2019/2020

MECH3429
AIR CONDITIONING AND REFRIGERATION:

PART 1 – AIR CONDITIONING AND VENTILATION

Yuguo Li

OVERVIEW
Try to understand this one:

Why are computers like

air conditioners? They
quit working properly
when you open Windows.
 MECH3429 Air Conditioning and Refrigeration
Day: Mondays 14:30-15:20 (1 hr.) + Thursdays 13:30-15:20 (2 hrs.)
Venue: Mondays MWT2 and Thursdays MB103
Lecturer: Prof. Yuguo Li ([email protected]) Course coordinator Public holiday
Dr. Tony S.P. Feng ([email protected]) Mid-term
First dat of teaching 2 Sept and Last day Nov 30
Date
Topics Lecturer
Mon (1hr) Thu (2hrs)
1 2-Sep 5-Sep Basic air conditioning and heat transfer Tony/Yuguo
Psychrometric principles and air conditioning
2 9-Sep 12-Sep systems Yuguo Li
Heat and moisture transfer in buildings, and
3 16-Sep 19-Sep cooling and heating loads Yuguo Li
Heat and moisture transfer in buildings, and
4 23-Sep 26-Sep cooling and heating loads Yuguo Li
5 30-Sep 3-Oct Air and water distribution systems Yuguo Li
6 7-Oct 10-Oct Air and water distribution systems Yuguo Li
7 14-Oct 17-Oct Reading week
8 21-Oct 24-Oct Mid-term - Expansion & Compression Yuguo/Tony
9 28-Oct 31-Oct Expansion & Compression Tony Feng
10 4-Nov 7-Nov Condenser & Evaporator Tony Feng
11 11-Nov 14-Nov Absorption cycle Tony Feng
12 18-Nov 21-Nov Evaporative cooling (Direct & Indirect) Tony Feng
13 25-Nov 28-Nov Evaporative cooling (Direct & Indirect) Tony Feng

In-course Assessment – 20% (Yuguo – 50 %, Tony – 50%)

Lab – 15% ( Tony)
Examination – 65 % Attempt 5 out of 6 questions (20 marks each) (Section A – 3Qs (Yuguo), Section B – 3Qs (Tony))
OF 56 3`
Midterm feedback (2018-2019)
The average mark was 59.83 out of 1000, though the standard derivation was a bit high (23.57).
I am rather happy with the general performance. The marking was a bit tough, hence I am happy to
add 5 marks to each of you, with a maximum of 20 marks out of 20 marks (or 100 marks).
The grade distribution based on the raw marks is unfortunately bimodal. A (27%), B (21%), C (8%), D
(15%) and F (29%). I hope that those students with marks less than 50% may reflect what went
wrong and how it can be improved in the final examination.
After moderation by adding 5 marks, the grade distribution becomes A (71%), B (12%), C (5%), D
(2%) and F (10%).
During marking, I found that a few students could not get the units right. This is serious issue and it
is observed not only for this year or for this subject. I also observed in other tests that a small
number of students get this wrong.
The most common error in unit occurred for the enthalpy-humidity ratio. A small number of student
also get the unit for refrigeration capacity OF THE COOLING COIL wrong (the right unit should be
kW).
The conceptual questions in the mid-term are actually very simple. Many students got them right.
Hope this is a good starting point for you to appreciate the importance of some important concepts
in air conditioning and ventilation.
A very small number of students appeared to know nearly nothing, which suggests to me that you
might not have attended the class or facing some particular difficulties. Please feel free to contact
me for help if needed.
Additionally, the attendance rate has been the best. Among 100 students in the class, only one
student did not attend the mid-term test. OF 56 4`
Course evaluation – your feedback is welcome

“Please go to the weblink http://setl.hku.hk

where you should see a list of all forms that you
need to complete. Please note that your
evaluation will be saved anonymously, without
any identification. There are separate forms for
the course, teacher (and if appropriate) tutor
and demonstrator. There are instructions, an
FAQ link and a link for you to report any
missing courses at the weblink.”

OF 56 5`
 A lot of practical tips:
Building services industry in Hong Kong
http://ibse.hk/about-bse.htm Dr Sam Hui

Government: ArchSD, BD, DSD, EMSD, EPD, FSD, Housing Dept, WSD
Utilities: CLP Power, HK Electric, Towngas, MTRC
Professional Societies: HKIE (BS Div), CIBSE HK Branch, ASHRAE HK Chapter
Hong Kong codes: CAP123 Building Ordinance &Regulations, COP from ASD, BSD, EPD,
FSD, EMSD and power companies, standards from BS, ASHRAE etc
Partners: Clients, developers, building owners, architects (Authorised Persons), civil
engineers, structural engineers, quantity surveyors, urban designers/planners, main
contractors (builders), sub-contractors/suppliers
Jobs: Consulting/design engineers, contracting engineers, BS coordinator (main/civil
contracting firms), project manager/engineer (for developers), government engineer, sale
engineer, facility management or maintenance engineer
Consulting firms: Arup, Wong& Ouyang, WSP (formally WSP/Parsons Brinckerhoff), J.
Roger Preston Limited, Meinhardt etc.
The world is big – go to Mainland, South East Asia, elsewhere.
Engineers can also do research – Doing master in Europe and USA, why not PhD here in
HKU and elsewhere (you can get scholarship, e.g. HK$17k or HK$25k in HK). Innovation is
future.
What are the options to keep a space cool?
1. Place ice in the room
2. Open windows if outside is cool
3. Have a fan? Desk fan or even a simple fan?
4. Buy an air-conditioner? But how does an air conditioner work?

Outdoor: 30oC, 70% Relative

humidity • 1758 Benjamin Franklin and John Hadley at
<400 ppm CO2 Cambridge found that vaporing alcohol at
water surface leads to freezing.
• 1820 Michael Faraday found that vaporizing
ammonia at water surface leads to freezing.
• 1851 John Gorrie blew air through a cloth
Indoor: doused in ice-cold water to cool a room by
24oC, 50% Relative humidity 20oC for hospitals.
<1000 ppm CO2 • 1902 – Willis Carrier invented the first air
conditioning for commercial use.
• 1931 - H.H. Schultz and J.Q. Sherman
invented the first window unit air conditioner
Chapter 1 at an extremely steep cost.
Air conditioning refers to the control of air
temperature, moisture, and air quality as required by
occupants, a process or a product in an enclosed
space. It is the technologies to maintain an enclosure
at a desired set of physical conditions.

Ventilation refers to supply of outdoor air into a space

and distribute within it

HVAC is a commonly used acronym for heating,

ventilation, and air conditioning

Refrigeration is a process of producing a cool or cold

medium, i.e. low-temperature reservoir, by removing
heat from it and transferring it to a high-temperature
reservoir, by different mechanisms, e.g. vapor
compression. Air conditioning has become a common
application of refrigeration
Table 1. Properties of dry air at atmospheric pressure
T (oC)  (kg/m3) cp (kJ/kg.K)  (kg/s.m)  (cm2/s) k (W/m.K)  (cm2/s) Pr (-)

-50 1.582 1.006 1.45×10-5 0.092 0.020 0.130 0.72

0 1.293 1.006 1.71×10-5 0.132 0.024 0.184 0.72
10 1.247 1.006 1.76×10-5 0.141 0.025 0.196 0.72
20 1.205 1.006 1.81×10-5 0.150 0.025 0.208 0.72
30 1.165 1.006 1.86×10-5 0.160 0.026 0.223 0.72
60 1.060 1.008 2.00×10-5 0.188 0.028 0.274 0.70
100 0.946 1.011 2.18×10-5 0.230 0.032 0.328 0.70

𝑘 
Table 2. Properties of water at atmospheric pressure 𝛼= 𝑃𝑟 =
𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝛼
T  (kg/m3) cp (kJ/kg.K)  (kg/s.m)  k (W/m.K)  ℎ𝑓𝑔
(oC) (cm2/s) (cm2/s) (kJ/kg)

0 0.9999 4.217 0.01787 0.01787 0.56 0.00133 2501.0

10 0.9997 4.192 0.01304 0.01304 0.58 0.00138 2477.7
20 0.9982 4.182 0.01002 0.01004 0.59 0.00142 2454.2
30 0.9957 4.178 0.00798 0.00802 0.61 0.00146 2430.4
40 0.9923 4.178 0.00654 0.00659 0.63 0.00152 2406.8
50 0.9881 4.180 0.00548 0.00554 0.64 0.00155 2382.8
100 0.9584 1.011 0.00283 0.00295 0.68 0.00166 2257.0
The idea of central air conditioning

Air loop

Secondary
components

Primary
components

I leave your heart to Dr Tony Feng Chapter 4 Air/water distribution

Chapter 3 Cooling load

Chapter 2 Moist air

Chapter 1 - intro
 33 oC, 28 oC Control Loop

33 oC 27 oC

12 oC 10 oC
25 oC
12 oC 49 oC 35 oC
35 oC

7 oC 38 oC 29 oC
7 oC 3 oC 29 oC

13 oC 13 oC

Air distribution Chilled water Refrigeration Cooling tower

 𝑘𝐴
1D heat conduction 𝑄 = 𝐿
𝑇0 − 𝑇𝐿 ,
where k is the thermal conductivity of the wall material(s) [W/mK].
𝜕𝑇
The general form of the Fourier’s Law 𝑄 = 𝑘𝐴 𝜕𝑥

Thermal insulation materials - materials such as fiberglass have very low

thermal conductivity

𝑘𝐴 𝑇0 −𝑇𝐿 𝐿
We write 𝑄 = 𝑇0 − 𝑇𝐿 = , where 𝑅𝑡ℎ = 𝑘𝐴 is the equivalent thermal
𝐿 𝑅𝑡ℎ
resistance, or 𝑇0 − 𝑇𝐿 = 𝑄𝑅𝑡ℎ

For thermal resistance in series,

𝑇1 − 𝑇2 = 𝑄𝑅𝑡ℎ1 ; 𝑇2 − 𝑇3 = 𝑄𝑅𝑡ℎ2 ; 𝑇3 − 𝑇4 = 𝑄𝑅𝑡ℎ3 ;
hence 𝑇1 − 𝑇4 = 𝑄 𝑅𝑡ℎ1 + 𝑅𝑡ℎ2 + 𝑅𝑡ℎ3 = 𝑄𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡

We define overall heat transfer coefficient

1
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑈 𝑇1 − 𝑇4 , where 𝐴𝑈 =
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡

For thermal resistance in parallel

1 1 1 1 𝑇1 −𝑇2
= + + , and 𝑄 =
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑅𝑡ℎ 1 𝑅𝑡ℎ 2 𝑅𝑡ℎ 3 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡
Example 5. A cold room maintained at -10 oC has a wall made of two
layers of different materials. The inner layer is 2 cm thick, and has a
thermal conductivity of 0.1 W/mK. The outer layer is 4 cm thick and has
a thermal conductivity of 0.04 W/mK. The outside ambient air
temperature is 30 oC. The convective heat transfer coefficients on the
outside and inside of the wall are 40 W/m2K and 20 W/m2K respectively.

Calculate the rate of heat flow through the wall, and the temperature of the
interface between the two layers making the wall.

Solution: Consider unit area A = 1m2 of the wall.

1 1 1 1
𝑅𝑐𝑖 = 𝐴ℎ = 1×20 = 0.05 K/W; 𝑅𝑐𝑜 = 𝐴ℎ = 1×40 = 0.025 K/W
𝐿 0.02 𝐿 0.04
𝑅𝑤𝑖 = 𝐴𝑘 = 1×0.1 = 0.2 K/W; 𝑅𝑤𝑜 = 𝐴𝑘 = 1×0.04 = 1.0 K/W
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑅𝑐𝑖 + 𝑅𝑤𝑖 + 𝑅𝑤𝑜 + 𝑅𝑐𝑜 = 1.275 K/W;
𝑇𝑜 −𝑇𝑖 30+10
𝑄= = = 31.37 W
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 1.275

Between the interface and the outside ambient, we have

𝑇𝑜 −𝑇𝑤𝑖𝑓 30−𝑇𝑤𝑖𝑓
𝑄 = 𝑅 +𝑅 = 1.025 = 31.37 W, hence 𝑇𝑤𝑖𝑓 = −2.15 oC.
𝑤𝑜 𝑐𝑜
Example 5. A cold room maintained at -10 oC has a wall made of two
layers of different materials. The inner layer is 2 cm thick, and has a
thermal conductivity of 0.1 W/mK. The outer layer is 4 cm thick and has
a thermal conductivity of 0.04 W/mK. The outside ambient air
temperature is 30 oC. The convective heat transfer coefficients on the
outside and inside of the wall are 40 W/m2K and 20 W/m2K respectively.

Calculate the rate of heat flow through the wall, and the temperature of the
interface between the two layers making the wall.

Solution: Consider unit area A = 1m2 of the wall.

1 1 1 1
𝑅𝑐𝑖 = 𝐴ℎ = 1×20 = 0.05 K/W; 𝑅𝑐𝑜 = 𝐴ℎ = 1×40 = 0.025 K/W
𝐿 0.02 𝐿 0.04
𝑅𝑤𝑖 = 𝐴𝑘 = 1×0.1 = 0.2 K/W; 𝑅𝑤𝑜 = 𝐴𝑘 = 1×0.04 = 1.0 K/W
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑅𝑐𝑖 + 𝑅𝑤𝑖 + 𝑅𝑤𝑜 + 𝑅𝑐𝑜 = 1.275 K/W;
𝑇𝑜 −𝑇𝑖 30+10
𝑄= = = 31.37 W
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 1.275

Between the interface and the outside ambient, we have

𝑇𝑜 −𝑇𝑤𝑖𝑓 30−𝑇𝑤𝑖𝑓
𝑄 = 𝑅 +𝑅 = 1.025 = 31.37 W, hence 𝑇𝑤𝑖𝑓 = −2.15 oC.
𝑤𝑜 𝑐𝑜
Example 6. A concrete wall of thickness 8 cm and thermal conductivity 1.6
W/mK, absorbs solar radiation at a steady rate of 300 W/m2. The heat transfer
coefficient between the outer surface of the wall and the ambient at 30 oC is 25
W/m2K. The heat transfer coefficient between the room air at 20 oC and the
inner surface of the wall is 10 W/m2K.

Calculate the rate of heat flow into the room, and the temperature of the outer
surface of the wall.

Solution:
Consider a unit area of the wall.
1 1 1 1 𝐿
𝑅𝑐𝑖 = 𝐴ℎ = 1×10 = 0.1 K/W; 𝑅𝑐𝑜 = 𝐴ℎ = 1×25 = 0.04 K/W; 𝑅𝑤 = 𝐴𝑘 =
0.08
1×1.6
= 0.05 K/W

Energy balance at the outer surface node

𝑄𝑜 + 300 = 𝑄𝑖 ;
30−𝑇𝑠𝑜 30−𝑇𝑠𝑜
𝑄𝑜 = = ;
𝑅𝑐𝑜 0.04
𝑇𝑠𝑜 −20 𝑇𝑠𝑜 −20
𝑄𝑖 = 𝑅 = .
𝑤 +𝑅𝑐𝑖 0.15

Substitute 𝑄𝑜 and 𝑄𝑖 into the energy balance equation, gives 𝑇𝑠𝑜 = 37.37 oC.

Then we can find that 𝑄𝑜 = −184.2 W/m2, suggesting that some of radiation
absorbed by the wall is lost to the ambient air by convection.
Example 6. A concrete wall of thickness 8 cm and thermal conductivity 1.6
W/mK, absorbs solar radiation at a steady rate of 300 W/m2. The heat transfer
coefficient between the outer surface of the wall and the ambient at 30 oC is 25
W/m2K. The heat transfer coefficient between the room air at 20 oC and the
inner surface of the wall is 10 W/m2K.

Calculate the rate of heat flow into the room, and the temperature of the outer
surface of the wall.

Solution:
Consider a unit area of the wall.
1 1 1 1 𝐿
𝑅𝑐𝑖 = 𝐴ℎ = 1×10 = 0.1 K/W; 𝑅𝑐𝑜 = 𝐴ℎ = 1×25 = 0.04 K/W; 𝑅𝑤 = 𝐴𝑘 =
0.08
1×1.6
= 0.05 K/W

Energy balance at the outer surface node

𝑄𝑜 + 300 = 𝑄𝑖 ;
30−𝑇𝑠𝑜 30−𝑇𝑠𝑜
𝑄𝑜 = = ;
𝑅𝑐𝑜 0.04
𝑇𝑠𝑜 −20 𝑇𝑠𝑜 −20
𝑄𝑖 = 𝑅 = .
𝑤 +𝑅𝑐𝑖 0.15

Substitute 𝑄𝑜 and 𝑄𝑖 into the energy balance equation, gives 𝑇𝑠𝑜 = 37.37 oC.

Then we can find that 𝑄𝑜 = −184.2 W/m2, suggesting that some of radiation
absorbed by the wall is lost to the ambient air by convection.
Water vapor’s concentration in low
Dry air is the air that is free of any moisture.
The water vapor is generally present in moist air
in a superheated state.
The pressure of water vapor in typical ambient
air is relatively low. For example, at 30oC the
water vapor pressure in air that is fully
saturated with water vapor is about 4.24 kPa,
which is the saturated pressure of water vapor
at 30oC from the steam table.

