Processing Manual VCO PICT - Chap 7-Annex PDF

Chapter 7
Downstream products from

virgin coconut oil
Profitability in VCO production can be enhanced by processing some of the VCO into downstream
products such as hand-made bath soaps (ordinary and herbal), massage oils, moisturising body oil,
body butter and other skin care products, and hair conditioner. This was demonstrated in the Philippines,
where small scale producers of VCO survived the competition with big processing plants by going into
VCO-based downstream products. The VCO industry in the Philippines started with farmer producers
linked to traders/exporters and with small producers. However, when the world demand for the product
became bigger, big manufacturers of coconut milk and desiccated coconut added VCO to their product
lines. These plants, which have been in the coconut manufacturing business for decades, hold all
quality certifications (ISO, HACCP etc.) with some also having organic certification. Hence, the majority
of small scale producers, who were producing only VCO, had to cease operations because institutional
buyers preferred the VCO produced by the larger, better accredited companies.
In Fiji, there are several companies, including Pure Fiji Ltd, Fiji Mana/Origins Pacific Ltd, Natural Oils of
Fiji Ltd, Organic Earth Fiji, Mokosoi Products Fiji Ltd, that are processing soaps and skin care products
using VCO or high quality coconut oil. The Pure Fiji brand of soaps, creams, lotions and other skin care
products is well advertised, reasonably priced and sold in duty-free shops in Fiji and Australia and on
international flights of Air Pacific. Likewise, small VCO producers in Samoa under the auspices of the
Women in Business Development Inc. are supplying VCO to The Body Shop International of the United
Kingdom for processing into its coconut bath and body range of products. One company in Tahiti is
also producing VCO-based body oil for tourists. In most of these cases, it is not the VCO producers
producing the downstream products; it is the companies that buy their VCO. The profitability of the VCO
operation is, therefore, dependent on maintaining the goodwill of the companies that buy it.
7.1 Moisturising toilet/bath soap

Soap is a household necessity, assuring manufacturers of a ready market. There are now several home-
scale producers of VCO in the Marshall Islands, Fiji, Kiribati and Papua New Guinea who use this method.
One former trainee in Papua New Guinea is producing VCO and converting it into soap. It was reported
that miners in Papua New Guinea prefer the VCO-based soap that he produces because it lathers and
cleans well, even in hard water. Another trainee in the Marshall Islands has, since 2006, been producing
VCO and converting some of it into a fragrant body oil by infusion with aromatic leaves. In Fiji, a trainee
from Vanua Levu is producing VCO which she converts into herbal soaps for tourist shops. There is now
an association of small-scale VCO producers using the modified natural fermentation method in Fiji.
Figure 73. Moisturising bath soap
Downstream products from virgin coconut oil 89

Soap (Figure 73) is the solid material obtained when an alkali reacts with the fatty acids in animal,
vegetable and seed oils and fats under a process known as saponification. The type of oil or fat used
defines the characteristics of the resulting soap, i.e. whether it is mild or drying to the skin, whether it will
form good lather, whether it will have good detergency or cleaning properties, etc. Soap using coconut
oil as a base oil has two advantages.
• It lathers, even in very hard (brackish) water.
• It has superior cleaning and detergent properties because of the predominant lauric fatty acid
content.
Based on Philippine’s export data, the demand for coconut oil-based soap has been steadily growing.
The United Coconut Association of the Philippines (UCAP) newsletter reported that, as of February
2010, the export of toilet/bath soaps ranked second among the Philippine export of non-traditional
coconut products, with an average price of USD 2.08/kg (www.ucap.org.ph). UCAP further reported
that the export volume for bath soaps increased by around 200% since February 2009. This is even
higher than VCO export performance, which ranked third in the Philippines export of non-traditional
products.
One of the reasons for the increasing popularity of coconut oil-based bath soap is its inherent natural
glycerine content, which moisturises the skin. Such types of soap are produced under cold process
saponification, whereas bath soaps produced in large manufacturing plants are normally made from
soap noodles using the hot process. Soap noodle is a semi-processed substance composed of fatty
acids with carbon chains ranging from C12 to C18. It is produced by removing the glycerol component
and the fatty acids with carbon chains C6–C10 of coconut oil through a steam hydrolysis and distillation
process. Hence, cheaper varieties of commercial bath soaps that do not have added emollients tend to
be drying on the skin since the natural glycerine component of coconut oil has been removed.
Herbal soap is a cold-processed soap with added natural plant material/extracts that are known to
have therapeutic or beneficial effects on the skin. This type of soap has gained popularity because it is
reputed to address specific skin problems. For example, ti-tree, lemon ti-tree and lemon soaps are said
to be useful in preventing pimples and acne. One of the most popular herbal soaps is pawpaw (papaya)
soap because of the general belief that it can lighten the dark patches of skin. Herbal soaps are priced
much higher than ordinary toilet/bath soaps, and comprise a large proportion of the Philippine export
of soaps.
Pawpaw, morinda and other types of herbal soaps can be produced easily in most PICTs because of
the abundance of suitable plant resources. For instance, in Fiji, pawpaw trees grow by the roadside and
in backyards, and the fruits are just eaten by birds and fruit bats. Guava, in many places an invasive
woody weed, and morinda (noni or kura) grow in abundance throughout the Pacific Islands.
For soap formulations, soap making procedures and other related information, please refer to Annex
12.1.
Caustic soda is an ingredient of soap. It requires careful handling. To reduce the risk involved in handling
caustic soda and to ensure that the amount of caustic soda to be used for specific formulation does not
exceed the requirement for saponification, a stock caustic soda solution with known concentration is
prepared first (i.e. mixing 1 kg of caustic soda flakes/crystals with a specific amount of water). It is much
easier and safer to weigh caustic soda solution than small amounts of caustic soda/crystals.
Where there is a group of women producing soap, one person can be assigned to handle the preparation
and weighing of the caustic soda solution for distribution to members of the group, who can then do
the mixing and addition of desired herbal extracts to produce the soap. In this way, the risks associated
with preparation of caustic soda solution are negated.
90 Processing Manual for Virgin Coconut Oil, its Products and By-products for Pacific Island Countries and Territories
7.2 Aromatherapy/massage oils
Aromatherapy is the general term used for the application of essential oils from aromatic plants, shrubs
and trees for the treatment of both medical and psychological conditions, and for wellness and beauty,
as in cosmetic preparations. Essential oils are extracted from different parts of different plants, e.g.
lavender and ylangylang from flowers; eucalyptus, lemon ti-tree, tea tree and patchouli from leaves;
cinnamon from leaf and bark, etc. Each essential oil has specific therapeutic values and applications to
address a particular human condition. For example, certain essential oils are believed to ease aching
muscles and relax a tired body, and others to decongest stuffy noses and promote easier breathing.
Massage is the main method used by aromatherapists for the application of essential oils for various
purposes. The oils are combined with specific plant oils, generally called carrier oils, to form the massage
oil. This is done so that the aromatic scent from the essential oil can be dispersed to a wider skin area
and because the use of pure essential oil for direct application to the skin is potentially dangerous, as it
can irritate or even burn the skin.
Massage is an effective means of ensuring that the essential oils which have been diluted with carrier
oils are penetrating a person’s skin. A proportion of the volatile oil vaporises with the heat generated by
the hands on a person’s skin when a massage is performed and extra benefit is gained from inhaling it.
A carrier oil has to be hypoallergenic (i.e. it does not irritate even the most sensitive skin) and it must be
easily absorbed by the skin.
Virgin coconut oil (VCO) has been shown to be an excellent carrier oil, and carrier of choice among
expert masseurs and therapists, because it is hypoallergenic and easily absorbed, as well as having
anti-microbial properties. Results of several researches done at the Dermatology Department of the
Makati Medical Center in the Philippines as reported by Verallo-Rowell (2005) have confirmed VCO’s
anti-microbial properties. It should be noted that VCO obtained from the fresh-wet process (coconut
milk route) is better suited to aromatherapy application because it is very light in texture.
Except for the atoll islands in the Pacific, where agricultural resources are limited, PICTs abound with
aromatic roots, flowers and leaves (Figure 74) which can easily be used for making aromatherapy oils
with VCO. Many of them can be found in backyards or growing wild. Pacific Islanders are aware of the
therapeutic applications of such aromatic plants but not in conjunction with aromatherapy.
Figure 74. Aromatic roots and leaves in Fiji

There are two methods of preparing massage oils using VCO.
a. Addition of an appropriate essential oil to VCO This can be done if pure, natural essential oils are
available or can be purchased. It is the simplest method of making aromatherapy oil.
A single essential oil or a combination of two or more oils can be used to create the specific aroma
and therapeutic value that are needed. For example, lavender and ylangylang essential oils are known
for their relaxing/anti-stress properties, tea tree and lemongrass oil have antimicrobial properties, while
cineole-rich eucalyptus oils are considered excellent for decongesting stuffy noses.
The mixing of essential oils should always be done in dark coloured bottles to prevent the therapeutic
value of the essential oil from being destroyed by sunlight, and it should be done on a drop by drop
basis (e.g. one drop of tea tree oil plus two drops lemon grass). When the scent is right, the percentage
or proportion of each oil is noted. This oil blend can then be mixed with virgin coconut oil.
Normally, 20 drops (almost 1 ml) of essential oil or a blend of essential oils is added per 30 ml of carrier
oil. For very strongly scented essential oils like patchouli, just 2 ml patchouli oil are added to 98 ml VCO
to make a 2% solution. (Annex 12.2 has some formulations for aromatherapy oils.)
Only 100% pure essential oils should be used. Essential oils mixed with alcohol or any other substance
should not be used at all because it will destroy the quality of the aromatherapy oil.
b. Oil infusion of aromatic herbs, roots and leaves
Oil infusion can be done using either dried or fresh herbs, roots, bark and leaves. It should be noted that
flowers are not generally recommended for oil infusion. Essential oils from flowers have to be extracted
by steam distillation or some other means so as not to destroy the scent.
A simple method of oil infusion is to simmer a mixture of VCO and the aromatic plant material in a double
boiler (Figure 75). An improvised double boiler can be made by putting a stainless steel mixing bowl over
a pot of water (Figure 43). The water level inside the pot should be touching the bottom of the mixing
bowl. The procedure is described below.
1) Pound the dried or fresh herbs/aromatic materials in a mortar and pestle and put them in the
stainless steel mixing bowl.
Figure 75. Infusion of aromatic roots and leaves in oil
2) Add VCO. For every 60 grams of dry herbs, add 480 ml of VCO. For fresh herbs or aromatic
materials, the ratio is 120 grams fresh materials for every 480 ml of VCO. A more concentrated
oil infusion can be done by doubling the amount of herbs/aromatic leaves. However, the resulting
concentrated oil infusion may need to be diluted with VCO prior to it being used as a massage
oil.
3 Put the mixing bowl over the pot of water. Cover it loosely and put the improvised double boiler
on the stove. Heat the mixture gently for at least one hour for dry leaves and two hours for dry
roots and bark. It should be noted that, when fresh materials are used, the VCO turns cloudy
at the start due to the water content of the fresh material. This moisture has to be completely
removed, under low-moderate heat, to prevent the aromatic oil from turning rancid. Heat the
mixture until it becomes clear.
4) Cool the mixture. Strain it and store it in dark coloured bottles away from direct sunlight and
heat. A small amount of Vitamin E oil (1 capsule per 240 ml of infusion) will help preserve the
quality of preparation.
Please refer to Annex 12.2 for the formulation of massage oil for rheumatism and muscle pain using
VCO infused with ginger root as the base oil.
7.3 Skin care products

The use of coconut oil as skin moisturiser has been known in PICTs and other coconut-producing
countries for hundreds, if not thousands, of years. VCO does not cause skin irritation and can be
applied to even the most sensitive skin. Hence, one of the major applications of VCO is as a base oil for
hypoallergenic cosmetics and skin care products. This end-use comprises the bulk of the VCO currently
being exported from the Philippines.
Adding attractive or therapeutic fragrances to VCO either through the use of essential oils or by oil
infusion will enhance its marketability as a skin conditioner. In addition, a VCO-based product which can
be used as a natural substitute for petroleum jelly can be easily made in the kitchen.
Note: The skin care formulations (Annex 12.3) presented in this manual are those in which the ingredients
are locally available. They do not require the addition of water and emulsifiers. Emulsifiers are substances
that stabilise the oil and water mixtures, i.e. they prevent oil and water from separating. Creams and
lotions where water is added as part of the formulation to give the product the desired consistency
require chemical preservatives. This is to prevent the base oil from getting rancid and to retard the
growth of microorganisms which might have adverse effects on the skin.
7.4 Hair care products

Coconut oil conditions the hair and scalp. Pacific Islanders, especially women, have been massaging
coconut oil in their scalp and hair for thousands of years. In many countries, not only women, but men
and children also put coconut oil in their hair. VCO is, however, much better than crude, copra-derived
coconut oil for hair conditioning. The addition of essential oils like ti-tree, rosemary and patchouli,
which are believed to have a good effect on the hair and scalp, enhance the efficacy of VCO as a hair
conditioner. When using rosemary, the procedure for oil infusion should be followed (Section 7.2). It
should be noted, however, that the concentration of the essential/herbal oils in scented oils for hair care
should be lower than that used for massage oils. Hence, after infusion using the procedure described
in Section 7.2, the infused oil is diluted with VCO on a 1:1 ratio and then it is packaged and sold as
hair conditioner. Rosemary, patchouli and ti-tree can be easily cultivated in PICTs’ tropical weather.
Rosemary is well known as a herb for cooking and can be bought in supermarkets.

7.5 Utilisation of residual coconut oil and off-quality VCO for
downstream products
In producing VCO from the modified kitchen and natural fermentation methods, some residual oil or
second-grade coconut oil can be recovered after the premium grade VCO is harvested (Bawalan and
Chapman 2006). It is recovered by further heating the sinusinu (in the case of the modified kitchen
method) or by allowing the curd to ferment for another 24 hours (in the modified natural fermentation
method). The residual oil obtained by further heating the sinusinu is already yellow in colour and has a
strong coconut aroma, since a high temperature is required to fully release the entrained oil from the
sinusinu. However, the grade B residual oil obtained through further settling of curd from the fermentation
process is still white (or in some cases a very pale yellow). This amounts to about 10–15% of the
harvested class A VCO.
In cases where there are lapses in strictly following the critical control procedures and in maintaining the
sanitary conditions, the quality of VCO produced may not pass the VCO standard. In these circumstances,
further processing of the oil into downstream products is necessary to recoup production costs and
obtain additional income.
The residual, second grade VCO can be processed into toilet/bath soap (ordinary and herbal) without
the need to reprocess it. Likewise, it can also be used for making oil infusions for massage oils, and skin
and hair conditioners. However, it may need to be further processed to remove unpleasant or strong
coconut odours if it is to be mixed with pure essential oils or if it is to be used as cooking oil.
Based on information obtained by the author from VCO traders in the Philippines, North American
health food traders and Australasian chefs, there is a growing number of people who demand an
odourless, chemical-free, clear VCO for culinary purposes rather than the traditional refined, bleached
and deodorised (RBD) copra-derived coconut oil.
The standard commercial process for removing odour and taste in a copra-derived coconut oil is by
putting it in contact with high pressure (150 psig) steam under vacuum conditions. This process is called
deodorisation. Equipment for deodorisation is a common feature in commercial oil mills which produce
RBD coconut oil or cooking oil. However, application of this process is not economically viable in a
village-scale operation because of the high process capacity of equipment, and the high investment and
operating costs. It should be emphasised that the quality and nutritional value of second grade VCO
from the modified kitchen and natural fermentation methods is still very much higher than the copra-
derived, crude coconut oil. Hence, it can be converted into cooking oil without undergoing the standard
refining and bleaching process.
Bawalan (GTZ Report 2005) and Bawalan and Chapman (2006) provide the following home-scale
procedure for removing the odour and taste in a grade B VCO produced using the modified kitchen
and modified natural fermentation process. Note: This procedure is not suitable for removing odour and
taste from copra-derived crude coconut oil.
a. Place water in the mixing bowl of an improvised double boiler as described in the oil infusion
section above. Add second grade VCO to the water in a ratio of two parts oil to one part water.
Do not stir.
b. Simmer for about three hours. When the water at the bottom of the mixing bowl is hot, water
vapour rises through the oil, carrying with it the aromatic components which give odour and
taste to a particular substance.
c. After three hours, scoop out the top portion (oil) and transfer it to a stainless steel pot while still
hot. Be careful not to scoop out the water as well.
d. Cool the oil to room temperature. Place it in an icebox or freezer to solidify for at least two hours.
e. Remove it from the ice box or freezer and allow it to liquefy at room temperature.
f. Transfer the oil to a dry storage container, leaving behind a 2 cm layer at the bottom. This
layer can be mixed with the next batch for re-processing or can be mixed with the residual oil
earmarked for soap.
Annex 1
Fatty acids and chemical
composition of coconut oil
Coconut oil, like most plant-derived oils, is composed of triglycerides of fatty acids of varying lengths.
For a layman to understand the chemical composition of coconut oil, the meaning of the terms
triglycerides and fatty acids have to be understood first.
A triglyceride is a substance consisting of fatty acids, chemically bound to glycerol in a ratio of 3:1.
The three fatty acids are held together through a special attachment to the glycerol and thus form a
single molecular structure (Enig 2000). This is shown in the general chemical formula below:
O
Rs are hydrocarbon chains of
R – C – O – CH2 varying lengths normally found
in natural fats or oils.
O R could be:
R – C – O – CH
CH3(CH2)4 –
CH3(CH2)10 –
O etc
R – C – O – CH2
Fatty acids are essentially chains of carbon atoms with attached hydrogen atoms. These chains come
in varying lengths (1 to 24 carbon atoms) with carboxyl (acid) group (-COOH) at one end (Enig 2000).
They are represented by the chemical formula RCOOH where R represents the hydrocarbon chain with
the methyl group (-CH3) at the beginning of the chain. Thus, lauric fatty acid (with 12 carbon atoms)
which is predominantly present in coconut oil, has the chemical formula:
CH3(CH2)10COOH
Fatty acids are either saturated or unsaturated, depending on the type of bonds that connect their
carbon atoms. Fatty acids that have only single bonds in their carbon chain are called saturated. Oils
and fats that are predominantly composed of saturated fatty acids are more stable and more resistant to
oxidation and rancidity. This is because all carbon atoms are filled up with attached hydrogen atoms and
there are no open points where oxygen can react. Coconut oil is predominantly composed of saturated
fatty acids (about 92%) so it is considered a saturated oil in tropical countries and a saturated fat in
temperate countries. (This was actually the basis of the smear campaign levied on coconut oil by the
American Soybean Association in the 1980s.)
Saturated fatty acids are further classified into short chain, medium chain and long chain,
depending on the length of the carbon chain and the number of carbon atoms on it. Short chain fatty
acids have 4–6 carbon atoms, medium chain acids have 8–12 and long chain fatty acids have 14 or
more. The medium chain saturated fatty acids are metabolised differently from long chain saturated fatty
acids. Coconut oil is unique in the sense that, among fats and oils, it contains the highest percentage,
about 64%, of medium chain fatty acids (MCFA).
Fatty acids that have double bonds linking their carbon atoms are categorised as unsaturated. The
presence of a double bond in fatty acids represents a point of instability because this point in between
two carbon atoms is open and susceptible to reaction with oxygen and other substances. The more
double bonds, the higher the instability. Oils and fats that contain predominantly unsaturated fatty
acids, such as soybean oil (about 84% unsaturated) and corn oil (about 86% unsaturated), are unstable
and prone to oxidation. These types of oil have to be partially hydrogenated to prolong their shelf-life.
Annex 95
Hydrogenation is a process where hydrogen gas is bubbled through unsaturated oil in the presence of
nickel as a catalyst. The resulting reaction forces unsaturated fatty acids to accept additional hydrogen
atoms and become partially saturated. Full hydrogenation converts liquid oil into solid fat. Partial
hydrogenation limits the time exposure of the unsaturated vegetable oil to the stream of hydrogen gas,
thereby converting it either into a semi-solid state similar to butter or retaining its liquid state.
Unsaturated fatty acids are further classified into mono-unsaturated and poly-unsaturated,
depending on the number of double bonds they have. Mono-unsaturated fatty acids contain one double
bond in their carbon chain and poly-unsaturated fatty acids contain two or more double bonds. It
should be noted that all naturally occurring unsaturated fatty acids have long carbon chains. Olive oil
is categorised as a mono-unsaturated oil while soybean oil falls into the poly-unsaturated class. The
comparative fatty acid profile of common fats and oils is shown in Figure 76 while the classification of
fats and oils is diagrammatically shown in Figure 77.
FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF COMMON FATS AND OILS

