read through the passage below and choose an appropriate conjunction to fill each of
the gaps in the text. Identify the type of conjunction used in each case.
(1) the doctor hurried from one bed to another, the nurses went about their
tasks calmly. They had beds to make (2) medicine to allocate, (3) it was
all part of the daily routine. (4) they were accustomed to being shorthanded,
they found ways to divide the tasks. (5) they were really busy, things went quite
smoothly.
The ward was full at the moment (6) they all knew that there were at least two
patients waiting for admission. It always seemed to happen these days – (7)
a bed was vacated, it was stripped and filled within half an hour. (8) the
nurses looked, they saw the need for more beds, more facilities and above all, more
nurses. (9) they had to cope with the cuts, they had to think only of the job in
hand. It was not worth wasting energy on bewailing the conditions in which they had
to work, (10) they needed all their strength to cope with their long shifts. It was
better (11) working on a production line, surely!
Answers on page
Suffixes
A suffix follows a free morpheme:
kindness leaning
Words can have multiple affixes (un + like + li + hood).
ACTIVITY 1.10
Divide the words below into bound and free morphemes, bearing in mind that the
addition of suffixes sometimes changes the spelling of free morphemes.
1 unjustifiable 5 negativity
2 summative 6 unlikely
3 midnight 7 pitiful.
4 daily
Suffixes
Suffixes usually, but not always, change the class of the free morpheme to which
they are attached:
Word class of Suffix Word class of
free morpheme created word
exploit (V) -ation exploitation (N)
joy (N) -ful joyful (Adj)
friend (N) -ship friendship (N)
ACTIVITY 1.11
Add appropriate bound morphemes to the underlined words in order to derive new
words.
Inflectional morphology
Open-class words can be altered by adding a suffix. However, while derivational
morphology often involves a change in word class, inflectional morphology never
does.
In written English, inflection can mark the following.
Plurals
The plural of nouns:
Free morpheme Bound morpheme Inflected word
cat -s cats
book -s books
gas -es gases
penny -ies pennies
Possessives
The possessive of all nouns:
Free morpheme Bound morpheme Inflected word
girl -’s the girl’s jumper
children -’s the children’s toys
adults -’ the adults’ books
Present tense
The present tense of regular third person singular verbs:
Free morpheme Bound morpheme Inflected word
run -s he runs
cry -ies the baby cries
Present participle
The present participle form of verbs:
Free morpheme Bound morpheme Inflected word
do -ing doing
justify -ing justifying
ACTIVITY 1.12
List the suffixes in the examples below and try to identify the kind of inflection used
in each case:
1 sailors 3 the girls’ bags 5 the dog’s bone
2 viewed 4 dreaming 6 the tiger snarls
ACTIVITY 1.13
For each of the examples below, list the free and bound morphemes and then identify:
a the word class of each example
b the word class of each free morpheme
c whether derivational or inflectional morphemes have been used.
morality (N)
Free morpheme = moral (Adj); bound morpheme = -ity; derivational morphol-
ogy (change of word class: words ending with the suffix -ity are nouns).
lives (V)
Free morpheme = live (V); bound morpheme = -s; inflectional morphology
(inflection marking a third person singular present tense verb).
1 greatness 5 inter-rivalry 9 institutionalise
2 multigym 6 illogical 10 reassesses
3 declaration 7 predetermination
4 delimited 8 horrifying
Answers on page
1.5 Phrases
A phrase is a single word or a group of words that act together as a unit but that
do not usually contain a finite verb.
Noun phrases
A noun phrase (NP) usually begins with a determiner and normally has a
noun as its most important word. It can act as a subject, and as an object or
a complement in a clause (see Section .). Noun phrases have the following
characteristics.
m m h q m m h q FUNCTION
The beautiful sky of blue rose above the glimmering sea of green.
NP NP FORM
det Adj N prep Adj det V N prep Adj
Pre-modification
Pre-modification can take the following forms:
pre-determiners determiners pre-modifiers head
(all, all of, (numerals (num), adjectives,
each of) noun or verb modifiers)
m m m m m h FUNCTION
all the first long distance runners
NP FORM
pre-det det num Adj N N
m m m m m h FUNCTION
some of those four young school girls
NP FORM
pre-det det num Adj N N
Post-modification
Post-modification or qualification can take the following forms.
