Respiration and Gas Exchange

The Nature of Respiration Other than cellular

respiration,
RESPIRATION has two
additional definitions:
1. The movement of
air (ventilation) in
the lungs (i.e.
breathing)
2. The exchange of
gases
– External respiration is
between the
environment and the
body
– Internal respiration is
between tissue cells
and the bloodstream
The Respiratory Medium
Vertebrate Respiratory Systems
Respiratory and Circulatory systems cooperate to deliver
oxygen to deep tissues and carry away carbon dioxide.
If we compare conventional ‘fishes’
and tetrapods, we can see some
differences between how they work:

• In fishes, the respiratory pump

usually includes the branchial
arches and their muscles

• In tetrapods, the respiratory

pump can include the buccal
cavity, forcing air into the lungs,
and the rib cage.
 Read below to see the differences
Going with the Flow between Unidirectional and
Bidirectional flow
Most fish gills employ a
unidirectional flow of
ventilation. Here, there
is a continuous stream
of new water that allows
for constant gas
exchange in the gill
surface.

Ventilation in the lungs,

however, employ a
bidirectional flow,
where air enters and
exits through the same
channels/openings.
Internal Gills are usually associated with
pharyngeal slits and pouches. GILLS
• Gill arch – holds the gill filaments and
rakers
• Gill rakers – strains out food and debris
• Gill filaments – contains lamellae, which
are vascularized structures used for gas
exchange.
GILL COVERINGS Internal Gills are usually
COVERED for protection.

• In Lampreys, there are no

coverings.
• In Chondrichthyes, there are
interbranchial septa
• In Actinopterygian fishes,
there are opercula

External gills, usually in the

larvae of many vertebrates,
require constant water flow for
ventilation. In still water, muscle
attachments sweep the gills
back-and-forth for ventillation.
TETRAPODS have LUNGS
LUNGS are designed for air
breathing.
• Endodermal outpockets of the
pharynx
MODERN AMPHIBIANS
• They rely heavily on
cutaneous respiration, which
means gas exchange
primarily occurs through
their skin. (which is why they have
to keep it moist!)
– Most amphibians do have lungs
though. However, unlike
mammals, they do not have true
alveoli.
– The linings are partitioned
into compartments called
FAVEOLI. The main difference is Air moves into the lungs by literally
that faveoli are not found at the “gulping” the air through their mouth
end of a highly branched bronchial (see above). This mechanism called a
system. BUCCAL PUMP.
 ‘REPTILES’
• Like amphibians, gas exchange
occurs at the faveolus
• The evolution of the ribs (and
intercostal muscles) allows for
an innovative mechanism by
which lungs are filled with air.
– Rib movement changes the body
wall around the lungs, allowing
air to flow in or out.
– This mechanism is called a
ASPIRATION PUMP.
– Mammals employ the same
pumping mechanism (see next
slide)
The Mechanism of BREATHING
The HUMAN Respiratory System
Functions:
1. Gas Exchange
2. Communication
3. Smell
4. Acid-Base Balance
5. Expulsion of
abdominal contents

Divided into the UPPER

and LOWER
Respiratory Tract
The UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT
The respiratory organs of the
HEAD and NECK
Nose
• Warms, cleanses, and
humidifies the air
• Detects Odours and amplifies
sounds
Pharynx
• Intersection between the oral
and nasal cavities
Larynx
• Keeps food and drinks out of
the airways
• Additional role of sound
production
The UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT
The EPIGLOTTIS is the
‘guard’ that keeps food
away from the airways
during swallowing.

The vocal cords can be

adducted to produce
sounds.
Higher pitched sounds are
produced when they are taut and
lower pitched sounds are made
when they are more slack.
Loudness is determined by the air
passing through the cords.
After the Larynx is the Going Down
TRACHEA

It’s inner lining is made

of pseudostratified
columnar epithelium
composed of:
1. Goblet cells that
produce mucus
2. Ciliated cells; and
3. Basal stem cells
The LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT
The LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT
The cells in the Tracheal lining are
important in the removal of foreign
debris.

The mucus traps inhaled

particles, while the cilia moves
the debris-laden mucus
towards the pharynx, where it
is swallowed or expelled out.
This mechanism is called the
mucociliary escalator.

How would this mechanism

prevent/reduce the risk of acquiring
respiratory diseases?
 The trachea
The LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT eventually
branches out
into two main
bronchi, which
enter into the
lungs.

Inside the lungs,

you will find the
branchial trees.
These are a
branching
system of
airtubes that
eventually
reach the
brochioles.
WHAT GOES ON IN THE ALVEOLI
Each bronchioles divides into
50-80 terminal bronchioles,
which have no goblet cells but
have cilia.

Each terminal bronchiole

branches off to two or more
respiratory bronchioles and
ends at the alveoli.

The respiratory bronchioles are

considered the beginning of the
respiratory zone because their
alveoli participate in gas exchange.
WHAT GOES ON IN THE ALVEOLI
The surface of the alveoli is
composed of two kinds of cells:
1. Squamous Alveolar cells
– They cover 95% of the alveolar
surface
Structure of
the alveolus
– These cells are thin in order to allow
(above) and for rapid gas exchange with the air
respiratory and blood
membrane
(below) 2. Great Alveolar cells
– They repair the epithelium when
damaged
– They secrete pulmonary surfactant,
which prevents the bronchioles from
collapsing during exhalation
WHAT GOES ON IN THE ALVEOLI
The most numerous of all cells in
the lungs are the alveolar
macrophages.
• They wander the lumen of the
alveoli and its connective tissues
Structure of
the alveolus • They keep the alveoli free of
(above) and
respiratory
debris by phagocytosis
membrane • In infected or bleeding lungs,
(below)
they phagocytize bacteria and
loose blood cells
 There are only THREE CELL LAYERS that
GAS EXCHANGE SITE separates the blood and the external
environment (air) in the alveolus:
1. The Squamous alveolar cell
2. The squamous endothelial cell of the
capillary
3. Their shared basement membrane
Structure of
the alveolus This BARRIER is called the respiratory
(above) and
respiratory membrane and is the region where gas
membrane exchange occurs.
(below)

!! Fluids should not accumulate in the alveoli

because gases diffuse too slowly to efficiently
aerate the blood !!

What would happen if the alveoli are filled with

fluid?
LUNGS: Bird version

Bird lungs are adapted for flight.

• Instead of alveoli, the bronchi end in tube-like
parabronchi which air flows continuously.
• They have Nine interconnected air sacs that are located
in pairs in the thorax and abdomen, even extending by
tiny tubes into the centers of long bones.
 A bird takes TWO
LUNGS: Bird version respiratory cycles
to move air
throughout their
respiratory system.
That means two
inhales and two
exhales! (see left)

1st inhalation  air goes into posterior air sacs, they serve as reservoirs for fresh air.
1st exhalation  air goes to into the parabronchi for gas exchange
2nd inhalation  air goes into anterior air sacs, new air goes into the
posterior air sacs
2nd exhalation  air exits the system, new air goes to parabronchi
What changes do you think happened from the transition
from water to land (and air/flight) in terms of gas
exchange?