(g FA/100g TOTAL FA)
% 100 –
90 –
F 80 –
A
70 –
T
T 60 –
Y 50 –
40 –
A
30 –
C
I 20 –
D 10 –
S 0 –
COCONUT BUTTER LARD PALM OIL CORN SOYABEAN
OIL OIL OIL
LEGEND:
Long-Chain Medium-Chain Long-Chain
Saturated Saturated Unsaturated
(LCF) (MCF)
Figure 76. Comparative fatty acid profile of common fats and oils
Source: UCAP Brochure on Coconut Oil
FATS AND OILS
MEDIUM-CHAIN LONG-CHAIN
MEDIUM CHAIN LONG CHAIN MONO POLY

SATURATED SATURATED UNSATURATED UNSATURATED
6–12 14–18
OMEGA 9
cis OMEGA 6 OMEGA 3
cis cis
CAPRILIC
CAPROIC MYRISTIC 14:0
PALMITIC 16:0 LINOLEIC 18:2
CAPRIC OLEIC 18:1 ALPHA EPA 20:4
STEARIC 18:1 GAMMA LINOLEIC 18:3
LAURIC 12:0 LINOLENIC 16:3 DHA 22:5
COCONUT BUTTER OLIVE CORN LINSEED FISH

PALM LARD SOYABEAN
KERNEL TALLOW SAFFLOWER
PALM PRIMROSE
TRANS
FATS
PARTIAL HYDROGENATION
Figure 77. Classification of fats and oils

Source: UCAP Brochure
The degree of saturation and length of the carbon chain of fatty acids help to determine their properties,
corresponding uses and effect on human health. The more saturated the fat and the longer the chain,
the harder the fat and the higher the melting point (Fife 2001).
The difference in structure between saturated, mono-unsaturated and poly-unsaturated fatty acids is
shown in the diagrams below.
SATURATED FATTY ACID
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H O
H C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C OH
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
Stearic Fatty Acid (18 Carbon chain)
MONO-UNSATURATED FATTY ACID

H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H O
Oleic Fatty Acid (18 Carbon chain, 1 double bond)
POLY-UNSATURATED FATTY ACID

H H H H H H H H H H H H H O
Linoleic Fatty Acid (18 Carbon chain, 2 double bonds)
In subjecting unsaturated vegetable oils like soybean and corn oil to a partial hydrogenation process
to prolong their shelf-life, another type of fatty acid is created. This is the so called trans fatty acid.
With partial hydrogenation, most of the double bonds of the unsaturated oil remain but their hydrogen
atoms change position and become trans, or across, from each other (Verallo-Rowell 2005). Hence,
trans fatty acids are artificially altered unsaturated fatty acids in which hydrogen atoms attached to
the carbon atoms linked with the double bonds have shifted position from the same side (cis) to the
opposite side (trans). It should be emphasised that the cis position (same side) is the natural position and
trans is the abnormal position. The partial hydrogenation process straightens the fatty acid molecules
to enable them to be ‘packed’ in solid form like saturated fats, while remaining unsaturated (www.ucap.
org.ph). Oils that have been partially hydrogenated increase their plasticity and substantially lengthen
their shelf-life, unlike the original, highly unsaturated oils they were made from.
The composition, type and most common sources of fatty acids are shown in Table 10.
Annex 97
Table 10. The composition, type and most common sources of fatty acids
Common Composition1 Type1 Remarks/Most Common Food

Name1 Sources2
Butyric acid C 4:0 Saturated short chain Butter (approx. 4%)
Caproic acid C 6:0 Saturated short Butter (approx. 2%); coconut and palm kernel oil (<
chain 1%)
Caprylic acid C 8:0 Saturated medium Coconut (8%) and palm kernel (4%) oils; butter (1%)
chain
Capric acid C 10:0 Saturated medium Coconut and palm kernel oils (4–6%); butter (2%)
chain
Lauric acid C 12:0 Saturated medium Coconut and palm kernel oils (45–53%); butter (3%)
chain
Myristic acid C 14:0 Saturated long chain Nutmeg butter (87%); Coconut and palm kernel oils
(16–18%); butter (12%); animal tallow (3–5%)
Palmitic acid C 16:0 Saturated long chain Palm oil (45%); cocoa butter (25%); chicken fat
(23%); butterfat (26%); animal tallow (approx. 25%);
cottonseed oil (25%); other temperate seed oils
(approx 10–12%)
Palmitoleic acid C 16:1 Mono-unsaturated Marine animal oils; chicken fat;
long chain, omega 9 ruminant tallow; lard; butterfat; olive oil
Stearic acid C 18:0 Saturated long chain Cocoa butter (35%); chicken fat (6%); butterfat and
lard (12.5%); animal tallow (20-25%); seed oils (2-
5%)
Oleic acid C 18:1 Mono-unsaturated All animal and vegetable fats and oils; olive (approx.
long chain, omega 9 70%); hybrid safflower and sunflower (approx. 80%);
canola (approx. 64%); animal tallow and butterfat
(30– 35%); peanut oil (approx. 50%); palm oil (40%);
other temperate seed oils (15–30%)
Linoleic acid C 18:2 Poly-unsaturated long All animal and vegetable fats and oils (2–8%);
chain Omega 6 safflower oil (80%); sunflower oil (68%); corn oil
(57%); soybean and cottonseed oil (53%); peanut oil
(46%); lard, olive and palm oil (40%); animal tallow
and butterfat (2–4%);
Gamma linolenic C 18:3 Poly-unsaturated long Evening primrose oil (9%); black currant seed oil
acid (GLA) chain Omega 6 (15–19%); borage oil (approx 20%)
Alpha linolenic C 18:3 Poly-unsaturated long Soybean and rapeseed oils (7–10%); flaxseed oil;
acid chain Omega 3 linseed oil1
Arachidic acid C 20:0 Saturated long chain Peanut oil
Eicosa Pentanoic C 20:5 Saturated long chain Unhydrogenated fish oil
acid (EPA) Omega 3
Behenic acid C 22:0 Saturated long chain Peanut oil
Erucic acid C 22:1 Mono-unsaturated Rapeseed oil
long chain Omega 9 Authors note: The high erucic acid content of
rapeseed oil makes it inedible since erucic acid is
toxic to humans
Docosa C 22:6 Saturated long chain Fish oil
Hexaenoic acid Omega 3
(DHA)
1
Source: Dayrit (2005)
2
Source: Enig (2000)
Annex 2
Process description and quality
standard RBD coconut oil
Process Description
Copra in the Philippines is generally produced by small coconut farmers using a wide variety of sun-
drying or smoke-drying methods, or a combination of both and to a certain extent, natural-draught
indirect (hot air) drying. From the farm, the copra goes to a series of traders before it is delivered to the
mills to produce crude coconut oil. In contrast, the common practice in most PICTs is to cut the fresh
kernel (green copra) and sell it to traders, who do the drying and subsequent delivery of copra to the
oil mills.
At the mill, the copra undergoes the following steps shown in Figure 78.
Refining,
bleaching and
Copra deodorisation Coconut oil
Milling
Filtration
Re-drying/
conditioning
Entrained
solids or “foots”
Expelling Settling
Copra Meal
Figure 78. Process flow chart for the production of RBD coconut oil
Cleaning – copra is transferred from the warehouse to the mill by a series of floor conveyors, rotor-
lifts and overhead conveyors. The copra is cleaned of metal fragments, dirt and other foreign matter,
manually or by the use of shaking or revolving screens, magnetic separators and other similar devices.
Milling – to facilitate oil extraction, copra is broken into fine particles by high speed vertical hammer
mills. It is reduced to a particle size of about 1/16” to 1/8”.
Annex 99
Re-drying/Conditioning – the milled copra, which has about 5–6% moisture content, is passed
through a steam-heated cooker where the moisture content is reduced to about 4%. At the same
time, the cooker brings the temperature of the copra to the conditioning temperature of about 104°C
(220°F). At the conditioner, the copra is maintained at about 104°–110°C (220°–230°F) for about 30
minutes. This will ensure uniform heat penetration into the copra before oil extraction. Moderately high
temperature facilitates the expelling action. Oil is able to flow out more easily due to the decrease in
viscosity. Also, obstruction due to gums, proteins etc. in the copra becomes less because the heating
dries and shrinks these substances. The moisture content of copra when it leaves the conditioner is
about 3%.
Oil extraction – the milled copra is subjected to high pressure oil extraction using an expeller, first by
a vertical screw, and finally by a horizontal main screw. The oil extraction efficiency and the thickness of
the cake are controlled by a choking mechanism at the end of the discharge end of the main screw. The
normal setting of the choke is for 3/8” to 1/2” cakes. With this setting, the oil content in the cake is kept
at about 7%. To control the temperature during extraction, the main shaft is provided with water cooling
and cooled oil is sprayed over the screw cage bars. The temperature of the oil should be kept at about
93°–102°C (200–215°F) to produce light coloured oil and effect good extraction.
Screening – the oil extracted in the expeller flows into the screening tanks to remove the entrained
particles in the oil, generally referred to as ‘foots’. The foots settle at the bottom and are continuously
scooped out by a series of chain-mounted scrapers, which lift them to the screen on top of the tank.
While the foots are travelling across the screen, oil is drained out of them. The foots leaving the screen
are conveyed back and mixed with the copra entering the expeller. Screening reduces the solid content
of the oil to about 10%.
Filtration – the oil is passed through a plate and frame filter press to further remove the solids in the oil.
Two filter presses are provided — one on duty while the other is being cleaned and dressed. Maximum
filtering pressures reach about 60 psi. The filtered oil flows into a surge tank from where it is finally
pumped to the coconut oil storage tank.
Crude coconut oil from the dry (copra) process is dark; turbid; high in free fatty acids (FFAs), phosphatides
and gums; has an unpleasant odour; and may be contaminated by bacteria and moulds. To render this
oil edible, it has to undergo further processing as shown below.
Refining – consists of neutralisation, bleaching and
deodorising. Neutralisation reduces the FFAs to improve
the taste and appearance of the oil. It is done by reacting
sodium hydroxide with free fatty acids to form an oil-insoluble
precipitate called soapstock. This is removed once it settles
out. Phosphatides and gums are removed by spraying hot
water on the oil. The oil is then dried under vacuum. Typically,
5% of the weight of the crude oil is lost in refining but the loss
can be as high as 7.5% (Hagenmaier 1980)
Bleaching – takes out most of the dissolved or colloidal
pigments responsible for the colour of crude oil. Either
activated carbon or bleaching earths such as bentonite or
a combination of both are added to the neutralised oil under
vacuum while heating it to 95°–100°C. The bleaching agents
are removed afterwards by passing the oil through a filter
press.
Deodorisation – removes volatile odours and flavours as
well as peroxides that affect the stability of the oil. It is done
by heating the oil to a temperature of 150°C while in contact
with live steam under vacuum conditions (29 psi pressure).
Figure 79. Copra-derived coconut oil in a
Fijian supermarket
It should be noted that most oil mills in PICTs do not undertake refining, bleaching and deodorisation
processes. Instead, the copra-derived oil undergoes only physical refining, using phosphoric or citric
acid to reduce the gums. The appearance of coconut oil sold in the supermarkets in Fiji is shown in
Figure 79.
The power and utilities needed for the production of RBD coconut oil are roughly estimated as follows:
a. power consumption – 120 kWh per ton of copra
b. steam consumption – 100 to 120 kg per ton of copra at 100 psi
c. water consumption – 3 to 5 cubic metres per ton of copra
Quality standard for RBD coconut oil
The Philippine Standard for RBD coconut oil is shown in Table 11.
Table 11. The Philippine Standard for RBD coconut oil
Parameter Values
Moisture Content, % 0.1% max
Free Fatty Acid (as % oleic) 0.1% max
Colour* 10 Y (yellow), 1 R (red)
Saponification Value 250–264
Iodine Value ** 7.5–10.5
Odour Odourless
* Colour is measured in the laboratory with an analytical tool called the Lovibond Tintometer. It works on
the principle of measuring the wavelength of light that passes through a sample of oil.
** The iodine value is a measure of the degree of saturation or unsaturation of the oil, the lower the iodine
value, the more saturated the oil or fat is.
Annex 101
Annex 3
Frequently asked questions1
1. What is virgin coconut oil (VCO)?

The Philippine National Standard for VCO (PNS/BAFPS 22:2007/ ICS 67.200.10) officially defines VCO
as an:
oil obtained from the fresh, mature kernel of the coconut by mechanical or natural means, with
or without the use of heat, without undergoing chemical refining, bleaching or deodorizing, and
which does not lead to the alteration of the nature of the oil. Virgin coconut oil is an oil which is
suitable for consumption without the need for further processing.
It is the purest form of coconut oil, water white in colour, contains natural Vitamin E and has not
undergone hydrolytic or atmospheric oxidation as attested by its very low free fatty acid content and
peroxide value. It has a mild to intense fresh coconut scent depending on the type of process used for
production.
2. What is RBD coconut oil?
RBD coconut oil refers to refined, bleached and deodorised oil that is generally used as edible/cooking
oil in the Philippines. It is derived from copra and has to undergo chemical refining, bleaching and
deodorisation processes after extraction to make it suitable for human consumption. It is yellow or pale
yellow in colour and does not contain Vitamin E since this is removed when the oil is subjected to high
temperature and the various chemical processes. It is odourless and tasteless.
3. What are the ideal quality characteristics of VCO?
Colour – water-clear; reading of 1 yellow, 0.1 red using Lovibond Tintometer
Free fatty acid (as lauric) – 0.1% max
Moisture – 0.1 % max
Peroxide value – 1 meq/kg and below
Lauric fatty acid content – 45–56%
Scent – fresh coconut scent, mild to intense
4. What is the Philippine National Standard for VCO?