This is compared with a mixture pressure about

100 kPa.

Under such dilute conditions, we assume that

water vapor and dry air behave like ideal gases,
which are independent from each other, i.e. the
properties of water vapor are not influenced by
the presence of air.

Tibet
Chapter 2 Figure 1. The saturation vapor pressure as a function of its temperature.
T (oC) Saturation pressure Enthalpy of saturated Enthalpy of vaporization Enthalpy of
Pg (kPa) liquid (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) saturated vapor, ℎ𝑔
(kJ/kg)
0.010 0.6113 0.0 2501.3 2501.3
2 0.7056 8.4 2496.6 2505.0
5 0.8721 21.0 2489.5 2510.5
10 1.228 42.0 2477.7 2519.7
15 1.705 63.0 2465.9 2528.9
20 2.338 83.9 2454.2 2538.1
25 3.169 104.9 2442.3 2547.2
30 4.246 125.8 2430.4 2556.2
35 5.628 146.7 2418.6 2565.3
40 7.383 167.5 2406.8 2574.3
45 9.593 188.4 2394.8 2583.2
50 12.35 209.3 2382.8 2592.1
55 15.76 230.2 2370.7 2600.9
60 19.94 251.1 2358.5 2609.6
65 25.03 272.0 2346.2 2618.2
70 31.19 293.0 2333.8 2626.8
75 38.58 313.9 2321.4 2635.3
80 47.39 334.9 2308.8 2643.7
85 57.83 355.9 2296.0 2651.9
90 70.13 376.9 2283.2 2660.1
95 84.55 397.9 2270.2 2668.1

Table 1. The steam table

Dalton's law of partial pressures - in a mixture of non-reacting
gases, the total pressure exerted is equal to the sum of the
partial pressures of the individual gases

𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃𝑖
𝑖=1

𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 𝑃𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟 + 𝑃𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟

𝑃 = 𝑃𝑎 + 𝑃𝑣

𝑅𝑣 and 𝑅𝑎 are the respective gas constants of

𝑃𝑣 = 𝜌𝑣 𝑅𝑣 𝑇 𝑃𝑎 = 𝜌𝑎 𝑅𝑎 𝑇, 𝑅𝑣 water vapor and air.

𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 is the universal gas constant (8.314 J⋅K−1⋅mol−1)

𝑅𝑎 = = 𝑅𝑣 = =
𝑀𝑎 28.96 𝑀𝑣 18 𝑀𝑎 and 𝑀𝑣 are the molecular masses.
Properties of air-water mixtures
The relative humidity  is the ratio of the partial pressure of the vapor, 𝑃𝑣 in the mixture
𝑃
to the saturation pressure 𝑃𝑔 𝑡 of the vapor at the mixture temperature, 𝑡, i.e.  = 𝑃 𝑣𝑡 .
𝑔

The humidity ratio, 𝜔 is defined as the mass of water vapor in a given volume of
mixture to the mass of dry air in the same volume.

∆𝑚 ∆𝑚 /∆𝑉 𝜌
𝜔 = ∆𝑚 𝑣 = ∆𝑚 𝑣//∆𝑉 = 𝜌 𝑣 ;
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
where ∆𝑚𝑣 and ∆𝑚𝑎 the mases of vapor and dry air respectively in a volume of ∆𝑉.
𝜌𝑣 and 𝜌𝑎 the densities of vapor and dry air respectively.

𝜌 𝑃 𝑅 𝑃𝑣 𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑎 𝑃𝑔 𝑡 18 𝑃𝑔 𝑡 0.622 𝑃𝑔 𝑡

𝜔 = 𝜌 𝑣 = 𝑃𝑣 𝑅𝑎 = = = = .
𝑎 𝑎 𝑣 𝑃−𝑃𝑣 𝑅𝑣 𝑅𝑣 𝑃−𝑃𝑔 𝑡 28.96 𝑃−𝑃𝑔 𝑡 𝑃−𝑃𝑔 𝑡

The degree of saturation,Enthalpy of moist

𝜇 is defined as theairratio
(kJ/kg of dry
of the air)of water vapor in a
mass
mixture of air and water vapor to the mass of vapor that would be present if the air was in
The enthalpy of moist air is equal to the sum of enthalpy of dry air, ℎ𝑎 and that of
a saturated state at the same temperature and mixture pressure.
superheated water vapor, ℎ𝑔
𝜔 ℎ = ℎ𝑎 + 𝜔ℎ𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑝𝑎 𝑡 + 𝜔ℎ𝑔 𝑡 ;
𝜇 = 𝜔 , where 𝜔𝑠 is the specific humidity of saturated air at the same temperature and
𝑠
mixture pressure. where 𝑡 is the dry-bulb temperature, 𝜔 humidity ratio, 𝑐𝑝𝑎 the specific heat capacity at
constant pressure of dry air. For the typical range of temperature of about 0-60 oC, we
0.622+𝜔 may use 𝑐𝑝𝑎 = 1.00 kJ/Kkg.
𝜇= 0.622+𝜔 𝑠
.
From the steamtable, under low pressures, the enthalpy of superheated steam is
approximately equal to the enthalpy of saturated stream at the same temperature. So we
choose ℎ𝑔 𝑡 to be the saturated vapor enthalpy.
Consider a process from state 1 to state 2 where the change of enthalpy is ∆ℎ = ℎ2 −
ℎ1 , we can derive (derivation omitted)
For the temperature range from 0 oC to 60oC of a
∆ℎ = ∆ℎ𝑠 + ∆ℎ𝑙 typical psychrometric chart, the following mean
where values may be used.𝑐𝑎𝑚 = 1.02 kJ/kgK and ℎ𝑔𝑚 =
 the sensible heat ∆ℎ𝑠 = 𝑐𝑎𝑚 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 , and 2555 kJ/kg. (Note: not the enthalpy of vaporization
is used, but the mean enthalpy of the saturated water
 the latent heat ∆ℎ𝑙 = ℎ𝑔𝑚 𝜔2 − 𝜔1 . vapor).

Both 𝑐𝑎𝑚 and ℎ𝑔𝑚 are evaluated at mean temperature and mean humidity ratio of the
two states.
𝜔 2 +𝜔 1 𝑡 2 +𝑡 1
𝑐𝑎𝑚 = 𝑐𝑝𝑎 + 𝜔𝑐𝑝𝑤 = 𝑐𝑝𝑎 + 𝑐𝑝𝑤 ; and ℎ𝑔𝑚 = ℎ𝑔𝑜 + 𝑡𝑐𝑝𝑤 = ℎ𝑔𝑜 + 𝑐𝑝𝑤
2 2

Specific volume of moist air 𝑣 (m3/kg dry air) can be obtained by using the ideal gas
equation for dry air
𝑅𝑎 𝑇
𝑣= , we can also obtain
𝑃𝑎
𝑃𝑣 𝑅𝑎 0.622 𝑃 − 𝑃𝑎
𝜔= = ;
𝑃 − 𝑃𝑣 𝑅𝑣 𝑃𝑎
𝑅 𝑇 𝜔 𝑅 𝑇 𝜔
𝑣 = 𝑃𝑎 1 + 0.622 , so 𝑣 = 𝑃𝑎 1 + 0.622 .
 http://www.flycarpet.net/en/PsyOnline

Sensible heat ratio protractor

The sensible heat ratio (SHR) is defined as the ratio of
the change in sensible enthalpy ∆ℎ𝑠 to the change in the
total enthalpy ∆ℎ
∆ℎ ∆ℎ
SHR = ∆ℎ𝑠 = 1 − ∆ℎ𝑙 ;
As ∆ℎ𝑙 = ℎ𝑔𝑚 𝜔2 − 𝜔1 = ℎ𝑔𝑚 ∆𝜔, hence
ℎ 𝑔𝑚 ∆𝜔 ℎ 𝑔𝑚
SHR = 1 − ∆ℎ
= 1− 𝑞
; where 𝑞 = ∆ℎ/∆𝜔.
ℎ = ℎ𝑎 + 𝜔ℎ𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑝𝑎 𝑡 + 𝜔ℎ𝑔 𝑡 ;
 SHR = 1.0
Sensible heat ratio protractor
The sensible heat ratio (SHR) is defined as the ratio of
the change in sensible enthalpy ∆ℎ𝑠 to the change in the
total enthalpy ∆ℎ
∆ℎ ∆ℎ
SHR = ∆ℎ𝑠 = 1 − ∆ℎ𝑙 ;
As ∆ℎ𝑙 = ℎ𝑔𝑚 𝜔2 − 𝜔1 = ℎ𝑔𝑚 ∆𝜔, hence
ℎ 𝑔𝑚 ∆𝜔 ℎ 𝑔𝑚
SHR = 1 − ∆ℎ
= 1− 𝑞
; where 𝑞 = ∆ℎ/∆𝜔.

0<SHR < 1.0 SHR = 0

 SHR = 1.0
Sensible heat ratio protractor
The sensible heat ratio (SHR) is defined as the ratio of
the change in sensible enthalpy ∆ℎ𝑠 to the change in the
total enthalpy ∆ℎ
∆ℎ ∆ℎ
SHR = ∆ℎ𝑠 = 1 − ∆ℎ𝑙 ;
As ∆ℎ𝑙 = ℎ𝑔𝑚 𝜔2 − 𝜔1 = ℎ𝑔𝑚 ∆𝜔, hence 0>SHR> − ∞
ℎ 𝑔𝑚 ∆𝜔 ℎ 𝑔𝑚
SHR = 1 − ∆ℎ
= 1− 𝑞
; where 𝑞 = ∆ℎ/∆𝜔.

0<SHR < 1.0 SHR = 0

Example 2. The dimensions of the room are 10 m × 6 m × 3 m. The pressure,
temperature and degree of saturation of the air in the rom are 100 kPa, 25oC, and 55%
respectively. (a) Calculate the mass of air in the room. (b) If the surface temperature of a
window of the room is 10.5oC, will moisture condense out of the air?

Solution
From the steam table, the saturation vapor pressure at 25oC is 3.166 kPa.

The humidity ratio of saturated air at 25oC can be obtain

0.622𝑃𝑣𝑠 0.622×3.166
𝜔𝑠 = 𝑃−𝑃𝑣𝑠
= 100−3.166
= 0.02034; note that 𝑃𝑣𝑠 is the saturation vapor pressure at
25oC.
𝜔 ω
𝜇= = = 0.55; hence ω = 0.011187
𝜔𝑠 0.02034
𝑅𝑎 𝑇 𝜔 0.287× 25+273 0.011187 3
𝑣 = 𝑃 1 + 0.622 = 100
1 + 0.622
= 0.8706 m /kg dry air
The room volume 𝑉 = 10 × 5 × 3 = 180 m3
𝑉 180
The mass dry air in the room is 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑣 = 0.8706 = 206.74kg
The mass of moist air is 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎 1 + 𝜔 = 206.74 × 1 + 0.011187 = 209.05 kg
0.622𝑃𝑣
𝜔= 𝑃−𝑃𝑣
= 0.011187, hence 𝑃𝑣 = 1.7669 kPa. The dew point is the saturation
temperature at this pressure, which is 15.6oC. The window surface temperature is much
lower than this, hence condensation will occur.
Example 2. The dimensions of the room are 10 m × 6 m × 3 m. The pressure, temperature
and degree of saturation of the air in the rom are 100 kPa, 25oC, and 55% respectively. (a)
Calculate the mass of air in the room. (b) If the surface temperature of a window of the
room is 10.5oC, will moisture condense out of the air?

Solution
From the steam table, the saturation vapor pressure at 25oC is 3.169 kPa.

The humidity ratio of saturated air at 25oC can be obtain

0.622𝑃𝑣𝑠 0.622×3.169
𝜔𝑠 = 𝑃−𝑃𝑣𝑠
= 100−3.169
= 0.02035; note that 𝑃𝑣𝑠 is the saturation vapor pressure at
25oC.
𝜔 ω
𝜇= = = 0.55; hence ω = 0.011196
𝜔𝑠 0.02035
𝑅𝑎 𝑇 𝜔 0.287× 25+273 0.011196 3
𝑣 = 𝑃 1 + 0.622 = 100
1 + 0.622
= 0.8707 m /kg dry air
The room volume 𝑉 = 10 × 5 × 3 = 180 m3
𝑉 180
The mass dry air in the room is 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑣 = 0.8707 = 206.73kg
The mass of moist air is 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎 1 + 𝜔 = 206.73 × 1 + 0.011196 = 209.04 kg
0.622𝑃𝑣
𝜔= 𝑃−𝑃𝑣
= 0.011196, hence 𝑃𝑣 = 1.7682 kPa. The dew point is the saturation
temperature at this pressure, which is 15.5oC. The window surface temperature is much
lower than this, hence condensation will occur.
Example 3. The pressure and dry-bulb temperature of the air in a house are
100 kPa and 22oC respectively. The surface temperature of a window of the
house is 6oC. What is the maximum relative humidity allowable in the
house if no condensation is to occur on the surface of the window?

Solution
Assume dew point is 𝑡𝑑𝑝 =6oC, from the steam table, the saturation
pressure at this temperature is 0.9346 kPa.

The saturation vapor pressure at the air dry-bulb temperature of 22oC is

2.642 kPa.
𝑃𝑣 0.9346
At 𝑡𝑑𝑏 = 22 oC, 𝑡𝑑𝑝 =6oC,  = 𝑃𝑠
= 2.642
= 35.37%, which is the max
allowance RH.
Example 3. The pressure and dry-bulb temperature of the air in a house are 100
kPa and 22oC respectively. The surface temperature of a window of the house is
6oC. What is the maximum relative humidity allowable in the house if no
condensation is to occur on the surface of the window?

Solution
Assume dew point is 𝑡𝑑𝑝 =6oC, from the steam table, the saturation pressure at
this temperature is 0.9433 kPa.
The saturation vapor pressure at the air dry-bulb temperature of 22oC is 2.670 kPa.
𝑃𝑣 0.9433
At 𝑡𝑑𝑏 = 22 oC, 𝑡𝑑𝑝 =6oC,  = = = 35.33%, which is the max
𝑃𝑠 2.670
allowance RH.
Psychrometric processes for heating and air conditioning
Mixing of two moist air streams
The two streams 1 and 2 are mixed to become a joint stream 3. The change in
enthalpy is much greater than those in kinetic energy and potential energy, which
are ignored here. We also assume adiabatic process at steady state conditions and
constant pressure.
 Mass balance of air: 𝑚𝑎1 + 𝑚𝑎2 = 𝑚𝑎3 , All there symbols
represent respectively dry air mass flow rates of the three streams.
 Mass balance of water: 𝑚𝑎1 𝜔1 + 𝑚𝑎2 𝜔2 = 𝑚𝑎3 𝜔3
 Energy balance of moist air: 𝑚𝑎1 ℎ1 + 𝑚𝑎2 ℎ2 = 𝑚𝑎3 ℎ3

𝑚𝑎1 ℎ 3 −ℎ 2 𝜔 3 −𝜔 2
Thus, = = , suggesting that 1-2-3 is a line.
𝑚𝑎2 ℎ 1 −ℎ 3 𝜔 1 −𝜔 3

From the energy balance equation, we have

𝑚𝑎1 𝑐𝑝𝑎 + 𝜔1 𝑐𝑝𝑤 𝑡1 + 𝜔1 ℎ𝑔𝑜 + 𝑚𝑎2 𝑐𝑝𝑎 + 𝜔2 𝑐𝑝𝑤 𝑡2 + 𝜔2 ℎ𝑔𝑜 =

𝑚𝑎3 𝑐𝑝𝑎 + 𝜔3 𝑐𝑝𝑤 𝑡3 + 𝜔3 ℎ𝑔𝑜 ;

As 𝑚𝑎1 𝜔1 + 𝑚𝑎2 𝜔2 = 𝑚𝑎3 𝜔3 , we have

𝑚𝑎1 𝑐𝑝𝑎 + 𝜔1 𝑐𝑝𝑤 𝑡1 + 𝑚𝑎2 𝑐𝑝𝑎 + 𝜔2 𝑐𝑝𝑤 𝑡2 = 𝑚𝑎3 𝑐𝑝𝑎 + 𝜔3 𝑐𝑝𝑤 𝑡3 ;

If we assume that the specific heat capacities of the moist air are equal in the three
streams, then we can obtain he following appropriate relation for the mixed
temperature

𝑚𝑎1 𝑚𝑎2
𝑡3 = 𝑡1 + 𝑡 ;
𝑚𝑎3 𝑚𝑎3 2
Sensible heating and cooling
Heating may be obtained by an electrical resistance heater or a tubular coil
carrying a hot fluid. The air can be cooled by passing a cold fluid like chilled
water or a refrigerant through a similar coil.

During sensible heating and cooling, the moisture content of the air remains
constant. This means that we need to ensure that the coil surface temperature is
above the dew-point of the entering air.

 Mass balance of dry air: 𝑚𝑎1 = 𝑚𝑎2 = 𝑚𝑎

 Mass balance of water: 𝑚𝑎1 𝜔1 = 𝑚𝑎2 𝜔2
 Energy balance: 𝑚𝑎1 ℎ1 + 𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑎2 ℎ2

Hence 𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑎 ℎ2 − ℎ1
Assume that the specific heat capacity of moist air is constant, 𝑄𝑖𝑛 =
𝑚𝑎 𝑐𝑝𝑚 𝑡2 − 𝑡1

Note that 𝑄𝑖𝑛 can be negative, which applies to cooling.

