24

Chapter -3
Geometric Design

Definition and scope of geometric design

Geometric design is that stage of highway design which deals with the all the visible dimension of road such
as alignment, sight distance & intersection. It is the design of those road elements with which road user is
directly concerned and does not include the design of pavement, structural and drainage component & so on.
Vehicle operation cost as well as safety is also directly related to geometric design.

Importance of geometric design

Following point will clearly describes the importance of geometric design

 A standard & précised geometric design provides optimum efficiency in traffic operation with
maximum safety at reasonable cost.
 Road pavements can be designed & constructed in stages, but it is very expensive & rather difficult to
improve geometric elements of road in stages at later date.

ELEMENTS OF GOOMETRIC DESIGN.

Following are the element of geometric design.

1. cross-section
2. Horizontal alignment
3. Vertical alignment
4 Sight distance
5 Intersection

1. Elements of cross-section
a. Traffic lane, carriageway, shoulder median strip, right of way, side slope
b. Camber
c. Super-elevation
d. Extra widening of pavement at curve
e. Noise barrier
2. Elements of Horizontal alignment
a. Review of tuning angle
b. Radius of horizontal curve, length of curve
c. Transition curve
d. Sight distance along the road plan
3. Elements of vertical alignment
a. Grande
b. Vertical curves
c. Sight distance along road profile

4. Element of sight distance

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a. Safe overtaking sight distance(OSD)

b. Safe stopping distance (SSD)
c. Clear visible distance ahead a driver

Basic design control & criteria for design

The geometric design of highways depends on several factors, the important of these factors which control
the geometric elements are
1. Design speed
2. Design vehicle
3. Traffic volume & composition
4. Road user behavior
5. Cost & fund available
6. Topography & man made feature
7. Traffic capacity
8. Environtal approach.

Design speed

It is most important factor controlling the geometric design elements of highway. Design speed
should be predetermined before a highway Project is considered. The main factors that should affect the
choice of design speed are type of highway, function of road is expected to run. other factors like traffic
volume, its characteristics, cost of land, speed capabilities of vehicle, abilities of persons driving the vehicle,
aesthetic features etc. con not be neglecting while selecting design speed .
Design of almost every geometric design elements of a road is dependent on the design speed for
example, the requirements of pavement surface characteristics, cross-section element of road such as width
and clearance requirements, the sight distance requirements, horizontal alignments elements. Such as radius
of curve, super-elevation, transition curve length & the vertical alignment elements such as gradient, summit
and valley curve lengths etc depend mainly on the design speed of road.

Design vehicle

Geometric elements of a road also depend upon design vehicle. i.e. Its characteristics, size & shape of
vehicle. It is therefore essential to examine various type of vehicle in use in country.
The design of some elements of road is governed by length & some by width & some by height,
some by weight of vehicle.

Traffic volume & its composition

Traffic volume is the number of vehicle crossing a section of road per unit time at any selected
period. It is a measure of flow. Traffic volume is the index of importance of highway. Higher the traffic
volume, higher the geometric design should be considered. Technical classification of road is based on this
parameter in most countries. Traffic volume is expressed on average traffic daily traffic. Peak hour traffic,
average annual daily traffic

Road user behavior

It has been well established that the design of road can not be done only with the rues laid out by
mathematical models. Once constructed the road are used by peoples having different level of education,
 26

awareness, knowledge & traffic sense any mathematical formulae. The extent of influence of road user
behavior in determining the geometric elements of road cat not are quantified but their effect can not also be
ignored.

Topography & manmade feature

The topography or terrain conditions influence the geometric design of highway significantly. The terrains
are classified based on general slope of the country across the alignment as plain, rolling, mountainous &
steep terrain etc. the design standards specified for different class of road are different depending upon the
terrain classification. Criteria of design speed of national highway.
Terrain Classification as per Nrs 2070

Percent Cross
Terrain Type Degree
S.No. Slope

o o
1 Plain 0-10 0 – 5.7
o o
2 Rolling > 10-25 > 5.7 – 14
o o
3 Mountainous >25-60 > 14 – 31
o
4 Steep >60 > 31

Design Speeds, km/h as per Nrs 2070

Road Class Plain Rolling Mountainous Steep

I 120 100 80 60

II 100 80 60 40
III 80 60 40 30
IV 60 40 30 20

As the design speed affects the design of every geometric element, topography will also affect design of
geometric elements.
Traffic capacity

Traffic capacity of a highway is the total sum of capacity of each lane. Traffic capacity is the total no. of
vehicles that can pass a given point in a unit period of time for a given traffic condition. so traffic capacity is
needed to estimate or determine no of lane required which then determine the total width of road . we can
find out traffic capacity. Using the relation
C = 1000 V/S
V – Speed in kmph
S – Average centre to centre spacing of vehicle in metre
C – Capacity of single lane, vehicle per hour
Environments approach
The environmental factor such aesthetics, landscaping, air pollution, noise pollution & other local condition
also should be considered while designing geometrics of road.

Introduction to basic road terms-traffic volume, traffic intensity lane capacity, skid slip friction.
Traffic volume:-
 27

Traffic volume is the number of vehicles crossing a section of road per unit time at any selected
period. Traffic volume is used as quantity measure of flow: the commonly used units are vehicle per day &
vehicles per hour.
Traffic density:-
It is the number of vehicles occupying a unit length of a lane of roadway at a given instant, usually
expressed as vehicles per kilometer. Traffic volume is the product of traffic density & traffic speed.
Traffic capacity:-
It is the ability of roadway to accommodate traffic volume. it is expressed as maximum no. of
vehicles in a lane or a road that can pass a given point in unit time, usually an hour i.e. vehicles per hour per
lane.
Basic capacity :-
It is the maximum number of passenger cars that can pass a given point on a lane or roadway during
one hour under the most nearly ideal roadway & traffic conditions which can possibly be attained.
Possibly capacity:-
It is the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a given point on a lane or roadway during one
hour under prevailing roadway and traffic conditions.
Elements of cross- section

M/S

T/L L/S T/L

N%

Axis of syymetry
½ of formation width

Drain

½ of Bottom width

½ of Right of Way

T/L = Traffic Lane

L/S = Lane Separator
M S = Median strip, S = Shoulder
N % = Camber
= Continuous

Typical Cross-section of Rural Road

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Traffic lane:-
The strip of the carriageway occupied by vehicle moving in a single stream along the road is known
as traffic lane, the width of traffic lane depends upon the width of design vehicle & safety clearance on either
side as necessary for safe driving.
The minimum required width of traffic lane is 3.75m & 3.5m for single lane road & multiple lane
roads respectively.
Carriageway:- It is that strip of road which is constructed for the movement of vehicle/ traffic. The
carriage way generally consists of hard surface to facilitate smooth movement & is made of either hard
bituminous treated material or cement concrete. It is also called pavement width.
CW = Tw *n
Where,
Cw – width of carriageway
Tw- width of a lane
n – no. of lanes.

Nrs 2070 recommendation for carriageway

Single lane road Intermediate lane Multilane pavements width per lane

3.75 5.5 3.5

(upto 3.0 m in difficult terrain)

NB:In case of single lane roads it is recommended to have two treated shoulders on either side to make a
total width of 5.5m of treated surface.

Shoulder: - it is that portion of roadway on either side of carriageway which is periodically used by vehicles
for crossing, overtaking or parking maneuvers or used by the maintenance authority for stacking construction
material during maintenance work.
NRS 2070 recommended shoulder width

Class of Road Minimum Shoulder width in m(both side included )

I 3.75
II 2.5
III 2
IV 1.5

Roadway:-
It is that portion of road which consists of carriageway, shoulder on either side & central strip if any.

Formation width: - it is the top width of road embankment or bottom width of road cut measured at the
finished sub-grade level over which carriageway is constructed.
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CL

House Footpath

Kerb Grating
Carriage way (Two Lane)

MS

Storm drainage Pipe

½ of Right of way

Typical cross-section of road in urban area

Right of way:-

The strip of land on either side of road from its center line acquired during road development & under the
control of road authority for future road requirement is known as right of way.
Right of way for road as per NRS 2070

Type of road Right of way width Width of building line

Trunk road /Highway 50m 62m
Feeder road 30m 42m
District road 20m 32m

Kerb
 It may defined as that elements of road which separate the vehicular traffic from pedestrians by
providing physical barriers between them kerbs are also provided to separate carriageway from traffic
island or parking space.
Median strip:- It is the central raised ( usually) strip Within the roadway constructed to separate traffic
flowing in one direction from the traffic in opposite direction. It is also known as traffic separator.
The median strip should be distinctly visible during day & night in both wet & day weather. for
median strips with 1.8m width or so, grass/1ow height flower species are most suitable & pleasant element.

Elements of horizontal alignments

camber
Camber may be defined as the gradient of line joining the topmost point (crown) & edge of road.
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OR
It is the cross slope (Transverse slope) provided the road surface to remove rain water from road
surface.

Objectives of camber

1. Camber is provided on road surface to remove rain water & hence prevent entry of rainwater into
pavement of sub grade.
2. It also protect sub grade settlement & stripping of pavement.
3. To remove the rain water from the pavement surface as quickly as possible & allow the pavement to
get dry soon after the rain.
4. It also improves the skid resistance
Types of camber

There are mainly three types of camber

1. Straight line camber
2. Parabolic camber
3. Composite camber
Straight line camber: - A camber of two equal straight line slopes called straight line camber.
X n = Tan θ = R /(W/2) = 2R/W
. y
n% R n% Tan θ = y/x

From above relationship, we can conclude

W/2 W/2 y/x = 2 R / W

Y = (2 R / W) * x
y = n x, Where n is camber expressed in
percentage.
Parabolic camber
A camber with the shape of simple quadratic parabola may be referred as parabolic camber. It is provided in
a low cost & single lane/double lane road.
CL y/x2 = R / (W/2)2
y = (4*R/W2) x2
x = (2/W) * (( 2*R)/W) * x2
y = ((2 n)/W) * x2

W/2 W/2

Composite camber
It may be either composed of partly parabola & partly straight or two straight lines having different slope.

m%
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Disadvantage of heavy camber

Traffic needs no camber from traffic operation point of view. presence of camber is undesirable because it
drags the vehicle sideways. But we have already discussed that camber is also necessary for other
consideration. So appropriate value of camber is desirable but heavy camber has got following
disadvantages.
1) To counteract or neutralize the effect of heavy camber driver wants to use central track as shown in fig

Due to this:-
 Possibility of accident is high
 The central portion of road surface on one & same wheel track gets excessively worn
 Due to the rigidity of wheel base, wear & tear of tyres is also high.
1. Transverse tilt of vehicles causes uncomfortable side thrust and drag on the steering of vehicle.
2. In double roads presence of crown due to provision of camber makes the overtaking operation more
dangerous due to “air born” effect, possible especially at high speed.
3. Low cost surface & shoulder will be excessively eroded due to increased velocity of surface water. This
leads to formation of cross ruts.
4. In steep camber there is possibility of overturning & skidding of vehicle.

Typical value of Camber:-

Types of surface Amount of camber

Indian road Congress (IRC),
Reference standard Nepal Road Standard (NRS), in %
in %
Earthen roads 3–4 5
Gravel or WBM road (Unbound surface) 2.5 – 3 4
Bituminous road 2.5 2.5
Asphalt concrete or cement concrete
2 1.5 to 2
road

curves in highway ,types (horizontal & vertical), objectives

element of circular curve (deflection angle, radius, tangent length, curve length, apex distance)
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Highway curves

Horizontal curves vertical curves

Circular curve Transition curve summit curves valley curves

Simple curve compound curve Reverse curves cubic parabola curve

Lemniscates

Spiral curve
 Curves in highway are provided either to change the direction or slope gradually.
Element of circular curve

PI
C Δ

B (BC) D (EC)

G
A

Δ/2 Δ/2

B (BC) Beginning of the curve

D (EC) End of curve
CD= BC Tangent length
CF Apex distance
FG Mid-ordinate
BFD Length of curve
BGD Long chord
PI point of intersection
∆ Deflection angle
R Radius of curve
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From above fig.