Prepositional phrases
A prepositional phrase (PrepP) will always begin with a preposition.
m h q FUNCTION
the baby on the floor
NP FORM
det N PrepP
m h q FUNCTION
a man called Jack
NP FORM
det N NFCl
Relative clauses
A relative clause (RelCl) will usually begin with a relative pronoun (see
Section .).
m h q FUNCTION
the baby who was chewing his rattle
NP FORM
det N RelCl
ACTIVITY 1.14
Read the following passage, then list all the noun phrases and try to identify:
1 the head word of each noun phrase
2 the kind of modification (pre- or post-) used.
The first summer’s day burst through my curtains unexpectedly. The new dawn’s sun-
light highlighted the paths of dust which lay on the ancient sea chest. The scratches
paid tribute to a life of hardship and I couldn’t help wondering about the interesting
stories which were linked to the marks. The drowned men who had owned this chest
could tell their own versions of events, but I would never know them.
I turned lazily towards the wall, but I was merely met by another withered mark of
the past. This time, I was confronted by the faded rose wallpaper. The memory of
another place slowly filtered through my hazy mind, forcing me to make connections.
I remembered that first disturbing visit to the ruined cottage and its ongoing effects.
This second historical link waiting for me, unexpectedly, stirred me at last.
Answers on page
ACTIVITY 1.15
Analyse the following noun phrases from the extract in terms of function and form:
1 the interesting stories which were linked to the marks
2 their own versions of events
3 the wall
4 the faded rose wallpaper
5 This second historical link waiting for me.
Adjective phrases
An adjective phrase (AdjP) has an adjective as its main word. Adjective
phrases have the following characteristics.
h FUNCTION
The horse was black and stood out against the whiteness of the snow.
AdjP FORM
Pre-modification
Adverbs and some adjectives can pre-modify an adjective:
m h m h m h FUNCTION
very bold extremely dangerous pure white
AdjP AdjP AdjP FORM
Adv Adj Adv Adj Adj Adj
Post-modification
Post-modification of adjective phrases can take the following forms.
Prepositional phrases
A prepositional phrase will always begin with a preposition:
h q FUNCTION
afraid of ghosts
AdjP FORM
Adj PrepP
Noun clauses
A noun clause (NCl) will always start with the subordinating conjunction
that, although this may be omitted (marked in analysis by the symbol ø).
h q FUNCTION
sure that he’ll get lost
AdjP FORM
Adj NCl
h q FUNCTION
sure (ø) he’ll get lost
AdjP FORM
Adj NCl
ACTIVITY 1.16
Read the following passage and then list the adjective phrases and analyse them in
terms of function and form. The first example is completed for you.
I was very glad to meet him on that winter’s day. The snow, deep and white, fell
quickly, covering the ground like a blanket. He seemed rather sad, but quite sure of
his need for company. He was very sincere about the purpose of his journey – he
wanted to visit the place, isolated and very bleak though it was, to remind himself of
everything that had happened. Surprisingly fierce, he justified his arrival, quite certain
that he had made the right decision. As we walked, however, he became so unbeliev-
ably withdrawn that I could not agree with his interpretation of events. He was unsure
and rather quiet, and I was certain he wished he had not come.
Answers on page
Verb phrases
A verb phrase (VP) generally has a lexical verb as its main verb. It can be made
up of one lexical verb, or one or more auxiliary verbs and a lexical verb. Verb
phrases have the following characteristics.
Lexical verbs as head words
A verb phrase may consist of one lexical verb as a head word:
h
The girl saw some horses.
VP
V
Generative grammar would describe the verb phrase in a different way: the noun
phrase following the verb would be seen as an integral part of the verb phrase.
In the example given above, for instance, some horses would be embedded in the
larger phrase of which the verb saw is the key word. This could be recorded on a
tree diagram as follows:
S
NP VP
det noun
Adopting the functional approach which will be used in this book, the example
would be represented in a different way in order to distinguish between the con-
trasting roles of the constituent phrases:
S
NP VP NP
h h FUNCTION
I may have seen the horses. I should have been seeing the horses.
VP VP FORM
aux aux lex aux aux aux lex
(mod) (prim) (mod) (prim) (prim)
h FUNCTION
She must have been being helped at the time.
VP FORM
aux aux aux aux lex
(mod) (prim) (prim) (prim)
Phrasal verbs
Some verb phrases, called phrasal verbs, are made up of a verb and an adverb:
I gave away my tickets. The manager looked up the prices.
VP VP
V Adv V Adv
Many phrasal verbs can stand alone: they do not need anything to follow them
(grow up, break down).