 Evaporating cooling

In such a system, ambient is passed through a porous structure supplied

with water, and the non-evaporated water dripping down which is then
recirculated.

The porous structure distributes water in the form of a thin film, and
increases the contact area between air and water to facilitate evaporation.

The incoming air is relatively dry, so during evaporation, water absorbs

the latent heat of evaporation from air. Air is then cooled.

Under ideal conditions, the state of air during adiabatic evaporative cooling follows a constant
wet-bulb temperature in the psychrometric chart. However, in practice, the moist air leaving
the cooler at 2 is not cooled to the wet-bulb temperature, which is the lowest possible
temperature to which the air could be cooled.
Humidification of air
Assume that all the moisture sprayed is retained in the air stream. Consider the control
volume as shown.

 Mass balance of dry air: 𝑚𝑎1 = 𝑚𝑎2 = 𝑚𝑎

 Mass balance of water: 𝑚𝑎1 𝜔1 + 𝑚𝑤 = 𝑚𝑎2 𝜔2
 Energy balance: 𝑚𝑎1 ℎ1 + 𝑚𝑤 ℎ𝑤 = 𝑚𝑎2 ℎ2

The enthalpy-humidity ratio 𝑞 is obtained by the manipulating the three equations.

ℎ −ℎ
𝑞 = 𝜔 2 −𝜔1 = ℎ𝑤 ;
2 1
Where ℎ𝑤 is the enthalpy of the sprayed moisture.

Consider the change of enthalpy of the two points 1 and 2 in case the dry-bulb
temperature is unchanged.
ℎ2 𝑡 − ℎ1 𝑡 = 𝜔2 − 𝜔1 ℎ𝑔 𝑡 ;
ℎ −ℎ
hence if 𝑞 = 𝜔 2 −𝜔1 = ℎ𝑤 = ℎ𝑔 𝑡 , i.e. the line 1 − 2 is the constant dry-bulb
2 1
temperature line passing through 1.

For other values of the moisture enthalpy ℎ𝑤 ,

If ℎ𝑤 > ℎ𝑔 𝑡 , 𝛼 < 𝜃, i.e. the air will be sensibly heated
If ℎ𝑤 < ℎ𝑔 𝑡 , 𝛼 < 𝜃, i.e. the air will be sensibly cooled
Dehumidification by cooling – the most important in AC
Moist air flows over the outside tube surface of the coil. The air is cooled sensibly
as it passes over the first few tube rows, and condensation of water vapor occurs
over the rest of the rows.

The tube surface temperature of the actually cooling coil is not uniform over
different tube rows. This results in the non-linear variation of the mean air
temperature, i.e. curve 1-2.

Consider the simplified control volume,

 Mass balance of dry air: 𝑚𝑎1 = 𝑚𝑎2 = 𝑚𝑎
 Mass balance of water: 𝑚𝑎1 𝜔1 = 𝑚𝑎2 𝜔2 + 𝑚𝑤3 (note: 𝑚𝑤3 is the
condensate flow at 3).
 Energy balance: 𝑚𝑎1 ℎ1 = 𝑚𝑎2 ℎ2 + 𝑚𝑤3 ℎ𝑤3 + 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 is the total rate of heat transfer from the air to the cooling fluid flowing
through the tubes. This is called the refrigeration load or refrigeration capacity.
A simple bypass model for the cooling coil
The bypass portion does not contact the cold tube surface, with its state unchanged, plus
a cooled portion.
The two portions are mixed adiabatically to obtain state 2.

Mass balance of dry air: 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚𝑎𝑏 + 𝑚𝑎𝑐

(note: 𝑚𝑎𝑏 and 𝑚𝑎𝑐 are the dry air flow rates of the bypass portion and the cooled
portion)

The cooling coil temperature or apparatus dew-point is 𝑡𝑑 .

𝑚 𝑎𝑏
A bypass factor is defined 𝑏 = .
𝑚𝑎
For the assumed adiabatic mixing process, we obtain
𝑚 𝑚
𝑡2 = 𝑚𝑎𝑏 𝑡1 + 𝑚𝑎𝑐 𝑡𝑑 ; (note: 𝑡𝑑 equals to 𝑡4 in the figure).
𝑎 𝑎
𝑡 −𝑡
Using the above three equations, we have 𝑏 = 𝑡2 −𝑡𝑑 .
1 𝑑

The sensible cooling rate 𝑄𝑠 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑐𝑎𝑚 𝑡1 − 𝑡2 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑐𝑎𝑚 1 − 𝑏 𝑡1 − 𝑡𝑑 (note:

consider the situation if 𝑏 = 0, i.e. no bypass)

The total cooling rate is given by

𝑄
𝑠 𝑚 𝑎 𝑐𝑎𝑚 1−𝑏 𝑡 1 −𝑡 𝑑
𝑄𝑡 = 𝑆𝐻𝑅 = 𝑆𝐻𝑅
.

Where SHR is the sensible heat ratio, which may be obtained directly from the
protractor in the psychrometric chart for the process 1-4 as shown for S2.
Space condition line
A room is a special space where heat/mass transfer processes occur

It is customary to list all energy and moisture flows into the space which the air
conditioning system needs to remove in two groups, i.e. sensible cooling load
and the latent cooling load.
 The sensible cooling load (total sensible heat gain) 𝑄𝑠𝑡 : heat flow through
walls, roofs, and windows; appliances generating heat, lighting and
occupants within the space; unintended air infiltration.
 The latent cooling load 𝑄𝑙𝑡 : the moisture released by appliances and
occupants within the space, and moist air infiltration. The total rate of
moisture gain by the air is 𝑚𝑤𝑡 .
Consider a control volume with a single inlet port 1 and a single outlet port 2,
surrounding the space.

Mass balance of dry air: 𝑚𝑎1 = 𝑚𝑎2 = 𝑚𝑎

Mass balance of water: 𝑚𝑎1 𝜔1 + 𝑚𝑤𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎2 𝜔2
Energy balance: 𝑚𝑎1 ℎ1 + 𝑄𝑠𝑡 + 𝑄𝑙𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎2 ℎ2

Manipulating the three equations, we have

ℎ −ℎ 𝑄𝑠𝑡 +𝑄𝑙𝑡
𝑞 = 𝜔 2 −𝜔1 = 𝑚 𝑤𝑡
;
2 1

Thus, for fixed values of the sensible and latent cooling loads, and the rate of
moisture gain, the enthalpy-moisture ratio, 𝑞 is constant.

Moreover, the state point of supply air at 1 on the psychrometric chart must lie on
∆ℎ
a straight line drawn through 2, parallel to the direction of 𝑞 in the ∆𝜔 -protractor.

This straight line is the space condition line.

This straight line is the space condition line.
 If 𝑞 = ℎ𝑔2 , or the enthalpy-moisture ratio equals to the enthalpy of vapor in the space,
then we have the line 1 − 2 in Figure 10b, the constant dry-bulb temperature line.
 If 𝑞 > ℎ𝑔2 , i.e. the supply air at 1 is cooler, and less humid than the air in the space
(line 1-2). This is the condition line for a typical summer air conditioning situation.
 If 𝑞 < ℎ𝑔2 , i.e. the supply air is warmer and less humid than the air in the space (line
1′ − 2). This could be a typical winter air conditioning situation.
The above arguments can be derived mathematically, though not done here.

Using the earlier results, the sensible cooling load 𝑄𝑠𝑡 and the latent cooling load 𝑄𝑙𝑡 may
be expressed by
𝑄𝑠𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑐𝑎𝑚 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 and 𝑄𝑙𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎 ℎ𝑔𝑚 𝜔2 − 𝜔1
𝑄𝑡 = 𝑄𝑠𝑡 + 𝑄𝑙𝑡 .

Again, for the temperature range from 0 oC to 60oC of a typical psychrometric chart, the
following mean values may be used. 𝑐𝑎𝑚 = 1.02 kJ/kgK and ℎ𝑔𝑚 = 2555 kJ/kg.

𝑄𝑠𝑡
The sensible heat ratio (SHR) is SHR= .
𝑄𝑡
Application of the psychrometric processes
Single-zone air conditioning system: summer air conditioning systems
A filter, a cooling and dehumidifying coil, and a fan are arranged in series
and are connected using ducts through which air flows.
 For ventilation, a portion of the air withdrawn from the space at 2 is
discharged to the ambient at 3, and replaced with an equal mass of
outdoor air at 4. Again, we assume steady state condition.
 Point 2 and condition line of the space– this is the space condition in term
of the temperature and humidity ratio or other moist air properties. If the
sensible and latent cooling loads of the space are estimated, then SHR
can be calculated. The condition line of the space is obtained by drawing
a straight line through Pont 2 in the direction of the line on the protractor
pointing towards the SHR-value for the space.
 Point 4 – the state of outdoor air is easily located by knowing two
thermodynamic properties of the ambient air. The dry air mass fraction of
the outdoor air to compensate for the return air discharged at 3 is usually
specified.
 Point 5 – the mixture of the outdoor air of 4 and the return air of 2. This
uses the adiabatic mixing analysis early, and 5 can be obtained by
dividing the straight line 2-4 in the inverse ratio of the dry air mass flow
rates of the two air streams.
The curved line 5-1, or the coil condition line gives the state of air as it flows
through the cooling and dehumidifying coil. This can be obtained using the
coil manufacturer’s data or the computer-based heat and mass transfer
analyses of the cooling coil.

The air undergoes a slight increase in temperature as it flows through the fan, which
for all practical purposes, could be neglected. However, we could add the energy
input to the fan as a sensible cooling load to the space. In the basic air conditioning
system, the cooling and dehumidifying coil is the sole air processing unit, and
therefore only one property of the air could be controlled. In most systems, this
property would be the dry-bulb temperature.
Example 6. In a summer air conditioning system, 25% of the return air from a space at 30 oC dry-bulb temperature, and
22 oC web-bulb temperature is exhausted and an equal quantity of outdoor air at 34 oC dry-bulb temperature, and 28 oC
web-bulb temperature is mixed with the remaining return air.
The mixture passes over a cooling coil whose coil surface temperature (apparatus dew-point) is 8 oC, and the bypass
factor is 0.25.
The mass flow rate of dry air to the space is 0.8 kg/s; and the pressure is constant at 101.3 kPa.
Calculate (a) dry-bulb temperature and the relative humidity of the air leaving the cooling coil; (b) enthalpy-humidity
ratio of the cooling process, and (c) the refrigeration capacity of the cooling coil.
Example 6. In a summer air conditioning system, 25% of the return air from a space at 30 oC dry-bulb temperature, and
22 oC web-bulb temperature is exhausted and an equal quantity of outdoor air at 34 oC dry-bulb temperature, and 28 oC
web-bulb temperature is mixed with the remaining return air.
The mixture passes over a cooling coil whose coil surface temperature (apparatus dew-point) is 8 oC, and the bypass
factor is 0.25.
The mass flow rate of dry air to the space is 0.8 kg/s; and the pressure is constant at 101.3 kPa.
Calculate (a) dry-bulb temperature and the relative humidity of the air leaving the cooling coil; (b) enthalpy-humidity
ratio of the cooling process, and (c) the refrigeration capacity of the cooling coil.

Solution
Identify state 1 (space air) and state 2 (outdoor air), and divide line 1-2 such that (length 1-3)/(length 2-3) = 1/3. We
have 𝑡𝑑𝑏3 = 31℃ and 𝑡𝑤𝑏3 = 23.5℃.

For the cooling coil process, the bypass factor is 0.25, meaning only 75% of the air passes through the ideal straight
line (3-4), to finally achieve the apparatus dew-point of 8oC, i.e. state 4. The cooled air at state 4 mixes with the
bypass air at state 3, to produce the supply air at state 5. To locate 5, we divide line 3-4 so that (length 4-5)/(length
3-5) =1/3.

(a) 𝑡𝑑𝑏5 = 13.8℃ and 5 =89%

(b) To obtain the enthalpy-humidity ratio of the cooling process, we draw a line parallel to line 3-4 through the
∆ℎ
centre of protractor. This gives the -ratio as 5300 kJ/kg.
∆𝜔
(c) The refrigeration capacity of the cooling coil is given by
𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔 = 𝑚𝑎 ℎ3 − ℎ5 = 0.8 × 71 − 36.5 = 27.6 kW.
Example 10. The rate of sensible heat gain and the rate of moisture gain by a space are 23 kW and 0.0024 kg/s
respectively. The space is maintained at 24oC db-temperature and 50% RH. The air supplied to the space is at db-
temperature of 15oC. Assume that the moisture entering the space has an enthalpy of 2555 kJ/kg. The pressure is
constant at 101.3kPa. Calculate
(a) The relative humidity, the wb-temperature, and the dry air mass flow rate of air supplied;
(b) The refrigeration capacity of the cooling coil; and
(c) The bypass factor and the apparatus dew-point of the cooling coil.
Example 10. The rate of sensible heat gain and the rate of moisture gain by a space are 23 kW and
0.0024 kg/s respectively. The space is maintained at 24 oC db-temperature and 50% RH. The air
supplied to the space is at db-temperature of 15oC. Assume that the moisture entering the space
has an enthalpy of 2555 kJ/kg. The pressure is constant at 101.3kPa. Calculate
(a) The relative humidity, the wb-temperature, and the dry air mass flow rate of air supplied;
(b) The refrigeration capacity of the cooling coil; and
(c) The bypass factor and the apparatus dew-point of the cooling coil.

Solution
A schematic diagram of the system is shown in Figure 10a. We locate state 2 of the space air (24oC db-temp and 50%RH).

To find state 1 (supply air), we use SHR protractor.

𝑄𝑠 = 23kW; and 𝑄𝑙 = 0.0024 × 2555 = 6.13kW.
𝑄𝑠 23
The sensible heat ratio 𝑆𝐻𝑅 = = = 0.7895.
𝑄𝑠 + 𝑄𝑙 23+6.13
We first draw a line on the SHR-protractor pointing towards the value of 0.7895. The space condition line is obtained by
drawing a straight line through 2, parallel to the line drawn on the protractor. State 1 is located by the intersection of the
space condition line and the 15oC constant db-temp line.

(a) Read state 1 properties on the psychrometric chart. wb-temp = 12.8oC, and RH = 78%.`

23
The mass flow rate of dry air is obtained by 𝑄𝑠 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑐𝑎𝑚 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 , hence 𝑚𝑎 = = 2.505 kg/s.
1.02 24−15
(a) The refrigeration capacity of the cooling coil is given by
𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 𝑚𝑎 ℎ2 − ℎ1 = 2.505 48 − 36.3 = 29.3 kW, where the enthalpies are obtained from the chart. The total
heat load on the space is 23+6.13= 29.13 kW. This value should equal to 𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑓 by energy conservation.
(a) The apparatus dew-point or the ideal coil surface temperature is the temperature at the point of intersection 3, of the line
1-2 and the saturation line. We read 𝑡𝑑 = 𝑡3 = 10.5oC.
The bypass factor of the coil is
𝑡1 −𝑡𝑑 15−10.5
𝑏= = = 0.33.
𝑡2 −𝑡𝑑 24−10.5
 Steady heat transfer through multi-layered
structures

At least two methods, i.e. the parallel path

method and the isothermal plane method

In the isothermal plane method, we assume that the heat flow paths
are parallel only through the insulation and the studs.

The individual thermal resistances of the wall sections are

1 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
𝑅𝑜𝑎 = 𝐴 ℎ ; 𝑅1 = 𝐴 1𝑘 ; 𝑅2 = 𝐴 2𝑘 ; 𝑅𝑠 = 𝐴 𝑘𝑠 ; 𝑅4 = 𝐴 4𝑘 ; 𝑅𝑖𝑛 =
𝑤 𝑜 𝑤 1 𝑤 2 𝑠 𝑠 𝑤 4
𝐿𝑖𝑛 1
𝐴 𝑖𝑛 𝑘 𝑖𝑛
; 𝑅𝑖𝑎 = 𝐴𝑤 ℎ 𝑖
Where the total wall area 𝐴𝑤 = 𝐴𝑠 + 𝐴𝑖𝑛
The overall thermal resistance of the wall
1 1 −1
𝑅𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝑅𝑜𝑎 + 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + +𝑅 + 𝑅4 + 𝑅𝑖𝑎 ;
𝑅𝑠 𝑖𝑛
We can then calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient, 𝑈𝑜
∆𝑇
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑤 𝑈𝑜 ∆𝑇 = 𝑅 ; where ∆𝑇 = 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 is the overall
temperature difference.
𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙
Chapter
48 3
Infiltration
This is the unintended air flows into a conditioned space through cracks and
openings in the building envelope. The infiltration rate 𝑚𝑎 can be estimated
using the air flow theory.

The cooling load 𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑎 ℎ𝑜 − ℎ𝑖 = 𝑄𝑠 + 𝑄𝑙

The sensible and latent cooling loads
𝑄𝑠 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑐𝑎𝑚 𝑡𝑜 − 𝑡𝑖 ; 𝑄𝑙 = 𝑚𝑎 ℎ𝑔𝑚 𝜔𝑜 − 𝜔𝑖 and added moisture 𝑚𝑤 =
𝑚𝑎 𝜔𝑜 − 𝜔𝑖 .