From the property of geometry

R∆ = BFD = length of curve
R*∆ *‫ח‬/180
Therefore, Length of curve = ‫ח‬R∆/180
In ∆ OBC
Tan ∆/2 = BC/R
Or, BC = Rtan∆/2
Therefore, Tangent length (TL) = Rtan∆/2
In ∆ OBG
Sin∆/2 = BG/R
Therefore, BG = Rsin∆/2
Hence, BGD = 2BG = chord length = 2 R sin∆/2
In ∆ OBC
Cos∆/2 = R/OC = R/OF+FC
Or, OF cos∆/2 + FCcos∆/2 = R
Or, Rcos∆/2+FCcos∆/2 = R
Or, FC COS∆/2 = R-Rcos∆/2 = R (1-cos∆/2)
FC = R (1-cos∆/2)
Cos∆/2
= R (1/ (cos∆/2) - 1)
= R (sec∆/2 - 1)
Therefore, FC = Apex distance = R(sec∆/2 – 1)
In ∆ OBG
Cos∆/2 = R/OC = R/OF+FC =R
Or, cos∆/2 = OG/R = R-FG/R
Or, Rcos∆/2 = R-FG
Or, FG = R- Rcos∆/2
= R(1-cos∆/2 )
Therefore, FG = Mid-ordinate = R (1-cos∆/2 )

Effects on the vehicles on horizontal curves

When a vehicle comes on circular curve, the centrifugal force acts horizontally outward through the center of
gravity of the vehicle.
The centrifugal force developed, depends on the radius of curve (horizontal) & speed of vehicle
negotiating curve. The centrifugal force acting on a vehicle negotiating a horizontal curve has two effects.
a. Tendency to overturn the vehicle outwards about the outer wheel.
b. Tendency to skid the vehicle laterally, outward.

Overturning effect
 34

For rotational equilibrium

P x h = W x b/2

P P = b
h W 2h
A B

b/2 b/2

RA W RB
Where, P/W is known as centrifugal ratio or impact factor
Hence when P/W reaches the value of b/2h, there is danger of overturning.
Transverse skidding effect
The centrifugal force developed also has tendency to push the vehicle outward in the transverse
direction. If the centrifugal force P developed exceeds the maximum possible transverse skid resistance due
to friction, the vehicle will start skidding in transverse direction.
For equilibrium

P = FA +FB
= f R A + f RB
P = f (RA + RB)
=fW
A FA B FB
P/W = f
b/2 b/2 where f is co- efficient of
friction.
W = Weight of Vehicle
RA W RB b = width of vehicle

Therefore, p/w = f
i.e. when centrifugal ratio v2/gR attains the value of co-efficient of friction, there is danger of transverse
skidding.

Conclusion
P/w < b/2h for No overturning
<f for no lateral skidding.
super elevation - definition, objectives, and methods of in analysis of super elevation, maximum &
minimum super elevation & design of super-elevation.
Definition
Super elevation may be defined as one sided slope obtained by raising the outer edge of the pavement with
respect to inner one along a curved path in order to counteract the effect of centrifugal force. It is usually
expressed in fraction or in percentage.

e = Tan Ө = BC/AB e% C

= E/B θ
A B
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Where, E = Amount by which outer edge is raised with respect to inner edge
B = Width of road ( approx.)
Analysis of super elevation

P cos θ

FB P
B
W sin θ FA
A RB
θ

RA P sin θ

W W cos θ
The forces acting on the vehicle while moving on a circular curve of radius R meter, at speed of v m/sec are
a. The centrifugal force p = wv2/gr acting horizontally outward through centre of gravity
b. The weight W of the vehicle acting vertically downward through C.G.
c. The frictional force developed between the wheels & pavement surface.

Resolving all the forces in the direction perpendicular to the inclined plane

RA + RB = W cos θ + P sin θ ……………………… 1)

Resolving all the forces in the direction of inclined plane i.e. parallel to inclined plane

P Cos θ = W sin + FA + FB ……………………… 2)

= W sin θ + f (RA + RB)

= W sin θ + f (W cos θ + P sin θ)

Or P (Cos θ - f Sin θ) = W (Sin θ + f Cos θ)

Or P/W = (Sin θ + f Cos θ)/ (Cos θ - f Sin θ)

Or P/W = (Tan θ + f)/(1 – f Tan θ) (1 – f Tan θ = 1 – 0.15 * 0.07 = 1 nearly)

Or P/W = e + f

Or e + f = (W V2)/(g W R )

Or e + f = V2/gR Where V in m/sec.

e + f = V2/127R Where V in KM/hr

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If supper elevation is provided according to this formula, the pressure on outer f & inner wheels will be
equal, but will result in a very high value of super elevation.
In some places super elevation is not provided due to practical constraints, the
F=0

e = v2/127R V = √127f R

Q.N. 1 the radius of a horizontal curve is 100m. The design speed is 50kmph & design co-efficient of lateral
friction is 0.15
a) Calculate the super elevation required if full lateral friction is assumed to devaluate.
b) Calculate the co-efficient of friction needed of no super elevation is provided.
c) Calculate the equilibrium super elevation if the pressure on inner & outer wheel should be equal.

Soln

We have

R= 100m, v = 50kmph, f = 0.15

a) e+f = v2/127R
for full lateral friction, f = 0.15
e + 0.15 = v2/127R
e = (50)2/ (127X100) – 0.15 = 0.047
b) e+f = v2/127R

When e = 0
f = v2/127R = 502/ (127X100) = 0.197
c) For equilibrium super elevation
f=0
e = v2/127R = 0.197.
maximum superelevation

The maximum allowable limit of super elevation is known as maximum super elevation. It is equl to
0.067(=07%) as recommended by IRC.
Minimum super – elevation
If the value of super elevation required from the above equation (i.e. e+f = v2/127R) comes out to be
less than usual camber provided to road surface, the super elevation provided will be equal to the amount of
camber so as to facilitate drainage of surface water. This lower limit of super elevation which is equal to
amount of camber is referred as minimum super elevation.

Methods of introducing super elevation

Tangent (or straight) section of road carry two way cross slope (camber) where as curved section are
sloped inside. So there must be some provision to change two way slopes to one way & that change should
be gradual. If the super elevation of designed value is introduced just at the beginning of curved path there
 37

would have been "step effect" on the road surface. Hence gradual introduction of super elevation is essential
not only for safety & comfort but also for aesthetical look.
Super elevation may be introduced on the road by following methods.
1. Rotation about the centerline of the carriageway
2. Rotation about inner edge
3. Rotation about outer edge.
Super-elevation is introduced among all three method following two stages.
(1) Firstly the camber on the outer edge is neutralized gradually till the road surface has one straight slope from
outer to inner edge. This can be done by two methods.
1. By eliminating crown towards the outer edge by shifting its position as shown in fig(a)
2. By rotating outer slope slowly around the crown as shown in fig(b)

CL

4
3
2
1
0

Method 1

2
0
1

Method 2

(2) In second stage, straight line slope is gradually increased till the design value of super elevation is obtained.
The gradually increment of slope is obtained by

 Centre line method

 Inner edge method
 Outer edge method

Center line method This method involves progressively revolving the straight road surface about the centre
line depressing the inner edge of raising the outer edge respectively.
 38

3
2 CL
1
0

n%

0
1
2
3

Centre line Rotation

0 – 0 – 0 = Straight line slope obtained after eliminating crown.
3 – 0 – 3 = Final slope of straight line (0 – 0 – 0)
3
2 CL
1
0

n%
I

Inner edge rotation & (I – 3) is final slope ,

CL

n%

0
1
2
3

Outer edge rotation

O – 3 is final slope
Transition curve
 39

Definition:
A transition curve may be defined as a curve of varying radius from infinity (∞) at the beginning to a fixed
value (Radius of circular curve) at the end.
Objective of transition curve
1) It enables to introduce super elevation gradually from zero at tangent point to specified amount on
circular curve.
1. It avoids danger of overturning & side slipping of moving vehicle.
2. To introduce extra-widening at desirable rate
3. To enable the driver to turn his vehicle slowly & comfortably
4. To maintain constant proportion between super- elevation & rate of change of curvature.
5. To fit the road alignment in a given topography & to improve the appearance of road.
Type of transition curve
The essential requirement of a transition curve is that its radius of curvature R should decreases
gradually from infinity at the tangent point to the radius of circular curve (Rc) at its end. various curves
which satisfy the above requirement may be used for this purpose. Following three types of curves are
generally used in highway engineering.
1. cubic spiral (clothoid)
2. cubic parabola
3. Bernoulli's Lemniscates
1. Spiral: - this is a curve of radius of which varies inversely as its length
R ∞ 1/S or R*S = C when, R- Radius of curve
S = Length of curve
C = constant of spiral

R
S

(2) Cubic parabola: - This is a curve the radius of choice varies inversely on its abscissa

RC X = constant

RC

X
 40

(3) Lemniscates
This is a curve whose radius varies inversely as its length of chord.
R * Lc = C or Rc * Lc = C

CC

Among these curves spiral or clothoid is considered as best transition curves in highway because of
the following reasons.
 It satisfy the ideal transition condition
 Geometrical property of spiral curve is such that calculation & setting out of curves in the field is
easy & simple.
 Though in all curves radius decrease as the length increases, the rate of change of radius along the
length of curve in case of spiral curve is constant.

Equation of steering curve

Spiral is the most appropriate transition curve also from steering mechanism point of view. That is
why it is also termed on steering curve as its equation resembles with the equation of vehicle's trajectory
while the vehicle approaches to the circular path.
The motion of vehicle within the limit of curve may be considered as consisting of two separate
displacements.
 translational displacement characterized by speed
V = ds/dt -------- (I)
 Rotary displacement with angular speed
W = dθ/dt ---------- (II)
Where S is the distance travelled along the transition curve

Tan θ = l/R
L
From small angle

θ = l/R

dθ/dR = l (d/dR)* (1/R)

θ θ Or dθ = (- l/R2) * dR
 41

Or (dθ/dt) = (- l2/R2) * (dR/dt)

Therefore,
W = (-lv/R2) * dR/dt
Substituting dt = 1/v ds, we obtain

W = (-lv/R2) * dR/dS …………….1)

Or dS = (-lv/w) dR/R2 To solve this differential equation of the vehicle transition

trajectory. It is assumed that the rate of change of angular velocity to the front steering is constant along the
transition curve

S = (lv/w0) R + K
Where when S = 0, R = ∞, K = 0

S = (lv/w0R) It is equation of cubic Spiral. If constant (lv/w0) is expressed as Co

efficient C then equation of steering curve will be

S = C/R

RS = C constant

Extra widening on Curve

Definition:- Extra widening on the curve refers to additional width of carriage way that is required on a
curved section of road over & above the width required on straight section.

Reasons: - Additional width at horizontal curve is required due to following reasons.

1. Rigidity of Wheel base:- Due to the rigidity of wheel base, rear wheel of the vehicle moving along
the curve do not follow the same track/path taken by front steering curves.i.e. Off – tracking.

Extra widening
 42

2. Preferential use of outer lanes: - A driver prefer outer lane for greater visibility & easy gradient.

Outer lane
Visibility
Inner lane

BUILDING OR OBSTRUCTION

3. More clearance between opposite vehicle:- Where the road visibility is inadequate, drivers, to be in
safer side, have tendency to keep grater clearances between opposing vehicle on curves.
4. Difference in slip angle:-It has been observed that when the vehicle is under steering, the slip angle of
the front tires is more than of the rear tyre/wheels and front tyre may tend to go out of pavement. In
over steering vehicle vice versa.
Types of Extra widening:-
1. Mechanical extra widening (Wm)
2. Psychological extra widening(Ws)
Mechanical extra widening: - It is the amount of extra width required due to rigidity of wheel base.If the
vehicle with its base L is traversing a curved path of radius R

L
R

C A

D O

2R
 43

In Δ ABC & BCD

AC/BC = BC/CD

BC2 = AC * CD

BC2 = AC (AD – AC)

L2 = Wm (2 R - Wm) 0

L2 = Wm (2 R - Wm)

Wm = L2/2R

Wm = n L2/2 R

Psychological extra widening is given by empirical relation

Ws = V
9.5 R

Widening procedure: - As per IRC recommendation, extra widening should be provided in all curves of
radius less than 900 m. Extra widening or additional width is provided gradually from zero at the beginning
of transition curve & its maximum value at circular curve. Introduction of extra widening may be studied
under two heading.

1. Introduction of widening on curve without spiral.

2. Introduction of widening on curve with spiral. I.e. transition curve

Introduction of widening on curve without spiral:-In this case, the total extra width should be provided to the
inside of the carriage way, while the outside edge & centre line are both kept as circular arc. The result is
much same as providing a transition curve on the centre line. The main drawback is that the full width of
carriage way may not always be in use. Since a fast moving vehicle will tend to curve in from outer edge at
the beginning & end of the curved section as it makes its own transition.