Prepositional verbs
Some verb phrases are made up of a verb and a preposition or particle. They are
called prepositional verbs.
I looked at the pictures. He stood against his opponent.
VP VP
V prep V prep
Prepositional verbs cannot stand alone: they must be followed by a noun phrase.
Phrasal and prepositional verbs are common in informal speech and writing.
They can often be replaced by one lexical item.
Prepositional phrases
A prepositional phrase (PrepP) has a preposition as its main word. It is
normally followed by a noun phrase. Prepositional phrases add extra information
and are therefore optional – they can be omitted without affecting the meaning.
They have the following characteristics.
Post-modification
Prepositional phrases are used to post-modify other phrases.
m h q m h q FUNCTION
the boys from the town rather unhappy about the prospect
NP AdjP FORM
det N PrepP Adv Adj PrepP
Adverb phrases
An adverb phrase (AdvP) has an adverb as its main word. Adverb phrases have
the following general characteristics.
Adverbs as head words
The head word of an adverb phrase is an adverb:
h m h FUNCTION
the child laughed loudly the crowd jostled very impatiently
AdvP AdvP FORM
Adv Adv Adv
Extra information
Adverb phrases provide extra information – if omitted, the sentence will still
make sense:
h FUNCTION
The choir sing gloriously. The choir sing.
AdvP FORM
Adv
Adverbials
Adverb phrases can function as adverbials in a sentence, providing information
about time, manner and place:
A A FUNCTION
We visited France recently. They go to the cinema quite regularly.
AdvP AdvP FORM
Adv Adv Adv
1.6 Clauses
Clauses (Cl) are the main structures used to compose sentences. A sentence will
be made up of at least one main clause (a clause that makes sense on its own
and that is not dependent on or part of another clause); it may also contain one or
more subordinate clauses (a clause that cannot stand on its own and that is
dependent on the main clause). Clauses may be finite (containing a verb marked
for tense, number and person); non-finite (containing a present participle, a past
participle or an infinitive); or verbless (containing no verb).
◗ Finite clause (The guests arrived late).
◗ Non-finite clause (Arriving late), the guests crowded around the door noisily.
◗ Verbless clause (Well I never)!
S FUNCTION
(What I look forward to) is a restful Christmas.
Cl FORM
Position in a question
In a question, the subject usually follows the auxiliary verb:
S
Did (the girl) go to town?
Verb
Verbs or predicators (P) can express a range of meanings – actions, processes,
states and so on. They are the most important clause element: they cannot be
omitted, except in a minor sentence:
Like father, like son.
Only a verb phrase can fill the verb site of a clause:
I should go to town.
Indirect objects
The object can also be something that is indirectly affected by the verb. Usually
an indirect object (Oi) will precede the direct object, but it may instead follow
the direct object. You can check whether an object is indirect by placing it after the
direct object and putting to before it:
Oi Od Od Oi
The child gave (her friend) (a present). The child gave (a present) (to her friend).
Kinds of object
The object is usually a noun phrase or a pronoun. If the object is a pronoun, it
may have a distinctive form:
Od Od
The rain soaked (the boy). The rain soaked (him).
Oi Oi
He gave (the visitors) a cup of tea. He gave (them) a cup of tea.
Kinds of complement
The complement can be an adjective phrase, a noun phrase, a pronoun, a
numeral or a clause:
Cs Co FUNCTION
The musician was (excellent). The man thought the wine (a bargain).
AdjP NP FORM
Cs Cs FUNCTION
The book is (his). The old lady was (ninety).
pron num FORM
Cs FUNCTION
This field is (where the battle took place).
Cl FORM
Number of adverbials
More than one adverbial can be added to a clause:
A A A FUNCTION
(Twice a week) the boy ran (to his grandmother’s house) (for tea).
NP PrepP PrepP FORM
Clause structure
Most clauses will have a subject and a verb. Other clause elements are optional
and will be used depending upon the information and the kind of verb selected.
It is useful to distinguish between the form or word class of a verb (V) and the
grammatical role or function of a verb phrase in a clause. To do this, linguists call
the verb site the predicator (P) in clause analysis:
S P S P Od FUNCTION
(I) (run). (The children) (will need) (some food).
NP VP NP VP NP FORM
pron V det N aux lex det N
Clause types
There are seven types of clause, in which the elements are combined in different
ways.
Subject + verb:
S P
(They) (voted).
