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    1. Several physiological mechanisms have been proposed to explain how exercise helps reduce depression symptoms, including increased body temperature (thermogenic hypothesis), increased release of endorphins (endorphin hypothesis), and increased availability of neurotransmitters like serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine (monoamine hypothesis). However, methodological difficulties have prevented conclusive evidence. 2. Psychological mechanisms like the distraction hypothesis and self-efficacy hypothesis are also proposed. The distraction hypothesis suggests exercise serves as a distraction from depressive thoughts. The self-efficacy hypothesis is that exercise enhances self-efficacy and confidence, which can help reduce depression. However, more research is still needed to fully understand the relationships between exercise and depression.

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    1. Several physiological mechanisms have been proposed to explain how exercise helps reduce depression symptoms, including increased body temperature (thermogenic hypothesis), increased release of endorphins (endorphin hypothesis), and increased availability of neurotransmitters like serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine (monoamine hypothesis). However, methodological difficulties have prevented conclusive evidence. 2. Psychological mechanisms like the distraction hypothesis and self-efficacy hypothesis are also proposed. The distraction hypothesis suggests exercise serves as a distraction from depressive thoughts. The self-efficacy hypothesis is that exercise enhances self-efficacy and confidence, which can help reduce depression. However, more research is still needed to fully understand the relationships between exercise and depression.

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    Thermogenic Hypothesis

    Uploaded by

    Yuki Adina Hikari
    1. Several physiological mechanisms have been proposed to explain how exercise helps reduce depression symptoms, including increased body temperature (thermogenic hypothesis), increased release of endorphins (endorphin hypothesis), and increased availability of neurotransmitters like serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine (monoamine hypothesis). However, methodological difficulties have prevented conclusive evidence. 2. Psychological mechanisms like the distraction hypothesis and self-efficacy hypothesis are also proposed. The distraction hypothesis suggests exercise serves as a distraction from depressive thoughts. The self-efficacy hypothesis is that exercise enhances self-efficacy and confidence, which can help reduce depression. However, more research is still needed to fully understand the relationships between exercise and depression.

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    Thermogenic Hypothesis

    The thermogenic hypothesis suggests that a rise in core body temperature following exercise is responsible for
    the reduction in symptoms of depression. DeVries 36 explains that increases in temperature of specific brain
    regions, such as the brain stem, can lead to an overall feeling of relaxation and reduction in muscular tension.
    While this idea of increased body temperature has been proposed as a mechanism for the relationship
    between exercise and depression, the research conducted on the thermogenic hypothesis has examined the
    effect of exercise only on feelings of anxiety rather than depression.36,47,48

    Endorphin Hypothesis
    The endorphin hypothesis predicts that exercise has a positive effect on depression due to an increased
    release of β-endorphins following exercise. Endorphins are related to a positive mood and an overall enhanced
    sense of well-being. This line of research has not been without criticism. The debate remains as to whether
    plasma endorphins reflect endorphin activity in the brain. Some 37,38 have argued that even if peripheral
    endorphin levels are not reflective of brain chemistry, they could still be associated with a change in mood or
    feelings of depression. Several studies have shown increases in plasma endorphins following acute and chronic
    exercise49–51; yet, it remains unclear if these elevations in plasma endorphins are directly linked to a reduction
    in depression. Lastly, the phenomenon of runner's high, often attributed to endorphin release, is not blocked
    by naloxone injection, an opiate antagonist.52,53