2) Widening on curves with spiral: - The widening in introduced gradually, starting from the beginning of
transition & progressively increased at uniform rate, till full value of designed additional width is reached at
the beginning of circular curve. The rate of introducing extra width will be same as the rate of introducing
super elevation or radial acceleration. Here again three cases may arises.

a. For reasonably large radius (900>R>60 m), extra width is introduced equally to the outer &
inner lane at the expanse of inner & outer shoulder, keeping the width of roadway unchanged.
So far as the remaining width of shoulder is as wide as 1.0m. In cases the shoulder width may
be obtained less than 1.0m as a result of increased carriageway width.
 44

Transition Path Circular path h

Shoulder

Straight Path

Extra width

b) At curve with radius in the range of 30 – 60m & for single lane roads having radius
less than 150m, the pavement is widened only on the inside of curve. However the centre line
marking shall be placed half way between the edges of widened carriageway.

W/2

W/2

We

CL without widening CL after widening

C ) On mountainous roads where the curve radius are sometimes 20 – 30m. Vehicles with long wheel base
can not keep within the inner half of carriage way. In this case extra width should preferably be applied fully
on outer side.
Design of transition curve
The design of transition curve is done to find out the minimum length of curve for given radius .the
length of curve is designed to fulfill three conditions
 Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration to be developed gradually.
 Rate of introduction of the designed super elevation to be at reasonable rate
 45

 Minimum length by IRC formula.

Maximum lengths obtained from above condition are adopted in any particular case.
(1) By rate of change of centrifugal acceleration
Let P be centrifugal acceleration
P = Ma or P = mv2/R
When, a - centrifugal acceleration
a = v2/R where, R-Radius of circular curve
Let I be the rate of change of centrifugal acceleration
I = v2/Rt where, t is time taken by the vehicle to travel a transition path Lt
Then Lt = V * t = V * v2/RI (from eu2 ......I)
= V3/RI
Here, Ltmin = V3/RImax perm
Imax is the permissible maximum rate of change of centrifugal acceleration.
The rate of charge centrifugal acceleration is selected in order to provide comfort to passenger. The
later is relative term. Comfort considered in one country may be luxury in another country. Hence different
recommendation exist from country & country varies from (0.3m/sec3 to 1m/sec3)
In Indian road design practices following recommendation are noted.
a. for speed upto 32kmph Imax = 0.76m/sec3
b. for speed exceeding 96kmph, Imax = 0.46m/sec3
c. For speed between 32 to 96 kmph
Imax = 80/ (75+v)
(2) By the rate of introducing super elevation
Full value of super elevation has to be obtained within the length of transition curve.
Hence length of transition curve should be sufficient enough to change road surface cambered shape to fully
super-elevation surface without any distortations.
C

θ
A B

θ Lt

N n

W D
 46

θ = 1/N

In ∆ABC Tanθ = e = BC/w = H/W+We

Therefore, H = ew......... (I)

Again in ∆BCD

Tanά..= 1/N = H/Lt

Lt = NH = Ne(W+We) ............. (I)

The above expression:

Lt = “New” is true if the super elevation is provided by rotating the pavement surface about the inner edge
and Outer edge. If the surface is rotated about the centre line, but effect is achieved. Then
Lt = New/2
Generally in curves of small radius, additional width of pavement is provided & it is termed as extra
widening (we)

Then, Lt = Ne(w+we) for inner/outer edge rotation

Lt = Ne(w+we) for centerline rotation
2
By Emperical formula
a. For plain & rolling terrain
Lt = 2.7v2/R
b. Four mountainous & steep terrain
Lt = v2/R
Note: - The length of transition of curve for the design should be the highest of the three values mentioned
above.
S = Lt2/2*R, S = Shift
Properties of spiral circular combined curve
TS-Tangent to spiral
SC- Spiral to circular
MC- Middle of curve
CS- Circular to spiral
ST- Spiral to tangent

PI - point of intersection
Φs- Spiral angle
∆ - Deflection angle
A& B - Point of tangency on original circular curve a & b - point of tangency on transition curve
ad & bc - length of transition or spiral curve
S- Shift
Rc - Radius of unshifted circular curve
Rs - Radius of shifted circular curve
Es - apex distance for circular - spiral combined curve
 47

Es= Ec + S
Rs = Rc + S
S = Ls2 / 24R ------------------ (I) where, Ls - length of transition curve
Lc = πR(∆-2Φs)/180 ...(2) Lc- length of circular curve
Lsc = Lc + 2Ls. ............. (3)
Where, Lsc - Total length of combined spiral circular curve
Total tangent T = (Rs + S) Tan∆/2 + 1/2 ............. (4)
=[i.e. t + Tc]
chainage of a = chainage of PI - T
chainage of b= chainage of a + Total length of combined curve
 48

MC

CS

SC Δ

T
E0

ES
S

te A
TS d b
B ST
Lt
A C
øs Δ-2 øs øs

O
 49

Procedure for the design of road with circular -spiral combined curve.

Let a spiral -circular combined curve be designed at a deviation point having deflection angle ∆
radian of circular curve R. Ls - length of transition curve
Follow flowing steps
(1) Calculate shift of circular curve
S = Ls2/24R
a. Check either S less than, equal or
Grater than 0.01R
b. Calculate spiral curve Φs
Φs = L/2R radian
Check ∆ ≥ 2 Φs or not
c. Calculate total tangent length
T = (R + S) Tan∆/2 + t
Where t = Ls/2
d. Calculate length of circular curve
Lc = πR(∆ - 2 Φs)
180
e. Calculate total length of combined curve
Lse = Lc + 2Ls
f. Calculate the difference in length of curve :& total tangent
D = 2Ls – Tc
2. For plotting spiral on map, calculate x & y at each 10-20m curve distance from
y = x3
6RL
Or

Plotting may be also be done by deflection angle method

α = 573l2/RL minute.

α = deflection angle at any point

SIGHT DISTANCE
Definition:- Sight distance may be defined as the length of carriageway that is visible to the driver at any
instant from the normal height of driver’s eye above the road surfaces. The normal height of driver’s eye
for the purpose of calculating sight distance is taken as

 1.00 m (Nepal)
 1.22 m (India)
 1.05 m (Britain)
The height of driver’s eye is not same for all vehicles. For design purpose, passenger car unit (PCU) is
taken. The value mentioned above also varies according to car styling.

Road conditions with restriction in sight distance:-

 50

If the road is designed without considering the visibility (Sight distance)

requirement, the desired sight distance may not be obtained in following.

1. At horizontal curves:- Restriction to sight distance at horizontal curve may either due to the
obstruction inside the curve such as building, trees & cut slope or due to inability of head light to
throw its beam along the curved path.
2. At vertical summit curves:- At peak curves the visibility of a road surface or object on other side of
the curve may be disturbed if the same curve is not selected carefully.
3. Restriction in sight distance at valley curves in day time is not deserved. However for night driving,
the problem may arises
4. Sight distance also may be restricted at intersection.
Types of Sight distance

There are mainly two types of sight distance which is the interest of highway engineer.

1. Stopping Sight distance (SD)

2. Overtaking sight distance (OSD)
Stopping sight distance:- Stopping sight distance may be defined as the minimum sight distance along the
road required for the drivers in order to stop his vehicle (moving at design speed) with safety against the
object on the road.
OR
This is the sight distance necessary to stop vehicle, if the needed, without colliding with the other
vehicle (stationery or moving) or obstruction.

Factors governing stopping distance:-

The various factors controlling stopping distance are as follows

1. Reaction Time: - It is total time (TP + TB ) which elapses between the instant the
driver see the object on the carriage way & instant the driver applies the brake
efficiently. Reaction time is composed of
a) Perception reaction time (TP) (P R time)
b) Brake reaction time (TB) (B R Time)
Perception Reaction time: - It may be defined as the time which elapses between the instant the driver sees
the object on the carriageway & instant of realization that brake reaction is required. P – R time depends
upon

 Distance to object
 Color, type & size of object
 Condition & location of road
 Optical ability of driver
 Mood & physical condition of driver (Tiredness, dizzy, age etc.)
 Atmospheric condition (rainy, fogy, snow etc.)
 51

IRC recommendation

Reaction time (P-R) time

Speed in Kmph
in second

Up to 50 3.00

50-65 2.75

65-80 2.5

80-100 2

In urban area, P-R time = 1.5 sec

Brake reaction time (B-R time):-

It is the time elapses between the moment the foot is removed from the accelerator paddle &
placed on brake paddle and time to actuate brake action to bring the vehicle in rest. Brake reaction time
depends upon
 Brake efficiency
 Co efficient of friction
 Grade of road surface
 Speed of vehicle
Expression for stopping distance
The total sight distance (SD) is given by

SD = l1 +l2 ……………………….. 1
Where l1 = Distance travelled by the vehicle during P-R time
l2 = Distance travelled during B-R time

l1 = V tr ………………………2
Where, V = Design speed
tr = Reaction time (P-R)
Let F be the frictional force developed per unit length of road & f be the co efficient of longitudinal
friction & l2 be required braking distance or distance covered by the vehicle during braking action time to
bring the vehicle at complete rest

Kinetic energy = (m v2)/2 = (W V2)/2g ………………3

Frictional energy = f W l2 ………………………………4

To bring in rest position

f W l2 = (WV2)2g
 52

V2
l2 = …………………………….5
2gf

Putting values of equation 2 & 3 in equation 1, we get

V2
S D = V tr + V = Design speed in m/sec
2gf

V2
S D = V tr +
2 g (f±G)ή

V2
S D = 0.278 V tr +
254 (f ± G) ή

Where, V = kmph
G = grade, +ve for upgrade & -ve for down grade
ή = Brake efficiency. If not given take 100%

Relationship between stopping distance (S D) & stopping sight distance (S S D)

Case I
 One way traffic with single lane road
 Two way traffic in multi lane roads
SSD = SD
Case II
 Two way traffic with only one lane road
SSD = 2SD
Stopping distance as per Nrs 2070

Speed, 20 30 40 60 80 100 120

km/h

Stopping 20 30 50 80 130 190 260

Distance,m

Overtaking sight distance:-

Overtaking sight distance is the distance of carriage way that should be open to
vision of drivers in the vehicles intending to overtake the slow moving vehicle ahead with safety against the
 53

vehicle coming from opposite direction. Various overtaking maneuvers models have been suggested &
compared with actual crossing practice. One of them is discussed below & based on the following simple
assumption.
 The overtaken (Slow) vehicle travels at uniform speed. The overtaking (fast) vehicle reduces
its speed & follows the overtaken vehicles & prepares for overtaking operation.
 The driver requires a short period of time (In average 2 sec.) to perceive the situation & start
acceleration when the passing operation is called into play.
 Overtaking is accomplished under a delayed start & early return.
Consider the overtaking model as shown in next page.

A: Stands for overtaking vehicle A1, A2, A3 being various position of vehicle during overtaking operation.
B: Stands for the overtaken vehicle
C: Stands for the vehicle coming from opposite direction.
d1: Distance travelled by overtaking vehicle during reaction time ‘t’ taken by driver to decide he should
overtake or not.
d2: Distance travelled by overtaking vehicle during actual overtaking operation.
d3: Distance travelled by vehicle coming from opposite direction during actual overtaking operation.
Vb: Speed of slow moving (overtaken) vehicle. In design practice it is taken as (V – 16), V = Design Speed
in kmph or (V-4.5) v in m/sec
Vc: Speed of oncoming vehicle, same as design speed.
O S D = d1 + d2 + d3 ……………………. 1
d1 = Vb t (t = 2 sec.)………………………..2
d2 = b + 2 S

Where, S = 0.69 Vb + 6.1

b = Vb T

Hence d2 = Vb T + 2 S …………………3
 54

Again we know d2 = Vb T + (a T2)/2 (Uniformly accelerated motion)

Vb T + 2 S = Vb T + (a T2 )/2
T = √(4 S)/a Putting in equation in (3)
d2 = Vb √(4 S)/a + 2 S …………….. 4

d3 = VC T ……………………………. 5

Conclusion
Case I
 One way traffic road
 Two way traffic road with traffic separator
O S D = d1 + d2 = Vb t + Vb √(4 S)/a + 2 S
Case II Two way traffic road
O S D = d1 + d2+ d3 = Vb t + Vb √(4 S)/a + 2 S + V* √(4 S)/a

Overtaking zones

Overtakin zones are those areas provided when OSD cannot be provided throughout the highway length.
These zones include traffic signs which inform the driver about the start or the end of the overtaking zone
kept at the distance of OSD. These zones are used for overtaking operations and are marked with wide
roads.