ACTIVITY 1.17
Try to identify the clause elements in the following passage. The first sentence is
completed for you. Use the following abbreviations:
S subject C complement
P predicator or verb A adverbial
Od direct object conj coordinating conjunction
Oi indirect object neg negative
A S P C
(After William the Conqueror), (the next King of England) (was) (his son William). He
was a very strong and good-looking man, but he had a red face and rather reddish
hair. He was not a good man and was cruel to his people. Like his father, he enjoyed
hunting animals. One day the Red King’s arrow just missed a big deer. William was
very excited and called out to his friend, Walter. Walter fired an arrow, but by accident
it stuck in the King’s eye and he fell dead. Walter was very frightened and he rode
away. The King’s body lay in the forest all day. In the evening it was carried away in a
workman’s cart and buried in the big church at a town called Winchester.
Answers on page
1.7 Sentences
A sentence is a grammatical construction that makes sense on its own. In writ-
ing, it begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop or an exclamation or
question mark. This section will help you to recognise and describe the different
kinds of sentences. Before beginning work on sentence structure, it would be use-
ful to look back over word classes, phrases, clause elements and clause types.
Simple sentences
A simple sentence contains just one clause. It has only one finite verb and is
described as a main clause (MCl).
Compound sentences
A compound sentence contains two or more simple sentences linked by
co-ordinating conjunctions (and, or, but). Each clause in a compound sen-
tence carries equal weight and makes sense on its own, so each can therefore be
described as a main clause. Sentences will often be linked like this because they
share content in some way.
MCl S P Od MCl P Od A
(The girl) (weeded) (borders) and (removed) (dead flowers) (from the roses).
conj
MCl S A P Od MCl S P Od
(The children) (often) (watched) (television) but (they) (preferred) (the cinema).
conj
MCl S P A MCl S P Od
(We) (could go) (to the park) or (we) (could visit) (the museum).
conj
When two sentences are linked, it is usually better to avoid repetition. This can be
achieved by using substitution or ellipsis.
Substitution
In substitution, a pronoun replaces a noun or a noun phrase:
MCl S P Od MCl S P A
(The tearful boy) (took) (his coat) and (he) (left) (immediately).
MCl S P Od A MCl S P A C
(Dickens) (wrote) (many stories) (in his lifetime) and (he) (is) (still) (popular).
Ellipsis
Ellipsis is the omission of an element of language. As long as the reader can eas-
ily recognise exactly what has been deleted, part of a sentence can be omitted to
avoid repetition.
MCl A S P A MCl (ø) P A
(In autumn), (the leaves) (fall) (to the ground) (and) [the leaves] (blow) (around the
conj
A
garden) (untidily).
MCl S P A MCl (ø)
(The latest film releases) (are publicised) (extensively) (but) [the latest film
conj
MCl S P Od
(I) (know) (who sent me the Valentine card).
SCl–RelCl
(rel pron)
MCl S P C
(The prospective candidates) (were) (what we had hoped for).
SCl–NCl
(wh- word)
MCl S P Od A
(We) (will discuss) (the new house) (when we know if we’ve sold this one).
SCl–ACl SCl–ACl
(sconj) (sconj)
In assessing the role of the subordinate clause, always check whether it func-
tions as the whole of a clause element or just as part of the clause element.
MCl S P Od
(I) (know) (the boy who sent me the Valentine card).
SCl–RelCl
MCl S P Od
(I) (know) (what to do next).
SCl–NCl
In the first example, the subordinate clause could be omitted and part of the object
would still remain: the boy. The function of the relative clause is to post-modify
the head noun. In the second example, the subordinate clause stands as the object
on its own. If it were omitted, the sentence would have no object.
Complex sentences
Clauses in complex sentences do not have equal value. One is a main clause
and the one or more other clauses are called subordinate or dependent clauses.
A subordinate clause does not make sense standing on its own.
There are six types of subordinate clause.
Noun clauses
A noun clause (NCl) can fill the subject or object site of a clause. There are two
main kinds of noun clause.
Wh-clauses
A wh-clause (whCl) will begin with a wh- word.
MCl S P O
(I) (wonder) (what I can do).
SCl–NCl
Adverbial clauses
An adverbial clause (ACl) functions as an adverbial within the main clause.
It answers questions such as when?, why? and what for? An adverbial clause can
be recognised by the subordinating conjunction that marks its beginning (if,
because, unless, where, etc.).
MCl S P A MCl A S P O
(I) (went) (when I saw the time). (Because I left late), (I) (missed) (the train).