Substituting the density and specific heat capacity of air at standard conditions
of 1 bar and 15oC,

𝑄𝑠𝑠[kW]
𝑄 [kW]==1.23𝑉
1.23𝑖𝑛𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑡𝑜 −𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑖−; 𝑄
𝑡𝑖𝑙 [kW]
; 𝑄𝑙 [kW] = 3020
= 3010𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑜 𝑉
−𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑖𝜔𝑜 − 𝜔𝑖

Where 𝑉𝑖𝑛 is the volume flow rate of infiltration air (m3/s).

The infiltration air flow rate is sometimes specified as air exchanges per hour
(ACH).
3600 𝑉𝑖𝑛
ACH= , where V is the building volume.
𝑉
49
Example 1. An exterior wall of a building has a 10cm thick layer of face brick on the outside,
followed by a layer of 20 cm thick concrete. A 15 cm thick layer of mineral wool insulation is
sandwiched between the concrete and a layer of plywood of thickness 10 mm. The wall is 10
m long and 3 m high. The outside and inside heat transfer coefficients are 30 W/m2K and 9
W/m2K respectively. The outside and inside air temperature are 22oC and -15oC respectively.
Calculate
(a) The total thermal resistance;
(b) The overall heat transfer coefficient, and
(c) The total heat transfer rate through the wall.

50
Example 1. An exterior wall of a building has a 10cm thick layer of face brick on the outside, followed by a layer of 20
cm thick concrete. A 15 cm thick layer of mineral wool insulation is sandwiched between the concrete and a layer of
plywood of thickness 10 mm. The wall is 10 m long and 3 m high. The outside and inside heat transfer coefficients are 30
W/m2K and 9 W/m2K respectively. The outside and inside air temperature are 22 oC and -15oC respectively. Calculate
(a) The total thermal resistance;
(b) The overall heat transfer coefficient, and Layer, i 𝑘𝑖 ,W/mK 𝐿𝑖 , mm 𝑅𝑖 , m2K/W
(c) The total heat transfer rate through the wall. Brick 0.81 100 0.123
Concrete 1.8 200 0.11
Mineral wool 0.035 150 4.29
Plywood 0.095 10 0.105

Solution: Consider unit area of the wall where the constituent layers are in series.
1
The thermal resistance of a layer is 𝑅𝑖 = 𝐴 𝐾 . Here we obtain the data as follows
𝑖 𝑖
(note: we obtain the thermal conductivity values from ASHRA 2013
Fundamentals).
1 1 1 1
Also 𝑅𝑖𝑛 = = = 0.11 m2K/W; 𝑅𝑜𝑢 = = = 0.033 m2K/W
ℎ 𝑖𝑛 9 ℎ 𝑜𝑢 30
Total thermal resistance 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 0.033 + 0.123 + 0.11 + 4.29 + 0.105 + 0.11 =
4.77 m2K/W;
1 1
The overall heat transfer coefficient is 𝑈𝑜 = = = 0.21W/ m2K.
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 4.77
The total heat transfer rate through the wall is 𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐴𝑈𝑜 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 = 10 × 3 ×
51
0.21 × 22 + 15 = 233W.
Example 2. A building has an exterior wall with 3.8 cm × 14 cm framing that makes 20% of its
area. The wall consists of the following layers of materials:

9.5 cm thick gypsum board on the inside of the framing, fiber glass in the spaces between the
framing, 12.7 mm thick sheathing next to the insulation and framing, 38 cm thick layer of
expanded polystyrene, 100 cm thick layer of brick on the outside.

The air temperature inside is 20oC and the outside ambient temperature is -10oC. The wind speed
is 12 km/h. The inside heat transfer coefficient is 8 W/m2K. Calculate (a) the total thermal
resistance; (b) the average heat transfer coefficient, and (c) the average heat transfer rate through
the wall using (i) the parallel path method, and (ii) the isothermal plane method.

Layer, i Actual 𝑘𝑖 ,W/mK 𝐿𝑖 , mm 𝑅𝑖 , m2K/W

area, m2
Brick 1.0 0.89 100 0.11
Polystyrene 1.0 0.036 38 1.06
Sheathing 1.0 0.055 12.7 0.23
Wood frame 0.2 0.15 140 0.93
Fiber glass 0.8 0.04 140 3.5
Gypsum 1.0 0.16 9.5 0.059

52
Solution
𝐿
It is convenient to first compute the unit thermal resistance 𝑅𝑖 = 𝑘𝑖 , considering the unit
𝑖
cross sectional area of each heat transfer path.
For wind speed 13 km/h or 3.6 m/s, we can find from reference that ℎ𝑜 = 25 W/m2K.
The unit thermal resistance of the indoor and outdoor air films, including contributions
due to thermal radiation are
1 1 1 1
𝑅𝑖 = ℎ = 8 = 0.125 m2K/W; 𝑅𝑜 = ℎ = 25 = 0.04 m2K/W
𝑖 𝑜

Method 1: parallel path method

Consider two parallel heat flow paths from the outside air to the inside air, the first
through the wood framing and the second through the fiber glass insulation.
The total thermal resistance of these two paths are
1 2.554
𝑅𝑓𝑟 = 𝐴 0.04 + 0.11 + 1.06 + 0.23 + 0.93 + 0.059 + 0.125 = 0.2 = 12.77 K/W;
𝑓𝑟
1 5.124
𝑅𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴 0.04 + 0.11 + 1.06 + 0.23 + 3.5 + 0.059 + 0.125 = = 6.405 K/W;
𝑖𝑛 0.8
The two resistances above are in parallel. Therefore the overall thermal resistance is
−1 −1 Layer, i Actual 𝑘𝑖 ,W/mK 𝐿𝑖 , mm 𝑅𝑖 , m2K/W
1 1 1 1
𝑅𝑝𝑟 = + = + = 4.27 K/W area, m2
𝑅𝑓𝑟 𝑅𝑖𝑛 12.77 6.405 Brick 1.0 0.89 100 0.11
The overall heat transfer coefficient is Polystyrene 1.0 0.036 38 1.06
1 1 Sheathing 1.0 0.055 12.7 0.23
𝑈𝑝𝑟 = 𝐴 𝑅 = 4.27×1 = 0.234 W/m2K. Wood frame 0.2 0.15 140 0.93
𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑟
Fiber glass 0.8 0.04 140 3.5
The average heat transfer rate through the wall is Gypsum 1.0 0.16 9.5 0.059
2 53
𝑄𝑝𝑟 = 𝐴𝑈𝑝𝑟 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 = 1 × 0.234 × 20 − −10 = 7W/m
Solution continuing
𝐿𝑖
It is convenient to first compute the unit thermal resistance 𝑅𝑖 = , considering the unit
𝑘𝑖
cross sectional area of each heat transfer path.
For wind speed 13 km/h or 3.6 m/s, we can find from reference that ℎ𝑜 = 25 W/m2K.
The unit thermal resistance of the indoor and outdoor air films, including contributions
due to thermal radiation are
1 1 1 1
𝑅𝑖 = = = 0.125 m2K/W; 𝑅𝑜 = = = 0.04 m2K/W
ℎ𝑖 8 ℎ𝑜 25

Method 2: Isothermal plane method

In the isothermal plane method we assume that heat flows uniformly through all the
layers except the framing and the insulation where the heat flow paths are parallel. The
thermal resistances of the latter two paths are
0.93 3.5
𝑅𝑓𝑟 = 0.2 = 4.65 and 𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑠 = 0.8 = 4.375
The equivalent resistance of these two parallel paths is
−1 −1
1 1
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅𝑓𝑟 +𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑠
= 4.65+4.375
= 2.254 K/W
Hence the total thermal resistance is
𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑜 = 0.04 + 0.11 + 1.06 + 0.23 + 2.254 + 0.059 + 0.125 = 3.88 K/W
The overall heat transfer coefficient is
1 1
𝑈𝑖𝑠𝑜 = 𝐴 𝑅 = 3.88×1 = 0.258 W/m2K.
𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑖𝑠𝑜
The average heat transfer rate through the wall is
54
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑈 𝑇 − 𝑇 = 1 × 0.258 × 20 − −10 = 7.74W/m2
Cooling load and heating load calculations
Space heating load refers to the rate of heat input needed to maintain the indoor
temperatures and humidity of a building within specified limits during the winter
heating season. The heating load includes:
 The heat loss to the outside ambient across the building envelope
 The heat required to raise the temperature of the infiltrated air as the outdoor air
is colder than the indoor air.
Space cooling load refers to the total rate of heat that is needed to be removed from
the space to maintain a comfortable temperature and relative humidity. The cooling
load includes
 The heat gain from the outside ambient across the building envelope
 Solar radiation entering through the windows
 Heat released from lighting, occupants and other equipment such as computers.
 Heat gained due to the infiltration of the outside warmer and humid air

The space loads are time varying. The detailed energy and moisture flows in a
building are shown in Figure 3. Clearly, a detailed analysis of all the transient
process is complex and also tedious. In real design, load estimation is done by
computer software. Our aim here is to describe the physical principles that form the
basis of these computerized procedures of load estimation.

Note that ASHRAE simplified the wind heating load estimation, by ignoring the
solar radiation gain.
55
Outdoor design conditions
The design is normally done to meet the first the extreme weather conditions expected at a
location. The weather records for a large number of locations around the world have been
compiled and processed to develop a series of weather related outdoor design conditions. They
are tabulated in ASHRAE Fundamentals.
Table 1. Design weather data for winter heating systems
Location Lat deg. Long. deg DB (oC) DB (oC) 99% Wind speed Wind speed
99.6% (m/s) 1% (m/s) 5%

New York 40.7N 73.8W -13.0 -10.2 12.1 9.2

Dallas 32.9N 97.04W -5.0 -2.6 11.6 9.2
Toronto 43.68N 79.63W -16.1 -13.3 13.3 10.5
Sydney 33.93S 151.18E 6.1 7.1 12.9 10.2
Beijing 39.93N 116.28E -11.0 -9.1 9.8 6.7
Bangalore 12.97N 77.58E 15.2 15.9 5.5 4.1
Hong Kong 22.33N 114.18E 9.0 10.8 10.2 9.4

Table 2. Design weather data for summer cooling systems

Location DB/MCWB (oC) 0.4% DB/MCWB (oC) 1.0 % DB/MCWB (oC) 2.0%

New York 29.8/22.4 27.8/21.6 26.6/21.1

Dallas 38.0/23.6 37/23.7 35.8/23.9
Toronto 28.5/21.8 26.8/21.4 25.3/20.8
Sydney 32.9/19.5 30.1/20.1 28.2/20.0
Beijing 35//22.0 33.2/22.5 32/22.4
Bangalore 34.2/19.8 33.4/19.8 32.6/19.8
HK 33.2/26.3 32.9/26.3 32.1/26.2 56
 33.2oC DB
26.3oC WB

24oC DB
50% RH

57
Human body thermal balance
The human body metabolism generates heat. The metabolic heat generation rate, usually in
met unit in thermal comfort (1 met = 58.2 W/m2 of body area), depending on the activity
level, age and health conditions.

Temperature regulation of the body is achieved through the control of blood flow rate to the
skin. As the environmental temperature goes up, the blood flow rate to the skin increases to
raise the skin temperature, which in turn, increases the heat transfer rate to the environment.
This process is effective until the skin temperature reaches the core body temperature of 37
oC. At this stage, sweating is initiated, which transfer the metabolic heat to the surroundings

by evaporation.

58
Please rate your overall thermal sensation:
Please rate your overall thermal comfort:

very cold very comfortable

cold
comfortable
cool
slightly cool
just comfortable
neutral
just uncomfortable
slightly warm
warm uncomfortable
hot
very hot very uncomfortable

Courtesy: from Literature

59
 Indoor design conditions
The ASHARE thermal comfort chart based
on the effective temperature concept is
shown in Figure.

The indicated comfort zones for winter and

summer are for people performing office
type work, and wearing clothing with
Winter summer
thermal resistances of 1.0 clo (winter) and
0.5 clo (summer) respectively. The speed of
air movement is less than 0.2 m/s. The upper
limit of the humidity ratio is 0.012 kg/kg
DA, and no lower limit is recommended. The
recommended temperature range is 20-25oC
for winter and 24-28 oC for summer.

The ASHRAE summer and winter comfort zones.

In the middle of a thermal comfort zone, a person wearing the prescribed clothing would have a
neutral thermal sensation. The middle of the winter and summer comfort zones are 22oC /50%
RH, and 25oC/50%RH respectively. 60
 PMV = exp(Met) * L

1:50 pm, Monday 14

March 2011, HKU
campus

61
Courtesy of Innova
Courtesy of Innova

62
Indoor air quality (IAQ)
Airborne pollutants are generated within the conditioned space, and can also be transported
from the ambient or neighboring rooms. One major pollutant sources is due to the human body.
Some pollutants can be removed by air cleaning, e.g. filtration for removing fine particles.

In general, ventilation, i.e. supply of outdoor “clean” air can be used to dilute the indoor air
pollutants. This also means that the ventilation air intakes should not be close to high pollution
areas, such as roads with heavy traffic.

Ventilation air needs to be cooled and dehumidified (e.g. in Hong Kong), the amount of
ventilation air should be as small as possible while maintaining a reasonable IAQ.

The minimum ventilation rates are given. The values depend on the number of occupants, and
their activities, as well as the indoor materials.
Table 3. Minimum ASHRAE recommended ventilation rates.
Application Function Design Ventilation air flow rate
occupancy/100m2 per person (L/s)
Office Offices 7 10
Conference room 50 10
Restaurant Lounge 100 15
Dining room 70 10
Kitchen 20 7.5
Retail store Shops, malls 20 1 (L/sm2)
Sport area Ballrooms 100 13
63
Gymnasiums 30 10
 Bath effect

1cu ft =0.028 m3

Economy
effect

64
Yaglou, 1937
 Before 1900: After 1900: After 1990:
Miasma Influenza pandemic 1918-1919 Sick building syndrome
Lavoisier 1774 O2 Carrier 1919 “manufactured US Indoor Air Act of
Lavoisier 1775 CO2 weather” 1991
Polluted cities Paris and Fanger thermal comfort Eurovent 2002
London, late 18th and Energy crisis 1973 SARS epidemics 2003
19th century WorldVent 2006

Health period Comfort period Health perio

30
Bilings
1895 Disease
25
Ventilation Rate (L/s)

EuroVent
2002
WorldVent
20 2007
ASHVE
1914
15 Bilings
1895 Comfort ASHRAE
Yaglou
10 1936 1973 ASHRAE
Flugge
1905 1989/2004
5
ASA ASHRAE
1946 1981
0
1875 1900 1925 1950 1975 2000 2025
Year
65
Internal heat sources in buildings (people, lights, and equipment)
Table 4. Heat and moisture released by people of different activities
Activity level Total heat (W) Sensible Latent Radiant/sensible heat (%)
Adult male Adjusted for heat (W) heat (W) Low air speed High air
M/F/children 0.5 m/s speed 2 m/s
Seated at theater 115 95 65 30 60 27
Moderate office 140 130 75 55 58 38
work
Walking, standing 160 145 75 70 58 38
Light bench work, 235 220 80 140 49 35
factory
Heavy work, 440 425 170 255 54 19
factory

Heat gain from people

Metabolic heat of people is released to the air both as sensible heat, and latent heat due to
sweating,
 The sensible heat consists of a convective component (thus released to indoor air
immediately) and a radiative component, which first absorbed by other surfaces and
later released to indoor air by convection. This time delay needs to be considered.
 The latent heat is released to indoor air immediately

66
Cooling load in an
apartment building
in HK

LI, Z., Chen, W., Deng, S. & Lin, Z. 2006. The characteristics of space cooling load and indoor humidity control for
67
residences in the subtropics. Building and Environment, 41, 1137-1147.
Transient effect
We demonstrate difficulty of thermal storage. Assume the room air temperature, 𝑇𝑎 is constant.

The interior or exterior surface absorbs a fraction 𝛼 of the incident solar radiation or lighting
radiation, 𝐼 𝑡 , and there is a combined convection and thermal radiation (ℎ𝑠 ). The wall is thin with
a high conductivity, and assume its temperature is uniform.
𝑑𝑇
𝜌𝑐𝑙𝐴 𝑠 = 𝐴𝛼𝐼 𝑡 − 𝐴ℎ𝑠 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 ; (1)
𝑑𝑡
where A is the wall surface area, l is the thickness, c is the specific heat capacity, and 𝜌 is the
density of wall material.

The heat flux per unit area entering the room is 𝑞𝑖 = ℎ𝑠 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 (2)
𝑑𝑞𝑖 ℎ𝑠 𝛼ℎ𝑠
Thus + 𝑞𝑖 = 𝛽𝐼 𝑡 , (3) where  = and 𝛽 = = 𝛼 .
𝑑𝑡 𝜌𝑐𝑙 𝜌𝑐𝑙

The solution of this first order ODE (3) is

𝑞 𝑡 = 𝑞 𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝛼 𝐼 𝜏 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑑𝜏
𝑡
𝑖 𝑖0 0
(4)
where 𝑞𝑖0 is the heat flux at time 𝑡 = 0. The above solution shows that the current heat flux at time
𝑡 is affected by the heat gain that occurred at earlier times, i.e. between 𝑡 = 0 to the present.