Minimum length of overtaking zone = 3 * OSD

Desirable length of overtaking zone = 5 * OSD

Overtaking distance as per Nrs 2070

Speed, km/h 40 60 80 100 120

Minimum Overtaking Distance,m 165 300 470 640 880

 55

Set back distance on horizontal curves

Set back is the clear distance required from the centre line of the road at horizontal curves in
order to meet the sight distance requirement. It is measured perpendicular to the centre line of curve at
middle point of curve (Along the bisector)
Set back may be expressed in terms of desired sight distance & radius of
curve.
Let

L = Length of curve
S = Sight distance
M = Set back distance
R = Radius of Curve

Case I, L > S

For Single lane Road

Centre line of Road

 56

For Multilane Road Sight distance (S)

Let α be the angle subtended by the arc length (s). In the case of single lane roads, the sight distance is
measured along the center line of the road. From the figure,

α = (s/R) c

For half center angle, α/2 = [s / (2*R)] in Radian

Then, α/2 = [180*s / (2*π*R)] in degree

The distance from the obstruction to the center is R cos α/2.

Therefore the setback distance required from the center line is,

M = R – R cos α/2

For multiple lane roads,

Then, α/2 = [180*s / (2*π*(R-d))] in degree

And, M = R – (R-d) cos α/2

Therefore, M = R- (R-d) cos [180*s / (2*π*(R-d))] in degree

Where, d = distance between the centerline of the horizontal curve and the centerline of the inside lane in
meters. This method is useful to find out the number of lanes.
 57

When the length of curve is less than the required sight distance(L<S)

Since the length of the curve is less than the sight distance so the angle (α) at the center is subtended with
reference to the length of the circular curve (Lc).

Then, α/2 = [(180*Lc) / (2*π*R)] in degree

The distance m1 = R – R cos α/2

And, m2 = 0.5*(s – Lc) sin α/2

Then the setback distance is given by,

Setback distance (m) = R – R cos α/2 + 0.5*(s – Lc) sin α/2

For multiple lane roads,

Then, α/2 = [(180*Lc) / (2*π*(R-d))] in degree

And, m = R – (R-d) cos α/2 + 0.5*(s – Lc) sin α/2

The clearance of obstruction up to the setback distance is important when there is cut slope on the inner
side of horizontal curve.
 58

Elements of Vertical Alignment

Gradient
Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect to the horizontal. While aligning
a highway, the gradient is decided for designing the vertical curve. Before finalizing the gradients, the
construction cost, vehicular operation cost and the practical problems in the site also has to be
considered. Usually steep gradients are avoided as far as possible because of the difficulty to climb and
increase in the construction cost.

Effect of gradient
The effect of long steep gradient on the vehicular speed is considerable. This is particularly important in
roads where the proportion of heavy vehicles is significant. Due to restrictive sight distance at uphill
gradients the speed of traffic is often controlled by these heavy vehicles. As a result, not only the operating
costs of the vehicles are increased, but also capacity of the roads will have to be reduced. Further, due to
high differential speed between heavy and light vehicles, and between uphill and downhill gradients,
accidents abound in gradients.
Representation of gradient
The positive gradient or the ascending gradient is denoted as +n and the negative gradient as -n. The
deviation angle N is: when two grades meet, the angle which measures the change of direction and is
given by the algebraic difference between the two grades.

Types of gradient
Many studies have shown that gradient upto seven percent can have considerable effect on the speeds of
the passenger cars. On the contrary, the speeds of the heavy vehicles are considerably reduced when
long gradients as flat as two percent is adopted. Although, flatter gradients are desirable, it is evident that
the cost of construction will also be very high. Therefore, IRC as well as Nrs 2070 has specified the
desirable gradients for each terrain. However, it may not be economically viable to adopt such gradients in
certain locations, steeper gradients are permitted for short duration. Different types of grades are
discussed below and the recommended type of gradients for each type of terrain and type of gradient is
given in table.Ruling gradient, limiting gradient, exceptional gradient and minimum gradient are
some types of gradients which are discussed below.
Ruling gradient:
The ruling gradient or the design gradient is the maximum gradient with which the designer attempts to
design the vertical profile of the road. This depends on the terrain, length of the grade, speed, pulling
power of the vehicle and the presence of the horizontal curve. In flatter terrain, it may be possible to
provide at gradients, but in hilly terrain it is not economical and sometimes not possible also. The ruling
gradient is adopted by the designer by considering a particular speed as the design speed and for a
design vehicle with standard dimensions.
Limiting gradient
This gradient is adopted when the ruling gradient results in enormous increase in cost of construction. On
rolling terrain and hilly terrain it may be frequently necessary to adopt limiting gradient. But the length of
the limiting gradient stretches should be limited and must be sandwiched by either straight roads or easier
grades.
Exceptional gradient
Exceptional gradient are very steeper gradients given at unavoidable situations. They should be limited for
short stretches not exceeding about 100 metres at a stretch. In mountainous and steep terrain, successive
exceptional gradients must be separated by a minimum 100 metre length gentler gradient. At hairpin
bends,
the gradient is restricted to 2.5%.
 59

Critical length of the grade : The maximum length of the ascending gradient which a loaded truck can
operate without undue reduction in speed is called critical length of the grade. A speed of 25 kmph is a
reasonable value. This value depends on the size, power, load, grad-ability of the truck, initial speed, final
desirable minimum speed etc.
Minimum gradient
This is important only at locations where surface drainage is important. Camber will take care of the lateral
drainage. But the longitudinal drainage along the side drains require some slope for smooth flow of water.
Therefore minimum gradient is provided for drainage purpose and it depends on the rain fall, type of soil
and other site conditions. A minimum of 1 in 500 may be sufficient for concrete drain and 1 in 200 for open
soil drains are found to give satisfactory performance..
Momentum Grde
Grade so situated that the kinetic energy of a vehicle (due to its speed at the foot of the grade) will enable
the locomotive to haul the train to the top without a reduction of speed below 10 or 12 mph (16.1 to 19.3
km/h).
Maximum gradients as per NRS 2070

Design 20 30 40 60 80 100 120

Speed, km/h

Maximum 12 10 9 7 6 5 4
Gradient,%

Minimum longitudinal gradients for longitudinal drainage purpose is 0.5%

Maximum(critical) length of gradient

Gradient,% 4 5 6 7 9 10 12

Maximum(critical) Length,m 600 450 400 300 200 150 150

Curve Resistance
When the vehicle negotiates a horizontal curve, the direction of rotation of the front and the rear wheels
are different. The front wheels are turned to move the vehicle along the curve, whereas the rear wheels
seldom turn. This is illustrated in figure below. The rear wheels exert a tractive force T in the PQ direction .
The tractive force available on the front wheels is Tcosα in the PS direction as shown in the figure.This is
less than the actual tractive force, T applied. Hence, the loss of tractive force for a vehicle to negotiate a
horizontal curve is:
CR = T - T cosα T

T cosα

α
 60

Grade compensation
While a vehicle is negotiating a horizontal curve, if there is a gradient also, then there will be increased
resistance to traction due to both curve and the gradient. In such cases, the total resistance should not
exceed the resistance due to gradient specified. For the design, in some cases this maximum value is
limited to the ruling gradient
and in some cases as limiting gradient. So if a curve need to be introduced in a portion which has got the
maximum permissible gradient, then some compensation should be provided so as to decrease the
gradient for overcoming the tractive loss due to curve. Thus grade compensation can be defined as the
reduction in gradient at the horizontal curve because of the additional tractive force required due to curve
resistance (T-Tcosα), which is intended to offset the extra tractive force involved at the curve. IRC gave
the following specification for the grade compensation.
1. Grade compensation is not required for grades atter than 4% because the loss of tractive force is
negligible.
2. Grade compensation is (30+R)/R in %, where R is the radius of the horizontal curve in meters.
3. The maximum grade compensation is limited to (75/R) in %.
Vertical curves

Definition:-
Therese are the curves provided in vertical alignment due to change in grade.
Objectives of vertical curve
Vertical curve are set in vertical alignment of road for following objectives.
 To increase comfort to the passenger
 To improve the aesthetical appearance of rood profile
 To increase the visibility of road surface.
Types of vertical curves
The vertical curves used in highway may be classified into two categories.
a. Summit curve or crest curves with convexity upward.
b. Valley or sag curves with concavity upward
Summit curve:- When two grades meet at summit & the curve will be have convexity upwards the curve is
simply referred as summit curves. Summit curves are formed in any of the case illustrated below.

Valley curves
 61

When the two grades meet at sag (valley) resulting in formation of curve having concavity upward,
then the curve is referred as valley curve. Valley curves are formed in any of following cases.
Typical vertical parabolic curve

BVC PVI EVC

T T

N g2

P
x h

g1 q

L/2 L/2

N/2 N/2

Figure A

Following assumption are made in the analysis of vertical curve due to small deviation angle.
1) The curve is so flat
That
 62

Length of curve = length of chord

= length of horizontal projection
2) Two portions of the curve on either side from PVI along the two tangent are
equal

3) The curves is so flat within the limit of vertical curve used in profile that portion
of parabola may be substituted by a circular curve of certain radius R

Elements of vertical curves

See above figure A

a. Deviation angle N = i1 – i2
b. tanN/2 = T/R
For small angle
T=N
R 2

T = NR/2 T- Tangent length

R- Radius of curve
c. L = 2T = 2 * NR/2
L = NR L- length of curve
Rate of change of grade = g2- g1/2l

R.L. of BVC = R.L. of P.I. – g1*L/100

R.L. of EVC = R.L. of P.I. – g2*L/100

R.L. Of middle of curve = (R.L. of BVC+V)/2

R.L. of point p on tangent = R.L. of BVC + g1*x/100

R.L. of point q on curve = R.L. of point p on tangent – h

h = cx2/2l where l = half length of curve

C= (g1- g2)/400*l
Design of vertical summit curves (determining R) for visibility

The best type of curve that fits in summit profile is a simple parabola. The equn of parabola is
y = ax2 with the value of a = N/2L
Where, N - Deviation angle
L – Length of curve.
 63

C N = n1 + n2

n1 % n2 % h

H D H
E SSD F B
A
OSD

L(Length of summit curve)

While designing the length of parabolic summit curves, it is necessary to consider stopping sight distance
(SSD) and overtaking sight distance (OSD) separately.
Length of summit curve for stopping sight distance
Two cases
a. L>SSD
b. L <SSD
a) When L > SSD

L= NS2
Where, (√(2H) + √(2h))2
L- Length of summit curve, m
S-stopping sight distance (SSD), m
N-deviation angle, equal to algebraic difference in grades
H- Height of eye level of driver above roadway, (m)
h- Height of object above pavement surface, m
As per IRC,If H = 1.2m
h = 0.15m as per IRC
L = NS2/4.4
When L< SSD
L= (√(2H)+√(2h))2 OR L = 2S- 4.4/N
2S -
N
Length of summit curve for OSD.

a. L> OSD
L = NS2/8H where, S- overtaking or intermediate sight distance
If H = 1.2m
L = NS2/9.6
b. If L< OSD
L= 2S -8H/N = 2 S – 9.6/N
 64

Design of Valley Curve

When the two grades meet at sag (valley) resulting in formation of curve having concavity upward, then the
cure is referred as valley curve.
There is no problem of restriction to sight distance in valley curve during day light. But in case of night
driving under head light of vehicles, the sight distance at valley curve is decreased. Following are the
important factors which govern the design of valley curve arc
a. Impact free movement of vehicle at design speed or comfort of vehicle for night driving.
b. Availability of stopping sight distance under head light of vehicle for night driving.

At the valley curve centrifugal force acts downward & also weight of vehicle acts downward as shown
in.