SCl–ACl SCl–ACl
Relative clauses
A relative clause (RelCl) adds extra information about one of the nouns in the
main clause. The beginning of a relative clause is usually marked by a relative pro-
noun (who, whose, which and that), although it can be omitted. Relative clauses
follow the nouns they post-modify or qualify:
MCl S P C
(The man who lives next door) (is) (deaf).
SCl–RelCl
MCl S P O
(Our friend) (likes) (stories that come from other countries).
SCl–RelCl
Comparative clauses
A comparative clause (CompCl) starts with as (equal comparison) or con-
tains than (unequal comparison).
MCl S P C MCl S P O
(I) (am) (faster than he is). (We) (took) (as many pictures as he did).
SCl–CompCl SCl–CompCl
Non-finite clauses
A non-finite clause (NFCl) can be recognised by an infinitive, a present parti-
ciple or a past participle at the beginning of the clause.
MCl S P O MCl A S P C A
(I) (wanted) (to go). (Leaving it all behind), (I) (was) (happy) (at last).
SCl–NFCl SCl–NFCl
Verbless clauses
While verbless main clauses (VlessCl) like What about a cup of tea?, Good
thing too! and Lovely weather! are more likely to be used in informal speech, a
verbless subordinate clause is more common in formal written English.
Compound–complex sentences
In making a compound–complex sentence, co-ordination and subordina-
tion are used together:
MCl S P Od MCl A P Od
(The police) (needed) (to discover who had been seen) (and) (then) (hoped) (to make
SCl–NFCl SCl–RelCl conj SCl–NFCl
an arrest).
The first main clause here has two subordinate clauses in the object site. It is co-
ordinated with another main clause of equal value which has one subordinate
clause in the object site.
MCl S P A MCl P A
(The lorry) (left) (when it had been loaded) (and) (returned) (after it had delivered its
SCl–ACl conj SCl–ACl
its load).
Each main clause in the sentence above contains a subordinate clause functioning
as an adverbial. Each subordinate clause starts with a subordinating conjunction,
when or after; the two main clauses are joined by a co-ordinating conjunction,
and.
Analysing a sentence
In order to analyse a sentence, use the following process.
ACTIVITY 1.18
Underline the subordinate clauses in the following passage and try to identify their
type. Remember that a subordinate clause can:
1 replace a whole clause site: subject, object, complement or adverbial
2 post-modify a noun phrase
3 add extra information to a complement, etc.
I shall always remember the day when we arrived at the new house. It was perfect.
The weather was good and our spirits were high. Things did not remain the same for
long because things were not quite what they seemed. Looking back, I now regret
many things.
The first problem was the key which did not fit. Then the removal van did not arrive,
leaving us stranded. With no furniture and no boxes, there was nothing for us to
do. The fact that we were helpless was not too disturbing, but the sudden change
in the weather was since we were stuck outside. The estate agent was sent for and
the removal company phoned. Although we could do nothing for the moment, I felt
obliged to act, rushing around like a headless chicken while the rain fell steadily.
The time passed slowly. Eventually, someone did bring a new key, so that we could
go into the house and wait for the removal van in the dry. We had been assured that it
was on its way at last!
The unpredictable day became a peaceful night as we settled into a bare and disor-
ganised house. Our immediate problems were over, but we had not anticipated what
was to come next …
Answers on page
Interrogative mood
The interrogative mood is used for addressing questions. You can recognise
the interrogative by checking whether the subject follows the auxiliary verbs do,
have or be:
P S P A A
(Did) (the old man) (sit) (in the park) (contentedly)?
aux lex
P S P A A
(Was) (the symphony orchestra) (playing) (well) (in the new concert hall)?
aux lex
Imperative mood
The imperative mood is used for addressing commands or orders. You can
recognise the imperative by checking that there is no subject and that the verb is
in the base form (the unmarked form).
P A P A A
(Sit) (in the park). (Vote) (in the European elections) (today)!
Sometimes the person addressed is named but not in the traditional subject
site of the clause; instead, a vocative (voc) is used. This refers to the person to
whom the sentence is addressed. A vocative has two functions:
◗ to call someone, in order to gain her or his attention;
Joseph, it’s tea-time. It’s your turn on the computer now, Julie.
◗ to address someone, expressing a particular social relationship or a personal
attitude.
Waiter, there’s a fly in my soup! You fool, what are you trying to do?