    Monoamine Hypothesis
    The monoamine hypothesis appears to be the most promising of the proposed physiologic mechanisms. This
    hypothesis states that exercise leads to an increase in the availability of brain neurotransmitters (e.g.,
    serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine) that are diminished with depression. These neurotransmitters
    increase in plasma and urine following exercise, but whether exercise leads to an increase in
    neurotransmitters in the brain remains unknown. 40–42 Animal studies suggest that exercise increases serotonin
    and norepinephrine in various brain regions, 39,54–56 but, to date, this relationship has not been studied in
    humans.
    Therefore, while several physiologic mechanisms remain plausible, methodological difficulties have prevented
    this line of research from advancing. Martinsen57 discusses how testing biochemical hypotheses is often
    difficult in humans due to the invasive procedures necessary to obtain samples (e.g., spinal taps for
    cerebrospinal fluid samples). Further, biochemical samples obtained from blood or other bodily fluids may not
    directly reflect the activity of these compounds in the brain. 39 Hopefully, with the advent of new less invasive
    neuroimaging techniques, future researchers can examine whether exercise leads to the neurochemical
    changes in the brain predicted by these physiologic hypotheses.

    Distraction Hypothesis
    Several psychological mechanisms have also been proposed. As was the case with the physiologic
    mechanisms, many of these theories have not been tested extensively. The distraction hypothesis suggests
    that physical activity serves as a distraction from worries and depressing thoughts. 43 In general, the use of
    distracting activities as a means of coping with depression has been shown to have a more positive influence
    on the management of depression and to result in a greater reduction in depression than the use of more self-
    focused or introspective activities such as journal keeping or identifying positive and negative adjectives that
    describe one's current mood.58,59
    Exercise has been compared with other distracting activities such as relaxation, assertiveness training, health
    education, and social contact.17,18,23,60 Results have been inconclusive, with exercise being more effective than
    some activities and similar to others in its ability to aid in the reduction of depression. However, exercise is
    known to increase positive affect, which is diminished in depressed patients and is not augmented by
    distraction activities. The diminished capacity to experience positive affect is an essential distinguishing
    symptom in clinical depression.

    Self-Efficacy Hypothesis
    The enhancement of self-efficacy through exercise involvement may be another way in which exercise exerts
    its antidepressant effects. Self-efficacy refers to the belief that one possesses the necessary skills to complete
    a task as well as the confidence that the task can actually be completed with the desired outcome obtained.
    Bandura36 describes how depressed people often feel inefficacious to bring about positive desired outcomes in
    their lives and have low efficacy to cope with the symptoms of their depression. This can lead to negative self-
    evaluation, negative ruminations, and faulty styles of thinking. It has been suggested that exercise may
    provide an effective mode through which self-efficacy can be enhanced based on its ability to provide the
    individual with a meaningful mastery experience. Research examining the association between physical
    activity and self-efficacy in the general population has focused predominantly on the enhancement of physical
    self-efficacy and efficacy to regulate exercise behaviors. The relationship between exercise and self-efficacy in
    the clinically depressed has received far less attention. The findings of the few studies that have examined this
    relationship have been equivocal as to whether exercise leads to an enhancement of generalized feelings of
    efficacy.23,61 However, 1 recent study62 has reported that involvement in an exercise program was associated
    with enhanced feelings of coping self-efficacy, which, in turn, were inversely related to feelings of depression.