If 𝐼 𝑡 is a constant 𝐼0 , we have 𝑞𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑞𝑖0 𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝛼𝐼0 1 − 𝑒 −𝑡 (5)

𝑒 −𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = − 𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝐶)
1
(note that


Figure 6. A simple model of a thin wall; (a) thin wall surface;

(b) thin interior surface. 68
Solution (5) shows that as time goes to infinity, 𝑞𝑖 𝑡 = 𝛼𝐼0 , though at time 𝑡 = 0,𝑞𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑞𝑖0 .

We divide the period 𝑡 into 𝑡 = 𝑁∆𝜏. Assume each interval ∆𝜏 is one hour, and assume 𝐼 𝜏 is constant
during each time interval.
Solution (4) gives 𝑞𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑞𝑖0 𝑒 −𝑁∆𝜏 + 𝑛=0 𝛼𝐼𝑛 𝑒 −𝑛∆𝜏 − 𝑒 − 𝑛+1 ∆𝜏
𝑁−1
(6)
Where 𝐼𝑛 is the short wave radiation at time internal 𝑛 = 0, 𝑁 − 1.
In equation (6), we let 𝑒 −𝑛∆𝜏 − 𝑒 − 𝑛+1 ∆𝜏 = 𝐴𝑛 , i.e. the transfer function coefficients.

We assume 24-hour steady periodic conditions. This means 𝑞𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑞𝑖 𝑡 − 24 .

Consider at 𝑛 = 0, 𝑞𝑖 0 = 𝑞𝑖 −24 = 𝑞𝑖0 , equation (6) becomes

𝑞𝑖 𝑡 1 − 𝑒 −24∆𝜏 = 23 𝑛=0 𝛼𝐼𝑛 𝑒
−𝑛∆𝜏
1 − 𝑒 −∆𝜏 ; or

23 −𝑛∆𝜏 1−𝑒 −∆𝜏

𝑞𝑖 𝑡 = 𝛼𝐼𝑛 𝑒 .
1−𝑒 −𝑁∆𝜏
𝑛=0

This equation is applicable to a 24-hour period, where 𝑁 = 24, ∆𝜏 = 1 hour. We define radiant time
factors
1−𝑒 −∆𝜏 1−𝑒 −∆𝜏
𝑒 −𝑛∆𝜏 ; and we can find out 𝑛=0 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑒 −𝑛∆𝜏 = 1
23 23
𝑟𝑛 =
1−𝑒 − 𝑁∆𝜏 1−𝑒 − 𝑁∆𝜏 𝑛=0

23
Hence 𝑞𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑛=0 𝛼𝐼𝑛 𝑟𝑛 .

This is an amazing formula, showing that the instantaneous heat flux (cooling load) at time 𝑡 can be
calculated using the radiant time factors, which depends only on the geometrical and thermal properties.
69
We write 𝛼𝐼𝑛 as 𝐼𝑠,𝑡−𝑛 , the radiant heat gain rate during the 𝑛-th hour before the current hour
𝑡, and 𝑟𝑛 is the radiant time factor for hour 𝑛. Hence

23
𝑞𝑖,𝑡 = 𝑛=0 𝑟𝑛 𝐼𝑠,𝑡−𝑛 .

Note that this approaches works for a thin wall, which can be assumed to have a uniform
temperature distribution.

In case, a thick wall does not have a uniform temperature distribution, the basic 1D heat
conduction equation can also be analyzed, though the procedure becomes complex. The
results are similar as follows.

The hourly heat gain due to conduction, 𝑞𝑖𝑐,𝑡 at hour 𝑡 is

𝑞𝑖𝑐,𝑡 = 23
𝑛=0 𝑐𝑛 𝑄𝑒,𝑡−𝑛 .

Where 𝑐𝑛 is the so-called conduction time factor for hour 𝒕 or interval 𝒏. 𝑄𝑒,𝑡−𝑛 is the
heat imput at the exterior surface of the wall during the 𝑛-th hour before the current hour.

𝑄𝑒,𝑡−𝑛 = 𝑈𝐴 𝑡𝑠𝑎,𝑡−𝑛 − 𝑡𝑎 ; where 𝑈 is the overall heat transfer coefficient for the wall, 𝐴
surface area, 𝑡𝑎 indoor air temperature (constant). 𝑡𝑠𝑎 is the so-called sol-air temperature.

70
The concept of sol-air temperature for an exterior surface is used to simplify the surface heat gain
calculation due to the combined effect of solar radiation, and convection/thermal radiation.
𝑄𝑒 = 𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 𝑞𝑠𝑜𝑙 + ℎ𝑐 𝑇𝑎𝑎 − 𝑇𝑠 + ℎ𝑟 𝑇𝑠𝑘𝑦 − 𝑇𝑠 ; or
𝑄𝑒 = 𝑞𝑠𝑜𝑙 + ℎ𝑐 𝑇𝑎𝑎 − 𝑇𝑠 + ℎ𝑟 𝑇𝑎𝑎 − 𝑇𝑠 − ℎ𝑟 𝑇𝑎𝑎 − 𝑇𝑠𝑘𝑦 = 𝑞𝑠𝑜𝑙 + ℎ𝑜 𝑇𝑎𝑎 − 𝑇𝑠 − 𝜀∆𝑅;
where 𝜀∆𝑅 = ℎ𝑟 𝑇𝑎𝑎 − 𝑇𝑠𝑘𝑦 and ℎ𝑜 = ℎ𝑐 + ℎ𝑟 . We let 𝑄𝑒 = ℎ𝑜 𝑇𝑠𝑎 − 𝑇𝑠 by defining a new
variable 𝑇𝑠𝑎 .
Thus, ℎ𝑜 𝑇𝑠𝑎 − 𝑇𝑠 = 𝑞𝑠𝑜𝑙 + ℎ𝑜 𝑇𝑎𝑎 − 𝑇𝑠 − 𝜀∆𝑅, where 𝜀∆𝑅 = ℎ𝑟 𝑇𝑎𝑎 − 𝑇𝑠𝑘𝑦
𝑞𝑠𝑜𝑙 −𝜀∆𝑅
We find the new variable, i.e. sol-air temperature 𝑇𝑠𝑎 = 𝑇𝑎𝑎 + ℎ𝑜
The small term 𝜀∆𝑅 = ℎ𝑟 𝑇𝑎𝑎 − 𝑇𝑠𝑘𝑦 is generally considered to be a small correction term for
the difference between the sky and air temperature.

Thus, the sol-air temperature is an effective driving temperature that incorporates the
contributions of solar radiation, long wave radiation, and convection to the energy interactions at
an external surface.

71
The cooling load calculation by the RTS and CTS methods
The above derived radiant time factor series (RTS) and conduction time factor series (CTS) can
be used to convert heat gains on surfaces to cooling loads by accounting for the time delays
caused by the thermal storage of walls, roofs and surfaces within a zone.

Values for RTS and CTS for different walls and roofs are available in ASHRAE 2013
Fundamentals.
Table 6. Conduction time series (CTS) for two walls and one roof
Curtain wall: mass = 20.9 kg/m2; thermal capacity = 20.4 kJ/m2K; U=0.429 W/m2K
Hour 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
𝑐𝑛 (%) 25 57 15 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Hour 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
𝑐𝑛 (%) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Brickwall: mass = 304 kg/m2; thermal capacity = 253.5 kJ/m2K; U=0.348 W/m2K
Hour 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
𝑐𝑛 (%) 2 2 2 3 5 6 7 7 7 7 6 6
Hour 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
𝑐𝑛 (%) 5 5 5 4 4 3 3 3 3 2 2 1
Metal deck roof: mass = 57.6 kg/m2; thermal capacity = 57.2 kJ/m2K; U=0.297 W/m2K
Hour 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
𝑐𝑛 (%) 0 10 22 20 14 10 7 5 4 3 2 1
Hour 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
72
𝑐 (%) 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Building energy estimation and modelling: Degree-day method with the following assumptions
 The heating load depends only on the indoor and outdoor dry-bulb temperatures
 The efficiency of the heating system is constant
 The internal heat gain due to solar radiation, people, lights and equipment are constant
 Air infiltration affects only the sensible heating load

Different instantaneous energy flow rates in and out of the space :

Heat flow rate across the envelope 𝑄𝑒 = 𝑈𝑒 𝐴𝑒 𝑇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 (1)
where 𝑈𝑒 and 𝐴𝑒 are the heat transfer coefficient and area of the building envelop respectively.
Sensible heat flow due to infiltration 𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑓 = 𝑚𝑖 𝑐𝑝 𝑇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 (2)
where 𝑚𝑖 and 𝑐𝑝 are the infiltration rate and specific heat of air respectively.

Adding (1) and (2), we obtain the total energy loss due to envelop heat transfer and infiltration,
𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑈𝑒 𝐴𝑒 + 𝑚𝑖 𝑐𝑝 𝑇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 = 𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 𝑇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 ; where 𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 is the effective heat transfer conductance.
The rate of heat gain due to solar energy, people, lights and equipment 𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑄𝑠𝑜𝑙 + 𝑄𝑝𝑒𝑜 + 𝑄𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑠 + 𝑄𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑝

At steady state the heating load, 𝐿ℎ = 𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 𝑇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 − 𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑡
Define a balance temperature. 𝐿ℎ = 𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 𝑇𝑏𝑎𝑙 − 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 , and 𝑇𝑏𝑎𝑙 = 𝑇𝑖𝑛 − . The heating load is zero when 𝑇𝑏𝑎𝑙 = 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 .
𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜

The heating degree-day method is based on the observation that the heating system needs to supply heat only when 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 <
𝑇𝑏𝑎𝑙 . Thus the total amount of heat to be supplied by the heating system during the heating season is
𝑡𝑠 +
𝐸ℎ𝑒 = 𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 0
𝑇𝑏𝑎𝑙 − 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 𝑑𝑡; (note: the superscript “+” indicates only positive values included.)

For a period, such a month,𝐸ℎ𝑒,𝑚 = 𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 𝐷𝐷 𝑚, where 𝐷𝐷 𝑚 is the total heating degree-days for the month.
𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 𝐷𝐷 𝑚
If the furnace efficiency is 𝑓 , the amount of fuel energy required 𝐸𝑓𝑢,𝑚 = .
𝑓
A similar cooling degree days can be defined. Thus we have heating and cooling degree days (HDD and CDD).
73
Every degree counts

74
Example 5. A thin vertical metal wall of a building at a location with a northern latitude of 40
faces 35 east of south. The measured direct beam and diffuse solar radiation intensities at the
location on August 15 at 10 am solar time are 580 W/m2, and 148 W/m2 respectively. The
reflectivity of the ground surrounding the wall is 0.3. With such information, we can estimate the
direct radiation incident on unit area of the wall surface is 331.8 W/m2; the diffuse radiation
incident on unit area is 133.57 W/m2; and the ground-reflected radiation falling on unit area of
surface is 89.4 W/m2. Thus the total solar radiation incident on unit area of the wall is 554.8
W/m2. (Note the solar radiation and solar shading calculations are beyond the scope of the
lecture).

The average emissivity of the wall surface is 0.85. The ambient temperature and the inside air
temperature are 28oC and 23oC respectively. The overall external and internal heat transfer
coefficients are 35 W/m2K and 8.5 W/m2K respectively. Assume that the heat capacity and the
thermal resistance of the wall are negligible,

Calculate
(a) Sol-air temperature; and
(b) The temperature of the wall.

75
Example 5. A thin vertical metal wall of a building at a location with a northern latitude of 40 faces 35 east of south. The
measured direct beam and diffuse solar radiation intensities at the location on August 15 at 10 am solar time are 580 W/m 2,
and 148 W/m2 respectively. The reflectivity of the ground surrounding the wall is 0.3. With such information, we can estimate
the direct radiation incident on unit area of the wall surface is 331.8 W/m2; the diffuse radiation incident on unit area is 133.57
W/m2; and the ground-reflected radiation falling on unit area of surface is 89.4 W/m2. Thus the total solar radiation incident on
unit area of the wall is 554.8 W/m2. (Note the solar radiation and solar shading calculations are beyond the scope of the
lecture).

The average emissivity of the wall surface is 0.85. The ambient temperature and the inside air temperature are 28 oC and 23oC
respectively. The overall external and internal heat transfer coefficients are 35 W/m2K and 8.5 W/m2K respectively. Assume
that the heat capacity and the thermal resistance of the wall are negligible,

Calculate
(a) Sol-air temperature; and
(b) The temperature of the wall.

Solution: The sol-air temperature

𝑞𝑠𝑜𝑙 −𝜀∆𝑅 0.85×554.8
𝑇𝑠𝑎 = 𝑇𝑎 + = 28 + = 41.47℃. Note that we assume that ∆𝑅 = 0.
ℎ𝑜 35

Since the thermal capacity and the thermal resistance of the wall are negligible, the net heat
flow rate

𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛 = ℎ𝑜 𝑇𝑠𝑎 − 𝑇𝑤 = ℎ𝑖 𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑖𝑛 ; 35 41.47 − 𝑇𝑤 = 8.5 𝑇𝑤 − 23 .

𝑇𝑤 = 37.86℃.

76
Example 8. The wall of a building is 8 m long and 3 m high. It has two equal sized
windows of length 2.5 m and height 2 m located in it. The overall heat transfer
coefficient for the wall is 0.246 W/m2K. The overall heat transfer coefficient for the
window is 3.02 W/m2K. The outdoor and indoor design temperatures are -10oC and
20oC, respectively. Calculate the total heat load due to heat loss through the wall.

Solution: 𝐴𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 3 × 8 − 2 × 2.5 × 2 = 14 m2;

𝑄𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝐴𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑈𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑜𝑟 − 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 = 14 × 0.246 × 20 + 10 = 103.3 W;

𝐴𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤 = 2 × 2.5 × 2 = 10 m2;

𝑄𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤 = 𝐴𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤 𝑈𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑙 𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑜𝑟 − 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 = 10 × 3.02 × 20 + 10 = 906 W;
Therefore, the total heating load due to wall heat loss is
𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑄𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 + 𝑄𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤 = 103.3 + 906 = 1009.6W.

77
Example 9. For a two-story building, the infiltration rate is 0.068
m3/s. The indoor design conditions are 22oC and 40% relative
humidity. The outdoor ambient air is saturated at -10 oC. The
pressure is 101 kPa. Calculate the sensible and latent heat loads
due to infiltration of ambient air.

Solution: From the psychrometric chart, 𝜔𝑖 = 0.0066; and 𝜔𝑜 =

0.0016 (the values were actually from tabulated data).

𝑄𝑠 = 1.23𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑖 − 𝑡𝑜 × 1000 = 1.23 × 0.068 × 1000 ×

22 − −10 = 2676.5 W;
𝑄𝐿 = 3020𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑖 − 𝜔𝑜 × 1000 = 3020 × 0.068 × 1000 ×
0.0066 − 0.0016 = 1026.8W.

78
Example 9_new. For a three-story small house (70m2 each story, 8.5 m tall), the
infiltration rate is 1 ACH. The indoor design conditions are 24oC and 50% relative
humidity. The design outdoor air condition is 33.2oC DB and 26.3oC WB. Calculate
the sensible and latent heat loads due to infiltration of ambient air.

Solution: From the psychrometric chart, 𝜔𝑖 = 0.009; and 𝜔𝑜 = 0.0185.

𝑄𝑠 = 1.23𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 − 𝑡𝑖 × 1000 = 1.23 × 0.1556 × 1000 × 33.2 − 24.0 = 1760.8

W;
𝑄𝐿 = 3020𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑜 − 𝜔𝑖 × 1000 = 3020 × 0.1556 × 1000 × 0.0185 − 0.009 =
4464.2W.

The house volume is

approximately V = 70 8.5 =
595 m3
The infiltration flow rate =nV= 1 x
595/3600=0.1556 m3/s

79
A lot of temperatures
1. Sensible air temperature
2. Dew point temperature
3. Dry bulb temperature
4. Wet bulb temperature
5. Sol-air temperature
6. Saturation temperature
7. Mean radiant temperature (not discussed)
8. Operative temperature (not discussed)

80
Chapter 4
Couvreur, V., Ledder, G., Manzoni, S., Way, D. A.,
Muller, E. B., & Russo, S. E. (2018). Water transport
through tall trees: A vertically explicit, analytical
model of xylem hydraulic conductance in
stems. Plant, cell & environment, 41(8), 1821-1839.
 The total pressure entering the return air duct decreases progressively as it passes through the
grill, return duct and filter. There is a sharp increase across the fan due to the work input by
the fan.
 The heating and cooling coils also result in a significant loss. The air flow divides into three
streams. Each air stream loses total pressure due to friction in the duct, fittings and diffuser.

Figure 1. (a) A typical duct network of an air conditioning system; (b) the total pressure (total head)
distribution.
Total pressure distribution

At any section of a duct system, the total mechanical energy per unit mass of fluid, 𝐸𝑚 (J/kg) is
𝑝 𝑣2
𝐸𝑚 = + + 𝑔𝑧; where the three RHS terms are potential energy due to static pressure (N/m2),
𝜌 2
kinetic energy due to fluid velocity and gravitational potential energy due to vertical height.