Due to above phenomenon, pressure is increased on the spring & suspension of vehicle. Hence
allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration should govern the design of valley curve.
On the other hand visibility on the valley curve at night driving is decreased. The head light sight
distance available at valley curves should be at least equal to stopping sight distance.
Length of valley curve
The length of valley transition curve is designed forced on two criteria
a. The allowable rate of charge of centrifugal acceleration of 0.6m/sec3
b. The head light sigh distance.
Higher of two values obtained in case a & case b is taken

L/2 L/2

A B

-n1 -n2
N
 65

a. Length of transition curve Lt for comfort condition is given by

Lt = V3/IR
Value of R(at length Lt) = Lt/N = L/2N = 2Lt/2N = Lt/N
Lt = V3 = NV3
I * Lt I Lt
N
Lt2 = NV3/I
Lt = NV3 1/2

I
1/2
L = 2Lt = = 2 NV3 V in m/sec
I
When V is expressed in kmph
3
L = 0.38(NV3)1/2 ,I = 0.6 m/sec

L = Total length of valley curve

N = Deviation angle in radian or algebraic difference in grades
V = Design speed in kmph.
b. The length of valley curve for head light sight distance
Two canes

a. L > SSD (stopping sight distance)

b. L < SSD
 66

a. L > SSD

L= NS2/ ( 2h1+2STanα)
As per IRC
h1 = 0.75 & α = 1 degree
b. L < SSD

L= 2S – ( 2h1+2STanα)/N

Lowest and highest point of vertical curve :- Lowest point and highest point exist in valley curve and
summit curve respectively.
Vertical tangents with different grades are joined by vertical curves. Vertical curves are normally parabolas
centered about the point of intersection
(P.I.) of the vertical tangents they join. Vertical curves are thus of the form
y =y0 ± g1x± h where h = tangent correction defined earlier
+g1x = for summit curve
-g1x = for valley curve
+h = for valley curve
-h = for summit curve
where y = elevation of a point on the curve
y0 _ elevation of the beginning of the vertical curve (BVC)
g1 _ grade just prior to the curve
x _ horizontal distance from the BVC to the point on tangent
r _ rate of change of grade
The rate of change of grade, in turn, is given by
r = (g2-g1)/2l where 2l = total length of curve
Location of lowest or highest point

g = dy/dx = g1 ± rx denotion contain usual meaning as discussed earlier

(+)ve sign for summit curve and (-)ve for valley curve
g = 0 for lowest or highest point, it will give distance x from BVC where lowest or highest point exist in
valley or summit curve.

R.L. of lowest point on curve = R.L. of BVC – g1 x/100 + h

R.L. of highest point on curve = R.L. of BVC + g1 x/100 - h

h = cx2/2l where l = half length of curve

C= (g1- g2)/400*l
 67

Chapter – Four
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
Introduction
Highway drainage system is developed /constructed for removing & controlling excess surface & sub-surface
soil water within the right of way. This includes interception & diversion of water from the road surface sub-grade.
Importance of highway drainage
We know that road is founded on the soil & various layer of pavement also consists of stabilized soil. It is
also well known fact that the increases in moisture content in soil decrease its strength. So highway drainage is
essential to control moisture content of soil & following points will clear the importance of highway drainage.
a. Excess water in sub- grade soil reduces its strength & ultimately pavement fails by the failure of sub-grade.
b. Increase in moisture content reduces the strength of different materials pavement materials like stabilized soil
& bound macadam.
c. Moisture variation in clayey soil considerably changes the volume of sub grade. This contributes to
pavement failure.
d. Due to poor drainage system, the flexible pavement fails by the formation of waves & corrugation.
e. Sustained contact of water with bituminous pavement causes failure due to stripping of bitumen from
aggregate.
f. Due to presence of water in sub-grade soil, rigid pavement fails by mud pumping.
g. Excess sub-surface & surface water damages the shoulder & pavement edge.
Causes of moisture variation in sub-grade soil
Cause of moisture variation in sub-grade soil must be carefully studied to plan & design the appropriate measure for
the removal of excess water from the highway vicinity.
The variation of moisture content in sub-grade soil can be explained by given water balance equation.
W = (A+B+C) – (D+E+F)
Where,
W = water contained in sub-grade soil at any time of year.
A = amount of water infiltrated into sub-grade soil during rainfall
B = amount of water seeping toward the sub-grade from the adjacent higher ground
C = amount of water coming to sub-grade due to any or all off the following reasons.
i. Capillary rise
ii. Upward movement of water table
iii. Transfer of water vapor due to difference on temperature in upper & lower soil layer.
D = loss of water from sub-grade soil due to flow away toward lower adjacent ground.
E = loss of water due to evaporation, transpiration etc.
F = loss of water due to per collation downward.
 68

Rain fall

Seepage from higher ground

Upward movement of ground water table

 69

Classification of highway drainage system

Longitudinal drainage system

Rectangular Road side drain

Trapezoidal Intermediate
Catch drain

Triangular

Surface drainage system

Intercepting or
Catch drain
Semi-circular

Slab
Culverts

Transverse drainage system

Box
Causeway

HIGHWAY DRAINAGE SYSTER

Arch Aqueduct

Pipe
Inverted syphon

Low length causeway

Minor bridge
Energy Dissipating Measures

Drain Lining
High length causeway
Ditch checks

Rapid with silting

basin

Drop or Fall
structure
Longitudinal

Sub-surface drainage system

Control of seepage flow

Control of capillary rise

& vapor transfer
Transverse

Lowering water table

 70

Longitudinal surface drainage system

It is the drain constructed along the road on the sides of road. This drain is constructed to collect the
surface water & later in second step collected surface run off is disposed off at the nearest stream, valley or
water course. Cross drainage structures like culverts & small bridge may be necessary for the disposal of
surface water from road side drains. in embankments the longitudinal drains are provided on one or both
side beyond the toe, in cutting generally surface drains are constructed of trapezoidal x – section .

1 : 1.5

≥ 0.3 m

Trapezoidal longitudinal drain

1:4

≥ 0.3 m

Triangular longitudinal drain

0.4 – 0.5 m

4–6m

Rectangular drain with stone pitching

 71

Sub-surface drainage system

Change in the moisture content of sub-grade are caused by fluctuation in ground water table, seepage flow,
percolation of rain water & movement of capillary water & even water vapor .so sub-surface drainage
system is designed to control all the features mentioned above.

Lowering Of Water Table

Original Water level

Desirable depth = 1.2 m

Lowered Water table due to longitudinal drain (specially in permeable soil)

The highest level of water should be fairly below the well of sub-grade to prevent excessive
moisture content in sub grade & other pavement layers. For practical purpose, at least 1 to 1.2m height is
maintained between GWT (Ground water table) & level of sub-grade. When the formation is to be at or
below the general ground level, it would be necessary to lower the water table. The control mechanism to
lower the water table depends upon the types of soil.

PERMEABLE SOIL
If the soil is relatively permeable ground water table may be lowered by merely
Construction of longitudinal drainage trench with drain pipe & filter sand as shown fig. above. The depth of
trench will depend upon the required lowering of water table.

IMPERMEABLE SOIL/LESS PERMEABLE

 72

In case of relatively less permeable soil the lowering of water table may not be adequate at centre of
the pavement or in between two longitudinal drainage trenches. Hence addition transverse drains have to be
constructed or shown in fig.

Transverse
Drain

Plan
Control of seepage flow
When the ground surface as well as the impervious strata below are sloping, seepage flow is likely
to occur. If the seepage depth is 0.6 to 0.9m from the sub-grade level, longitudinal pipe drain in trench
filled with filter material & clay seal may be constructed to intercept the seepage flow.

Pavement
Sloping ground

Zone of seepage flow Original Seepage line

Lowered seepage line

Sloping impervious Stratum

 73

Control of capillary rise

If the water reaching sup-grade is due to capillary rise, then it may be controlled by providing
capillary cut-off .capillary cut-off may be provided by following two ways.
I)

Granular material

Capillary rise

A layer of granular material of suitable thickness is provided during the construction of embankment,
between the sub-grade & highest level of sub surface water table. The thickness of granular capillary cut
off layer will be determined depending upon the anticipated capillary rise.

II) In another method, capillary cut off is provided with impermeable or a bituminous layer in the place of
granular blanket.

Impervious layer

Highest water level

 74

Transverse drainage system/ Cross drainage structures

Whenever a stream cross the road, cross drainage structure is constructed. The
commonly used cross drainage structures are
CULVERT

According to NRS 2045, bridging structures of span less than 6m are referred on culverts structures
& with span in between 6 to 20 m are referred on minor bridge.
A culvert is a closed conduit placed under embankment to carry water across the roadway.
It is classified as cross-drainage structure & is used extensively in road drainage system. In fact more than
75% of cross-drainage structures are culverts. Culverts are preferred than minor bridge because bridge
surface forms a part of carriageway. Where on top of culvert is always beneath the carriageway. A culvert
does not change the driving condition since there is always some 50 cm thick backfill embankment above
it.

Elements of culvert
 Culvert barrel
 Inlet structure
 Outlet stricter

 Culverts barrel are laid over bedding. Depending upon the type of soil foundation, there may be
sand bedding or PCC or RCC. Sand bedding is provided for pope culvert in poor soil condition
RCC foundation may be required
 An inlet or outlet structures consists of apron, cut of wall on its base & head/end or wing wall on its
front/end or side to protect earth slope & to stream line flow.
Types of Culvert
1. Slab Culvert
2. Pipe culvert
3. Box culvert
4. Arch culvert
 75

Pipe Cuvert:- When stream carries low discharge and alignment has high embankment , pipe culverts are
considered more suitable. Pipe is laid slightly inclined. There should be at least 50cm cover of soil so that
traffic load transmitted on pipe is of small intensity and without vibrations. Single or double barrel precast
concrete pipe culverts are commonly used for small opening upto 2 m2. Minimum diameter of pipe culvert
is limited to 600 mm to facilitate cleaning and avoid blocking. The standard length of RCC pipe is fixed at
2.5m, jointed by collar or tongue and groove.
Pipes may be made of stone ware, concrete, RCC etc. The standard size of pipe culvert are 0.5m,
0.75m, 1m, 1.25m and 2.0 in diameter.
Box Culvert :-
These culverts are constructed where the nature of soil below foundations is not suitable for
individual footing under piers and abutments. The size of rectangular passage should not be less than 60 cm
X 60cm for easy cleaning of debris. RCC rigid frame box culvert whose height rarely exceeds 3m. These
culvers have superior durability due to debris, grater hydraulic efficiency and larger life spans.
Slab Culvert :-
These culverts have masonary abutments with stone slab over them. In localities where
stone patties are not available RCC slabs are used. RCC slabs are designed as simply supported slabs and
span of RCC slab may be about 3m. Where the water opening is less than 15 m2, and road crosses the
waterway on a relatively high embankment, slab culverts are used. Multiple slab culverts may be used for
large waterway. These culvers should be located where the road crosses a valley, where there is stream,
water course should not move. Minimum free board of 0.5m is required in this type of culvert.
Arch Culvert :-
This type of culvert is preferred under the conditions where high fillings are involved and
there are heavier loadings on the culverts. Arches may be built from brick or stone masonary or plain
cement concrete. Span of each arch should be kept less than 3m.
Selection of culverts to be used is done on the basis of availability of construction material and
economic considerations.
 76

Design of surface drainage system

The design of surface drainage system may be divided into two phase
a. Hydrological analysis
b. Hydraulic analysis
Hydrologic analysis
The main objective of hydrologic analysis is to estimate the maximum run-off expected to reach the
element of drainage system under consideration.
Rational formula is widely used to estimate the peak run-off water for highway drainage. The
rational formula, in its simplest form is given by

Q = C I Ad
Where, C = Run-off coefficient, expressed on a ratio of run-off to rate of rain fall
I = intensity of rain fall, mm/sec
Ad = drainage area in 1000m2

Q = Run off in m3/sec

The value of C depends mainly on the type of surface & its slope

c. Magnitude Description
c. 0.8 – 0.9 For bituminous & cement concrete pavement
c. 0.35 to 0.7 For gravel & WBM pavement
c. 0.4 to 0.65 For impervious soil
c. 0.3 to 0.55 For soil covered with turt
c. 0.05 to 0.3 For previous soil

C= A1C1+A2C2+A3C3+ ……………………
A1+A2+A3+ ……………………
Design of rainfall intensity

I=
Where,
I = Rainfall intensity, mm/hr
t – Duration of storm in minute
a, b – constant
I. if t is between 5 -20min then, a = 702
b = 10
II. if t is between 20 to 100 min, then, a = 1016
b = 20
Note: - The value of t also can be calculated from graph if given in exam. The time of concentration or
duration of storm for design may be taken as sum of INLET TIME & TIME OF FLOW THROUGH
DRAIN
 77

Hydraulic design
Once the design run-off Q is determined, the next step is the hydraulic design of drains. Following
steps are followed to design.
Q = AV
Where,
Q = Discharge
A = x-sectional area
V = velocity of flow the allowable
Velocity of flow depends upon the soil types

Velocity of flow Magnitude Description

V 0.3to 0.5m/sec For sand & silt
V 0.6 to 0.9m/sec Loam
V 0.9 to 1.5 Clay
V 1.2 to 1.5m/sec Gravel
For good soil covered with
V 1.5 to 1.8m/sec
well established grass