    1. Olahraga teratur dapat membantu meredakan depresi dan kecemasan dengan:


    - Melepaskan endorfin yang membuat Anda merasa nyaman, bahan kimia otak seperti ganja alami (kanabinoid
    endogen) dan bahan kimia otak alami lainnya yang dapat meningkatkan rasa kesejahteraan Anda
    - Alihkan pikiran Anda dari kekhawatiran sehingga Anda dapat menjauh dari siklus pikiran negatif yang memicu
    depresi dan kecemasan
    2. Olahraga teratur juga memiliki banyak manfaat psikologis dan emosional. Ini dapat membantu Anda:
    - Mendapat kepercayaan diri. Memenuhi tujuan atau tantangan olahraga, bahkan yang kecil, dapat
    meningkatkan kepercayaan diri Anda. Menjadi bugar juga dapat membuat Anda merasa lebih baik tentang
    penampilan Anda.
    - Dapatkan lebih banyak interaksi sosial. Olahraga dan aktivitas fisik dapat memberi Anda kesempatan untuk
    bertemu atau bersosialisasi dengan orang lain. Hanya bertukar senyuman atau sapaan ramah saat Anda
    berjalan di sekitar lingkungan Anda dapat membantu suasana hati Anda.
    - Mengatasi dengan cara yang sehat. Melakukan sesuatu yang positif untuk mengatasi depresi atau kecemasan
    adalah strategi penanggulangan yang sehat. Mencoba merasa lebih baik dengan meminum alkohol,
    memikirkan perasaan Anda, atau berharap depresi atau kecemasan akan hilang dengan sendirinya dapat
    menyebabkan gejala yang memburuk.
    Hipotesis Termogenik
    Hipotesis termogenik menunjukkan bahwa kenaikan suhu inti tubuh setelah olahraga bertanggung jawab atas
    penurunan gejala depresi. DeVries36 menjelaskan bahwa peningkatan suhu di bagian otak tertentu, seperti
    batang otak, dapat menyebabkan perasaan rileks secara keseluruhan dan pengurangan ketegangan otot.
    Sementara gagasan tentang peningkatan suhu tubuh ini telah diajukan sebagai mekanisme untuk hubungan
    antara olahraga dan depresi, penelitian yang dilakukan pada hipotesis termogenik telah menguji pengaruh
    olahraga hanya pada perasaan cemas daripada depresi.36,47,48
    Hipotesis Endorfin
    Hipotesis endorfin memprediksi bahwa olahraga memiliki efek positif pada depresi karena peningkatan
    pelepasan β-endorfin setelah olahraga. Endorfin terkait dengan suasana hati yang positif dan rasa
    kesejahteraan yang meningkat secara keseluruhan. Garis penelitian ini bukannya tanpa kritik. Perdebatan
    tetap, apakah endorfin plasma mencerminkan aktivitas endorfin di otak. Some37,38 berpendapat bahwa
    meskipun kadar endorfin perifer tidak mencerminkan kimiawi otak, mereka masih dapat dikaitkan dengan
    perubahan suasana hati atau perasaan depresi. Beberapa penelitian telah menunjukkan peningkatan endorfin
    plasma setelah latihan akut dan kronis49-51; namun, masih belum jelas apakah peningkatan endorfin plasma
    ini secara langsung terkait dengan penurunan depresi. Terakhir, fenomena runner's high, yang sering dikaitkan
    dengan pelepasan endorphin, tidak terhalang oleh injeksi nalokson, antagonis opiat.52,53
    Hipotesis Monoamine
    Hipotesis monoamina tampaknya yang paling menjanjikan dari mekanisme fisiologis yang diusulkan. Hipotesis
    ini menyatakan bahwa olahraga mengarah pada peningkatan ketersediaan neurotransmiter otak (mis.,
    Serotonin, dopamin, dan norepinefrin) yang berkurang dengan depresi. Neurotransmiter ini meningkat dalam
    plasma dan urin setelah latihan, tetapi apakah olahraga menyebabkan peningkatan neurotransmiter di otak
    masih belum diketahui.40-42 Penelitian pada hewan menunjukkan bahwa olahraga meningkatkan serotonin
    dan norepinefrin di berbagai wilayah otak, 39,54-56 tetapi, untuk saat ini, hubungan ini belum dipelajari pada
    manusia.
    Oleh karena itu, sementara beberapa mekanisme fisiologis tetap masuk akal, kesulitan metodologis telah