The total head, 𝐻 (m) of fluid at any section is defined as

𝐸𝑚 𝑝 𝑣2
𝐻= = + + 𝑧; where the three RHS terms are the static pressure head, velocity head and
𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
elevation head respectively.

As fluid flows through a duct work, a fraction of its mechanical energy is converted to internal
thermal energy due to fluid friction, resulting in a small rise of the fluid temperature. We usually
call the change in the mechanical energy between any two sections as an energy loss, 𝐸𝐿 (J/kg), or
expressed by the head loss ∆𝐻 and total pressure loss ∆𝑃 (Pa)

Between two sections 1 and 2 of the duct.

𝐸𝑚1 𝐸𝑚2 𝑝1 𝑣12 𝑝2 𝑣22
∆𝐻12 = − = + 2𝑔 + 𝑧1 − 𝜌𝑔 + 2𝑔 + 𝑧2 ; Or
𝑔 𝑔 𝜌𝑔
𝜌𝑣12 𝜌𝑣22
∆𝑃12 = 𝜌ℎ∆𝐻12 = 𝑝1 + 2
+ 𝜌𝑔𝑧1 − 𝑝2 + 2 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧2 ;
Pressure loss in duct networks
The frictional loss ∆𝑃𝑓 [Pa] in a straight duct of circular cross section is given by the Darcy-
Weisbach equation
𝐿 𝜌𝑉 2
∆𝑃𝑓 = 𝑓𝐷 2 ; (1)
64 1 𝐷
where for laminar flow, 𝑓 = Re and for turbulent flow, = 1.14 + 2log − 2log 1 +
𝑓 𝜀
Figure 2. Friction chart for
round ducts with curves for
constant diameter and
constant velocity.
(Temperature = 20oC, density
1.2041 kg/m3, and roughness
= 0.09 mm.

The above formulas and graph

can also be applicable to a
rectangular duct with side
lengths 𝑎 and 𝑏, by using the
equivalent diameter.
𝑎𝑏 0.625
𝐷𝑒𝑞 = 1.30 .
𝑎+𝑏 0.25
Pressure loss in fittings
Air duct system consists of straight ducts and fittings, such as contractions, enlargements,
elbows, branches, dampers, filters and diffusers.

Table 1.1 Loss coefficients for 90o elbow.

Table 1.2 Loss coefficients for transition, round to round ducts.

Table 1.3 Loss
coefficients for diverging
tee.

Table 1.4 Loss coefficients

for converging tee with
𝐷𝑐 > 250mm.
In fittings, mechanical energy losses or dynamic losses, occur as a result of direction changes in elbows, flow area
changes in expansions and contractions, and mixing as in branches.

The total pressure loss in a fitting is generally considered as

1
∆𝑝𝑡,𝑜 = 𝑐𝑜 𝑝𝑣𝑜 = 𝑐𝑜 𝜌𝑉𝑜2 ;
2
where 𝑐𝑜 – local loss coefficient referenced to section o [-]; 𝑝𝑣𝑜 - velocity pressure at the selected referenced section o [Pa];
𝑉𝑜 -velocity at the selected referenced section o [m/s].

ASHRAE duct fitting database (2012) contains an extensive data set of loss coefficients for nearly all air duct fittings.
ASHRAE Handbooks also contain a limited list. Here we cited some representative values for the typical fittings.

For fittings like contractions with unequal inlet and outlet areas, the loss coefficient may be changed from section o (outlet)
to i (inlet) by applying the mass balance equation.
1 𝐴𝑖 2
∆𝑝𝑡,𝑖 = 𝑐𝑖 𝑝𝑣𝑖 = 𝑐𝑖 𝜌𝑉𝑖2 , where 𝑐𝑖 = 𝑐𝑜 .
2 𝐴𝑜

For diverging and converging flow junctions, the total pressure loss (mechanical energy) through the straight (main) section
is
1
∆𝑝𝑡,𝑠 = 𝑐𝑠 𝑝𝑣𝑠 = 𝑐𝑠 𝜌𝑉𝑠2 ;
2
where 𝑐𝑠 – local loss coefficient referenced to section s [-]; 𝑝𝑣𝑠 - velocity pressure at the selected referenced section s [Pa];
𝑉𝑠 -velocity at the selected referenced section s [m/s].

The total pressure loss through a branch section is

1
∆𝑝𝑡,𝑏 = 𝑐𝑏 𝑝𝑣𝑏 = 𝑐𝑏 𝜌𝑉𝑏2 ;
2
where 𝑐𝑏 – branch loss coefficient [-]; 𝑝𝑣𝑏 - velocity pressure at the selected referenced section b [Pa]; 𝑉𝑏 -velocity at the
selected referenced section s [m/s].

In converging sections, mechanical energy is exchanged between two fluid streams moving at different velocities due to
turbulent mixing. Consequently, under some flow conditions, the mechanical energy per unit mass of the slower moving
stream can increase due to mixing. This results in a negative loss coefficient for the lower velocity stream.
Total pressure loss in duct sections
The total pressure loss in a duct section consisting of straight sections and fittings can
be obtained

𝐿𝑛 1 2 1 2
∆𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑛 𝑓𝑛 𝐷 2 𝜌𝑉𝑛 + 𝑛 𝑐𝑛 2 𝜌𝑉𝑛 ;
𝑛
The loss coefficient 𝑐𝑛 and the friction coefficient 𝑓𝑛 have to be referenced to the
appropriate sections. It is possible to have a computer code doing all the calculations.

The vertical axis is total pressure

Total pressure loss in duct sections
𝐿 𝑛 1 2 1 2
∆𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑛 𝑓𝑛 𝐷 𝜌𝑉𝑛 + 𝑛 𝑐𝑛 𝜌𝑉𝑛 ;
𝑛 2 2

What happens if you like to increase flow by 10%?

Then we need to know the relationship

between the flow rate the fan can deliver
and the pressure jump that fan can
create.
Fan characteristics
The following parameters are generally included in tabular form or graphical form in
manufacturer’s catalogues.

 Total pressure – the rise in total pressure cross the fan. ∆𝑝𝑡 = 𝑝𝑡,𝑜 − 𝑝𝑡,𝑖 , where i and o denote
conditions at the inlet and outlet respectively.
 Static pressure - the rise in the static pressure across the fan. ∆𝑝𝑠 = 𝑝𝑠,𝑜 − 𝑝𝑠,𝑖 .
 Ideal power input – required to operate the fan under the given conditions. Assuming the
𝑚 𝑝𝑡,𝑜 −𝑝𝑡,𝑖
temperature rise of air to be negligible, and the density to be constant, 𝑊𝑖𝑑 = ,
𝜌
where 𝑚 is the mass flow rate of air.
 Fan efficiency – the ratio of the ideal power required to the actual shaft power input of the
𝑊
fan, 𝑓 = 𝑊 𝑖𝑑 . Usually fans are driven by electric motors through belt drives. If the efficiency
𝑠ℎ
𝑊
of the electric motor is 𝑚 , then the required electric power input 𝑊𝑒𝑙 =  𝑖𝑑 .
𝑚 𝑓

(a) Centrifugal
Axial
 (a)

In an axial fan, the air is moved axially by the propeller blades, mounted on a concentric
hub, rotated by an electric motor. The kinetic energy imparted to the air is converted to a
pressure rise by the stationary blades located downstream of the propeller. The stationary
blades also help improve the efficiency of the fan by reducing the swirl of the air. As axial
flow fans are located axially in the flow duct, they do not require a change in flow direction
of the air. Axial flow fans are used mainly in high volume flow applications.

(b)
 (a)

(b)

A centrifugal fan consists of an impeller with a series of blades attached to a hub, driven by
an electric motor. The power is transferred from motor to the fan through a belt drive with
pulleys attached to the motor and the impeller. Air enters at the center of the impeller in a
direction normal to the plane of the figure as shown above. The centrifugal force created by
the rotating blades accelerates the air in the radial direction. The kinetic energy gained by
the air is converted to a high static pressure in the diffusing section of the fan.
Fan-duct network interaction
For the simple duct network in Figure 5, we have duct sections and fittings before and after the
fan. For duct sections 1-2 and 3-4:
𝐿 1 1
∆𝑃1−2 = 𝑝0 − 𝑝2 = 𝑛 𝑓𝑛 𝐷𝑛 2 𝜌𝑉𝑛2 + 𝑛 𝑐𝑛 2 𝜌𝑉𝑛2 ;
𝑛 1−2
𝐿𝑛 1 2 1 2
∆𝑃3−4 = 𝑝3 − 𝑝0 = 𝑛 𝑓𝑛 𝐷 2 𝜌𝑉𝑛 + 𝑛 𝑐𝑛 2 𝜌𝑉𝑛 . (5)
𝑛 3−4
where 𝑝0 is the uniform pressure of the space to which the inlet and outlet of the duct system are
connected at locations 1 and 4, respectively.

𝑄
The velocity 𝑉𝑛 = 𝐴 at a section with an area of 𝐴𝑛 . Substituting for the velocities in term of flow
𝑛
rate in (5), we have

∆𝑃1−2 = 𝑝0 − 𝑝2 = 𝑐12 𝑄2 and ∆𝑃3−4 = 𝑝3 − 𝑝0 = 𝑐34 𝑄2 ; where 𝑐12 and 𝑐34 are terms involving
various friction factors, duct dimensions and the loss coefficients of the fittings, and the two terms
can be assumed constant for a particular system.
We have ∆𝑝𝑑𝑠 = 𝑝3 − 𝑝2 = 𝑐12 + 𝑐34 𝑄2 , and the variation of the total pressure loss in the duct
system ∆𝑝𝑑𝑠 with the volume flow rate 𝑄 is the system curve. Ideally, the system curve is parabola.

Figure 5. A simple duct network with a

fan.
The operating point of the system

The operation of the duct-fan system also depends on the fan

characteristics, which is the variation of the pressure generated by the
fan with the flow rate, at a fixed value of the fan speed.

The point of intersection of the fan characteristic and the system curve
gives the fan pressure and flow rate under steady operating conditions,
i.e. the operating point of the system.

Damper control – as the damper closes, the

system curves changes. The new fan power,
which is proportional to the product of the fan
pressure and the flow rate may not decrease
much from the initial one.
Variable speed drive – this changes the fan
speed, and the fan characteristics change as a
result. The new fan power is significantly
reduced.

Many AHUs operate under part-load conditions much of the year except during peak
load conditions. Using variable speed drive can reduce energy use. In a VAV system,
both damper control and variable speed drive are used, hence VAV systems can reduce
significantly fan power under part-load conditions.
 Design methods for duct systems
The main requirements of a duct system are:
 It supplies the specified rates of air flow to the different zones;
 It is economical in initial cost, operating cost and also the cost of the building space
 The noise level is acceptable.

Figure 7. An example for design

methods of duct networks

Equal friction method

The frictional pressure loss per unit length (unit pressure loss) is assumed to be the same for all
sections of the duct network. Pressure losses through any fittings in the duct section are not
included in the assumed unit pressure loss. The ASHRAE 2013 Fundamentals recommended the
selected pressure drop be within the enclosed region of the duct friction chart as earlier.

Static regain method

It only applies to supply air duct systems as shown in Figure 7. The aim is to maintain the same
static pressure at all the entry points to the fittings where the air flowing through the network
diverges. Maintaining a low static pressure throughout the entire duct system helps minimize duct
leakage and also reduce stresses in the duct wall.
HVAC system with fixed minimum outdoor air, without return air fan. The
supply fan in the AHU does all the work.

100
Equal friction method

Using the system shown in Figure 7 as an example, here is how the method works.
(i) The flow rates to the zones 𝑄3 ,𝑄4 and 𝑄5 are estimated from the thermal loads of the zones.
If the air density is assumed constant, then the flow rate from the fan is 𝑄 = 𝑄3 + 𝑄4 + 𝑄5 .
(ii) The layout of the duct network is based on the location of the zones, and AHU. For each
duct section, the length, and the number and type of fittings are specified.
(iii)The pressure for each zone is also specified. Usually, all the zones are at the same pressure.
(iv)An initial unit frictional pressure loss 𝑝0 is chosen. This value is applied to all duct sections
of the duct network.
(v) Obtain the diameter and the air velocity from the duct friction chart based on the flow rate 𝑄
and pressure loss.
(vi)As the value of 𝑝0 is usually chosen based on past design experience, the duct sizes obtained
in (v) may not always deliver the specified flow rates to the three zones. This has to be
checked by calculating the total pressure loss from 1 to exits at 6, 8 and 10, ∆𝑝𝑡,1−6,
∆𝑝𝑡,1−8,and ∆𝑝𝑡,1−10 . The three total pressure losses must be equal to deliver the specified
flow rates.
(vii)If the pressure losses are not equal, then dampers may have to be installed at the exit of
some ducts to increase the pressure drop artificially to achieve the desired flow rates to the
zones. An alternative approach is to change the diameter of some branches of the network to
obtain the desired pressure losses.
Figure 2. Friction chart for
round ducts with curves for
constant diameter and
constant velocity.
(Temperature = 20oC, density
1.2041 kg/m3, and roughness
= 0.09 mm.

The above formulas and graph

can also be applicable to a
rectangular duct with side
lengths 𝑎 and 𝑏, by using the
equivalent diameter.
𝑎𝑏 0.625
𝐷𝑒𝑞 = 1.30 .
𝑎+𝑏 0.25
Example 1. The supply duct of an air conditioning system, shown in Figure 8 delivers 0.8 m3/s
of air at 20oC dry-bulb temperature. The diameter of the duct is 0.4 m, and the total length of the
straight duct sections from 1 to 10 is 80 m. The fan generates a total pressure of 125 Pa at
section 1.
The loss coefficient for each right angle bend is 0.1. The friction coefficient is 0.0186. The
density of air is 1.2 kg/m3.

Calculate
(a) The static pressure and velocity pressure at section 1
(b) The total frictional pressure loss from 1 to 10;
(c) The pressure loss in the fittings from 1 to 10.
(d) The total static and velocity pressure at section 10
(e) The static and velocity pressure heads at section 1
(f) The total mechanical energy loss per unit mass of air from 1 to 10; and
(g) The rate of mechanical energy loss from 1 to 10.
Example 1. The supply duct of an air conditioning system, shown in Figure 8 delivers 0.8 m3/s of air at 20oC dry-bulb temperature. The diameter of the duct is 0.4 m, and the
total length of the straight duct sections from 1 to 10 is 80 m. The fan generates a total pressure of 125 Pa at section 1.
The loss coefficient for each right angle bend is 0.1. The friction coefficient is 0.0186. The density of air is 1.2 kg/m 3.

Calculate
(a) The static pressure and velocity pressure at section 1
(b) The total frictional pressure loss from 1 to 10;
(c) The pressure loss in the fittings from 1 to 10.
(d) The total static and velocity pressure at section 10
(e) The static and velocity pressure heads at section 1
Solution
(f) The total mechanical energy loss per unit mass of air from 1 to 10; and
(g) The rate of mechanical energy loss from 1 to 10. 𝑄 𝑄 4×0.8
The air velocity through the duct is 𝑉 = = 1 = = 6.37 m/s
𝐴 𝜋𝐷2 3.14×0.42
4
1 1
(a) Velocity pressure at section 1 is 𝑝𝑣1 = 𝜌𝑉 2 = × 1.2 × 6.372 = 24.34 Pa
2 2
Hence the static pressure 𝑝𝑠1 = 𝑝𝑡1 − 𝑝𝑣1 = 125 − 24.34 = 100.9 Pa
𝐿 1 1
(b) and (c) The total pressure loss ∆𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑓 𝜌𝑉 2 + 𝑛 𝑐𝑛 2 𝜌𝑉𝑛
2
𝐷 2
80 1 2 1
∆𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡,1−10 = 0.0186 × × 1.2 × 6.37 + 4 × 0.1 × 1.2 × 6.372 = 90.56 + 9.73 =
𝐷0.4 2 2
100.3 Pa;
(d) The total pressure at section 10, 𝑝𝑡,10 = 𝑝𝑡1 − ∆𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡,1−10 = 125 − 100.3 = 24.7Pa
𝑝𝑠10 = 𝑝𝑡10 − 𝑝𝑣1 = 24.7 − 24.34 = 0.36 Pa
𝑝𝑠1 100.9 𝑝𝑣1
(e) Static pressure head at 1 𝐻𝑠1 = = = 8.57 m; and the velocity heat at 1 is 𝐻𝑣1 = =
𝜌𝑔 1.2×9.81 𝜌𝑔
24.34
= 2.06 m;
1.2×9.81
(f) The mechanical energy loss per kg of air from 1 to 10 is
∆𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡,1−10 100.3
∆𝐸𝑚,1−10 = = = 83.58 J/kg;
𝜌 1.2
(g) The rate of mechanical energy loss from 1 to 10
∆𝑊𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑄∆𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡,1−10 = 0.8 × 100.3 = 80.24 W. Thus the mechanical energy loss or conversion to
heat results in a rise in temperature of air of about 0.08 oC.
Example 2. The dimension of a duct system, supplying air at 20oC to two zones 5 and 6.
The flow rates to the two zones are 1.4 m3/s and 1.0 m3/s respectively. The fan generates a
total pressure of 285 kPa at the entrance section 1.
Calculate
(a) (i) the velocity pressures in the duct sections; (ii) the total pressures at all sections from
1 to 6.
(b) If a damper is installed just upstream of section 5 to make the total pressures at 5 and 6
equal, calculate the required pressure loss through the damper.
Example 2. The dimension of a duct system, supplying air at 20oC to two zones 5 and 6. The flow rates to the two zones are
1.4 m3/s and 1.0 m3/s respectively. The fan generates a total pressure of 285 kPa at the entrance section 1. Calculate (a) (i)
the velocity pressures in the duct sections; (ii) the total pressures at all sections from 1 to 6. (b) If a damper is installed just
upstream of section 5 to make the total pressures at 5 and 6 equal, calculate the required pressure loss through the damper.