2. Manning’s formula is used to find out velocity of flow or the longitudinal slope.

V = R2/3S1/2
V= velocity
R = hydraulic mean radius = A/p
P = wetted perimeter
N = manning’s roughness co-efficient
Roughness co-efficient also depend upon the type of soil in unlined channel.
n = 0.05 to 0.1 for lined channel
n = 0.02 for ordinary earth
Numerical example
The distance between the farthest point in the turf covered drainage area (with average slope of
1.5% towards the drain) & point of entry to side drain is 200m. The weighted average value of run-off co-
efficient is 0.25. The length of longitudinal open drain in a sandy soil from the inlet point to cross- drainage
is 540m. The velocity of flow inside the drain is 0.6m/sec. estimate then design quantity of flow on side
drain for a ten-year period of frequency of occurrence of the storm

Solution

Given, C = 0.25
V = 0.6m/sec
We know,
Q = C I Ad
I depend upon the duration or time of concentration
T = T1+T2
T1 (for average turn with 1.5% slope) = 33 minute
L = vt2
 78

T2 = = 540/0.6 = 900sec
= 900/60 = 15 MINUTE
Therefore T = 33+15 = 48minute
For 48 minute & 10 years period, i = 70mm/hr.
== 70/3600 = 0.01944mm/sec.
Drainage area Ad = = 108
Q = 0.25 x 0.01944 x 108
= 0.525m3/sec.
EX :- The maximum quantity of water expected in one of the open longitudinal drains on clayey is
0.9m3/sec. design the cross-section & longitudinal slope of trapezoidal drain assuming the bottom width of
trapezoidal section to be 1.0 m & cross slope to be 1.0 vertical to 1.5 horizontal. The allowable velocity of
flow in the drain is 1.2m/sec & manning us roughness coefficient is 0.02
Solution
Q = 0.9m3/sec.
A=?
V = 1.2m/sec
n = 0.02
Q = AV
Therefore, A = Q/V = = 0.75 m2
A = Bd+Zd2
1xd+1.5xd2
Or, 1.5d2+d = 0.75
Or, 1.5d2+d – 0.75 = 0

Taking (+)ve sign

d = 0.45
Assume, free board = 0.15m
D = 0.45 + 0.15
= 0.6m.
Calculation of slope
V = R2/3S1/2 ……….(i)
R = A/p = V =
=
= 0.287
Now from above equation
1.2 = - 2.622/3 s1/2
Therefore, S = 3.03286 x 10-3
= 1 in 327.
Numerical
The surface water from road side is drained to the longitudinal side drain from across one half of a
bituminous pavement surface of total width 7.0m, shoulder & adjoining land of width 8m on one side of
 79

drain. On the other side of longitudinal drain, water flows across from reserve land with grass & 2 % cross
slope toward the side drain. The width of this strip of land being 25 m.The run-off coefficients of
pavement, shoulder & reserve land with grass surface are 0.8, 0.25 & 0.35 respectively. The length of the
stretch of land parallel to the road from where water is expected to flow to the side drain is about 400m.
Estimates the quantity of run-off flowing in the drain assuming 25 years period of frequency.
Design the x-section & slope of side drain in loamy soil with Manning’s Coefficient = 0.022 &
suitable speed of flow = 0.8m/sec.
Sol2
A. Calculation of area
i. Pavement area = 3.5*400 = 1400m2 = A1, c1 = 0.8
ii. Area of shoulder & adjoining land = 8*400 = 3200m2, 0.25
iii. Area of land, on the other side of drain = 25*400 = 10000m2
c3 = 0.35
Total area = 1400+3200+10000
= 146000m2
Ad = = 14.6
Caverage = A1c1+A2C2 + A3C3
A1+A2+A3
= 0.371
B. Time calculation
T = T1+T2
For turf & slope 2%, T1 = 11.3 = 11minute
T2 = = 8.33 minute
T = 11+8.33 = 19.33min.
From graph
For T = 19.33minute i = = 0.0347mm/sec
Q = CiAd = 0.371*0.0347*14.6
= 0.188m3/sec
III. X-section calculation
Q = AV
A= = 0.235m2
Assume,
B= 0.5m
Z = 1.5
A = Bd+zd2
Or, 0.235 = 0.5d+1.5d2
Or, 1.5d2+0.5d-0.235 = 0
Therefore,
= 0.263m
Take free board = 0.14m
Total depth = 0.26+0.14 = 0.4m
Again, V = R2/3s1/2
S1/2 = 0.0672
S = 0.00452 or 1 in 221
 80

Chapter- 5
Highway Material

General classification of highway material

Most common materials used in road construction can be classified in to three broad groups.
1. Mineral material
2. Binding material
3. Other common material or material of general construction
Mineral material:-
Sub grade soil, sand (fine aggregate) stone chips, gravels (coarse aggregate), pit-run sand or river
bed sand, screened materials, blast furnace slag, brick pebbles etc. are some mineral materials which are
largely used in road construction. Mineral materials may be naturally occurring, semi processed or fully
processed. Soils are extensively for embankment construction, in construction of soil stabilized layer. Some
aggregates are used in pavement construction where as some aggregates are used in off-road structures.
These are also used on filler material behind retaining structure/walls & in sub-surface drainage.
Binding material:-
Binding materials include
 Stone dust or cohesive soil
 Cement lime & other inorganic binding materials
 Bitumen, tar &other organic binding material
The first group i.e. stone dust or cohesive soil forms in semi rigid & semi flexible bond between
materials. The second group i.e. inorganic material form rigid, irreversible bonds
The third group i.e. organic materials provide thin film of binding action which is flexible &
reversible in nature.

Other common building material

Other common building materials, used in road construction are reinforcing steel, timber, stone,
brick, boulders, cobbles and gabion wires.

Mineral materials: - sub-grade soil, stone aggregate, stone dust

SUB GRADE SOIL

Highway structure essentially consists of two components. The sub grade or embankment upon
which the pavement is laid & pavement itself. Sub-grade soil & its properties are important in the
design of pavement due to following reasons.
I. Sub-grade soil provides support to the pavement. So it should be stable under adverse climate &
loading condition.
II. The poor sub grade condition gives rise to waves, corrugations. Rutting & shoving in black top
pavement
III. The phenomena of pumping, blowing & consequent cracking of cement concrete pavement are also
due to poor sub grade condition.
IV. When road is constructed in embankment, failure may occur due to differential
Settlement of soil.
Characteristics of soil
 81

Detailed study of characteristics of soil is the subject of soil science & soil mechanics
certain characteristics of soil particles are useful in predicting the performance & behavior of soil these
are:

 Grain
 Shape
 Surface
 Chemical texture
 Moisture content
 Density(Dry)
Maximum dry density is obtained with minimum compaction effort at optimum moisture content.
The optimum moisture content is determined by standard on modified proctor test.
Desirable Or Requirements Of Soil As A Road Construction Material
Soil as a highway construction material should have the following properties:
a. Stability: - it is the resistance provided by soil to permanent deformation under loads.
b. Incompressibility: - soils used in sub-grade & embankment construction & foundation should be
incompressible.
c. Permanency in strength: - permanency in strength is the property of soil, which allows sub-grade to
support pavement with same degree of strength under varied condition of moisture & weather.
d. Minimum change in volume & stability under adverse condition of weather & ground water:- it is
required to ensure minimum variation in expansion.
e. Good drainage:- Good drainage characteristics moister & frost action .
f. Ease in compaction:- it is the property of soil, which ensures higher dry density with minimum
compaction effort for increasing strength characteristics & permanency in strength.
Classification of soil (grain size, textural, unified soil, IS , HRB).
SELF STUDY OR STUDIED IN SOIL MECHANICS
STONE AGGREGATES
Stone aggregates are prime materials used in pavement construction. Aggregates have to bear
stresses occurring due to the wheel loads on the pavement on the surface course they also have to resist
wear due abrasive action of traffic. It is used in the construction of both flexible (black topped road) & rigid
(cement concrete) pavements.
Classification of stone aggregate
(A) Depending upon the occurring
i) Natural aggregate
ii) Artificial aggregate
Natural aggregate: - also known as gravel. It is small rounded stones which are generally obtained from
river bed.
Artificial aggregate:- it is also known as crushed aggregate. Stones or boulders or rocks are broken into
required size manually or mechanically.
B. depending upon size
i) Coarse aggregate (>4.75mm)
ii) Fine aggregate (< 4.75mm)
C. Depending upon parent material from which it is derived
i) Sedimentary stone aggregate
ii) Metamorphic stone aggregate
iii) Igneous stone aggregate
DESIRABLE PROPERTIES OF STONE AGGREGATE
 82

The knowledge of property of stone aggregate is essential to assess the suitability of aggregate for
specific road construction. These properties are:
a. Strength
b. Hardness
c. Toughness
d. Durability
e. Proper size
f. Good adhesion
g. Cementation

Strength: - it determines the resistance of aggregate to crushing & is determined by crushing value or by
ten percent fines value established in accordance with standard test procedure.
Hardness: - hardness determines resistance to abrasion (wear & tear). Loss angeles abrasion value is used
in order to determine the hardness of stone aggregate.
Toughness: - it is the property of material by virtue of which it resist impact load & is determined by page
impact test
Durability: - it is resistance to weather action or ability to remain strong over long period. It also estimates
the degree of disintegration. Different kinds of soundness test such as sodium sulphate test, magnesium
sulphate test & freeze thaw test may be carried out to determine durability
Proper size: - shape of aggregate determines interlocking & crushing & hence strength. Flakiness index,
elongation index, angularity number are the parameters used to establish if the aggregates are of proper
shape. Flaky & elongated shape of particles or aggregates will have less strength & durability when
compared with cubical, angular or rounded particles of the same stone/rock. So too much flaky & elongated
particles should be avoided in highway construction.

Adhesion: - adhesion with bitumen is influenced by the nature of aggregate. Hydrophobic (dislike of
water) aggregates process better anti stripping property where as hydrophilic (liking of water) do not.
Hydrophilic materials attract water & because of this, most of time remains coated with thin film of water,
which resist bitumen to develop bond between aggregate particles. The choice of cationic or anionic
bitumen for emulsified mix is governed by the type of aggregate. Siliceous aggregates carry negative
charge & cationic emulsion carrying (+ ve) charge is the right choice.

Test on aggregate:-
As aggregate obtained from different sources differ considerably in their constituent
& properties, inevitably they differ also with regard to their engineering properties. Hence it is necessary,
therefore, to carry out various tests on aggregate to select the best road aggregate for pavement
construction.
Aggregate tests may be arbitrary divided into four main groups

1) Descriptive test
2) Non – destructive test
3) Durability test
4) Specific gravity test
Descriptive test:- In this type of test, road aggregates are visually examined & described in terms of both
shape & surface texture of particles.
 83

Particle shape may be described as rounded, irregular, flaky, elongated and elongated & flaky.
Surface texture may be defined as glossy, smooth, granular, rough, crystalline, honey combed & porous.

Significance of descriptive test:-

Descriptive tests are most useful in classifying aggregates. This test act as
valuable guide, regarding internal frictional properties of aggregate. Internal friction is resistance of
movement of aggregate past each other. e.g.
 Crushed basalt has good internal friction due to angular particle & rough surface texture.
That is why crushed basalt is considered as best material for pavement construction.
 A round smooth aggregate such as gravel is relatively low in internal friction since particle
interlock is not possible. So it is not good for pavement construction.