Colour – water-clear
Free fatty acid (as lauric) – 0.2% (maximum)
Moisture – < 0.1 %
Matter volatile at 120 0C (w/w) – 0.12% to 0.2 %
Peroxide value – 3 (maximum)
Food additive – none permitted
Contaminants: Iron – 5 mg/kg
Copper – 0.4 mg/kg
Lead – 0.1 mg/kg
Arsenic – 0.1 mg/kg
1
This is a reprinted and updated version of Bawalan D.D. 2004. Frequently asked questions on virgin coconut oil. Cocoinfo International11(2) Jakarta, Indonesia:
Asian and Pacific Coconut Community.
5. What causes the yellow colour in coconut oil?
• Bacterial contamination of the coconut kernel before oil extraction
• High process temperature
Therefore, for the coconut oil to be categorised as virgin, its colour should be water-clear.
6. What is the simplest method of producing VCO?
• The modified natural fermentation process
7. How many coconuts are required to produce one litre of VCO?
• 10–15 mature, husked (12–13 months old) coconuts, depending on the size and the process
used
8. What is the effect of high temperature processing on VCO?
• The Vitamin E and sterol content are removed.
• The colour becomes yellow.
• In the presence of high moisture, the triglycerides may break into free fatty acid and glycerol.
In this case, it will give a false free fatty acid reading which measures the degree of hydrolytic
rancidity that the oil has undergone.
9. Does VCO need to be kept in the refrigerator and how long does it last?
No, VCO does not need to be kept in the refrigerator. Coconut oil is the most stable among the plant-
derived oils being traded in the world. If properly processed, its natural antioxidants give it a longer
shelf-life compared to other oils. Samples of VCO which the author produced in 1998 and stored in
transparent glass bottles at the processing laboratory in PCA Davao Research Center still smell fresh
after five years.
10. What are the current major uses of VCO?
• a hair conditioner
• a body oil or a substitute for moisturising lotion
• carrier oil for aromatherapy and massage oils
• a nutriceutical and functional food
11. Why is VCO considered a nutraceutical substance or a functional food?
A nutraceutical substance and a functional food are almost the same thing. Generally speaking, they
both mean foods or food components that provide other health benefits aside from the nutritional
function that they perform when ingested. In layman’s terms, nutraceuticals are substances which not
only nourish but also heal. VCO is considered a nutraceutical substance and functional food because,
apart from providing instant energy to the human body, it is said to prevent infections, boost immunity,
reverse disease states and assist in the cure of many types of illnesses. Coconut oil is far superior to
other functional foods because of its believed beneficial effect. Several studies indicate that the medium
chain (C8–C12) fatty acids in coconut oil are similar to the fats in mother’s milk that gives babies immunity
from disease.
Annex 103
12. What are the distinguishing characteristics of coconut oil compared to other oils traded in the world
market?
• a high percentage of lauric (C12) fatty acid, ranging from 45–56% depending on the coconut
variety
• a high percentage of medium chain fatty acids (C8–C12), generally about 64%
13. What is the importance of medium chain fatty acids (MCFAs) and lauric fatty acid?
• Since 1984, increasing amount of literature has been published discussing the antiviral,
antimicrobial, antifungal and antiprotozoal properties of medium chain fatty acids (C8, C10, C12).
Lauric acid (C12) and its monoglyceride form, monolaurin, are mentioned as the most potent
against lipid-coated microorganisms such as HIV, the measles virus, the herpes simplex virus,
Helicobacter pylori and others that are not normally cured by ordinary antibiotics.
• Studies also indicate that MCFAs are directly converted into energy in the liver and increase the
metabolic rate of an individual. This in turn promotes weight loss and reduces the deposit of fats
in the body.
14. What do the experts say regarding coconut oil-derived lauric fatty acid and its monoglyceride form,
monolaurin?
According to Professor Jon Kabara, Professor Emeritus, Department of Pharmacology, Michigan State
University, who pioneered research on monolaurin:
• monolaurin as a dietary supplement has shown very good results as an antibiotic and antiviral
agent, particularly in its potency against lipid-coated viruses;
• it does not cause resistance organisms to appear and has also shown that it can reduce the
resistance of germs to antibiotics;
• when coconut oil is consumed, the body makes the disease-fighting monolaurin.
According to Dr Mary Enig, a noted nutritional biochemist, formerly with the University of Maryland, now
with the Nutrition Department, Enig Associates:
• recently published research has shown that natural coconut fat in the diet leads to a normalisation
of body lipids, protects against alcohol damage to the liver and improves the immune system’s
anti-inflammatory response;
• the antimicrobial fatty acids and their derivatives are essentially nontoxic to man and they are
produced in vivo by humans when they ingest those commonly available foods that contain
adequate levels of medium chain fatty acids like coconut oil;
• the medicinal properties of lauric acid and monolaurin have been recognised by a small number
of researchers over nearly four decades and this knowledge has resulted in more than 20
research papers and several US patents.
15. What are lipid-coated viruses and bacteria?
Lipid is the medical term for fat. Lipid-coated micro-organisms such as viruses and bacteria have an
envelope of fat covering their basic life structure called nucleotides (DNA and RNA). This is the reason
for ordinary antibiotics not being able to penetrate easily and kill this type of pathogenic microorganism.
However, several researchers have reported that MCFAs, particularly lauric acid that is predominately
present in coconut oil, can penetrate and dissolve the lipid coating.
16. What are the lipid-coated microorganisms that have been reported to be inactivated by lauric fatty
acid and its monoglyceride, monolaurin?
Table 12. Lipid-coated microorganisms reported to be inactivated by lauric fatty acid and monolaurin
Lipid-coated viruses
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) Visna virus
Measles virus Cytomegalovirus
Herpes simplex virus Epstein-Barr virus
Herpes viridae Influenza virus
Sarcoma virus Leukemia virus
Synctial virus Pneumonovirus
Human lymphotropic virus (Type II) Hepatitis C virus
Vesicular stomatitis virus
Lipid-coated bacteria
Listeria monocyatogenes Streptococcus agalactiae
Helicobacter pylori Groups A,B,F and G streptococci
Hemophilus influenza Gram-positive organisms
Staphylococcus aureus Gram-negative organisms (if pre-treated with
chelator)
Source: Fife (2001)
17. What are the bacteria that have been reported to be inactivated by MCFAs and their monoglycerides,
such as monocaprin and monolaurin?
Table 13. Bacteria reported to be inactivated by MCFAs and their monoglycerides
Bacterium Diseases caused

Streptococcus throat infections, pneumonia, sinusitis, ear ache,
rheumatic fever, dental cavities
Staphylococcus staph infection, food poisoning, urinary tract
infections, toxic shock syndrome
Neisseria meningitis, gonorrhea, pelvic inflammatory disease
Chlamydia genital infections, lymphogranuloma venereum,
conjunctivitis, parrot fever, pneumonia, periodontitis
Helicobacter pylori stomach ulcers
Gram positive organisms anthrax, gastroenteritis, botulism, tetanus
Source: Fife (2001)
Annex 105
18. What is the link between coconut oil and severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)?
According to the late Dr Conrado Dayrit, former Professor Emeritus in the Department of Pharmacology
at the University of the Philippines, the coronavirus, which has been identified as the virus causing
SARS, is also lipid-coated, which means that lauric fatty acid and monolaurin could possibly have an
inactivating effect on it.
The pathogenic organisms causing influenza and pneumonia are both on the list of lipidcoated viruses
and bacteria that are found to be inactivated by lauric fatty acid and monolaurin. As mentioned by
Kabara (2000), monolaurin is derived by the human body from coconut oil. It should be noted that the
symptoms exhibited by SARS infected patients are similar to the symptoms of pneumonia and influenza.
Therefore, by inductive reasoning, it can be postulated that lauric fatty acid and monolaurin (which are
derived by the body from coconut oil) could be potential cures for SARS.
19. What are trans fatty acids?
Trans fatty acids are artificially altered unsaturated fatty acids in which hydrogen atoms attached to
the carbon atoms linked with the double bonds have shifted position from the same side (cis) to the
opposite side (trans). This happens when unsaturated oils like soybean and corn oil are subjected to
the partial hydrogenation process. This process straightens the fatty acids molecules to enable them to
be ‘packed’ in solid form like saturated fats, while remaining unsaturated (www.ucap.org.ph). Oils that
have been partially hydrogenated increase their plasticity and substantially lengthen their shelf life, unlike
the original, highly unsaturated oils they were made from.
20. Why are trans fats bad for the health?
The body cannot metabolise trans fats for lack of proper enzymes, thus making these artificial fats
unhealthy. The primary health risk identified with trans fat consumption is an elevated risk of coronary
heart disease (CHD). A comprehensive review of studies of trans fats published in 2006 in the New
England Journal of Medicine indicates a strong and reliable connection between trans fats consumption
and CHD (www.ucap.org.ph). In addition, studies on both humans and animals have shown that trans
fats lower the HDL (‘good’) cholesterol; raise the LDL (‘bad’) cholesterol; increase the risk of heart attack
and diabetes; and may cause certain cancers.
21. Do RBD coconut oil and VCO contain trans fatty acids?
No, RBD coconut oil and VCO do not contain any trans fatty acids. As a very stable oil, coconut oil is
never subjected to the partial hydrogenation process.
22. Is the lauric fatty acid in VCO reduced if it is processed using high temperatures?
No, the lauric fatty acid content of any coconut oil is highly dependent on the variety of coconut and not
on the process used.
23. Is VCO that solidifies in an air-conditioned room or in a refrigerator still usable as a nutraceutical
substance or functional food?
Yes, it is natural for coconut oil, virgin or RBD, to solidify when placed in the refrigerator or a cool
air-conditioned room because coconut oil is solid at temperatures of 22°C and below and liquid at
temperatures of 27°C and above. Coconut oil that does not solidify when placed inside the refrigerator
is not pure coconut oil but is mixed with some other oils.
24. What is the maximum recommended dosage to obtain health benefits from VCO?
• 50 ml or 3.5 tbsp. of virgin coconut oil or
• the kernel of half a mature coconut or
• 66 grams of desiccated coconut (can be mixed with breakfast cereal).
25. What is the best time to take VCO?
It depends on what benefit you want to achieve.
a. If you want to use it for controlling weight, take it 30 minutes before lunch and dinner.
b. If you are using it as a treatment for constipation, take a full dose before bedtime.
c. If you want to boost your immune system, take it any time of the day, in single or divided doses.
26. IMPORTANT REMINDERS!!!
• The information provided in this annex is not in any way meant to encourage readers to substitute
VCO for the drugs or antibiotics prescribed by their doctor for treating illnesses. Please note
that VIRGIN COCONUT OIL IS NOT A DRUG but a functional food and should be used only as
such.
• Further, always remember that anything in excess is bad, so do not take more than 3½
tablespoons of VCO a day.
Annex 107
Annex 4
Standards for virgin coconut oil
A. PHILIPPINE STANDARD FOR VCO (PNS/BAFPS 22:2007/ICS 67.200.10)

The Philippine National Standard for VCO presented here is the revised version of PNS/BAFPS 22:2004/
ICS 67.2000.10 which was issued in 2004 . This revised version took into consideration the results of
several studies done to characterise VCO and validate some of the provisions stipulated in the 2004
standard.
1 Scope
This standard applies to virgin coconut oil in a state of human consumption.
2 References
The titles of the standards publications referred to in this standard are listed on the inside back cover.
3 Definitions
For the purpose of this standard, the following definitions apply:
3.1 General
3.1.1
free fatty acids (FFA)
a specified fatty acid liberated by hydrolysis from naturally occurring fats
3.1.2
glyceride
an ester formed by the combination of glycerol and fatty acid. Glycerides occur naturally in oils and fats
3.1.3
virgin coconut oil (VCO)
oil obtained from the fresh, mature kernel of the coconut by mechanical or natural means, with or
without the use of heat, without undergoing chemical refining, bleaching or deodorizing, and which
does not lead to the alteration of the nature of the oil. Virgin coconut oil is an oil which is suitable for
consumption without the need for further processing
Virgin coconut oil (VCO) consists mainly of medium chain triglycerides, which are resistant to
peroxidation. The saturated fatty acids in VCO are distinct from animal fats, the latter consisting mainly
of long saturated fatty acids.
4 Essential composition and quality of factors
4.1 Identity characteristics
4.1.1 Gas liquid chromatography (GLC) ranges of fatty acids composition 2 shall be in accordance with
Table 1.
Table 1 – Gas liquid chromotagraphy range of fatty acid composition
Common name Composition (%)

Caproic acid C 6:0 0.1 – 07
Caprylic acid C 8:0 4.0 – 10.0
Capric acid C 10:0 4.0 – 8.0
Lauric acid C 12:0 45.1 – 56.0
Myristic acid C 14:0 16 – 21
Palmitic acid C 16:0 7.5 – 10.2
Stearic acid C 18:0 2.0 – 5.0
Oleic acid C 18:1 5.0 – 10.0
Linoleic acid C 18:2 1.0 – 2.5
4.2 Quality characteristics

4.2.1 Colour, odour and taste
Virgin coconut oil shall be colourless, sediment free, with natural fresh coconut scent and free from
rancid odours or tastes.
4.2.2 Virgin coconut oil shall conform to the requirements specified in Table 2.
Table 2 – Virgin coconut oil property requirements
Properties Specification
% Moisture content < 0.1
% Matter volatile at 120°C (w/w) 0.12 – 0.20
% Free fatty acids (expressed as lauric acid) 0.20
Peroxide value, meq/kg oil, max. 3.0
Food additives None permitted
5. Contaminants
Table 3 – Allowable limits of contaminants in Virgin Coconut Oil (VCO)
(Heavy metal, mg/kg, max.

Iron (Fe) 5.0
Copper (Cu) 0.40
Lead (Pb) 0.10
Arsenic (As) 0.10
Annex 109
6. Hygiene
It is recommended that the product covered by the provisions of this standard shall be in accordance
with the appropriate Sections of the General Principle of Food Hygiene recommended by the Codex
Alimentarius Commission (CAC/RCP 1-1969, Rev.3-1997).
The total aerobic microbial count does not exceed 100 cfu per ml, the total combined molds and yeast
count does not exceed 10 cfu per ml and it meets the requirements for the tests for the absence of
Salmonella species and Escherichia coli.
7. Packaging
Virgin coconut oil (VCO) should be packed in any suitable food grade container that can withstand
transportation, handling and storage conditions.
8. Labelling
The label of each package shall have the following information:
1. Name of product: “Virgin coconut oil”
2. Brand name or trade name
3. Net content
4. Lot identification
5. Name and address of the manufacturer and/or packer, or distributor
6. The phrase “Product of the Philippines”
7. Type of Process (See Annex)
8. Date manufactured and “Best Before”
9. BFAD registration number and bar code (Optional)
9 Methods of analysis and sampling
9.1 Determination of fatty acid composition
According to IUPAC 2.301, 2.302 and 2.304 or ISO 5508:1999 or ISO 5509:1999.
9.2 Determination of Moisture Content
According to AOAC 984.20 (Karl Fisher Method)
ANNEX
Type of Production Processes recognized by the Philippine Coconut Authority (PCA) on the production
of Virgin Coconut Oil (VCO) as per PCA Administrative Order 01 Series of 2005
Implementing Rules and Regulations to Enforce Standards on the Production and Marketing of Virgin
Coconut Oil
Section V: Production Processes
Producers/processors shall state in their product label sufficient information to identify the process
used in the production of virgin coconut oil such as traditional process (latik), fermentation with heat,
fermentation without heat, centrifuge process, expelling process (with or without cooling system),
or equivalent process which insures that the product conforms with the definition and chemical and
physical characteristics in the Philippine Virgin Coconut Oil Standards herein adopted.
B. APCC STANDARDS FOR VIRGIN COCONUT OIL
1. Scope
This standard applies to virgin coconut oil.
2. Description
Coconut oil is derived from the kernel/kernel/copra of the coconut (Cocos nucifera L.). Virgin
coconut oil is obtained from the fresh, mature kernel by mechanical or natural means with or
without the application of heat. Virgin coconut oil is suitable for human consumption in its natural
state.
3. Essential composition and quality factors
Interim APCC Standards