1.9 Cohesion
Language has a hierarchical structure. So far, you have studied words, phrases,
clauses and sentences: these are divided in terms of their rank. Words are
described as having a lower rank and sentences as having a higher rank. This is
because a sentence may be made up of more than one clause; clauses may be made
up of more than one phrase; and phrases may be made up of more than one word.
You now need to think about the ways in which sentences are combined into
larger units or discourse – the linguistic term used to describe spoken or writ-
ten language that is longer than a sentence in length. In any study of cohesion,
you will need to consider the ways in which sentences are linked to create text.
There are five forms of cohesion which it is useful to be able to recognise: lexical
cohesion, substitution, ellipsis, referencing, and linking adverbs and conjunctions.
Lexical cohesion
lexical cohesion is a kind of textual linking dependent on a writer or speaker’s
choice of words. A number of cohesive techniques can be used.
Collocations
In collocations, words are associated within phrases. Because they are
often well known, they are predictable. Many can be described as idioms and
clichés.
home and dry safe and sound free and easy
Repetition
In repetition either words or phrases are directly repeated or synonyms
(related words with a similar meaning) are used.
This little pig went to market,
This little pig stayed at home,
This little pig had roast beef …
Substitution
In linking by substitution, one linguistic item is replaced by a shorter one. The
substitution will usually occur in the second clause so that the meaning is clear.
Several parts of a sentence can be replaced.
Noun phrases
Personal pronouns can be substitutes for noun phrases in the subject or object
clause sites. They should only be used if the identity of the person or thing is clear.
S P O S P O
(Joseph) (loves) (toy trains) (and) (Joseph) (has) (two toy trains).
conj
S P O S P O
(Joseph) (loves) (toy trains) (and) (he) (has) (two of them).
conj
Either the head or the whole of a noun phrase can also be replaced by the indefi-
nite pronouns one or some or by the noun phrase the same:
‘Would you like a coffee?’ ‘I’d love one.’
‘I’d like the vegetarian lasagne and salad, please.’ ‘And I’ll have the same.’
Equally, superordinates and hyponyms can be substitutes:
The alsatian was large and the child was obviously afraid of the dog.
The flowers were in abundance and people came from miles around to see the newly
blooming roses.
Verb phrases
A verb phrase or a verb phrase plus object can be replaced by the auxiliary verb
do:
S P O A S P A
(I) (saw) (Pirates of the Caribbean 3) (last week). (I) (did) (yesterday).
S P O S P A
(Julie) (likes) (swimming) (and) (Mark) (does) (too).
Clauses
Clauses can be replaced using so as a substitute for a positive clause and not as a
substitute for a negative clause:
Ellipsis
In ellipsis, part of a sentence is left out. If the sentence is to remain meaningful,
it must be clear what the omitted words are.
Noun phrases
The head of a simple noun phrase and the head and any modifiers or qualifiers in a
complex noun phrase can be omitted:
S P C (ø) P A
(The buttercups) (were) (bright yellow) (and) [the buttercups] (stretched) (for miles).
conj
S P A (ø)
(The black clouds of the impending storm) (rose) (above us) (and) [the black clouds of
conj
P A
the impending storm] (loomed) (threateningly).
Verb phrases
Repeated lexical and auxiliary verbs can be omitted from a verb phrase:
The children ate jelly and ice-cream and the adults [ate] bread and cheese.
We were shopping in Cardiff and Lucy was [shopping] in Swansea.
We had visited the cinema and [had] looked around the museum.
They have been riding and [have been] surfing this week.
Clauses
Whole clauses can be omitted, usually within sentence boundaries rather than
outside:
‘Who was playing the clarinet last night?’ ‘Susan was [playing the clarinet last night].’
Referencing
References cannot be interpreted alone because they point to something else in
a discourse. Pronouns (also called substitute words) are often used to make
these references, but comparative structures expressing particular similarities or
differences can also be used.
The girl loved reading, so she often visited the library.
The black horse ran fast, but the white one was faster.
There are three main kinds of reference.
Anaphoric references
Anaphoric references point backwards in a text. In other words, the reader
or listener must look back to a previous noun phrase to make sense of the pronoun
or comparative structure used:
The boy broke the window and then he ran away.
Exophoric references
Exophoric references point beyond a text. In other words, the reader or lis-
tener must make a connection with something outside the discourse.
‘I was this high then.’ ‘That boat over there is mine.’
A gesture or a context is needed to accompany each of these statements if it is to
make sense.
Index 629
Index 631
Index 633