Non destructive quality test: - These tests are carried out to determine its suitability for a specific use. The
results obtained are compared with the specification to check/see whether they comply with desired
properties & characteristic or not. In this category we mainly perform following test.

a) Gradation test
b) Water absorption test
c) Shape test ( Flakiness index, Elongation index, Angularity number)

Gradation test:- This test is carried out to determine particle size distribution
20 mm
i.e. Gradation test is performed to find the quantity of
Different size of particles present in given sample. Quantity of each Particle size is
expressed in terms of percentage by weight of passing or retained. Sieve analysis is 12.5 mm
most popularly done for gradation. In this test Sieve having of different size
(Opening) are stacked as specified in specification or code. Now stack of sieve are 10 mm
staked on sieve shaker & then Weight of each particle size retained on particular
sieve number is expressed in percentage. 4.75 mm
Significance of test:- Gradation required depends upon the nature of work.
Selection of proper grade aggregate helps in achieving quality pavemant 2.36 mm
at reasonable cost. Variation in the grading of an aggregate will result in
change in amount of binder (cement or bitumen or tar etc.). Proper aggregate 1.18 mm
grading contributes to the uniformity, workability & plasticity of material
as it is mixed. 75 micron

Pan
 84

Shape test:-
A ) Flakiness index :- The flakiness index of aggregate is the percentage by weight of aggregate
particles whose least dimension/thickness is less than 0.6 times their mean dimension.
T < 0.6 * mean size
The mean dimension as used in each instance is the average of two adjacent sieve apparatus
size between which the particle being measured is retained by sieving.e.g. If passed through 50 mm sieve &
retained on 40 mm sieve then
Mean Size (50+40)/2 = 45 mm
Procedure:-
 Sieve the given sample through set of sieve & separate into specified size range.
 Now pass at least 200 piece/particles from individual percentage size range through sieve
having elongated sieve whose width are 0.6 times individual mean dimension. e.g.
Thickness gauge required for particle size passed from 50 mm sieve & retained on 40 mm
sieve is
= 0.6 * (50+40)/2 = 27 mm
Similarly for 40 to 25 mm, thickness gauge required = 0.6 * (40+25)/2 = 19.5 mm
 Now Flakiness index is then reported as the total weight of particle passing the various
thickness gauge of sieve, expressed as percentage of total weight of sample gauged.
NB :- Flakiness index test is applicable to size larger than 6.35 mm

Elongated index:- Te elongation index of an aggregate is percentage weight of particle whose grater
dimension (length) is greater than 1.8 times mean dimension/size. Elongation index test is not applicable
for material size smaller than 6.35 mm.

Procedure:- Same as flakiness index except the length gauge is calculated as the 1.8 times of mean size. If
the material is passed through 50 mm & retained on 40 mm sieve, the length gauge through which at least
200 piece is to be passed = 1.8 * (50+40)/2 = 81 mm. Hence Elongation index is taken as total weight of
material on the gauge length, expressed as a percent of total weight of sample gauged.
 85

Significance of test: - The internal friction of aggregate is the property by virtue of which aggregate
resist particles movement under the action of imposed load and internal friction is influenced by shape of
material. Elongated & flaky particles are not good for pavement construction due to0 less interlocking
capacity & strength. Rounded particles are also not good due to no inter locking. Cubical, angular particles
are preferred in pavement construction.

B ) Water absorption test:- The test is normally carried out in conjunction with specific gravity test. The
procedure consists of soaking the aggregate sample in distilled water for 24 hours. After that Surface drying
& weighing in air & then oven drying & weighing again. The water absorption is obtained by expressing
the difference between weights of saturated & the oven dried sample in air as a percentage of later.

Significances of test:-Knowledge of water absorption properties of aggregate is particularly important in

bituminous surface design. The porosity of aggregate affect the amount of binder material & additional
binder material have to be incorporated in the mixture to satisfy the absorption by aggregate after
ingredient have been mixed.

3 ) Durability test :- We perform following tests on road aggregate under this category

a) Aggregate Crushing value test(ACV)

b) Aggregate Impact value test (AIV)
c) Aggregate abrasion Value test (LAV)

Aggregate Crushing test: - The strength of coarse aggregate may be assessed by aggregate crushing test.
The aggregate crushing value is a measure resistance of aggregate to crushing under a gradually applied
load.

Procedures:-
 Dry aggregate passing through 12.5 mm I.S. sieve & retained on 10 mm sieve is filled in
specific cylinder in three equal layers. Each layer is tamped 25 times by tamping rod. The
test sample is weighed as W1, gm
 The plunger is placed on the top of specimen & load of 40 tones is applied at the rate of 4
tons per minute by compressive machine.
 Now crushed aggregate is sieved through 2.36 mm sieve.
 Now weigh the sample passed through 2.36 mm sieve as W2, gm

A C V = (W2/W1)* 100 %
 86

Aggregate impact test:- It is resistance provided by the material against impact load. The test is
carried out by subjecting the aggregate to 15 blows of (13.6 – 14.4 Kg) hammer falling through a
height of 381 mm. After impact, the material passing through 2.36 mm sieve is expressed as
percentage of total weight of original sample & termed as aggregate impact value.

A I V = (W2/W1)* 100 %

Abrasion Test:-This test is carried out to find the hardness of aggregate used in pavement
construction.

Procedure:-
 Take cleaned aggregate & dry it in oven at 105 to 110 .C.
 Take 5 kg of sample & placed in the cylinder (70 cm diameter & 50 cm long) along
the 4.8 cm diameter steel spheres. The number of spheres is decided based on the
grading of aggregate.
 The cylinder is then rotated at the speed of 30 – 33 revolution per minute for 500 –
1000 revolution.
 After complete revolution, sample is sieved through 1.7 mm sieve & weighed, say
W1 gm.
L A V = (W1/W) * 100 %

Where W = total weight of sample.

 87

Comparing gradation specification and method of translating specification

Combining of the aggregates

Gradation analysis:-
Gradation analysis is usually involves three main task

 The First task is gradation test to find the content of material in each particle size group. The
test result of gradation test can be expressed in terms of the individual weight retained on
each sieve & total weight passing each sieve.
 The Second task is to compare obtained gradation result with requirement given in
specification. It is done by translating gradation results in the same form as prescribed in
specification.
 The third task:-If obtained gradation test result does not coincide with the data given in
specification, it become essential to add single size aggregate to comply with specification.
So Road engineer has to perform calculation to determine the proportion of each group of
material to make aggregate within specified range.

Comparing gradation specification:-

Aggregate obtained from pit or quarry or river bed or crusher plant
usually do not meet the gradation specified desired. In field, it would be frequently necessary to compare
the specification of aggregates as obtained with that specified in technical specification or contract
document. The simplest way of comparing two specifications is to plot them or an aggregate chart & then
see whether they are related to each other.
Some specification book may specify the gradation requirements in terms of
individual particles retained on each sieve. Sometimes same may be given in terms of percentage passing in
each individual sieve, then it may create confusion. In such case, gradation analysis result is to convert
from one form to another form.

Q Translate an aggregate specification written in terms of individual percentage of material on each sieve
into percentage of passing in each sieve.
 88
B. S. Sieve (mm) Percentage of material
Passing Retained on
- 25.4 0
25.4 12.7 25 – 45
12.7 4.76 10 – 25
4.76 2.36 6 – 15
2.36 1.18 6–9
1.18 0.425 8 – 13
0.425 0.18 7 – 13
0.18 0.075 7 – 12
0.075 2–8

Solution
Derived
B.S.
Cumulative % Passing Cumulative % retained Cumulative % Passing specification on a %
Sieve
passing basis
Maximu Minimu
Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum
m m (5)
(1) (2R) (3) (4)
(2) (1R)
25.4 71 140 0 0 100 100 100
12.7 46 95 25 45 55 75 55 – 75
4.76 36 70 35 70 30 65 36 – 65
2.38 30 55 41 85 15 59 30 – 55
1.18 24 46 47 94 6 53 24 - 46
0.425 16 33 55 107 7 45 16 – 45
0.18 9 20 62 120 20 38 9 – 20
0.075 2 8 69 132 32 31 2-8

Column (1) = Add from lower value (Bottom to up)

Column (2) = Add from higher value (Bottom to up)
Column (1R) = Add from lower value (From top to bottom)
Column (2R) = Add from higher value (From top to bottom)
Column (3) = 100 - Column (2R)
Column (4) = 100 - (1R)

Column (5) = Lower of maximum higher of minimum from column 1, 2, 3, 4

Combining aggregate:-
 89

The grading required in a road aggregate depends very much on the form of
construction which is going to be used. i.e. Patch work, Water bound macadam, bituminous mix road, rigid
pavement etc. We also may not get the road aggregate of given sieved grade directly from the quarry or
river bed.
So it is common practice to sort the aggregate before hand into a number of closely
graded single sizes. These single sized aggregates are remixed in desired proportion in order to meet the
gradation specified for use. The remixing or blending of aggregate may be done by

 Mathematical method
 Graphical method

Mathematical method:-
Let us consider three aggregates are to be combined & their gradation & required
specification are given in table.

B. S. Sieve,
Percent passing given size Specification
mm
A B C Limit Mid point
25.4 100 100 100 100 100
12.7 100 100 94 90 – 100 95
4.76 100 100 54 60 – 75 67.5
1.18 100 66.4 31.3 40 – 55 47.5
0.3 100 26 22.8 20 – 35 27.5
0.15 73.6 17.6 9 12 – 22 17
0.075 40.1 5.0 3.1 5 – 10 7.5

Srep 1
Use equation
x A + y B+ z C = T
Where, x y z = Decimal value representing the proportions of blend to be taken from aggregate
respectively
A, B, C = % of passing or retained on particular sieve. e.g.
% of passing 4.76 mm sieve
100 x+ 100 y+ 54 z = 67.5
% of retained on 4.76 mm sieve
0 x+ 0 y +46 z = 32.5
Z = 0.71
Step 2
Equation obtained from any particular sieve can be combined either by addition or subtraction of
equation obtained from one or more other sieve so as to produce other equation.

% passing 1.18 mm sieve

100 x + 66.4 y + 31.3 z = 47.5 …………….1)
% passing 300 micron sieve
100 x + 26 y + 22.82 z = 27.5 ……………..2)
 90

Adding equation 1 & 2

200 x +92.4 y + 54.1 z = 75 ………………. 3)
Subtracting equation 1 & 2
0 x + 40.4 y + 8.5 z = 20 …………………..4 )
Step 3
X + y + z = 1 ………………………………5)
Putting value of z in equation 4
0 x + 40.4 y+ 8.5 * 0.71 = 20
y = 0.35
From equation 5
X+ 0.2 y + 0.71 = 1
x = -0.06(Negative value can not be considered. It simply indicates that mid point specification
value used in calculation are exactly unobtainable. The computation is repeated using specification
of 70 % passing for 4.76 mm sieve & 45 % passing 1.18 mm sieve.
Then
On 4.76 mm sieve (Retained)
0 x + 0 y + 46 z = 3
z = 0.65 …………………1)
Now on 1.18 mm sieve (passing)
100 x + 66.4 y + 31.3 z = 45 ………2)
On 300 micron sieve (Passing)
100 x + 26 y + 22.82 z = 27.5 …….3)
Subtracting equation 2 & 3
0 x + 40.4 y + 8.5 z = 17.5 ……………4)
From equation 1 & 4
y = 0.3
Now putting the value of y & z in equation
x+y+z=1
x = 0.05

Result

B. S. Sieve Aggregate A Aggregate B Aggregate C Combined

25.4 100*0.05 = 5 100*0.3 = 30 100*0.65 = 65 100
12.7 100*0.05 = 5 100*0.3 = 30 94*0.65 = 61 96
4.76 100*0.05 = 5 100*0.3 = 30 54*0.65 = 35.1 70.1
1.18 100*0.05 = 5 6.4*0.3 = 19.8 31.3*0.65 = 20.4 45.2
0.3 100*0.05 = 5 26*0.3 = 7.8 22.8*0.65 = 14.8 27.6
0.15 73.6*0.05 = 3.7 17.6*0.3 = 5.3 9*0.65 = 5.9 14.9
0.075 40.1*0.05 = 2 5*0.3 = 1.5 3.1*0.65 = 2 5.5
 91

Binding material
(Bituminous Material)
Bituminous binders used in pavement construction work include both bitumen & Tar. Bitumen is a
petroleum product obtained by the distillation of petroleum crude where as road tar is obtained by the
destructive distillation of coal or wood. Both bitumen & tar have similar appearance, black in colour
through they have different characteristics.