Identity Characteristics
Relative density 0.915 – 0.920
Refractive index at 40 degree-C 1.4480 – 1.4492
Moisture % wt. max. 0.1 – 0.5
Insoluble impurities per cent by mass. max. 0.05
Saponification Value 250 – 260 min.
Iodine value 4.1 – 11.00
Unsaponifiable matter % by mass. max. 0.2 – 0.5
Specific gravity at 30 degree./30 degree-C 0.915 – 0.920
Acid Value max. 0.5
Polenske Value min. 13
GLC Ranges of Fatty Acid Composition (%)
C 6:0 0.4 – 0.6
C 8:0 5.0 – 10.0
C 10:0 4.5 – 8.0
C 12:0 43.0 – 53.0
C 14:0 16.0 – 21.0
C 16:0 7.5 – 10.0
C 18:1 2.0 – 4.0
C 18:2 5.0 – 10.0
C 18:3 – C 24:1 1.0 – 2.5
< 0.5
Quality Characteristics
Colour Water clean
Free Fatty Acid ? 0.5%
Peroxide Value ?3 meq./kg oil
Total Plate Count < 10 cfu
Odour and Taste Free from foreign and rancid odour and taste
Contaminants
Matter volatile at 105 degree C 0.2%
Iron: (Fe) 5 mg/kg.
Copper 0.4 mg/kg.
Lead 0.1 mg/kg.
Arsenic 0.1 mg/kg.
Annex 111
4. Food Additives
None permitted
5. Hygiene
It is recommended that the product be prepared in accordance with the GMP and HACCP
standards.
6. Labelling
The name of the food on the label be “Virgin Coconut Oil”. The provisions of the General Standard
for the labelling of Packaged Food (CODEX STAN 1 – 1985)
(Rev. 1 – 1991) shall apply.
7. Methods of analysis and sampling
Based on Codex Alimentarius (Volume 13).
Annex 5
Recommended procedure to indicate the
moisture content of grated kernel in a DME dryer
Background information
The DME dryer is the most common dryer used by VCO processors in PICTs. It is a flat bed direct
contact type dryer where the batch of fresh grated coconut kernel is spread thinly on the surface of
the dryer. The load is regularly turned to prevent it from getting scorched. As a requirement of the DME
process, the grated kernel has to have a moisture content within the range of 10–12%. A study done
on the low pressure oil extraction process which works on the same principle as the DME revealed that
optimum oil recovery can be obtained if the moisture content of the dried grated kernel is at 11% before
extraction. Under the existing standard process for DME, the moisture content of the dried grated
kernel before it is unloaded from the dryer is determined by feel by dryer operators. This subjective
method of determining moisture content is the major reason why batches of VCO produced by the DME
process have variable quality.
There is a science-based procedure that can be followed to ensure that the 10–12% range of moisture
content will be reached. However, before implementing a more scientific approach, there is a need to
first determine the average moisture content of the coconuts supplied to the VCO plant. This system
is relatively simple to implement in PICTs because there is little variation in the moisture content of the
coconuts. It is certain that coconuts supplied to VCO plants in PICTs are fully mature since they have
fallen from the tree instead of being plucked.
Recommended procedure
The procedure is described as follows:
1. Using the previously determined average initial moisture content of the kernel as a basis, do a
material balance computation to determine the final weight of the kernel when its moisture content
is reduced to 11% for a specific weight of freshly grated kernel to be loaded in the dryer per batch.
- For instance, using a standard 3.5 kg freshly grated kernel per batch and assuming an initial
moisture content of 50 %, the final weight of the dried kernel at a moisture content of 11%
should be 1.97 kg or approximately 2 kg.
- For an initial weight of 12 kg at the same initial moisture content, the final weight of the dried
kernel at 11% moisture content should be 6.74 kg or roughly 6.75 kg (Note: In the modified
DME process, the weight of fresh grated kernel loaded in the dryer is 12 kg per batch.)
2. Station a weighing scale near the dryer that can take the weight of the kernel per batch plus the
weight of the basin. Designate at least three basins with the same weight as the weighing container.
Tare the weighing scale with the weight of the basin by resetting the reading on the weighing scale
to zero while the empty basin is still placed in the weighing scale.
3. Every time a batch of freshly grated kernel is loaded, weigh it. Make the weight of loaded fresh
kernel the same for every batch (i.e. 12 kg for the modified DME process).
4. Unload the dried grated kernel in the designated weighing container. Weigh again.
- If the weight of the dried kernel is still higher than the computed final weight (e.g. 6.75 kg if the
initial moisture content of fresh kernel is 50%), return the batch to the dryer and dry further.
- If the weight of the dried kernel is already lower than the computed weight, sprinkle a little water
(while the basin of dried kernel is positioned on the weighing scale) until the computed weight
is reached. Mix thoroughly after sprinkling with water.
Annex 113
Annex 6
Virgin coconut oil production equipment
A6.1 Husking equipment

• Manual husking tool – These are different variations of metal spike with a sharp tip standing vertically
in the ground (Figure 80).
Figure 80. Manual husking tools from Kiribati (left),

Marshall Islands (centre) and Fiji (right)
• Motorised coconut husking machine – Husking is

done by bringing down a cutter to a positioned
whole coconut that moves through a hydraulic
mechanism (Figure 81). The machine has a
husking capacity of 1800 nuts per eight-hour day
using a 1.5 hp single-phase electric motor. It is
currently used by Tailevu Milk Products Ltd., Viti
Levu, Fiji for their coconut product line. Fabricated
by Method Machine Works Sdn Bhd (729390-
M ) 51-1, Jalan Puteri 5/16, Bandar Puteri,
47100 Puchong, Selangor, Malaysia. Tel: 603-
8060-1925; Fax: 603-8060-1935; URL: www.
coconutmachine.com
Figure 81. Motorised husking machine
Shelling equipment
• Motorised shelling machine – a standard feature in coconut milk and desiccated coconut processing
plants in Asia. It is composed of vertical tool with sharp tip mounted in front of a rotating gear where
the shell of whole husked coconut is held and moved on top of the sharp tool. Untrained and
inexperienced operators should not handle this machine as it might result in cut fingers.
The Philippine shelling machine (Figure 82) has a processing capacity of 200–250 nuts per hour
based on the skill of the operator. It is run by a 1/2 hp gear motor, 3-phase, 220 volts, 40 rpm
output. Designed and fabricated by Princena’s Machine Shop, 3rd St. Villa Antonio Subdivision,
San Pablo City, Philippines. Tel. +6349-5624618; E-mail: [email protected]
The Malaysian shelling machine is currently used at Tailevu Milk Products Ltd, Viti Levu, Fiji (Figure
82). Shelling capacity is 180 nuts per hour depending on the skill of the operator. It is also run by a
1/2 hp gear motor, 3-phase, 220 volts, 40 rpm output.
The Philippine shelling machine differs from the Malaysian equipment in terms of the sharpened tip
of the vertical tool as shown in the figures below. Likewise, it occupies a smaller space.
Figure 82. Motorised shelling machines from Philippines (left) and Malaysia (right)
Annex 115
A6.2 Comminution equipment: grating, shredding, cutting, scraping,
grinding
Grating equipment
• Manual graters
Manual graters (Figure 83) are a standard feature in most Pacific households. They remove the fresh
kernel from the coconut shell and reduce its particle size to fine pieces at the same time.
Figure 83. Manual graters from Kiribati and Marshall Islands
• Motorised graters
 The DME grater, the Fijian grater, the Thailand grater and the Philippine grater (Figure 84) all
work on the same principle, differing only in the type of head. The Philippine grater has a
stainless steel blade and housing, a ½ hp electric motor and direct drive. The Thai grater is
considered the safest, but also the least durable. The Fijian grater is manufactured by On Time
Engineering, G.P.O. Box 12437, Suva, Fiji. Tel. (679) 3385337/3384776; Fax: (679) 3385337.
Figure 84. Motorised graters from Fiji (left), the Philippines (centre) and Thailand (right)
The processing capacity of motorised coconut graters depends on the skill of the operator. Based on
the Philippines experience, the grating capacity can go as high 80 nuts per hour. However, the grating
capacity is reduced as the hands of the operator get tired holding the half nut towards the rotating grater
head.
• Coconut Shredding/Cutting/Scraping/Grinding Machines
The Malaysian coconut grinding machine and the Thai coconut scraping machine (Figure 85) can
be called coconut shredding equipment since both work on the same principle of shredding the
coconut kernel into thin pieces. Both have a stainless steel drum with spikes and a stainless steel
rod which rotate in opposite directions (Figure 86). The coconut kernel is first removed from the shell
using either a manual shelling tool or a motorised shelling machine. The kernel is then dropped in
between the rotating drum and the rod.
 The Malaysian coconut grinding machine is currently being used at Tailevu Milk Products Ltd,
Viti Levu, Fiji. It runs on a 3 hp electric motor and has a shredding capacity of 180 nuts per
hour. It is manufactured by the same company that supplies the coconut husking and shelling
machines.
 The Thai coconut scraping machine runs on a 2 hp single-phase electric motor, 220 volts, 50
Hz. All parts are made of stainless steel. The processing capacity of kernel is equivalent to
about 220 nuts per hour. It is designed and manufactured by Ngow Huat Yoo Machinery, 107
Verngnakom Kasem Lane New Road, Soi 10 Samphantawong, Bangkok 10100, Thailand. Tel:
+66-2-2225571/2247648-9; Fax: +66-2-2247649.
Figure 85. Coconut grinding machine from Malaysia (right) and coconut scraping machine (another model) from Thailand (left)
Annex 117
Figure 86. Stainless steel drum with
spikes and rod in the coconut scraping
machine from Thailand
The coconut shredding machine has several advantages.

• It is safe to use, inasmuch as the hands of the operator are remote from the rotating blade, in
contrast to standard motorised graters.
• It has a higher process capacity than standard motorised graters and is well suited for larger
scales of operation when coupled with a shelling machine.
• Higher oil recovery is achieved on a per nut basis inasmuch as there is no coconut kernel left
on the shell.
 Multi-purpose power grinder complete with accessories and 1-unit induction motor, 3-phase,
220 volts, 1750 rpm for spindle drive, 1-unit 1hp gear motor, 3-phase 220 volts for screw feeder.
Food-grade stainless steel for all parts in contact with the fresh coconut kernel. The equipment is
available in process capacities of 550 and 300 nuts per hour (coconut kernel equivalent). Designed
and manufactured by Princena’s Machine Shop, 3rd St. Villa Antonio Subdivision, San Pablo City,
Philippines. E-mail: [email protected]; Tel: +6349-5624618.
The same advantages as mentioned for the Thai coconut shredder are obtained from this coconut
kernel grinder. In addition, it has a high processing capacity. However, the grinder is considerably
more expensive and uses a special type of motor
 Knife mill – 2 hp, 3-phase, 220 volts motor, process capacity of 100 kg per hour, food-grade
stainless steel for all parts in contact with the fresh coconut kernel. It is exactly the same design as
the knife mill used for copra except that food-grade stainless steel is used instead of mild steel.
 SIMPLEX granulator – Can be used for both fresh and dried kernel; has an input capacity of up to
80 kg per hour; is driven by a 1.5 hp single-phase TEFC electric motor with push button magnetic
contactor with overload cut-off. Designed and manufactured by VFV Trinity Machine Works, 44E
Rizal Avenue Ext. Grace Park, Caloocan City. Tel: +632-3648648; Fax: +632-3658742; E-mail:
[email protected]
A6.3 Coconut milk extraction
Manually operated equipment
• Manually operated vertical screw type (bridge press), with perforated holding basket and receptacle
trough; all materials in contact with the coconut kernel are made of stainless steel; 9 kg grated
coconut kernel per load (about 20 nuts equivalent); 15–20 minutes pressing cycle per load; process
capacity of about 60–80 nuts per hour (Figure 87).
Manufactured in the Philippines by PCDR Metalwerke Enterprise, No. 11 Lourdes St., Marcela,
Kalookan City, Metro Manila, Telefax: +632- 2874834. Original design from the Agro Processing
Division, Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, Kent, United Kingdom.
Figure 87. Philippine Bridge press for coconut milk and oil
extraction
Source: Bawalan and Chapman (2006)
• Manually operated hydraulic jack (10 tonnes capacity); table model; all materials in contact with
the coconut kernel are made of stainless steel; 2.5 kg grated kernel per load (about 4–5 coconuts
equivalent); five minutes pressing cycle per load, process capacity of about 48–60 nuts per hour
(Figure 88).
Annex 119
Figure 88. Manually operated hydraulic jack type coconut milk press from the Philippines, stand alone (left) and table
(right) models
Motorised equipment
• Motorised horizontal screw type coconut milk press (Figure 89) – Equivalent to 300–350 nuts per
hour process capacity (freshly grated or ground coconut kernel input); 2 hp electric motor, single
phase, stainless steel screw, built-in filter and housing. A higher capacity model at 500 nuts per hour
is also available. Designed and manufactured by Princena’s Machine Shop, 3rd St. Villa Antonio
Subdivision, San Pablo City, Laguna, Philippines. E-mail: pms.since1979@ yahoo.com; Tel: +6349-
5624618.
Figure 89. Two models of motorised horizontal screw type coconut milk extractors from the Philippines
• Motorised coconut squeezing machine (screw type) (Figure 90) – Equivalent to 250 nuts per hour
process capacity (freshly grated or ground coconut kernel input); stainless steel worm shaft/screw
and stainless steel cage and frame fitted with 3 hp single-phase 220 volts, 50 Hz. Designed and
manufactured by Ngow Huat Yoo Machinery, No. 107 Verngnakom Kasem Lane New Road, Soi
10 Samphantawong, Bangkok 10100, Thailand, Tel: +66-2-2225571/2247648-9; Fax: +66-2-
2247649.
Figure 90. Motorised horizontal screw type coconut milk extractor from Thailand
• Motorised hydraulic coconut milk press (Figure 91) – Designed and manufactured by Ngow Huat
Yoo Machinery, Bangkok, Thailand. Contact numbers as above.
Figure 91. Motorised hydraulic coconut milk press from

Thailand
Annex 121
A6.4 Coconut milk separation equipment
Two-phase centrifuge/cream separators (Figure 92) – This is actually designed for the separation
of dairy milk from skim milk but is adapted for separation of coconut milk into coconut cream and skim
milk where the cream is further processed into VCO. The centrifuge is manufactured in India and has a
stainless steel separation bowl and disc; milk separation capacity of 300 litres per hour; 31 discs, 7500
rpm; separation temperature at 35°–40°C; 1/2 hp electric motor, 110/220 volts, 50 Hz; 25 litres holding
capacity of milk reservoir.
Figure 92. Two phase (liquid-liquid) centrifuge
A6.5 Drying equipment

The choice of dryer depends on the scale of production, the availability of construction materials (if
needed to be constructed on site), the operator’s preference in terms of ease of operation, and the price
and drying efficiency of the dryer.
• DME dryer (Figure 93) – This is essentially a flat bed, direct contact type of dryer where heat is
directly transferred by conduction to the grated coconut kernel through the surface of the metal
sheet. It is constructed on site, based on the design specifications of the technology developer.
The dryer is composed of a stainless steel sheet (1.21 m x 4.86 m) mounted over a concrete base
with heating stones underneath. A burner/furnace made of used (mild steel) petroleum drums is
mounted on the front end for burning coconut shells and a chimney is attached to the other end.
Figure 93. DME flat bed direct contact dryer
Advantages
 It uses the generated by-product, coconut shells, for fuel.
 It has a relatively fast drying rate because of the direct heating.
Disadvantages
 It is labour intensive since it requires a minimum of three persons: one on each side of the dryer
to do the constant layering of the freshly grated kernel on the metal surface, turning and moving
it fast, and another person to regularly feed fuel into the dryer.
 There is a high risk of the kernel getting scorched or burned, since there is a tendency for the
wet grated kernel to stick to the surface of the metal. Once the kernel is scorched or burned,
the resulting oil will be pale yellow and no longer entitled to the label ‘virgin’.
• Electrically-heated or gas-fired forced draught tray dryer (Figure 94) – This is a standard
dryer that can be bought from known manufacturers. It comes in different capacities and sizes. It is
generally equipped with a thermostat control that allows the operator to set the drying temperature
as desired. It is also equipped with a blower that circulates hot air around and on the surface of the
dryer trays.
Figure 94. Electrically heated forced draught tray dryer at