Solution: The air velocities in the duct sections 1-2, 3-5 and 4-6 are given by
𝑄12 4×2.4 𝑄35 4×1.4 𝑄46 4×1.0
𝑉12 = = = 8.49 m/s; 𝑉35 = = = 7.13 m/s; 𝑉46 = = = 7.95 m/s
𝐴12 3.14×0.62 𝐴35 3.14×0.52 𝐴46 3.14×0.42
The velocity pressure in the duct sections are
21 2 1
𝑝𝑣12 = 𝜌𝑉12 = 0.5 × 1.2 × 8.492 = 43.2Pa; 𝑝𝑣35 = 𝜌𝑉35 = 0.5 × 1.2 × 7.132 = 30.5Pa;
2 2
1 2
𝑝𝑣46 = = 0.5 × 1.2 × 7.952 = 37.9Pa.
𝜌𝑉46
2
The frictional pressure losses in the straight duct sections (find the friction f values)
∆𝑃𝑓12 = 53.5 Pa; ∆𝑃𝑓35 = 42.7 Pa; ∆𝑃𝑓46 = 120.8 Pa
The loss for the 90 bend 4-6, diverging tee-junction 2-3-4
2 1 1
∆𝑝𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑−46 = 𝑐𝑜 𝜌𝑉46 = × 0.11 × 1.2 × 7.952 = 4.17 Pa;
2 2
1 2 1
∆𝑝𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡−23 = 𝑐𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝜌𝑉12 = × 0.14 × 1.2 × 8.492 = 6.05 Pa;
2 2
1 2 1
∆𝑝𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑−24 = 𝑐𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝜌𝑉12 = × 1.2 × 1.2 × 8.492 = 51.89 Pa;
2 2
The total pressure at different sections are
𝑝𝑡1 = 285 Pa; 𝑝𝑡2 = 𝑝𝑡1 − ∆𝑝𝑓12 = 285 − 53.5 = 231.5Pa;
𝑝𝑡3 = 𝑝𝑡2 − ∆𝑝𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡−23 = 231.4 − 6.05 = 225.35Pa; 𝑝𝑡4 = 𝑝𝑡2 − ∆𝑝𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑−24 = 231.4 − 51.89 =
179.5a;
𝑝𝑡5 = 𝑝𝑡3 − ∆𝑃𝑓35 = 225.35 − 42.7 = 182.65Pa; 𝑝𝑡6 = 𝑝𝑡4 − ∆𝑃𝑓46 = 179.5 − 120.8 = 58.7Pa;

Hence the required pressure loss through the damper at section 5 is

∆𝑝𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟 = 𝑝𝑡5 − 𝑝𝑡6 = 182.65 − 58.7 = 123.95Pa.
 Dyamic visocity 0.0000182 1.82E-05 1.82E-05
12 35 46
Length 45 40 70
Diameter 0.6 0.5 0.4
V 8.49 7.13 7.95
1/2*L/D*V^2 3243.6045 2440.171 6636.263
Re 3.36E+05 2.35E+05 2.10E+05
Epsilon 0.0003 0.0003 0.0003
epsilon/D 0.0005 0.0006 0.00075
f 0.0165 0.0175 0.0182
Delta P 53.519474 42.703 120.78

Re = 3.36x105 Re = 2.35x105 Re = 2.10x105

Example 3. The breath and height of the outlet diffuser of a centrifugal fan are at 0.62 m and
0.32 m respectively. The fan delivers 1.6 m3/s of air when the rotational speed is 205 rpm. The
static pressure at the outlet is 540 Pa.
(a) Calculate the ideal power output required to operate the fan;
(b) if the efficiency of the motor and drive is 72%, calculate the power input to the motor.

Solution:

𝑄 1.6
The outlet velocity of the air is given by 𝑉𝑜 = 𝐴 = 0.62×0.32 = 8.06 m/s.
𝑜
1 1
The velocity pressure at the outlet of the fan is 𝑝𝑣𝑜 = 2 𝜌𝑉𝑜2 = 2 × 1.2 × 8.062 = 39.0 Pa

The total pressure at the outlet 𝑝𝑡𝑜 = 39 + 540 = 579 Pa

The ideal power input 𝑊𝑖𝑑 = 𝑄𝑝𝑡𝑜 = 1.6 × 579 = 926.4 W.

𝑊 926.4
Actual power 𝑊𝑎𝑐 =  𝑖𝑑 = = 1287W.
𝑚𝑑 0.72
Example 4. Ambient air at 20oC and density 1.2 kg/m3 enters a fan rotating at 180 rpm. The total pressure
of the air delivered by the fan is 11.5kPa, and the volume flow rate 4.5 m3/s.
(a) Calculate the ideal power input to the fan;
(b) Calculate the volume flow rate, the pressure rise and the power input; if the fan speed is increased to
200 rpm with the same density; or if the speed remains constant but the ambient air temperature
increases to 40oC.

Solution: The ideal power input is 𝑊1 = 𝑄1 𝑝𝑡1 = 4.5 × 11.5 = 51.75 kW.

If the fan speed increases from 180 rpm to 200 rpm (density is constant)
𝜔 200
𝑄2 = 2 𝑄1 = × 4.5 = 5.0 m3/s
𝜔1 180
𝜔 2 200 2
𝑝𝑡2 = 2 𝑝𝑡1 = × 11.5 = 14.2 kPa
𝜔1 180

𝜔2 3 200 3
𝑊2 = 𝑊1 = × 51.75 = 71 kW
𝜔1 180

If the speed remains constant but the ambient air temperature increases to 40 oC, we assume the air is an
ideal gas, 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇, hence
𝜌2 𝑇1 𝑇1 273+20
= ; , 𝜌2 = 𝜌1 = 1.2 × = 1.123 kg/m3.
𝜌1 𝑇2 𝑇2 273+40
The flow rate is independent of the density, so remains constant. For the same fan seed

𝜌2 1.123
𝑝𝑡2 = 𝑝𝑡1 = × 11.5 = 10.76 kPa;
𝜌1 1.2
𝜌2 1.123
𝑊= 𝑊1 = × 51.75 = 48.4kW.
𝜌1 1.2
Example 5. Figure 5.1 shows a supply air duct system and all ducts are circular. The flow rates
and duct lengths are indicated in the figure. The loss coefficient for the duct exists is 0.6.
(a) Use the equal friction method to size all ducts;
(b) Determine where dampers should be located to achieve the desired air flow rates to the
spaces;
(c) Can the pressure losses in the duct runs be balanced by changing the duct diameters?
 We choose air velocity in section 1-2 is 9 m/s

Duct 1-2, 4.5 m3/s

Duct 3-4, 3.5 m3/s
Solution
(a) The flow rates (m3/s) through the different duct sections are as follows.
𝑄12 = 4.5; 𝑄34 = 3.5; 𝑄56 = 1.5; 𝑄78 = 1.5; 𝑄9,10 = 2.0; 𝑄11,12 = 1.0
We choose air velocity in section 1-2 is 9 m/s. On the friction chart, we obtain the duct diameter as 0.8 m, and
unit pressure loss as 0.93 Pa/m, which all within the recommended bound
Using the same unit pressure loss for all other duct sections, and their flow rates, we obtain their duct
diameters. We than calculate their velocities, velocity pressure and losses in Table 4.1.
Section 𝐿, m 𝑄, m3/s 𝐷, m 𝑉, m/s 𝑃𝑣𝑒𝑙 , Pa 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 , Pa
1-2 15 4.5 0.8 9.0 48.3 13.95
11-12 7 1.0 0.45 6.2 23.3 6.5
3-4 12 3.5 0.73 8.4 42.7 11.2
9-10 6 2.0 0.59 7.36 32.6 5.58
5-6 20 1.5 0.53 6.87 28.4 18.6
7-8 8 1.5 0.53 6.87 28.4 7.4

Table 4.1 The chosen duct diameters and other parameters for each section

(b) Based on the flow rates and duct diameters, we obtain the loss coefficients of the two diverging tee-
junctions, and the 90 bend from tabulated data set.
𝑐2,3 = 0.13; 𝑐2,11 = 2.4; 𝑐4,5 = 0.14; 𝑐4,9 = 1.5; 𝑐6,7 = 0.11.
The total pressure losses in different duct runs are
 𝑃1 − 𝑃8 = 𝑃12 + 𝑃23 + 𝑃34 + 𝑃45 + 𝑃56 + 𝑃67 + 𝑃78 + 𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 = 13.95 + 0.13 × 48.3 + 11.2 + 0.14 ×
42.7 + 18.6 + 0.11 × 28.42 + 7.4 + 0.6 × 28.42 = 83.6Pa;
 𝑃1 − 𝑃12 = 𝑃12 + 𝑃2,11 + 𝑃11,12 + 𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 = 13.95 + 2.4 × 48.3 + 6.5 + 0.6 × 23.3 = 150 Pa;
 𝑃1 − 𝑃10 = 𝑃12 + 𝑃23 + 𝑃34 + 𝑃4,9 + 𝑃9,10 + 𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 = 13.95 + 0.13 × 48.3 + 11.2 + 1.5 × 42.7 +
5.58 + 0.6 × 32.64 = 120.6 Pa.
Solution continued

The fan has to deliver the largest pressure loss of 150 Pa for section1-12. To balance the pressure losses in the
three duct runs, dampers have to be installed along section 7-8 and 9-10 to artificially introduce additional
pressure losses, i.e. with magnitudes of ∆𝑃7−8 = 150 − 83.6 = 66.4Pa, and ∆𝑃9−10 = 150 − 120.6 =
29.4Pa.

(c) We can reduce the duct 7-8 and duct 9-10 diameters to increase their pressure losses. After some
calculations, the solutions are for section 7-8, the diameter is reduced to 0.37 m so that velocity = 13.4 m/s
and pressure in 1-8 is 120 Pa. For section 9-10, the diameter is reduced to 0.42 m so that velocity = 14 m/s
and pressure in 1-10 is 145 Pa. Note that these changes bring the unit pressure loses in 7-8 and 9-10 to the
boundary of the recommended region in the friction chart.

150 Pa 120.6 Pa 83.6Pa

Not an easy task
to adjust as
there is a T
junction
Example 6. A return air duct network, shown schematically in Figure 6.1, is
made of round sheet metal ducts. The flow rates and lengths are indicated in
the figure.
(a) Use the equal friction method to size this circular duct system;
(b) Determine where dampers should be located to achieve the desired air
flow rates from the spaces.
Solution: The flow rates (m3/s) through the different duct sections are as follows.

𝑄12 = 1.45; 𝑄34 = 1.45; 𝑄56 = 1.9; 𝑄78 = 2.35; 𝑄9,10 = 0.45; 𝑄11,12 = 0.45

To apply the equal friction method, we shall use a unit pressure drop of 0.90 Pa/m, which is closer to the lower bound of the
recommended values.
Section 𝐿, m 𝑄, m3/s 𝐷, m 𝑉, m/s 𝑃𝑣𝑒𝑙 , Pa 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 , Pa
1-2 9.2 1.45 0.524 6.7 27.2 8.28
3-4 4.6 1.45 0.524 6.7 27.2 4.14
5-6 4.6 1.9 0.581 7.2 31.0 4.14
7-8 9.5 2.35 0.629 7.55 34.4 8.55
9-10 9.2 0.45 0.337 5.04 15.3 8.28
11-12 9.2 0.45 0.337 5.04 15.5 8.28

Table 6.1 The chosen duct diameters and other parameters for each section

(b) Based on the flow rates and duct diameters, we obtain the loss coefficients of the two diverging tee-juctions, and the 90
bend from tabulated data set.
𝑐2,3 = 0.11; 𝑐4,5 = 0.36; 𝑐10,5 = −0.28; 𝑐6,7 = 0.25; 𝑐12,7 = 0.21.
The total pressure losses in different duct runs are
 𝑃1 − 𝑃8 = 𝑃12 + 𝑃23 + 𝑃34 + 𝑃45 + 𝑃56 + 𝑃67 + 𝑃78 = 8.28 + 0.11 × 27.2 + 4.14 + 0.36 × 31 + 4.14 + 0.25 ×
34.4 + 8.55 = 48Pa;
 𝑃9 − 𝑃8 = 𝑃9,10 + 𝑃10,5 + 𝑃56 + 𝑃67 + 𝑃78 = 8.28 − 0.28 × 31 + 4.14 + 0.25 × 34.4 + 8.55 = 21 Pa;
 𝑃11 − 𝑃8 = 𝑃11,12 + 𝑃12,7 + 𝑃78 = 8.28 + 0.21 × 34.4 + 8.55 = 24 Pa.

The fan has to deliver the largest pressure loss of 48 Pa for section1-8. To balance the pressure losses in the three duct runs,
dampers have to be installed along section 9-10 and 11-12 to artificially introduce additional pressure losses, i.e. with
magnitudes of ∆𝑃9−10 = 48 − 21 = 27Pa, and ∆𝑃11−12 = 48 − 24 = 24Pa.
Example 7. A circular supply air duct system is shown schematically in Figure 7.1. The flow rate through
section 1-2 is 40 m3/s, and the air velocity is 18 m/s. The section 3-4 with a 90
Bend is 12 m long. The flow rate through section 3-4 is 24 m3/s. Determine the diameter of section 3-4 using
the static regain method.

1 1
4𝑄1 2 4×40 2
Solution: Section 1-2 diameter 𝐷1 = = = 1.68 m
𝜋𝑉2 3.14×18
Applying the modified Bernoulli’s equation between 2 and 4
1 1 𝐿34 1 1
𝑝𝑠2 + 𝜌𝑉22 = 𝑘𝑠 𝜌𝑉22 + 𝑓34 𝜌𝑉32 + 𝑘𝑏 𝜌𝑉32 + 𝑝𝑠4 + 𝜌𝑉32 ; (1)
2 2 𝐷3 2 2
Where 𝑘𝑠 and 𝑘𝑏 are the loss coefficients of the straight section of the tee-junction 2-3-5 and the 90 bend of
section 3-4.
1 1
For static regain method, 𝑝𝑠2 = 𝑝𝑠4 . As 𝑄1 = 𝜋𝐷12 𝑉2 ; 𝑄2 = 𝜋𝐷22 𝑉3
4 4
Equation (1) becomes
2
1−𝑘𝑠 𝑄1 1+𝑘𝑏 𝐿34 1−𝑘𝑠 40 2 1+𝑘𝑏 12𝑓34
= + 𝑓34 ; with numerical values = + (2)
𝐷14 𝑄2 𝐷24 𝐷25 1.684 24 𝐷24 𝐷25

Equation (2) can be numerically solved for the diameter 𝐷2 . However, the loss coefficient 𝑘𝑠 for the tee-
𝑄2 𝐴2 𝐷2 2
junction is a function of and = . The loss coefficient for the 90 bend is a function of the diameter
𝑄1 𝐴1 𝐷1
𝐷2 .

The main steps in a numerical solution are as follows: Guess an initial value of 𝐷2 . Obtain 𝑘𝑠 and 𝑘𝑏 . Obtain
the friction factor 𝑓34 . Iterate using simple methods such as bifurcation, then we can obtain 𝐷2 = 142.6 cm.
Design of room air distribution systems

Non-dimensional parameters –

Reynolds number, Re, is defined as the ratio between the time scales due
t UL
to overall convection and due to viscous diffusion. Re  d 
tc 
Rayleigh number is defined as the ratio of the time scales due to thermal
 g TL3
diffusion and due to thermal convection Ra 
Mixing ventilation 

Archimedes number is the ratio of time scales due to thermal convection

and due to overall convection, which is widely used in the ventilation
community.
2
t  g TL
Ar   c  
 ttc  U2

Displacement ventilation In the mixed convection literature, Ar is written as Gr/Re2, where Grashof
number is defined as:
 2 g TL3
Gr  ; Ra = Gr Pr, where Pr is the Prantl number, and Pr =
 2

.

In general, the Archimedes number is a measure of the relative importance

of buoyant and inertia forces. The Archimedes number combines two
Kitchen local exhaust ventilation important air conditioning design parameters – supply air velocity and
room temperature difference.
Prof.
Fanger
119
Prof.
Fanger 120
Example 8. Two commonly used air distribution systems for ventilation and air conditioning are
the mixing and displacement systems. Assuming the air temperature in the occupied zone of an
office is 23oC, and using the supply parameters below:
 Mixing ventilation system – register length scale 0.1 m, supply air velocity 4 m s-1 and supply
air temperature 14oC;
 Displacement ventilation system – register length scale 0.5m, supply air velocity 0.2m s-1 and
supply air temperature 19oC.