    menghalangi jalur penelitian ini untuk maju. Martinsen57 membahas bagaimana pengujian hipotesis biokimia
    seringkali sulit dilakukan pada manusia karena prosedur invasif yang diperlukan untuk mendapatkan sampel
    (misalnya, keran tulang belakang untuk sampel cairan serebrospinal). Lebih lanjut, sampel biokimia yang
    diperoleh dari darah atau cairan tubuh lainnya mungkin tidak secara langsung mencerminkan aktivitas
    senyawa ini di otak.39 Mudah-mudahan, dengan munculnya teknik pencitraan saraf baru yang kurang invasif,
    peneliti di masa mendatang dapat memeriksa apakah olahraga menyebabkan perubahan kimia saraf di otak.
    otak diprediksi oleh hipotesis fisiologis ini.
    Hipotesis Distraksi
    Beberapa mekanisme psikologis juga telah diajukan. Seperti halnya dengan mekanisme fisiologis, banyak dari
    teori-teori ini belum diuji secara ekstensif. Hipotesis gangguan menunjukkan bahwa aktivitas fisik berfungsi
    sebagai pengalih perhatian dari kekhawatiran dan pikiran yang membuat depresi.43 Secara umum,
    penggunaan aktivitas yang mengganggu sebagai sarana untuk mengatasi depresi telah terbukti memiliki
    pengaruh yang lebih positif pada pengelolaan depresi dan menghasilkan dalam pengurangan depresi yang
    lebih besar daripada penggunaan aktivitas yang lebih fokus pada diri sendiri atau introspektif seperti membuat
    jurnal atau mengidentifikasi kata sifat positif dan negatif yang menggambarkan suasana hati seseorang saat
    ini.58,59
    Latihan telah dibandingkan dengan aktivitas lain yang mengganggu seperti relaksasi, pelatihan ketegasan,
    pendidikan kesehatan, dan kontak sosial.17,18,23,60 Hasilnya tidak dapat disimpulkan, dengan olahraga
    menjadi lebih efektif daripada beberapa aktivitas dan serupa dengan yang lain dalam kemampuannya untuk
    membantu dalam pengurangan depresi. Namun, olahraga diketahui meningkatkan efek positif, yang
    berkurang pada pasien depresi dan tidak ditambah dengan aktivitas gangguan. Kapasitas yang berkurang
    untuk mengalami pengaruh positif merupakan gejala pembeda yang penting dalam depresi klinis.
    Hipotesis Efikasi Diri
    Peningkatan efikasi diri melalui keterlibatan olahraga mungkin merupakan cara lain di mana olahraga
    memberikan efek antidepresannya. Efikasi diri mengacu pada keyakinan bahwa seseorang memiliki
    keterampilan yang diperlukan untuk menyelesaikan tugas serta keyakinan bahwa tugas tersebut benar-benar
    dapat diselesaikan dengan hasil yang diinginkan. Bandura36 menggambarkan bagaimana orang yang depresi
    sering merasa tidak mampu untuk memberikan hasil yang diinginkan dalam hidup mereka dan memiliki
    kemanjuran yang rendah untuk mengatasi gejala depresi mereka. Hal ini dapat menyebabkan evaluasi diri
    negatif, perenungan negatif, dan gaya berpikir yang salah. Telah disarankan bahwa olahraga dapat
    memberikan mode yang efektif di mana efikasi diri dapat ditingkatkan berdasarkan kemampuannya untuk
    memberikan pengalaman penguasaan yang bermakna bagi individu. Penelitian yang meneliti hubungan antara
    aktivitas fisik dan efikasi diri pada populasi umum telah difokuskan terutama pada peningkatan efikasi diri dan
    kemanjuran fisik untuk mengatur perilaku olahraga. Hubungan antara olahraga dan kemanjuran diri pada
    penderita depresi klinis kurang mendapat perhatian. Temuan dari beberapa studi yang telah memeriksa
    hubungan ini masih samar-samar, apakah olahraga mengarah pada peningkatan perasaan kemanjuran secara
    umum.23,61 Namun, 1 studi terbaru62 telah melaporkan bahwa keterlibatan dalam program latihan dikaitkan
    dengan peningkatan perasaan mengatasi self-efficacy, yang, pada gilirannya, berbanding terbalik dengan
    perasaan depresi.

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