Food Processing Centre in Tarawa, Kiribati
Advantages
 Drying of the kernel is assured to be under the highest sanitary conditions.
 With proper temperature setting, loaded grated kernel for drying can be safely left untended
without the risk of it getting scorched or burned.
 The thermostat control allows for a constant temperature drying.
Disadvantages
 It uses electric power or gas for heating, so the drying cost is much greater, and so is the
carbon footprint.
Annex 123
 The investment cost is higher.
 It is labour intensive in terms of loading the fresh kernel into trays and mixing it at regular
intervals during the drying process.
• Continuous conveyor (apron) dryer (Figure 95) – Coconut shell or gas-fired heat exchanger,
9.3 m long, 4 blowers of 1.5 hp each, single-phase 220 volts, dryer drive, 1 hp single phase, 220
volts, 30–50 kg per hour dried kernel output depending on moisture content. Output moisture
content can be adjusted by adjusting the speed of the conveyor; output end of the dryer can be
connected to the feed hopper of the expeller. A large capacity dryer is also available. Manufactured
by Princena’s Machine Shop, 3rd St. Villa Antonio Subdivision, San Pablo City, Philippines. E-mail:
[email protected]; Tel: +6349-5624618.
Figure 95. Mini conveyor dryer from the Philippines
Advantages
 It uses the generated by-product, coconut shells, for fuel.
 It can be used continuously, thereby ensuring low downtime in production.
 It prevents the drying pieces of kernel from getting scorched or burned, since it is hot air that is
in contact with the kernel.
 It offers more flexibility in operation, since the desired output moisture content of the kernel can
be set by adjusting the speed of the conveyor.
 It requires only one dryer operator.
 It can be used for drying other products.
Disadvantages
 The investment cost is high.
 It requires a bigger space because of the length of the dryer.
 The electric power cost is relatively high because of the electric motors to run the conveyor and
the air blowers.
• Indirect, natural draught coconut shell/husk-fired tray dryer (Figure 96) – This dryer is
constructed on site and is a modified version of the indirect type of copra dryer developed by the
author at the PCA Davao Research Center. Suitable frames to hold a series of trays with screens
were made in lieu of the loading bed of copra. Drying is essentially a batch type operation. The dryer
is composed of a furnace and a metal cylindrical heat exchanger with baffles (made of used metal
drums) attached to a chimney, from which hot combustion gases generated from burning coconut
husks or shells are released after transferring the heat to the air surrounding the metal exchanger.
The furnace and heat exchanger are enclosed in a dryer body (2.44 x 3.05 x 1.82 m) with concrete
or brick walls provided with air intake ports on the side. As the air is heated through contact with
the metal heat exchanger and the surface of the furnace, it rises to surround the grated coconut
in the trays. It has a total of 30 drying trays which can be loaded with 1.5–2.0 kg of freshly grated
coconut kernel. The temperature in the dryer is controlled by regulating the fuel feed.
Figure 96. Natural draught coconut shell/husk-fired tray dryer
Advantages
 It uses the generated by-products, coconut shells and husks, for fuel.
 It prevents the grated kernel from getting scorched or burned since it is hot air that is in contact
with the kernel.
Disadvantages
 The drying efficiency is highly dependent on the prevailing ambient conditions and wind velocity.
 It has a relatively lower process capacity since it is a batch type operation.
 It is labour intensive in terms of loading the fresh kernel in trays and the need for changing the
position of the trays at regular intervals during the drying process.
• Solar dryer – In areas where there are long periods of sunshine, solar drying of grated kernel
could be the cheapest option for producing VCO from the low pressure oil extraction method
under a micro-scale operation. There are different designs of solar dryer that can be constructed
on site using polyethylene transparent plastic sheets and wood. Some solar heat collectors can
be incorporated to make the solar dryer achieve a higher drying temperature. Previous solar drying
trials done by the author revealed that a temperature of 70°C, which is just right for coconut drying,
can be easily achieved in a properly designed solar dryer.
Annex 125
A6.6 Coconut oil extraction equipment
• Manually operated vertical screw type bridge press trough (Figure 87) – Has a perforated
holding basket and receptacle; all materials in contact with the coconut kernel are made of stainless
steel, 9 kg partially dried grated coconut kernel per load (about 45 nuts equivalent); 15–20 minutes
loading, pressing and unloading cycle per load; process capacity of about 135–180 nuts per hour.
Manufactured in the Philippines by PCDR Metalwerke Enterprise, No. 11 Lourdes St., Marcela,
Kalookan City, Metro Manila, Telefax: +632-2874834; upscale model of the original design from the
Agro Processing Division, Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, Kent, United Kingdom.
• DME press (Figure 18) – Kokonut Pacific described this as a ‘robust rack and pinion SAMTM Press
with its interchangeable stainless steel cylinders and pistons’. The press, is mounted on a wall, has
a ratchet mechanism for bringing up and down a lever that pushes the piston positioned on top
of the partially dried grated kernel inside the cylinder. It can press 1.5–2.0 kg partially dried grated
kernel loaded in the cylinder to recover the oil at eight pressings per hour.
• New Zealand Press (Figure 19) – This is manufactured by the Axis Industrial Ltd of Auckland, New
Zealand and is currently being used by Women in Business Development Inc. in Samoa and Origins
Pacific Ltd. in Fiji for VCO production. The press is a combination manually operated vertical screw
and hydraulic jack-type press. The average processing time per cycle per 7 kg dried kernel load is
about 15 minutes.
• SIMPLEXTRACTOR high pressure expeller (Figure 97) – Process capacity of 50 kg dried
kernel per hour, 5 hp motor, 3-phase, 220 volts with built-in cooling system for worm shaft. Also
available in process capacity of up to 80 kg per hour with 7.5 hp 3-phase motor. Designed and
manufactured by VFV Trinity Machine Works, 44E Rizal Avenue Ext. Grace Park, Caloocan City. Tel:
+632-3648648; Fax: +632- 3658742; E-mail: [email protected].
Figure 97. SIMPLEXTRACTOR high pressure expeller (Philippines)
A6.7 Filtration equipment
• Gravity type filtering device (Figure 98) – Designed by the author, this filtering device is suited
for clarifying VCO produced using the modified kitchen and natural fermentation methods. It is
composed of two 20-litre cylindrical water containers (normally used in water dispensers) with the
bottom cut out. These are placed one on top of the other over a stainless steel pot receptacle and
everything is held together by a manufactured mild steel frame. The filtering medium is sterilised
cotton wool placed in the neck of the water container. It can filter 18 litres per batch. This gravity
type filtering device cannot be used for filtering oil obtained from the low pressure oil extraction
method or the high pressure expeller method.
Figure 98. Gravity type filtering device designed by the author
• Plate and frame filter press – This is the standard equipment used for filtration in commercial
oil milling plants to ensure that all foots are speedily removed. The foots are trapped in the canvas
cloth positioned between each plate as the oil is pushed through. A conventional plate and frame
filter press for a commercial oil milling operation can have as many as 18 plates with each frame
measuring approx 40 x 40 cm. A mini plate and frame filter press is also available (Figure 99).
• Vertical pressure filters (Figure 100) – These are normally used for fine filtration of coconut oil
from a high pressure expeller.
A6.8 Fermentation cabinet

One way of ensuring that the right temperature is maintained during the fermentation process is to make
a properly designed fermentation cabinet with electric light bulbs placed in strategic positions that can
raise the temperature inside as needed. A small electric heater with built-in thermostat control can also
be installed in the fermentation cabinet (Note: Use incandescent bulbs, not the energy-saving compact
fluorescent lamp (CFL) for warming the air in the fermentation box or cabinet. CFL bulbs give more light
but very little heat.)
Annex 127
Figure 99. Mini plate and frame filter press from Australia (left) and standard plate and frame filter press at Wainiyaku Estate Plantation,
Fiji (right)
Figure 100. Vertical pressure filter at Wainiyaku Estate Plantation, Fiji
Annex 7
Production data sheet and other relevant record
forms in a VCO processing facility
DAILY PRODUCTION DATA SHEET

MODIFIED KITCHEN METHOD
Date of production:
A. Selection of nuts
No. of nuts selected No. of nuts rejected (if any) No. of nuts actually processed
B. Grating
Time started Time finished Total grating time, hours/minutes
Weight of grated nut kgs

C. Milk extraction
Time started Time finished Total extraction time hours/

minutes
1st extraction
2nd extraction
Weight of first milk extract kgs

Weight of water added kgs
Weight of second milk extract kgs
Weight of wet coconut milk residue kgs
D. Settling for two hours
Weight of cream, kgs Weight of skim milk, kgs
E. Heating of cream
Time started Time finished Total heating time, hours/minutes
Weight of wet proteinaceous residue kgs
Wt. of premium oil, Wt. of premium oil, Wt. of residual oil, Wt. of residual oil,
unfiltered filtered unfiltered filtered
Weight of toasted residue kgs

Reprinted with permission from Bawalan, D.D. and K.R. Chapman, 2006. Virgin coconut oil production
manual for micro- and village-scale processing. Bangkok, Thailand: FAO Regional Office for Asia and
the Pacific.
Annex 129
MODIFIED NATURAL FERMENTATION METHOD
Date of production:
B. Grating
Weight of grated kernel kgs

C. Milk extraction
Time started Time finished Total extraction time hours/

minutes
1st extraction
2nd extraction
Weight of first milk extract kgs

Weight of water added kgs
Weight of second milk extract kgs
Weight of wet coconut milk residue kgs
D. Settling/fermentation of coconut milk
Time started Time finished Total fermentation time, hours/minutes
E. Harvesting of separated oil

Time started Time finished Total harvesting time, hours/minutes
Weight of wet fermented curd kgs
Wt. of premium oil, Wt. of premium oil, Wt. of residual oil, Wt. of residual oil,
unfiltered filtered unfiltered filtered
Weight of toasted curd kgs

the Pacific.
LOW PRESSURE EXTRACTION METHOD
Date of production:
B. Grating
Weight of grated kernel kgs

C. Drying of grated kernel
Time started Time finished Total drying time, hours/minutes
Weight of dried kernel kgs

D. Extraction of oil
Time started Time finished Total extraction time, hours/minutes
Weight of extracted oil, unfiltered kgs

Weight of coconut meal kgs
E. Settling of oil
Date/Time started Date/Time finished Total settling time, hours/minutes
F. Filtration of oil
Time started Time finished Total filtration time, hours/minutes
Weight of filtered oil kgs

Weight of “foots’ kgs
the Pacific.
Annex 131
HIGH PRESSURE EXPELLER PROCESS
Date of production:
B. Shelling of coconut kernel
Time started Time finished Total shelling time, hours/minutes
Weight of coconut kernel kgs

C. Grinding of coconut kernel
Time started Time finished Total grinding time, hours/minutes
Weight of ground/granulated kernel kgs

D. Drying of granulated kernel
Time started Time finished Total drying time, hours/minutes
Weight of dried granulated kernel kgs

E. Extraction of oil
Time started Time finished Total extraction time, hours/minutes
Weight of extracted oil, unfiltered kgs

Weight of coconut meal kgs
F. Settling of oil
Date/Time started Date/Time finished Total settling time, hours/minutes
G. Filtration of oil
Time started Time finished Total filtration time, hours/minutes
Weight of filtered oil kgs

Weight of “foots’ kgs
the Pacific.
PRODUCTION DATA SUMMARY
MODIFIED KITCHEN AND NATURAL FERMENTATION METHOD
Production Batch No. of Nuts No. of Nuts Weight Lot Weight Weight of Weight of
Date No. Processed Rejected of VCO Identification of Wet Wet Latik Residual
Recovered, No. for VCO Residue, or Curd, Oil, kgs
kgs kgs kgs
the Pacific.
Annex 133
PRODUCTION DATA SUMMARY
LOW PRESSURE OIL EXTRACTION AND HIGH PRESSURE EXPELLER PROCESS
Production Batch No. No. of Nuts No. of Nuts Weight Lot Weight of Weight of
Date Processed Rejected of VCO Identification Coconut Foots, kgs
Recovered, No. for VCO Meal, kgs
kgs
the Pacific.
Annex 8
Coconut shell processing technologies
and quality grading
A8.1 Charcoal processing technologies

There are two methods that are generally used for small scale production of charcoal in the Philippines,
the pit method and the kiln method.
A8.1.1 Pit method

Pits for charcoal making are made by digging holes in the ground to the desired size. Guarte (1993)
mentions that circular or rectangular pits (Figure 101) are generally used. The size of the pit varies
according to the availability of shells and the capacity desired. He adds that most rectangular pits in
the Philippines are approximately one metre wide, two metres long and one metre deep, and circular
pits are a minimum size of one metre in diameter and one and a quarter metres deep. Rectangular pits
should have rounded sides on the bottom part to minimise the amount of air that might be trapped there
which could cause over-burning of charcoal in that part.
Figure 101. A rectangular pit for charcoal making
The steps for making charcoal by the rectangular pit method are given below.
a. Place 100 coconut shell halves at three equidistant points in the pit leaving a space in between
the groups of shells.
b. Start the burning of three or four shells outside the pit and drop them in the space at the bottom
of the pit to initiate burning.
c. Once the other shells start burning, cover them with additional shells. The aim is to prevent the
shells from breaking out into flame as this will turn the shell to ashes.
d. Additional shells are added progressively as the fire spreads upward until eventually the heap
reaches the top of the pit. At this point, large volumes of dark smoke are generated.
e. Cover the pit with a metal sheet or any material that will not burn and allow the carbonisation to
continue.
f. Once the smoke becomes clear and transparent, completely seal the cover of the pit by putting
clay soil over the cover and sides. Ensure that the seal is airtight to prevent the charcoal from
turning into ash.
g. Allow two or three days for the charcoal to completely cool.
h. Remove the charcoal and store it in bags.
Annex 135
The pit method has both advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages Disadvantages
Zero or very low capital investment Fixed position
Low maintenance cost Removing the charcoal from the pit is troublesome
Flexible size Charcoal is normally contaminated with dirt
A8.1.2 Kiln method

There are three types of kiln that are currently being used in the Philippines, the drum kiln (Figure 102)
which is the most popular for individual farmers, the fabricated metal kiln or Pag-Asa kiln (Figure 103)
for a bigger scale of operation and the PCA brick kiln (Figure 104) for long term usage.
Drum method
A 200 litre, used petrol or steel drum is used as a kiln. The top is cut off and used as a cover during
carbonisation. The drum is cleaned and washed thoroughly, especially if it was used as container
for corrosive materials. The capacity of a drum is 450 to 500 whole shells (900 to 1000 half shells)
depending on the size. The procedure takes six hours plus overnight cooling. A skilled worker can
operate eight or nine drum kilns at the same time. Charcoal recovery is 27.5% of the total weight of
shells, provided the shells are properly dried and come from fully mature nuts.
Figure 102. Two versions of the drum kiln for charcoal making
There are different versions of drum kiln: one type with four equidistant holes at the bottom, another
type with several equidistant holes along the sides of the drum at different heights, and a very simple
type that has no holes at all. Procedures vary depending on the type of drum kiln. The charcoal making
steps for the drum without any holes are described below.
a. Place the drum on flat, clean ground.
b. Ignite two pieces of coconut husk or three or four pieces of coconut shell, and carefully drop
them into the bottom of the drum. Arrange them evenly around the bottom by poking them with
a stick, and allow them to burn vigorously.
c. When these husks or shells are burning vigorously, add about 20 half coconut shells. Loosely
cover the drum with the top portion which was removed before. Allow the shells to carbonise.
The start of carbonisation is signified by the release of heavy dark smoke.
d. Add more shells whenever the smoke becomes lighter or when you see flames. Replace the
cover after each addition.
e. Continue putting in fresh batches of shells until the pile reaches the top of the drum.
f. When the smoke coming out of the loosely covered drum becomes clear, fit the cover on the lid
of the drum.
g. Turn the covered drum upside down. (The bottom of the drum becomes cooler as the
carbonisation moves towards the top, which allows the worker to hold the bottom portion.)
h. Seal the kiln by pressing relatively wet soil around the lid. The absence of smoke indicates that
the drum is completely sealed.
It should be noted that some charcoal makers do not turn the drum kiln upside down. The lid is sealed
with wet clay when the smoke becomes transparent and clear. Sealing of the lid is easier when the
drum is turned upside down but it takes a lot of skill to turn the drum upside down without spilling the
contents.
Fabricated metal kiln (Pag-Asa kiln)
The best known charcoal kiln designed in the Philippines is the Pag-Asa kiln (Figure 103), which is
normally used by commercial charcoal producers. It is a fabricated metal kiln composed of two parts:
a cylindrical base and a conical top part. Unlike the drum kiln with only the top open, the Pag-Asa kiln
is open at the top and the bottom. The size of the kiln depends on the capacity that is desired and
needed by the user. A kiln with a cylindrical base diameter of 46”, a height of 41” and a conical top with
a diameter of 16” can take about 3000 half shells. The procedure takes 7 to 8 hours with a cooling time
of 16 to 17 hours. A skilled worker can operate three Pag-Asa kilns at the same time. Charcoal recovery
is 25–27 % based on the weight of input.
The steps for making charcoal using the Pag-Asa kiln are
described below.
a. Pile on the ground about 50 shell halves, leaving a
space in the middle.
b. Ignite two to three pieces of dry coconut shell or
husk and place them in the central space.
c. Once the other shells in the pile are burning
strongly, place the Pag-Asa kiln over the pile of
shells, completely containing or enveloping them.
d. Add more shells whenever the smoke becomes
lighter or when flames break out.
e. Continue adding shells until the kiln is full.
f. When the smoke coming out of the kiln becomes
lighter and transparent, seal around the bottom of
the kiln with soil, cover the top with a metal sheet
and seal it with clay or any material that will make it
airtight.
g. Allow the charcoal to cool for 16 to 17 hours.
h. Collect the charcoal after removing the soil and Figure 103. Fabricated metal kiln (Pag-Asa kiln)
tilting the kiln to expose the charcoal inside.
i. If the charcoal is intended for delivery to a charcoal
granulation or activated carbon plant, separate small particles by passing the charcoal through
a mesh screen sieve.
j. If the charcoal is intended for delivery to the local market, pack it in sacks without screening it.
Annex 137
PCA brick kiln
The PCA brick charcoal kiln (Figure 104) was developed by the Philippine-German Coconut Project
(PGCP)1 and was evaluated and popularised by the Philippine-Korea Cooperation project to provide
coconut farmers and charcoal manufacturers with an alternative device for charcoal making. The kiln
is intended for a centralised type of operation since it is constructed on site and not moveable like the
drum and Pag-Asa kilns. It is constructed using bricks which do not corrode and are resistant to heat
so it is expected to have a longer service life than metal kilns. The capacity of the kiln is approximately
3,000 half shells. The kiln is mainly made of 2”x 4”x 8” standard rectangular fire bricks. It is dome-
shaped to optimise the carbonisation process. The dimensions of the kiln are: base diameter (inside):
1.20 m., height (net): 1.10 m., volume: 0.73 cu. m. A total of 24 air inlet ports, each with a diameter of
one inch, are placed in four rows around the circumference of the kiln. Each row has six air intake ports
equidistant from each other. The first row is positioned at the base of the kiln. The distance between
each row is equivalent to the height of five bricks (i.e. the succeeding rows of air intake ports are made
after the addition of five layers of bricks during construction).
A skilled charcoal maker can operate four kilns at a time for an average of eight hours from ignition to
covering. The operating time depends on the moisture content of the shells (using dry shells shortens
carbonisation time and ultimately reduces cost) and on how well the procedures are followed. Proper
operating procedures should be followed to produce good quality charcoal. The average charcoal
recovery rate is 28.4% based on dry weight of input.
The procedure for making charcoal using the PCA brick kiln
is described below.
a. Start by igniting about 50 dry coconut shells or husks
and wait for about five minutes to allow them to burn
strongly.
b. Close the brick door and then add another batch of
dry coconut shells, usually about 500 shells.
c. Seal all joints of the brick door with wet ash.
d. Wait until the colour of the smoke changes from
blackish to whitish and then add another batch of
coconut shells. Repeat this procedure until the kiln is
full.
e. Close the air inlet ports at the base with wet ash
when embers are visible or on the level of the second
row of air inlets. Repeat this procedure on the third
row. The fourth row of air inlets is closed at the same
time as the removable kiln cover (similar to a clay pot
cover) is placed on top.
f. The number of coconut shells added in each batch
Figure 104. PCA brick kiln charcoal making (Pag-
decreases near the end of the operation. Asa kiln)
g. Close the kiln after the last batch is fully burned. Seal
the top cover first with dry pulverised ash or fine sand and finish with wet ash.
h. Check for any leaks.
i. Unload the charcoal on the following day by opening the top cover and brick door. Use a spade
to transfer the charcoal from the kiln to the containers.
j. Check for live embers on the surface of the charcoal. Ignition sometimes happens due to the
high charcoal temperature and sudden exposure to air.
k. Store the charcoal in a well-ventilated warehouse away from passageways to prevent and/or
reduce fire risk.
1The Philippine-German Coconut Project is a technology transfer and self-help type of project involving R and D on coconut post-harvest technologies and
strengthening of farmers’ capabilities. It was co-funded by GTZ and was implemented by PCA from 1992–2000.
A8.2 Quality parameters and grading of coconut shell charcoal
Coconut shell charcoal contains the highest percentage of fixed carbon of all ligneous charcoal.
Accordingly, a good charcoal has the following average composition: 3% moisture, 10% volatiles, 2%
ash, and 85% fixed carbon. The following are the quality parameters of coconut shell charcoal when
analysed quantitatively:
Fixed carbon content – is the amount of carbon contained in a particular type of charcoal. The fixed
carbon content of charcoal ranges from a low of about 50% to a high of around 95%. Thus charcoal
consists mainly of carbon. The carbon content is usually estimated as a ‘difference’, i.e. all the other
constituents are deducted from 100 as percentages and the remainder is assumed to be the percentage
of ‘pure’ or ‘fixed’ carbon.
Ash – is determined by heating a weighed sample to red heat to burn away all combustible matter. The
residue is the ash. It consists of mineral matter, such as clay and silica, and calcium and magnesium
oxides, which were present in the original wood and picked up as contaminants from the earth during
processing.
Moisture content – is the water that is physically bound in the charcoal. Quality specifications for
charcoal usually limit the moisture content to around 5–15% of the gross weight of the charcoal.
Moisture content is determined by oven-drying a weighed sample of the charcoal. It is expressed as a
percentage of the initial wet weight.
Volatile combustible matter content – is defined as the water and other organic matter that is
released as a result of various chemical reactions that occur when biomass is heated in the presence of
limited air. The volatile matter content in charcoal (other than water) is composed of all those liquid and
tarry residues not fully driven off in the process of carbonisation. The amount can vary from a high of
40% to a of 5% or less. It is measured by heating away from air, a weighed sample of dry charcoal at
90°C to constant weight. The weight loss is the volatile matter. Volatile matter (VM) is usually specified
free of the moisture content, i.e. volatile matter minus moisture content.
Foreign matter content – refers to any material mixed in the batch of charcoal, e.g. pebbles, stones,
metals, bits of wood, husk, etc.
A8.2.1 Grades and standards of charcoal