Estimate the Reynolds number and the Archimedes number for the two ventilation systems
respectively. Assume the following air properties:  = 1.84×10-5 Pa∙s,  = 1.189 kg m-3.

Solution: For air, the thermal expansion coefficient  = 1/T.

For the mixing ventilation system,
UL 1.189  4  0.1
Re    2.585 10 4
 1.84 10 5

g  LT 9.8  0.1  23  14 

Ar    0.0019
U2 (23  273.15)  42
For the displacement ventilation system,
UL 1.189  0.2  0.5
Re    6.5 103
 1.84 10 5

g  LT 9.8  0.5   23  19 

Ar    1.7
U 2
(23  273.15)  0.2 2
Table 1. Estimated ranges of thermal and flow parameters in ventilated rooms.

Parameters Ranges
Occupied zone air temperatures 16oC-26 oC
Occupied zone air temperature gradient <3 K m-1
Surface temperature of radiators <80 oC
Supply air temperature 9 oC-50 oC
Supply air velocity
- mixing ventilation 2.0-8.0 m s-1
- displacement ventilation 0.1-0.4 m s-1

Occupied zone air velocity <0.15-0.25 m s-1

Supply flow rate <20 ACH (often 0.5-5 ACH)
Room surface convective heat transfer coefficient 0.5-7 W m-2 K-1
Ratio of radiative to convective heat transfer from a surface 0.7-5

Jet Reynolds number (based on supply data)

- mixing ventilation 2000-10000

Archimedes number
- Buoyancy-controlled mixing ventilation <0.01
- Buoyancy-controlled displacement ventilation >0.5
Water distribution systems
Also called hydronic systems, have several practical advantages over air distribution:
(a) the size of hear source is smaller;
(b) water pipes requires less space than air ducts; and
(c) for heating applications, higher temperature are more practical with water than with air.
(d) Air distribution is commonly used in residential and small commercial applications where
the distances from the heat source to the conditioned spaces are usually short. For large
central air conditioning systems, it is more common to use hot water and chilled water as
distribution media.

Dampers in fan-duct system are

replaced by valves in the hydronic
systems.
Energy equation for hydronic systems
We commonly use the pressure head form of the energy equation, with total pressure head as
follows
Figure 15. Two types of water distribution systems,
𝐸𝑚 𝑝 𝑉2
𝐻= = + + 𝑧; i.e. (a) open loop and (b) closed loop systems.
𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
Two simple systems, i.e. open loop and close loop systems.

For open loop, between 1 and 2,

𝑝1 𝑉12 𝑊𝑖𝑛 𝑝2 𝑉22 𝑊𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠

+ + 𝑧1 + = + + 𝑧2 + ; (1)
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝑔

Where 𝑊𝑖𝑛 [J/kg] is the work input by the pump per unit mass of fluid. The mechanical energy
loss per unit mass, 𝑊𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 includes frictional losses I the pipe and dynamic losses in the fittings.
Note for the open loop system, one part is in direct contact with air, as in the cooling tower
water loop of the air conditioning system as shown in Figure 15.

For close loop, between 1 and 2,

𝑊𝑖𝑛 𝑝1 𝑉12 𝑝2 𝑉22 𝑊𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
= + − + = ; (2)
𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝑔

note that change in elevation for the close loop system is generally negligible. The chilled water
loop is an example of a close loop system.
Head losses
∆𝑃𝑓
Frictional loss in straight pipes ∆ℎ𝑓 = =
𝜌𝑔
𝐿 𝑉2
𝑓 𝐷 2𝑔
𝑉2
Dynamic loss in fittings ∆ℎ12 = 𝑘 2𝑔
𝐿 𝑉2
Total head loss ∆ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑓 +
𝐷 2𝑔
𝑉2 𝐿 𝑉2
𝑘 = 𝑓 +𝑘
2𝑔 𝐷 2𝑔
𝑉2 𝐿𝑒𝑞 𝑉2
Equivalent length 𝑘 2𝑔
=𝑓 𝐷 2𝑔
, we
𝑘𝐷 𝑘
have 𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝑓
=
𝑓
𝐷.

Figure 16. Friction pressure loss chart for water

flowing in Schedule 40 steel pipes. Water
temperature is 20oC, and
absolute roughness = 0.00046.
Pump characteristics
The most commonly used are centrifugal pumps. The impeller with blades is driven in the clockwise direction by
electric motor. The rotating blades impart a high radial velocity to the water entering the impeller at the center. The
diffusing section at the periphery of the impeller converts the high velocity head of water to a static pressure rise.

Typical profiles of total pressure head, work input and efficiency with flow rate are shown in Figure 18. As the flow rate
increases, the head decreases progressively until at the maximum flow rate the head becomes zero. The power input at
zero flow rate is used to stir the fluid in the pump and is all converted into thermal internal energy. The power input
increases near linearly with flow rate.

The ideal work input to the fluid per unit mass of fluid by the pump
∆𝑃𝑡
𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = = 𝑔∆ℎ𝑡 , where 𝜌 is the density of fluid, and ∆ℎ𝑡 is the total head.
𝜌
𝑚∆𝑃𝑡
The ideal power input to the fluid by the pump 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = = 𝑄𝜌𝑔∆ℎ𝑡 ;
𝜌
The actual work input per unit mass, 𝑊𝑎𝑐𝑡 is larger than the ideal work.
𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑔∆ℎ𝑡 𝑄𝜌𝑔∆ℎ𝑡
The pump efficiency 𝑡 = 𝑊𝑎𝑐𝑡
= 𝑊𝑎𝑐𝑡
= 𝑊𝑎𝑐𝑡
Cavitation

With liquid pumps, difficulties arise if the pressure

inside the pump becomes very low. At low
pressures, liquids vaporize and pockets of vapor
may be formed if the pressure falls below the
saturation vapor pressure corresponding to the
prevailing temperature. Vapor bubbles are carried
along with the liquid until a region of high pressure
is reached, where they suddenly collapse. If vapor
bubbles are near to a solid surface, when they
collapse, the forces exerted by the liquid rushing
into the cavities create very high local pressure
causing serious erosion of the solid surfaces. This
phenomenon is known as cavitation.

In any application, the available suction head has to

exceed a parameter called the net positive suction
head (NPSH) to avoid cavitation.

𝑣𝑠2
The available NPSH: NPSH𝑎𝑣𝑎 = ℎ𝑠 + 2𝑔 − ℎ𝑣 ;
where ℎ𝑠 and 𝑣𝑠 are the head and the velocity at the
impeller entrance and ℎ𝑣 is the vapor pressure of the
liquid at the prevailing temperature.
Design of water distribution systems
A typical system consists of straight pipes, fittings like bends and tee-joints, valves, heat
exchangers, an expansion tank, and pumps. For close systems, two arrangements are
possible, i.e. the two-pipe direct-return systems, and two-pipe reverse-return systems.

Direct return pipe system - the terminal units in the zones A, B and C are supplied with
hot water or chilled water. Its drawback is that the available pressure to the three terminal
units are different due to the different lengths of the supply and return pipes to and from
the units. More water would be supplied to A, e.g. if the A pipes are much shorter. If the available pressures
differ significantly, then it would be difficult to ensure the desired flow rates to the three units, even with the help of
control valves.

Reserve-return system - the total lengths of the piping from the boiler or the chiller to the
three terminal units, including the supply and return pipe lengths, are approximately
equal. Therefore, the available pressures and the flow rates to the three units will not
differ by much. Its disadvantage is the additional pipe required.
(a) direct-return system (b) reverse-return system.
 Each load is one or more cooling coils in AHU

VFD: Variable frequency drive

Why three chillers are used?

http://www.automatedbuildings.com/news/apr02/art/htmn/htmn.htm
Design of water distribution systems

An open-loop system has at least one section where the water is in contact with
atmosphere air. Therefore, the pressure at any other point in the pipe network can be
determined by knowing pressure difference between the point and the air-water contact
surface.

A closed loop system is normally operated with the entire system above atmospheric
pressure to prevent air leakage into the system. Moreover, the total volume of closed loop
systems change with temperature due to the different coefficients of thermal expansion of
water and the pipe materials. An expansion tank is installed in close-loop systems to
accommodate such volume changes, and to provide a reference pressure to prevent
cavitation in the pump. The design procedures for expansion tanks is given elsewhere.
(a) direct-return system (b) reverse-return system.
Pipe network design

Guidelines are available in ASHRAE Handbook 2013 Fundamentals. The factors that
determine the maximum and minimum velocities in water pipes are the noise level, erosion
level, installation cost and operating cost.

If the pipes are too small, the resulting high velocities lead to unfavorable noise levels, erosion
levels and pumping costs. Too large pipes lead to excessive installation cost. For pipes of
nominal diameter 50 mm or less, the recommended velocity limit is 1.2 m/s. For pipe
diameters >50mm, a unit pressure loss limit of 400 Pa/m is recommended.

The main steps in the design of pipe networks are listed below:
1. Determine the layout of the pipe network with all the necessary fittings;
2. Size the pipes in all sections of the system based on the anticipated maximum flow rate;
3. Determine the head loss through the different loops of the pipe network;
4. Obtain the head requirement of the pump based on the largest head loss from step 3 above;
5. Adjust the pipe diameters of the branches so that all the loops in step 3 have the same head
loss as that used to selected the pump in step 4.
Example 12. Water at 70oC flows at the rate of 3.2 L/s through a horizontal steel pipe of
nominal diameter of 50 mm and length 45 m. The absolute roughness of commercial steel is
0.000046. The viscosity and density of water at 70oC are 0.406 mPas and 977.7 kg/m3.
Calculate (a) the total head loss through the pipe; (b) the velocity head, and (c) the change in
static head.

Solution: The actually inner diameter of the pipe with a nominal diameter 50 mm is 52.5 mm.
For steel pipe and the Reynolds number, 𝑓 = 0.0206.

4𝑄 4×3.2×10−3
Velocity 𝑉 = = 3.14× 52.5×10−3 2 = 1.479 m/s
𝜋𝐷2
𝑓𝐿 𝑉2 0.0206×45×1.4792
The friction head loss ∆𝐻𝑓𝑟 = 𝐷 2𝑔 = 52.5×10−3×2×9.81 = 1.97m;
𝑣2 1.4792
The constant velocity head in the pipe is 𝐻𝑣 = 2𝑔 = 2×9.81 = 0.111m;
For a straight pipe, the change in the total head is equal to the friction head loss,

𝑝1 𝑉12 𝑝2 𝑉22 𝑊𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠

+ − + = .
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝑔

𝑉12 𝑉22
As = , hence the change in static head is ∆𝐻𝑠𝑡 = ∆𝐻𝑓𝑟 = 1.97m.
2𝑔 2𝑔
 Dyamic visocity 0.0000182 1.82E-05 1.82E-05
12 35 46
Length 45 40 70
Diameter 0.6 0.5 0.4
V 8.49 7.13 7.95
1/2*L/D*V^2 3243.6045 2440.171 6636.263
Re 3.36E+05 2.35E+05 2.10E+05
Epsilon 0.0003 0.0003 0.0003
epsilon/D 0.0005 0.0006 0.00075
f 0.0165 0.0175 0.0182
Delta P 53.519474 42.703 120.78

Re = 1.91x105
Example 13. Water at 20oC is distributed through the pipe network shown in Figure 13.1. The
lengths, diameters, and flow rates of the different pipe sections are indicated in the figure.

(a) Calculate the total pressure losses from 1-6, 1-8 and 1-0.
(b) If the pressures at the pump suction 0 and the exit sections 8, 6 and 10 are atmospheric,
estimate the required delivery pressure of the pump at 1;
(c) If the efficiency of the pump is 75%, calculate the required power input to the pump.
 4𝑄𝑖
Solution: The water velocity in a pipe section: 𝑉𝑖 =
𝜋𝐷𝑖2
𝑓𝐿 𝑉2
The friction loss in the pipe section: ∆𝐻𝑓𝑟 =
𝐷 2𝑔
From Moody diagram – not required in this lecture
Table 2.1 Friction head losses in pipe sections

Section 𝐿, m 𝐷, mm 𝑄, L/s 𝑉,m/s 𝐻𝑣𝑒𝑙 , m 𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐻𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡 , m

1-2 20 75 9.5 2.15 0.236 0.0198 1.244
3-4 15 50 6.5 3.3 0.558 0.021 3.157
5-6 22 40 4 3.18 0.515 0.0223 6.336
7-8 30 35 3 3.12 0.495 0.0231 9.809
9-10 25 35 2.5 2.6 0.345 0.0234 5.755

The loss coefficients for the fittings are obtained. Hence for the two tee-junctions
𝑘2,3 = 0.9; 𝑘2,7 = 1.23; 𝑘4,5 = 0.9; 𝑘4,9 = 1.4;

For the 90 elbows, in section 7-8, 𝐷 = 35mm, 𝑘 = 1.26; in section 9-10, 𝐷 = 35mm, 𝑘 = 1.26

(A) The corresponding velocity heads are the same as in Table 2.1. Hence
 𝐻𝑡1 − 𝐻𝑡6 = ∆𝐻12 + ∆𝐻23 + ∆𝐻34 + ∆𝐻45 + ∆𝐻56 = 1.244 + 0.9 × 0.236 + 3.517 + 0.9 × 0.558 + 6.336 = 11.8m;
 𝐻𝑡1 − 𝐻𝑡8 = ∆𝐻12 + ∆𝐻27 + ∆𝐻𝑒𝑙𝑏𝑜𝑤 + ∆𝐻78 = 1.244 + 1.23 × 0.236 + 1.26 × 0.495 + 9.809 = 11.97m;
 𝐻𝑡1 − 𝐻𝑡8 = ∆𝐻12 + ∆𝐻23 + ∆𝐻34 + ∆𝐻49 + ∆𝐻𝑒𝑙𝑏𝑜𝑤 + ∆𝐻9,10 = 1.244 + 0.9 × 0.236 + 3.517 + 1.4 × 0.558 +
1.26 × 0.345 + 5.775 = 11.96m.

(b) The total head loss through the three sections are nearly equal. We can select the pump to deliver 9.5 L/s of water at a
total head of about 12 m. The ideal work input under these operating conditions is 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = ∆𝐻𝜌𝑔 𝑄 = 12 × 998 × 9.81 ×
9.5 × 10−3 = 1116W, and
𝑊 1116
(C) 𝑊𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = = 1488W.
𝑡 .75
Example 15. A water-cooled condenser of a water chiller plant rejects 145 kW of heat to the
atmosphere through a cooling tower as shown in Figure 15.1. The rise in temperature of the
cooling water in the condenser is 6oC. The total length of piping from the pump exit 1 to spray
header 2 of the cooling tower is 14 m. The length of piping from the cooling tower sump 3 to
the pump inlet 4 is 12 m.

The vertical distance between the spray header and the water surface in the sump is 1.2 m. The
pipe inlet in the sump has a square inlet. The head loss through the condenser is 2.2 m. The
head loss through the spray nozzles in the cooling tower is negligible. The pipe network uses
schedule-40 steel pipes with threaded fittings.
(a) Size the pipes for this system;
(b) Calculate the rise in total head required at the pump. Header

集水池

Pump exit 1

Pump inlet 4
Solution: First we calculate the water flow rate through the condenser.
𝑄 145
𝑄 = 𝑉𝜌𝑐𝑤 ∆𝑡; 𝑉 = 𝜌𝑐 ∆𝑡 = 1000×4.2×6 = 5.75 L/s
𝑤

Using the guideline from ASHRAE, using the friction chart, we choose the following pipe diameter
velocity and unit pressure loss for the pipe. The diameter satisfies the limit on velocity and unit
pressure loss.
 Flow rate 5.75 L/s; diameter 70 mm, velocity 1.495 m/s, unit pressure loss 333 Pa/m

We then calculate the total pressure loss across each of the pipe sections. The relevant loss
coefficients for the fittings:
 For 𝐷 = 70mm pipe, k-globe valve = 6.3, k-90 elbow = 0.83, k-square inlet = 0.5
 The friction coefficient is 0.02089. Gravity acceleration 9.81 m/s2

The computed headLength/number

Component losses are summarized
Head loss (m)in Table 9.1
Component Length/number Head loss (m)
Pipe 1-2 14 m 0.476 Pipe 3-4 12m 0.408
Condenser 1 2.2 Globe valves 1 0.718
90 elbows 4 0.378 90 elbows 3 0.284
Globe valves 1 0.718 Square pipe entrance 1 0.057
𝐻1 − 𝐻2 3.772 𝐻3 − 𝐻4 1.466

The pressure in the cooling tower between 2 and 3 is atmospheric and 𝐻2 − 𝐻3 = 1.2m. We also
have
𝐻1 − 𝐻4 − 𝐻2 − 𝐻3 = 3.772 + 1.466 = 5.238m;

Therefore the required pump head 𝐻1 − 𝐻4 = 6.438m.

Couvreur, V., Ledder, G., Manzoni, S., Way, D. A.,
Muller, E. B., & Russo, S. E. (2018). Water transport
through tall trees: A vertically explicit, analytical
model of xylem hydraulic conductance in
stems. Plant, cell & environment, 41(8), 1821-1839.
 400m

Can you have a water pipe of this tall?

100m
Atm head in water

10m
DOI:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2010.08.008