Good quality charcoal must conform to the standard grade set by the industry on export. Charcoal is
classified into metallurgical grade A, and commercial grades A and B under the Philippine standard for
shell charcoal. The limits for each parameter are shown in Table 14.
Table 14. Grading parameters for coconut shell charcoal
Parameters Metallurgical Grade A Commercial Grade A Commercial Grade B

Fixed carbon 80% max. 75% max. 65% max.
Ash 3% max. 3% max. 3% max.
Moisture Volatile 10% max. 10% max. 10% max.
Combustible matter 10% max. 10% max. 20% max.
Sieve analysis Not more than 5% shall Not more than 5% shall Not more than 5% shall
pass a ¼ inch mesh pass a ¼ inch mesh pass a ¼ inch mesh
sieve sieve sieve
Annex 139
A8.2.2 Physical grading
On a farm, quantitative analysis of charcoal can never be done, simply because it is not practical to
do so. However, farmer producers may conduct their own quality assessment based on the physical
attributes of their produce. The following quality assessment guide can be used (Table 15).
Table 15. Charcoal quality assessment guide
Parameters Attributes of good quality What to do

charcoal
Colour Uniformly bluish-black colour. Get a piece of charcoal and allow
Glistens in sunlight. the sunlight to touch the surface.
Observe the colour.
Appearance Clean, shining fracture and free of Get a piece of charcoal and
fibres. observe it under light. Tap it
on top of a piece of paper and
observe the amount of dust/fibres
that fall out.
Sound Produces a high, metallic sound Drop a piece of charcoal on a
when snapped or dropped on a hard surface and listen to the
hard surface. sound of the fracture.
Foreign matter Should be free of dust, fibres, Screen the charcoal using a ¼
pebbles and other materials. inch mesh screen.
Under-burnt shells do not give a metallic sound when snapped, while over-burnt shells are friable and
a fracture sounds dull.
Source of Information: Engr. Evelyn T. Caro
Agriculturist 1 and Technology Transfer Specialist
PCA Region XI, Davao City, Philippines.
A8.3 Processing of coconut shell charcoal briquettes

Equipment
Binder cooker This is used for binder preparation. The size and type of cooker largely
depends on the plant capacity and mode of operation. A biomass-fired
(coconut husk or shell) cooker is necessary to have a continuous supply
of boiling water during operation.
Mixer This is used to evenly distribute the binder with the charcoal fines. Good
mixers are characterised by their ability to achieve a homogenous mixture
in the shortest time possible.
Briquettor (Figure 105) This equipment converts the charcoal fine-binder mixture into a solid
substance with defined shape. Briquettes can be made into various
shapes (egg-shaped, oblong, hexagonal, cylindrical, circular and pillow-
shaped) depending on the type of mould and briquetting machine used.
The pillow-shaped briquette is commonly produced. For home scale
production and use, a manually operated briquetting machine can be
used.
Dryer This is necessary to immediately dry and harden newly formed briquettes.
Tray type mechanical and natural draught indirect dryers can be used
for drying. Sundrying can be done but, due to unpredictable weather
condition, it is not recommended for large scale production.
Figure 105. Briquetting machine (left) and manual briquetting press (right)
Raw materials
Charcoal fines The best raw material for making charcoal briquettes is coconut shell charcoal
fines due to their high heating value compared to charcoal fines from other
biomass materials. Charcoal fines are generated as a waste product in granulating
charcoal intended for activated carbon production. Another way of obtaining
charcoal fines is by segregating and grinding small particles of shell charcoal from
carbonisation operation.
Binder Cassava starch is commonly used as binder because this is the cheapest and
most readily available material.
Water This is used for dissolving starch prior to cooking it. Any clean and chemical-free
water can be used.
Steps in charcoal briquette making

1. Weigh exact amounts of charcoal fines, water and binder — just enough for one mixing. The
recommended ratio is 1:10:20 (starch:water:charcoal fines).
2. Dissolve the starch in a small amount of water until the solution is homogenous. Pour in boiling
water. Stir until cooked or gelatinised.
3. Place charcoal fines in the mixer and pour in the binder while still hot. Stir until all particles are
coated by the binder.
4. Pour freshly prepared mixture into the briquettor mould and press or feed it into a motorised
briquetting machine (Figure 105).
5. Arrange freshly moulded briquettes in the drying trays to allow circulation of air and operate the
dryer when all the trays are full.
6. Remove deformed and cracked briquettes. Pack good briquettes in plastic bags and seal.
Source of Information: Engr. Evelyn T. Caro
Agriculturist 1 and Technology Transfer Specialist
PCA Region XI, Davao City, Philippines.
Annex 141
Annex 9
Simple processing technologies for
coconut water utilisation
A9.1 Coconut water vinegar

Vinegar is generally defined as an alcoholic liquid that Table 16. Average composition of coconut water
has been allowed to sour. It is considered one of the
oldest fermentation products known to man (Banzon Sugars (levulose and dextrose) 2.6 %
et al, 1990). Chlorides 0.17%
Coconut water vinegar uses coconut water as starting Protein 0.55%
material. Coconut water is the liquid endosperm Oil 0.74 %
found inside a coconut. It is one of the by-products
generated during the processing of coconut kernel. Total solids 4.71 %
In its natural form, coconut water contains micro Ash 0.46 &
minerals which are beneficial to human health, as Specific gravity 1.02
shown in Tables 16 and 17.
pH 5.6
Source: Anzaldo et al. (1985)
Table 17. Electrolyte composition of coconut water from coconuts of various ages (milliequivalent per litre)
AGE Potassium Sodium Calcium Magnesium Chlorine pH

(months) (mEq/litre) (mEq/litre) (mEq/litre) (mEq/litre) (mEq/litre)
4 43.86 1.11 13.23 6.46 44.00 4.90
5 40.13 1.68 10.20 5.87 38.16 4.87
6 35.53 1.58 9.60 4.27 33.00 4.92
7 36.40 2.06 10.67 4.27 35.83 4.92
8 36.73 2.20 10.80 5.14 45.67 5.17
9 42.67 2.47 11.20 5.34 30.34 5.40
10 44.26 3.05 17.07 6.13 37.67 5.40
Source: Anzaldo , (1987)
The composition of coconut water vinegar as analysed by the Philippine Food and Nutrition Research
Institute and reported by Banzon et al. (1990) is shown below:
Food energy value 3 calories/gram
Moisture 98%
Fat 0.1%
Total carbohydrates 1.4%
Ash 0.3%
Calcium 24 mg/100 grams
Phosphorous 34 mg/100 grams
Iron 0.1 mg/100 grams
Riboflavin 0.01 mg/100 grams
Protein trace
Thiamine trace
Niacin trace
Source: Banzon et al, 1990
Vinegar is primarily used to flavour and preserve foods and as an ingredient in salad dressings and
marinades. It has also been used as a medicine and a preservative. A dilute solution of vinegar has been
found to be an effective rinse for fresh salad vegetables to remove traces of pesticide.
In the Philippines, coconut water vinegar is used as a table condiment and sauce for some Filipino
dishes. It is used as a seasoning for meat, fish and vegetables during cooking; as an ingredient in the
manufacture of vegetable pickles, catsup and other tomato products, mayonnaise, mustard, dressing
and sauces; and as additive in many manufactured foods to enhance flavour (Banzon et al, 1990). In
addition, it is used as a cleaning agent.
There are two methods for making coconut water vinegar on a home and micro scale production. These
are:
• by using yeast and microbial culture (e.g. acetobacter acetii) as fermenting medium (Table 18)
• by using three-day-old coconut toddy as a starter (Table 19).
The yeast and microbial culture process
Table 18. The yeast and microbial culture process for coconut water vinegar production
Process Steps Critical Control Points/Remarks

Part A: Alcoholic Fermentation
1) Collect three litres fresh coconut water. Coconut water should come from ungerminated,
Strain through cheese cloth. unspoiled and newly opened nuts.
2) Dissolve 1/4 kg sugar in the coconut water. This is to increase sugar concentration of the
coconut water.
3) Pasteurise by heating at 65°C for 20 minutes or Avoid overheating as this may spoil the flavour.
boil for five minutes. Cool at 40°C.
4) Dissolve half a teaspoon Fleischmann dry yeast IMPORTANT: Make sure that the yeast is still
in one cup of sterilised coconut water and pour into active. This is indicated by bubbles while the
the mixture. yeast is being dissolved and after it is dissolved.
5) Pour the mixture into a sterilised narrow-mouth
jar (preferably glass).
6) Cover the narrow mouth with clean brown paper IMPORTANT: Do not use cellophane or plastic.
or newsprint and seal it with a rubber band. Keep the cover slightly loose, not tight.
7) Allow the mixture to ferment for four to seven
days or until there are no more bubbles of carbon
dioxide formed.
8) Transfer into wide-mouthed jar using rubber IMPORTANT: Be careful not to disturb the
tubing to siphon out the solution. sediments.
Part B : Acetic Acid Fermentation
1) To the alcoholic solution prepared in procedure Mother vinegar is started from a microbial culture
A above, add 1.5 litres of mother vinegar. Mix of selected fermenting micro organisms, e.g.
thoroughly. Acetobacter aceti, and is generated for every batch
of coconut water vinegar produced.
In the Philippines, there are government agencies

producing mother vinegar for sale to would-be
producers of coconut water vinegar.
2) Loosely cover the container with clean IMPORTANT: Do not use cellophane or
brown paper or newsprint and seal with a plastic.
rubber band.
3) Allow to ferment for 30 days or until
maximum sourness is obtained.
Annex 143
4) Set aside 1.5 litres to be used as mother
vinegar for the next batch.
5) Pasteurise at 65°–80°C to kill the IMPORTANT: Pasteurisation is needed at
fermenting micro-organism before bottling the right time to kill the micro-organisms
the product. responsible for fermentation. Otherwise,
fermentation will continue and the vinegar
will be converted into water and carbon
dioxide. Use a stainless steel vessel during
pasteurisation. Do not use aluminum, copper or
brass containers.
6) Cool and pack in sterilised bottles.
Considering the situation where PICTs will start from zero base in coconut water vinegar processing,
it is recommended to use the simple process where three-day-old coconut toddy is used as starter
and will be mixed with coconut water The other process for making coconut water vinegar requires
the addition of sugar and yeast to coconut water to ferment it into alcohol, then a suitable microbial
culture is added to the alcoholic mixture to ferment it into vinegar. It should be noted that coconut toddy
contains a natural fermenting enzyme. Three-day-old coconut toddy is actually an alcoholic mixture
already and if it is distilled off, it will yield coconut liquor. Mixing three-day-old toddy with coconut water
as the fermenting medium actually shortens the fermentation time into vinegar since there is no longer
any need to ferment the coconut water into alcohol. Processing of coconut water into vinegar using
three-day-old toddy as starter can be easily done in Cook islands, Rabi Island (Fiji), Kiribati, Marshall
Islands, Solomon Islands and Tuvalu, where coconut toddy collection is regularly done.
Table 19. Processing of coconut water vinegar using three-day-old coconut toddy
Process Steps Critical Control Points/ Remarks

1) Collect five litres of fresh coconut water. The coconut water should come from
Strain through cheese cloth. ungerminated, unspoiled, newly opened nuts.
2) Pasteurise by heating at 65°C for 20 minutes or Avoid overheating as this may spoil the flavour of
boil for five minutes. the product.
Use stainless steel container during

pasteurisation.
Do not use aluminum, copper or brass
containers.
3) Pour into fermenting containers. Food grade plastic containers can be used.
They should be washed properly with soap and
water and rinsed with hot water before use.
4) Add five litres of the three–day-old coconut The sugar content of the toddy has already been
toddy. naturally converted to alcohol.
Note: Three-day old coconut toddy is the toddy

which is left to stand for 72 hours after collection
from the coconut tree.
5) Loosely cover the mouth of the container with IMPORTANT: Do not use cellophane.
cheesecloth or muslin. A cloth diaper for babies can Keep the cover slightly loose.
also be used.
6) Allow the mixture to ferment for seven days.
7) Collect by siphoning. IMPORTANT: Be careful not to disturb the
sediment.
8) Pasteurise at 65°–80°C to kill the fermenting Important: pasteurisation is needed at the
micro-organisms before bottling right time to kill micro-organisms responsible
for fermentation. Otherwise, fermentation will
continue and the vinegar will be converted into
water and carbon dioxide.
Use a stainless steel container during
pasteurisation.
Do not use aluminum, copper or brass
containers.
9) Cool and pack in sterilised bottles.
A9.2 Coconut sauce

Ingredients
2 cups coconut water
½ cup brown sugar
½ cup salt
MSG (optional)
Procedure
1. Heat pan
2. Heat sugar until dark brown. Adjust stove flame to medium.
3. Add coconut water, salt and MSG if desired.
4. Stir and boil for 15 minutes
5. Remove from heat and strain.
Source : Philippine Coconut Authority
Region VIII (Davao City), Philippines
Annex 145
Annex 10
Food products from
coconut milk residue
These recipes were selected from the coconut recipes developed by staff of the Philippine Coconut
Authority and tested by the author.
Coconut Burger
Ingredients
1 cup fresh coconut milk residue
1 cup minced beef or minced chicken or canned tuna flakes
2 eggs, well beaten
¼ cup onions, chopped
1 tbsp garlic, minced
½ tsp ground pepper plus other spices to taste
fresh green chilli, chopped (optional)
3 tbsp soy sauce
6 tbsp corn starch
1/2 tsp salt
cooking oil for frying
tomato catsup for garnish
Procedure
1. Beat the eggs. Completely dissolve the cornstarch in the beaten eggs. Set aside.
2. Mix the fresh coconut residue thoroughly with the minced beef/chicken or tuna flakes, onions,
garlic, ground pepper, soy sauce, salt, chopped fresh green chili (if desired).
3. Add the egg mixture and mix thoroughly.
4. Shape into thin patties (two tablespoons per patty).
5. Heat cooking oil in a frying pan. Deep-fry the patties until done.
6. Drain off excess oil. Serve with catsup while hot.
Note: The addition of fresh coconut residue (from coconut milk extraction) to the usual burger recipe
provides dietary fibre which helps to prevent constipation, lowers cholesterol. It also provides coconut
dietary fat, which has been shown to have antimicrobial properties and boosts the immune system,
aside from providing food energy. It also utilises coconut residue (which is normally thrown away or used
as animal feed) thereby reducing the cost of the food as well.
Source of basic recipe: Product Development Department
Philippine Coconut Authority
Diliman, Quezon City
Coconut Okoy
Ingredients
½ cup all-purpose wheat flour
½ tsp baking powder
½ cup matured pumpkin/squash, grated together with skin
1 cup fresh coconut milk residue
1 cup shrimps or minced chicken
1 egg, well beaten
½ cup onions, chopped
½ tbsp ground pepper plus other spices to taste
½ tsp salt
MSG to taste (optional)
Cooking oil for frying
Vinegar seasoned with salt and garlic
Procedure
1. Mix all ingredients.
2. Shape into patties.
3. Deep fry in oil until golden brown.
4. Serve hot with vinegar seasoned with salt and garlic.
Source of basic recipe: Philippine Coconut Authority
Region IV-A (Lucena)
Macaroons
Ingredients
1 can (big) condensed milk
3 eggs, well beaten
1/2 cup butter
1/4 cup sugar
½ cup all-purpose flour
2 cups dried/toasted coconut milk residue
1 tsp vanilla
2 tsp baking powder
Procedure
1. Preheat the oven to 350ºF.
2. Mix all ingredients well.
3. Spoon mixture into paper cups. Fill the cups only half full to avoid overflow of mixture during baking.
4. Place on baking sheets or muffin pans and bake at 350ºF for 15–20 mins.
Source: Product Development Department
Annex 147
Peanut Sapal Cookies
Ingredients
3/4 cup sifted all purpose wheat flour
1 cup toasted coconut residue
1/2 tsp baking powder
1/2 tsp baking soda
1/4 tsp salt
1/2 cup margarine or butter
3/4 cup sugar
1/4 cup peanut butter
1 egg
1/2 cup finely chopped peanuts
Procedure
1. Pre-heat oven to 350°F.
2. Sift together flour, baking soda, baking powder and salt. Set aside.
3. Cream butter, peanut butter, sugar and egg.
4. Blend in the dry ingredients and toasted coconut residue.
5. Cover and chill.
6. Shape dough into 1-inch balls. Roll in peanuts. Place three inches apart on slightly greased baking
sheet. Press thumb in centre of each cookie.
7. Bake for 15 minutes or until set but not hard.
Cinnamon Sapal Cookies

Ingredients
½ cup shortening or butter
1 cup sugar
1 egg, well beaten
½ cup evaporated milk
1 cup toasted coconut residue
1½ cups sifted flour
½ tsp salt
1 tsp cinnamon powder
2½ tsp baking powder
Procedure
1. Cream the butter or shortening and sugar together until light and fluffy.
2. Add the egg, then stir in the milk.
3. Add the toasted coconut residue.
4. Sift the flour, salt, cinnamon and baking powder and add to the mixture. Mix well.
5. Drop by teaspoonful onto a greased baking sheet.
6. Bake in a moderate oven 375°F until brown, about 15 minutes.
Coconut Burger
Macaroons
Figure 106. Coconut burgers (left) and macaroons (right)
Annex 149
Annex 11
Production of coconut flour and VCO from
coconut milk residue using the Bawalan-Masa process
The Bawalan-Masa Process (Figure 43) has the following major steps:
Blanching – blanching coconut milk residue is done through the injection of live steam using a blanching
machine at a minimum temperature of 85°C for about seven minutes or immersion in boiling water for
1½ minutes in order to kill harmful micro-organisms which might have contaminated the milk residue
during handling. Blanching is a necessary step in coconut flour production, although it increases the
moisture content of the coconut milk residue.
Drying – the wet coconut residue is dried using a tray type mechanical dryer to a specified moisture
content. The dryer could be gas fired, electrically heated or steam heated. For large scale operation,
the conveyor type dryer, similar to the one used in a desiccated coconut plant, is more practical to use.
Defatting – the dried coconut residue is passed through a high pressure screw press with a cooling
system under a specified expeller setting to reduce oil content of the flour to 9% or less. A co-product
of this process is another type of VCO with very mild coconut scent, easily absorbed by the skin. It
is important to reduce the oil content of the coconut flakes to the lowest possible level to prolong the
shelf-life of the coconut flour.
It should be noted that conventional designs of oil expellers as used in the coconut industry are not
suitable for VCO and coconut flour production. Conventional expellers generate too much heat during
operation, which destroys the nutritive value and affects the colour of the flakes.
Re-drying – the defatted coconut flakes are re-dried to reduce their moisture content to 2.5–3.0%.
Grinding – the dried coconut flakes are then ground to reduce particle size to a fine mesh (at least 100
mesh) as required in food product formulation.
Filtration of Oil – the VCO produced when it leaves the defatting equipment has entrained very fine
particles of dried coconut milk residue which should be removed to clarify the oil. This is done through
the use of a plate and frame filter press similar to what is done in copra oil milling operations.
The Bawalan-Masa Process is patented under the Philippine Patent Office in the name of the Philippine
Coconut Authority. The process was developed by the author while working as Senior Science Research
Specialist and Ms Dina B. Masa, Manager, Product Development Department, Philippine Coconut
Authority.
Annex 12
Formulations and procedures for
downstream products from VCO
A12.1 Toilet/bath soap
Weighing scale Stick blender SS wire whisk Heat resistant plastic container
Eye goggles, gloves and mask Plastic basin
Figure 161. Soap-making tools and equipment
Soap moulds
Annex 151
Notes on soap-making tools and equipment
1. All equipment should be stainless steel, plastic or glass. Never use aluminium as this
will react with caustic soda.
2. Soap moulds can be a fabricated wood with formica lamination or heat-resistant
plastic. If non-heat resistant plastic is used, the desired shape of the soap plastic
mould will not be retained.
Additives in soap-making
Additives are substances that not only alter the overall appearance of a given soap but which also lend
their own special qualities to it ([email protected], 2004).
Additives include:
Colouring materials – can be food grade dyes, spices (such as turmeric) that have the pigment for
a specific colour, or any non-allergy-causing substance that provides colour to the soap. The author
found that children’s crayons are a cheap alternative to commercial dyes for home-scale soap-making.
Essential oils or fragrance oils – give the soap the desired scent; they should not contain any alcohol.
Chelating agent – this is either citric acid or ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA), which acts as
a sort of metal scavenger or water softener, preventing the formation of bathtub rings when the soap is
used in hard water.
Mineral oil or glycerine – this is added to enhance the emollient properties of soap and prevents its
skin-drying effect. For special moisturising effect, cocoa butter or avocado oil or jojoba oil can be added
instead of mineral oil.
Basic formulation for moisturising herbal bath soap are shown in Table 20.
Table 20. Basic formulation for moisturising herbal bath soap
Coconut oil 1,000 grams

Caustic soda solution, 35°Be 578 grams
OR
Coconut oil 550 grams
Palm oil 300 grams
Sunflower oil 200 grams
OR
Canola oil 200 grams
OR
Notes on soap-making tools and equipment
Sunflower oil 200 grams
Caustic Soda Solution, 35°Be 548 grams
Essential oil (optional) 20 grams
Colour (optional) children’s crayon or oil soluble dye, amount
depends on desired intensity of colour
For special effects to convert formula into herbal soap
Add at trace:
Aloe vera extract 50 grams
or lemon extract 50 grams
or green papaya extract 50 grams
Soap-making procedure
The preparation of caustic soda is shown in Table 21 and the preparation of soap is shown in Table 22.
Table 21. Processing steps and safety measures for the preparation of caustic soda solution
Process Steps Safety Measures/Remarks

a. Put on rubber gloves. Caustic soda flakes should be of high purity and
free from metal content. Buy them from chemical
b. Weigh 1 kg caustic soda flakes. suppliers. Do not use caustic soda for cleaning
drains.
Use rubber gloves when handling caustic soda

flakes.
Special care should be taken in handling caustic

soda flakes as they are highly irritating to the skin.
c. Using a graduated cylinder, measure 2.3 litres The water should be as pure as possible. Distilled
of water and place in a heat-resistant plastic or or filtered rain water is best.
stainless steel container.
d. Place the container of purified water over a basin When caustic soda flakes are dissolved in water,
of cold water. they generate a lot of heat so this reaction should
be counteracted by the basin of cold water.
e. Put on eye goggles, gas mask and rubber gloves Caustic soda solution is a very corrosive substance
before mixing the caustic soda solution. and can burn the skin and irritate the eyes. It also
emits a lot of fumes in the initial stage of dissolving.
f. Place vinegar and water nearby to neutralise
caustic soda in case of an accidental spill or if the
solution comes in contact with the skin.
g. ADD CAUSTIC SODA FLAKES TO WATER — The mixing of the caustic soda solution should be
NOT WATER TO CAUSTIC SODA FLAKES — and done in a well-ventilated, open area.
mix thoroughly until all the crystals or flakes are
dissolved.
h. When cool, store the solution in a plastic Lye flakes or crystals and lye solution can be
container. Label it properly. fatal if swallowed so put them out of reach
and sight of small children and animals. Keep
containers of lye properly labelled and sealed.
Annex 153
Table 22. Processing steps and critical control points for soap-making
Process Steps Critical Control Points/Remarks

a. Weigh the required amount of oil or fat and place The oil or fat can be one kind only (e.g. coconut oil,
in a mixing bowl. palm oil, beef tallow) or a mixture of different kinds.
The fatty acid composition of oil determines the

quality of soap with regard to cleaning efficiency,
lathering properties and moisturising effect. Hence,
it is best to mix oils to get the special properties
one wants in a soap.
Always remember that in making soap, weight and

not volume is used as a unit of measure.
b. Weigh the required amount of caustic soda Please remember all the safety precautions
solution prepared as described above. mentioned above when handling caustic soda
solution.
c. Slowly add the caustic soda solution to the oil This is done to ensure that the oil and caustic
in the mixing bowl and stir in one direction using a soda solution are mixed properly to undergo the
large stainless steel egg whisk or an electric stick saponification reaction.
blender or an electric hand mixer. Set the speed to
1 or low.
d. Stir continuously for 15 minutes, then stop for 5 The amount of time required for the soap mixture
minutes. Stir for 5 minutes then stop for 5 minutes. to reach the ‘trace’ stage depends on the fatty acid
Do this sequence of alternate stirring and resting composition of the oil.
until the mixture reaches a ‘light trace’ consistency. Saturated oils like coconut and palm oil reach the
It is like the consistency of condensed milk. ‘trace’ stage more quickly than polyunsaturated oils
Mixing should be done in one direction only. like soybean and sunflower oils, which take longer
to ‘trace’. Coconut oil takes about 45 minutes.
‘Trace’ is a term in soap-making to describe the

consistency (thickness) of soap when it is ready to
pour into moulds. When caustic soda solution and
fat/oil first combine, the mixture is thin and watery.
Gradually, the caustic soda and fat/oil react to form
soap. The mixture thickens to a trace consistency
and turns opaque.
e. Add colour to the desired intensity. (The colour The oil used for dissolving dye or melting with
can come from crayons melted in oil over a water crayons should be taken from the previously
bath or from oil-soluble dye dissolved in oil. Stir for weighed oil for making the soap.
5 minutes.
f. Add the desired additives (emollients and scents) Fragrance oils or essential oils used as scents
and stir. should be added at a time when the soap mixture is
very near the ‘full trace’ stage to prevent the caustic
soda from destroying the scent.
If synthetic fragrance is used to scent the soap,

please make certain that the fragrance is oil-
based and has no alcohol content. The addition of
alcohol-based fragrance to the soap mixture will
cause it to curdle.
g. Test the soap mixture to see if it has reached the Drip some soap mixture from a spoon across the
‘full trace’ stage. surface of the mixture. It should leave a ‘trace’ or a
small mound.
Draw a line in the surface of the soap mixture with

a spoon or rubber spatula. If a ‘trace’ of the line
remains for a few seconds, the soap has traced
(Figure 162).
Figure 162. Appearance of soap mixture at ‘full trace’
h. Pour the soap mixture into the soap mould, cover Covering the surface of the soap mixture will
the surface of the soap with plastic or wax paper prevent it from having white spots on the surface
and allow to stand at room temperature for 24 hrs. when the soap solidifies.
24 hours is needed for complete saponification and

solidification.
i. Remove the soap from the mould and cut into For smoothly-cut soap, a fabricated soap cutter
desired sizes. using guitar chords as the cutting medium can be
used (Figure 163).
j. Stamp, dry and age the soap for at least two
weeks.
k. Pack the soap in desired packaging material and
label.
Figure 163. Soap cutter for rectangular (left) and for circular (right) shaped soaps
Annex 155
Quality control in soap-making
Soap cannot be made without any alkali solution. The two most common alkali solutions in use for
soap making today are caustic soda, or sodium hydroxide (NaOH), and potassium hydroxide (KOH).
For bar soap, it is always sodium hydroxide that is used. Potassium hydroxide is mostly used for liquid
soap because it produces very soft soap and is slow to trace. Caustic soda is a chemical classified as a
strong base; it is highly corrosive and burns the skin. Hence, the amount of caustic soda solution added
to oil to form soap should be computed and measured accurately, as any amount in excess will result
in soap that has an irritating effect on the skin. The main reason a cold-processed soap is allowed to
age for at least two weeks is to make certain that all caustic soda in the soap has reacted completely
with the oil.
Based on the foregoing, quality control of soap is always made by measuring its pH value. In layman’s
term, pH is defined as a measure of the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a substance where the values
are measured on a range of one to fourteen. A neutral substance (neither acidic nor basic), such as
water, is given a value of seven. A pH below seven means the substance is an acid and pH above seven
means the substance is a base (alkaline). The greater the pH difference from seven, the stronger the
acidity or alkalinity of the substance. The strength of an acid or base can be measured by means of a
pH meter or (and more quickly) by litmus paper, special paper with chemicals in it that change the colour
of the paper depending on the pH of the substance being tested.
To test a bar of soap’s pH, wet the bar in running water and rub the bar with your hands until you
get some bubbles or a thin film of liquid soap on the outside of the bar. Wet the litmus paper on it,
observe the change in the colour of the paper and compare it to the colour chart that is provided by the
manufacturer to determine the pH value. Soap as a general rule is alkaline in nature. However, the pH
should not be more than ten. A pH of nine or less is better. If the pH of the soap is more than ten, it will
probably cause a burning sensation on the skin. As the soap ages, the pH drops, so it is better to test
the pH at the end of the two weeks’ ageing period (for cold processed soap).
A12.2 Aromatherapy/massage oils

This section deals with some formulations for aromatherapy oil that were prepared and tested by
the author. All prepared aromatherapy and massage oils should be stored in dark coloured bottles.
Thoroughly cleaned and dried cough syrup bottles can be used.
a. Massage oils for relaxation or to relieve stress
Formulation a1 Formulation a2
Lavender oil – 3 ml Ylang Ylang Oil – 2 ml
Virgin coconut oil – 97 ml Virgin Coconut Oil – 98 ml
b. Deodorising body oil
Lemongrass oil – 2.5 ml
Virgin Coconut oil – 97.5 ml
Author’s Note: The same formulation has also been tested for the prevention of smelly feet; the oil is
massaged into the foot and in between the toes before putting on socks.
c. Massage oil for respiration (easy breathing in case of colds)
Eucalyptus oil – 1.5 ml (about 30 drops)
Peppermint oil – 1.0 ml (about 20 drops)
Virgin coconut oil – 97.5 ml
d. Massage oil for rheumatism and muscle pain
Eucalyptus oil – 1 ml
Ginger oil infused virgin coconut oil – 99 ml
Note: Do the oil infusion with ginger by following the procedure discussed in Section 7.2 of the manual.
A12.3 Skin care products
In all of the formulations listed below, it is advisable to do the mixing in thoroughly cleaned and dried
heat-resistant glass beakers.
Coconut moisturising jelly (substitute for petroleum jelly)
Ingredients
Virgin coconut oil 1/2 cup (120 ml)
Grated beeswax 30 grams
Essential oil of choice 2 ml or depending on desired intensity of scent
Procedure
Melt the beeswax slowly in a double boiler or put the container of beeswax in a pan with heated water.
Heat the VCO in the same way as the beeswax. Mix the oil and melted beeswax together. Cool to 50°C
while stirring constantly. Add the essential oil and stir thoroughly. Put into cosmetic jars and allow to
cool.
Note: Wait for the VCO-beeswax mixture to cool to at least 50°C (warm feel) before adding the essential
oil. Otherwise, the scent will be destroyed by heat.
Lip balm
Ingredients
Cocoa butter 15 grams
Grated beeswax 15 grams
Virgin coconut oil 30 grams
Procedure
Heat the VCO and cocoa butter in the same way as the beeswax. Mix the oil cocoa butter and melted
beeswax together. Cool to 50°C while stirring constantly. Add a few drops of peppermint flavouring oil.
Put into cosmetic jars and let cool. If you want a softer balm, add more VCO. If you want a harder balm,
add more beeswax.
Moisturising body butter

Ingredients
Beeswax 20 grams
Cocoa butter 60 grams
Sesame oil (deodorised) 20 grams
Virgin coconut oil 30 grams
Olive oil 10 grams
Essential oil of choice 2 ml or depending on the preferred intensity of the scent
Note: Use deodorised or odourless sesame oil. Virgin sesame oil has a very strong odour which will
destroy the scent of the product. Remove from the formulation if you cannot find an odourless sesame
oil.
Procedure
Add the cocoa butter and blend with the beeswax without removing from the heat. Slowly blend in the
oils, one at a time. Let the mixture cool to 50°C and add the essential oil. Blend well. Pour into moulds
and cool to solidify.
Annex 157
Glossary
Alkali – is a primary ingredient in soap making. This is either caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) or caustic
potash (potassium hydroxide). Soap produced using caustic soda is much harder than soap produced
using potassium hydroxide. This is why potassium hydroxide is normally used when making liquid soap.
Alkali used for soap making should be pure and free from any metal content.
Ash – is the residue that remains when a substance is subjected to high heat in the presence of air and
all combustible matter is burned.
Ball copra – is a dehydrated whole kernel, an edible copra unique to India and certain parts of Sri
Lanka. Fully mature, unhusked coconuts are placed in specially constructed ball copra stores or on a
wooden platform above the kitchen fire-place just below the roof and allowed to dry for eight to twelve
months (Ranasinghe et al. 1980).
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) – is the quantity of oxygen used by aerobic microorganisms and
reducing compounds in the stabilisation of decomposable matter during a selected time at a certain
temperature (Frazier and Westhoff 1988). A period of five days at 20°C is generally used and results
are expressed in five-day BOD (BOD5). It is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed to decompose the
organic matter in waste water; a high BOD indicates heavy pollution with little oxygen remaining for fish
(Webster’s New World College Dictionary, 2010).
Charcoal briquette – also called patent fuel - is a compacted mass of fuel material made from a
mixture of very small charcoal pieces (fines) and a binder and moulded under pressure (FPRDI 1992).
Chelating agents – include citric acid, or ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA), and are used as
soap-making additives. They act as metal scavengers or water softeners, preventing the formation of
tub rings when soap is used in hard water.
Choke – is the very small opening at the end section of a high pressure expeller which the dried,
milled kernel is forced to pass through to effect the extraction of oil. The dried kernel is pushed to this
opening through the rotation/movement of a worm shaft, or screw. Adjustment in the choke clearance
determines the oil extraction efficiency and the thickness of the coconut flakes.
Cochin oil – the coconut oil industry term for semi-refined, copra-derived coconut oil which is generally
used for inedible or industrial applications (e.g. raw material for the production of coconut chemicals).
Coconut flour – is the ground, solid residue/flakes obtained after extraction of virgin coconut oil from
dried, comminuted coconut kernel, or coconut milk residue that is processed under sanitary conditions.
Coconut milk – is the white opaque fluid, an emulsion of oil and water, obtained when freshly grated
or comminuted coconut kernel is pressed either by manual or mechanical means with or without the
addition of water.
Coconut milk residue – is the solid material that is left behind when coconut milk is extracted from
fresh grated or shredded coconut kernel. It represents approximately 40–52% of the weight of freshly
grated kernel on a wet basis, depending on the coconut milk extraction process that is used.
Coconut shell – or endocarp - is the hard, stony, dark brown, thin layer between the coconut husk
(mesocarp) and the kernel of the mature coconut. It is soft and dark cream in colour when the nut is
immature. This is where the coconut kernel is attached.
Coconut shell charcoal – is the product derived from carbonisation of coconut shell from fully matured
nuts under a limited or controlled amount of air. It contains the highest percentage of fixed carbon of all
ligneous charcoal.
Coconut skim milk – is the watery phase which separates out from the coconut cream when coconut
milk is allowed to stand for two hours or when it is passed through a two-phase (liquid-liquid) centrifuge.
In the centrifuge process of VCO production, coconut skim milk is generated as a by-product, since
it is only the separated cream that is processed into VCO. Coconut skim milk has a sweetish flavour
characteristic of young coconut. It can be pasteurised, frozen or packed in cans or tetrabrik or passed
through a spray dryer to produce coconut skim milk powder.
Coconut water – is the liquid endosperm contained in a central almost spherical hollow of the coconut
fruit. This is one of the by-products generated during the processing of coconut kernels. In its natural
form, coconut water contains micro minerals and vitamins which are beneficial to human health.
Copra – is the dehydrated/dried coconut kernel, the primary product known in all coconut growing
countries of the world. It is the oldest known coconut product and the principal commodity by which
farmers normally convert their coconuts into income. Copra-making prevents the spoilage of fresh
coconut kernel by greatly reducing its moisture content.
Cup copra – is dehydrated kernel halves, the most common type of copra available in the market. It
is produced by drying coconut kernels in their shell (husked or unhusked) by sun drying, kiln drying or
a combination of both, and removing them from the shell either after the kernel has partially dried or at
the end of the drying operation.
Desiccated coconut – is the pure white, shredded, dehydrated food product obtained from fresh,
pared coconut kernel which is processed under very strict sanitary conditions.
Fatty acid – is a term given to substances in which the chemical formula is represented by RCOOH
where R is essentially chains of carbon and hydrogen of varying length (e.g. CH3CH2COOH). For a
detailed discussion on fatty acids, please refer to Annex 1.
Filled Milk – also known as evaporated or reconstituted milk, a liquid milk formulation in which the
butterfat in dairy milk is removed and substituted with coconut oil to make the product cheaper, i.e. it is
dairy skim milk that is homogenised with coconut oil. It is normally available in Asian supermarkets as
canned liquid milk.
Finger copra – is dried kernel in small pieces; the fresh kernel is removed from split unhusked coconuts
and dried by kiln drying (direct or indirect) and by sun drying.
Fixed carbon content – the amount of carbon contained in a particular type of charcoal.
FOB – stands for freight on board. A commercial term, it is used in exporting products and means that
the quoted price is based on the place of origin, and does not include shipping and insurance costs.
Food safety – is the assurance that food will not cause any harm to the consumer when it is prepared
and/or eaten according to it is intended use. It is the achievement of all conditions and the implementation
of all measures that are necessary during production, processing, storage, distribution and preparation
of food so that it does not present an appreciable risk to health when consumed.
Free fatty acid – is the amount of fatty acid in oil which is not bonded to glycerol. It exists in an
uncombined state as a definable chemical unit. The acid content in an edible fat or oil is given by the
quantity of free fatty acids derived from the hydrolytic breakdown of the triglycerides which gives the oil
the rancid smell. In most vegetable oils, free fatty acids are expressed as percentage acidity calculated
as oleic acid (a mono-unsaturated fat). The uncombined fatty acid comes from the breakdown of fat
(as triglycerides) into a unit of fatty acid and glyceride. However, for virgin coconut oil, it is expressed in
terms of its predominant fatty acid, i.e lauric acid. The higher the free fatty acid content, the lower the
quality of oil.
Foreign matter content – refers to any materials mixed in a batch of specific products which by
properties and characteristics of the substance should not be there.
Functional food – refers to any edible substance which provides health benefits aside from the nutrients
that it gives to the human body.
Glossary 159
Good manufacturing practices – is a set of guidelines and procedures that must be followed to ensure
that the food products manufactured in a particular plant are free from rubbish, dirt, contaminants and
pathogenic microorganisms so as to be safe for human consumption.
Green copra – refers to the fresh coconut kernel in PICTs in finger-size pieces which are normally taken
out from split coconuts by means of a knife or a special tool.
Haustorium – is the creamy/light yellow spongy structure that grows inside the coconut kernel when
germination starts ( known as vara in Fiji). The longer the germination growth, the bigger the haustorium.
The coconut kernel becomes thinner, slimy and rancid as the haustorium grows.
Herbal soap – is a cold-processed soap with added natural plant material/extracts that are known to
have a therapeutic or beneficial effect on the skin.
Hot air dryer – is the general term for dryers in which the medium that picks up the moisture from the
wet material to be dried is hot air with blower (forced draught) or without blower (natural draught). The
technical term is convection type dryers. Heating of the air is done either through steam or a biomass-
fired or gas-fired burner attached to a heat exchanger. On the other hand, the DME dryer is an example
of a conduction or direct type dryer where heat is directly transferred from the hot metal surface to the
wet material.
Hydrogenation – is a process in which hydrogen gas is bubbled through unsaturated oil in the
presence of nickel as a catalyst. The resulting reaction forces unsaturated fatty acids to accept additional
hydrogen atoms and become partially saturated. Full hydrogenation converts liquid oil into solid fat.
Partial hydrogenation limits the time exposure of the unsaturated vegetable oil to the stream of hydrogen
gas, thereby converting it either into a semi-solid state similar to butter or retaining its liquid state.
Low fat desiccated coconut – is actually coconut milk residue which is dried under strict sanitary
condition. Its protein, fat and sugar content are much lower than the traditionally known full fat desiccated
coconut. Its selling value is its lower fat and high dietary fibre content.
Moisture content – is a measure of the amount of water that is physically bound in a particular solid or
substance and that can be removed to a certain extent by directly or indirectly heating the substance.
Moisture content in coconut oil – is a measure of the amount of water expressed as a percentage
that is left adhering or entrained in the oil molecules after extraction and post processing of oil. It has
to be kept at the lowest level possible and preferably totally removed because it causes deterioration in
the shelf-life or keeping quality of the oil.
Monolaurin – the monoglyceride of lauric fatty acid (i.e. lauric acid linked glycerol on a 1:1 ratio). It is
available commercially in pellets and capsule form in the United States. It is produced by reacting lauric
fatty acid crystals with glycerol under specified conditions. The resulting product is then purified using
a molecular distillation process.
Nutraceuticals – are natural food components that provide health benefits or reduce the risk of
chronic disease above and beyond their basic nutritional function. In layman’s term, nutraceuticals are
substances which not only nourish but also heal.
Peroxide value – is a measure of the extent of oxidative absorption and entrainment of oxygen in a fat
or oil. The peroxide content present in an edible fat or oil indicates its state of primary oxidation and its
tendency to go rancid. The lower the peroxide value, the higher the quality of the oil.
pH – is defined as a measure of the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a substance where the values are
measured on a range of 1–14. A neutral substance (neither acidic nor basic), like water, is given a value
of 7. A pH below 7 means the substance is an acid and a pH above 7 means the substance is a base.
The greater the pH difference from 7, the stronger is the acidity or alkalinity of the substance.
RBD coconut oil – refers to refined, bleached and deodorised coconut oil derived from copra. The
crude coconut oil is subjected to chemical refining, bleaching and deodorisation processes after oil
extraction to make it fit for human consumption. RBD coconut oil is generally used as cooking oil in the
Philippines.
Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures – is a set of activities related to the sanitary handling of
raw materials, food products, work areas and equipment. It ascertains that conditions prescribed by
GMPs are met by plant facilities and operations.
Sinusinu – is the Fijian term for the proteinaceous residue or coagulated coconut protein that forms
when coconut milk is boiled. It is a by-product of the traditional process of producing coconut oil, and
currently does not have market value but is used as toppings for rice cakes and as an extender for
meat-based food recipes.
Soap – is the solid material obtained when an alkali reacts with the fatty acids in animal, vegetable and
seed oils and fats under a process known as saponification. The type of oil or fats used defines the
characteristics of the resulting soap, i.e. whether it is mild or drying to the skin, whether it will form good
lather, whether it will have good detergency or cleaning properties, etc.
Soap noodle – is a semi-processed substance composed of fatty acids with carbon chains ranging
from C12–C18. It is produced by removing the glycerol component and the fatty acids with carbon chains
C6–C10 of coconut oil through a steam hydrolysis and distillation process.
Trace – is a soap-making term that describes the consistency (thickness) of soap when it is ready to
pour into moulds.
Trans fatty acids – are artificially altered, unsaturated, fatty acids in which hydrogen atoms attached
to the carbon atoms linked with the double bonds have shifted position from the same side (cis) to the
opposite side (trans). This happens when unsaturated oils like soybean and corn are subjected to the
partial hydrogenation process. This process straightens the fatty acid molecules to enable them to be
‘packed’ in solid form like saturated fats, while remaining unsaturated (www.ucap.org.ph).
Vinegar – is generally defined as an alcoholic liquid that has been allowed to sour. It is considered one
of the oldest fermentation products known to man (Banzon et al. 1990). Coconut water vinegar is one
type of vinegar that uses coconut water as starting material.
Virgin coconut oil (VCO) – is the oil obtained from the fresh, mature kernel of the coconut by mechanical
or natural means, with or without the use of heat, without undergoing chemical refining, bleaching or
deodorising, and which does not lead to the alteration of the nature of the oil. VCO is suitable for
consumption without the need for further processing. VCO is the purest form of coconut oil, water white
in colour, containing natural Vitamin E and not having undergone atmospheric or hydrolytic oxidation, as
attested by its low peroxide value and low free fatty acid content.
Volatile combustible matter content – is defined as the water and other organic matter that are
released as a result of various chemical reactions which occur when biomass is heated in the presence
of limited air. The volatile matter in charcoal (other than water) is composed of all those liquid and tarry
residues not fully driven off in the process of carbonisation.
Glossary 161
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Carbonell, M.D.(ed.). 1979. Technical data handbook on the coconut, its products and by-products,
a compilation. Philippine Coconut Authority, Quezon City: Research Coordination and Documentation
Center, Corporate Planning and Information Office. 324 p.
Ranasinghe, T.K.G., Catanaoan, P.C., Patterson, H.B.W. and Abaca, P.M. 1980. Coconut processing technology
information documents, UNIDO-APCC Establishment of a Coconut Processing Technology Consultancy
Service, Jakarta, Indonesia.
Salon , D.T. and Maniquis, O.C. 1969. Development of a village process of preparing coconut skim milk beverage
for feeding children. Philippine Journal of Nutrition 22(2):164–170. Cited by Banzon et al. 1990. Coconut
as food. Quezon City, Philippines: Philippine Coconut Research and Development.
Sison Jr., B.C. 1976. Disposal of coconut processing waste. Proceedings of the seminar-workshop on coconut
industrial research sponsored by the Philippine Coconut Authority in cooperation with the National
Science Development Board and the Philippine Coconut Research and Development Foundation,
Development Academy of the Philippines, Tagaytay City, 28–29 February 1976.
Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC). 2010. 2010 pocket statistical summary. Noumea, New Caledonia:
SPC.
Tevi, F. 1997. Vulnerability: A Pacific reality. Issues paper prepared for the Summit of ACP Heads of State and
Government, Libreville, Gabon, 6–7 November 1997. http://www.acpsec.
org/summits/gabon/tevi.htm. Retrieved from the Internet 20 August 2010.
Verallo-Rowell, V.M. 2005. Rx: Coconuts! (The perfect health nut). Bloomington IN, USA: Xlibris Corporation (www.
Xlibris.com). 271 p.
Watt, B.K. and Merrill, S.L. 1963. Composition of foods. United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural
Handbook No. 8, Revised. Washington D.C. Cited by Banzon et al.1990. Coconut as food. Quezon City,
Philippines: Philippine Coconut Research and Development.
Webster’s New World College Dictionary, 2010. Cleveland, Ohio: Wiley Publishing, Inc. http://www.yourdictionary.
com/biochemical-oxygen-demand. Retrieved from the Internet 16 August 2010.
Websites visited
eAudrey’s Luxuriant Soap and Homemaking: www.eaudrey.com (10 February 2005)
The Asia and Pacific Coconut Community: www.apccsec.org (13August 2010)
The APCC member countries include: Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, India, Indonesia, Kiribati, Malaysia,
Marshall Islands, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vanuatu
and Vietnam. Jamaica is an associate member of the APCC.
Organic Certification Center of the Philippines: www.occpphils.org/organic-agriculture.htm (16 August 2010)
The United Coconut Associations of the Philippines: www.ucap.org.ph (20 August 2010)
ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Engr. Divina D. Bawalan is a Chemical Engineer by profession and is a free lance
international consultant on coconut processing and utilisation since September
2004 to the present. She has more than 20 years’ accumulated knowledge of
the coconut industry in the Asia-Pacific Region. She has been in the forefront
of VCO technology development and transfer since 2001 when the Philippines
introduced VCO onto the world market. As early as 1990, when VCO was still
an unknown commodity, she was conducting production trials using different
processes to produce white coconut oil while still a senior science research
specialist of the Philippine Coconut Authority.

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Chapter 7

Downstream products from

7.1 Moisturising toilet/bath soap

Figure 73. Moisturising bath soap

Downstream products from virgin coconut oil 89

Figure 74. Aromatic roots and leaves in Fiji

Downstream products from virgin coconut oil 91

Figure 75. Infusion of aromatic roots and leaves in oil

7.3 Skin care products

7.4 Hair care products

Downstream products from virgin coconut oil 93

FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF COMMON FATS AND OILS

FATS AND OILS

MEDIUM CHAIN LONG CHAIN MONO POLY

COCONUT BUTTER OLIVE CORN LINSEED FISH

Figure 77. Classification of fats and oils

MONO-UNSATURATED FATTY ACID

POLY-UNSATURATED FATTY ACID

Common Composition1 Type1 Remarks/Most Common Food

Table 11. The Philippine Standard for RBD coconut oil

1. What is virgin coconut oil (VCO)?

4. What is the Philippine National Standard for VCO?

Bacterium Diseases caused

A. PHILIPPINE STANDARD FOR VCO (PNS/BAFPS 22:2007/ICS 67.200.10)

Table 1 – Gas liquid chromotagraphy range of fatty acid composition

Common name Composition (%)

4.2 Quality characteristics

Table 2 – Virgin coconut oil property requirements

Table 3 – Allowable limits of contaminants in Virgin Coconut Oil (VCO)

(Heavy metal, mg/kg, max.

Interim APCC Standards

A6.1 Husking equipment

Figure 80. Manual husking tools from Kiribati (left),

• Motorised coconut husking machine – Husking is

Figure 81. Motorised husking machine

Figure 83. Manual graters from Kiribati and Marshall Islands

The coconut shredding machine has several advantages.

Source: Bawalan and Chapman (2006)

Figure 91. Motorised hydraulic coconut milk press from

Figure 92. Two phase (liquid-liquid) centrifuge

A6.5 Drying equipment

Figure 93. DME flat bed direct contact dryer

Figure 94. Electrically heated forced draught tray dryer at

Figure 95. Mini conveyor dryer from the Philippines

Figure 96. Natural draught coconut shell/husk-fired tray dryer

Figure 97. SIMPLEXTRACTOR high pressure expeller (Philippines)

Figure 98. Gravity type filtering device designed by the author

A6.8 Fermentation cabinet

Figure 100. Vertical pressure filter at Wainiyaku Estate Plantation, Fiji

DAILY PRODUCTION DATA SHEET

Time started Time finished Total grating time, hours/minutes

Weight of grated nut kgs

Time started Time finished Total extraction time hours/

Weight of first milk extract kgs

Weight of cream, kgs Weight of skim milk, kgs

Weight of wet proteinaceous residue kgs

Weight of toasted residue kgs

Time started Time finished Total grating time, hours/minutes

Weight of grated kernel kgs

Time started Time finished Total extraction time hours/

Weight of first milk extract kgs

Time started Time finished Total fermentation time, hours/minutes