Classification of bituminous road binder

Bituminous Road binder

Road Bitumen Road Tar

Natural bitumen Petroleum bitumen (Residue of fractional distillation

of crude petroleum)

Liquid bitumen
Lake asphalt Rock asphalt
Penetration grade
bitumen

Cut back Emulsion

Bitumen

Crude petroleum obtained from different places is quite different in their composition. They are
asphalt based paraffin based& mixed based. Various volatile constitute are separated by the process
called fractional distillation, which consists of heating the crude oil at successively higher
temperature & separating the material specified temperature.
 92

Crude oil

Asphalt Paraffin based Mixed based

Gasoline
Decreasing volatility
Kerosene
Diesel oil
Light lubricating oil
Heavy lubricating oil
Bitumen

Composition of asphaltic based Petroleum crude oil

Flow chart of Bitumen process

Pumping of crude Dehydration of Fractional

oil crude distillation

Fractional Fractional
distillation distillation

Asphalt

Native lake asphalt:-

Crude petroleum comes up through cracks in earth crust to the surface where sun & wind
derive away lighter oils leaving behind I the top earth surface a black & plastic mater called asphalt.
The largest natural deposit of bitumen in the world occurs on the island of Trindad off the north
coast of South America & is known as Trinidad. Asphalt is also simply referred on lake asphalt.
 93

Composition of Trinidad lake asphalt

 Substance soluble in CS2 53- 55%
 Free mineral matter 35 – 37%
 Water of hydration 9.7%
Natural Rock asphalt
Some of deposits of limestone or stone are found in combination with crude oil. In such situation,
crude oil during pumping up naturally or otherwise gets way to penetrate through the cracks & fractures
under pressure. As time passesesatile agents get evaporated leaving residue known rock asphalt. The
bitumen content of natural rock asphalt varies from 4 to 18%.
Cutback bitumen
Definition: - cutback bitumen is the bitumen, the viscosity of which has been reduced by using volati
solvent. The practice is to use kerosene oil or diesel.
The purpose of cutback is to increase fluidity. Increased fluidity has following advantages
 Substitute of heating (helps to protect environment)
 Suitable for direct application
 Liquefying effect lasts over a long period of time.
 Good mixing manual method
 Mix can be transported for long haul without setting
 Can be used as dust palliatives
Types of cutback
1. Rapid curing (RC) cutback
2. Medium curing (MC) cutback
3. Slow curing(SC)
This classification is based on the rate of curing or hardening after application. Each group of
cutback discussed above further can be divided into six different grade based on the viscosity. E.g.
RCO, RC1, RC3, RC4, RC5 & RCC
Similarly for MC & SC
NB: - Viscosity increases from 0 to 6
uses
SC: - it can be used as dust palliative material
MC: _ in dense graded road surface
It has good aggregate coating properties (most useful when fine graded & dusty material
incorporated in a road surface)
RC: - useful when a quick charge back to the residual semi-solid binding agent is desired.
Bitumen Emulsion
Definition:- An emulsion is a relatively stable suspension of one liquid in a state of minute sub division
dispersed through another liquid in which it is not soluble. In bitumen emulsion, bitumen is dispersed
liquid. It is called internal phase of emulsion. The surrounding liquid is water called external or continuous
phase.
Usually bitumen or refined tar is broken up into fine globules & kept in suspension in water. A
small proportion of an emulsifier is used to facilitate the formation of dispersion & to keep the globules of
dispersed binder in suspension. The function of emulsifier is to form a protective coating around the
globules of binder resisting breakdown of emulsion- bitumen. Emulsifiers usually adopted are soaps,
surface active agents & colloidal powder. All grades of bitumen & cut back bitumen can be emulsified. 100
+ 350 penetration grade bitumen is not commonly used in road construction.
 94

When the emupion is applied on the road, it break down & the binder start binding the aggregate
though, binding action go onward slowly as & when water evaporates. The first sign or breakdown of
emulsion is shown by the change in colors of the film from chocolate brown to black.

Tar
Tar is viscous liquid obtained when natural organic materials such as wood & coal are carbonized
or destructively distilled in absence of air. Tar can be classified based on material from which it is derived
 Wood tar
 Coal tar
Coal tar is more widely used from road work because it is superior. The stages for the production of road
tar are
i. carbonization of coal to produce crude tar

ii. Refining or distillation of crude tar

iii. Blending of distillation residue with distillate oil fraction to give desired road tar.

There are five grades of Tar

 RT – 1
 RT - 2
 RT - 3
 RT – 4
 RT - 5 viscosity in increasing order

COMPARISON BETWEEN BITUMEN & TAR

BITUMEN TAR
1. it is product of fractional distillation of 1 it is destructive distillation of coal (coal
crude petroleum. product)
2. has black to dark brown color 2. black to dark brown color
3. has lesser affinity with aggregate in 3. has better affinity in presence of water
presence of water
4. has better weather resisting 4 has poor weather resisting property
property
5. it is less temperate susceptible 5. it is more temperature susceptible
6. contains less free carbon 6. contains more free carbon
7. Not recommended to use in service 7. Recommended to use in such area as tar
station, fuel station area due to solubility do not loss viscosity in oil
in petroleum oil.
 95

6.5.5 Test on Bituminous Binders and their significance

In order to aid the engineers in ensuring that the material obtained from the suppliers has the desired
qualities a number of tests have been devised. The various tests on bitumen may be divided into the
following four categories:
 Consistency Tests: These include penetration test, viscosity test, Softening point test ductility test
and float test. Consistency test indicates the property of the binder to flow. it is a function of
temperature and types of material. Thin bituminous binders are tested in a different manner than the
thick bitumen.
 Composition Tests: these include distillation tests, water content test, loss on heating test, ash
content test, solubility test.
 Specific Gravity Test: Although specific gravity test may also be grouped into composition test. It is
dealt here under a separate category. It is because of its significance in other aspect such as in
establishing the relation between binder weight and volume for transporting and billing purpose. In
the design of bitumen mixes and so on. Comparing specific gravity of the supplied bitumen with the
specific gravity of standard bitumen also rough idea on the purity.
 safety Test: Flash and fire point test is the most common test in this category
Penetration Test
Penetration test determines whether the bitumen under specified temperature is hard or soft.
Value obtained by penetration test is the measure of hardness or softness of bitumen. It is a measure of
consistency of semi solid bitumen.
This test consists of determining how far a standard steel needle will penetrate vertically into
the binder under standard conditions of temperature load and time. These conditions are 250 c. 100 gm and
5 sec. The results obtained are expressed in units of penetration, where one unit is equal to 1/10 mm.

Significance: The penetration test is carried out to classify bitumen’s into different grades. In BS (UK)
literature the ranges starts from 15(hardest bitumen) to 450 units (softest Bitumen). In India bitumen’s are
available with penetration values varying from 20 to 450. Bitumen’s with low penetration values are known
for bad cracking. Lower pentration values are recommended for use in hot climates and higher penetration
values in cold climates. However, lower penetration bitumen are used for preparing hot mix hot and
bituminous premixes. Cohesive bonds with lower penetration bitumen are stronger than with higher
 96

penetration bitumen. Softer bitumen’s are used for bitumen macadam and cold asphalt. Penetration values
below 20 have been associated with bad cracking of road surfacing while cracking rarely occurs when
penetration exceeds 30. Thus, cracking behavior of bitumen may be judged based on penetration values.

6.5.5.2 Ductility Test

The ductility of bituminous binder is expressed as the distance in centimeters that a standard
semi solid briquette will elongate before breaking. A ductile material is one which elongates when in
tension. The test is carried out in a standard ductility test apparatus. Specified conditions for ductility test
are:
 mold-8 shaped, standard dimension
 temperature:- 270 c
 pull rate- 50 mm/min
 starting minimum width (neck width) 10 mm x 10mm
Significance: The ductility value is the measure of adhesiveness and elasticity of bitumen. Its range
varying from 5-100 cm. The most appropriate value is 50 cm. ductile bitumen forms a thin ductile film
around aggregate does not crack under lower temp. Brittle bitumen does not form ductile films does crack
under lower adverse temperature. Bond in brittle bitumen is not completely reversible. Bitumen’s
possession high ductility are also usually highly susceptible to temperature change. While low ones are not.

6.5.3 Viscosity Test

The viscosity of bitumen and tar in road construction practice are based on the arbitrary test
result obtained with orifice type viscometer. This test is carried out to determine the viscosity of bitumen
and tar which remain fluid under specified temperature of test. Specified conditions for test:
 apparatus: orifice type viscometer
 diameter of orifice: 4 & 10mm
 Temperature: 25o c and 400c
 quantity of bitumen: 50cc

The standard orifice viscometer test measures the time in seconds for a 50ml of binder liquid to
flow from a cup through a standard orifice under the above specified conditions.
 97

Significance: - The viscosity of bitummous binder is its most important physical characteristic. it is define
as inverse of fluidity and is a measure of resistance to flow. The right choice of bitumen can be made after
knowing its viscosity because of the following reasons:
 The degree of fluidity of the binder at the application temperature determines the quality of mixing
 binder of lower viscosity results in lubrication only
 Binder of reasonable viscosity results in uniform film (coat). It results in homogenous mixture
because of less resistance for mixing
 binder of higher viscosity requires more compactive effort and may result in heterogeneous max
 premix with higher viscosity binder is not easily workable
 premix with lower viscosity binder will flow en route while transporting from plant site a laying site
 Binder with low viscosity is required for surface dressing. but too low viscosity will as result in
bleeding or loss of chipping under traffic
 There is no problem of getting the pumping pipes blocked if viscosity is low
 aggregates are more easily coated in low temperature too when low viscous binders are used

The viscosity of the bitumen and tar binders varies in a very wide range. Range of viscosity of tar is
10-140 sec. tar bitumen binders are viscosity exceed 500 sec at 250C . Hence suitable orifice and
temperature of test is selected. The viscosity values should therefore be mentioned with the tar temperature
and orifice size. In order to address the situation of need to employ several test temperatures, concept of
equi-viscous temperature (EVT) has been introduced recently. EVT is defined as the temperature at which
viscosity is 5 sec. Due to low variation in temperature susceptibility, the concept of EVT can be applied for
tar but no for bitumen.

Float Test:-
Float test is the means of determining consistency of bitumen of those ranges of bituminous
binder for which both penetration & viscosity tests can not be applied. In this test, Viscosity is measured in
terms of time taken for water in seconds to force its way through the bitumen plug put in a mould of float
test apparatus. The temperature for test is 500c & the result is known as the float value
Significance:-Higher the float value, stiffer the bitumen.

Softening Point Test:-

Softening point is the temperature at which the bitumen attains a particular degree of
softening under specified conditions of test. Softening point of bitumen sample is carried out in Ring and
Ball test apparatus. The apparatus essentially consists of a brass ring & steel ball. The ring is plugged
with the sample of bitumen, which is then heated at a rate of 50c per minute till the bitumen softens &
touches the bottom of the metal plate placed at specified distance below the ring. The temperature is the
softening point of bitumen.

Significance:-
The softening point of bitumen used in the pavement construction varies between 35 to 700c.
It indicates how susceptible the bitumen with respect to the variation of temperature. Bitumen of same
penetration value with higher softening point is less susceptible to temperature than of that same grade
bitumen having less softening point.

Composition Test:-
 98

Distillation Test: is used to determine the quantity & quality of volatile constituent & amount of non
volatile residues present in Cut back bitumen, emulsion etc.
This test result gives idea about the quality of bitumen, emulsion.

Water content test: - This test is used to determine the amount of water present in given sample of bitumen.
Water content may be determined from distillation test too. When only water content is to be determined
then this individual test is carried out by mixing pure petrol with the sample, heating & distilling. The
condensed water is expressed in percentage of total weight of sample
Significance:-Water content in bitumen should be less than 0.2 % if bitumen is to be heated above 100 0C.
Higher value of water content results in foaming when heated.

Loss on heating, solubility test, ash content test & spot test are other tests that may be carried out for
determining contents of impurities & other undesirable substances in bitumen. Solubility test is meant for
determining percentage of material that are not soluble in Carbon disulphide & carbon tetra chloride. Spot
test is carried for determining overheated or cracked bitumen. Lost on heating test is meant for establishing
the percentage of volatile agents present in the bitumen. The ash content of bitumen is % by weight of
inorganic residue left after ignition of sample. The result of test is used to ensure that undesirable amount of
mineral matter are no present.
Specific Gravity test:-
The specific gravity of bitumen & tar is the ratio of weight of given volume of material at
given temperature to that of an equal volume of water at the same temperature. The temperature of the
binder & water must be reported if results are to have comparative value.
Significance:-
Specific gravity value is to be determined for establishing relation between binder weight & volume needed
for the transportation & billing purpose. Specification of binder in road surface re normally expressed as
percentage by weight where they are usually shipped & measured by volume. Lower values than that of
standard values indicate that the bitumen might have some higher impurities & vice versa.
 99

HILL ROAD
Introduction:-
A hill road is usually defined on the basis of terrain types. The terrain can be classified into
four group based on the ground cross slope.

Types of terrain Cross slope %

Level 0 to 9.99

Rolling 10 to 24.9

Mountanion 25 to 60

Steep Above 60

A hill road is defined as one, which passes through the terrain with a cross slope of 25 % or more. However
there are sections along hill roads with cross slope less than 25%. Specially when road follows the river
route but still these sections are also referred as hill road. Thus definition based only on the ground cross
slope is not precise. It is overall terrain that one has to take into account in order to establish the types of
road.

Design & Construction problems in hill road:-

Design & construction of roads in hills & mountain is more complex
task in plains. It is because of the several factors associated with region. Some of them includes

1) A hilly or mountainous area is characterized by a hilly broken relief with widely differing elevations &
steep slopes. This requires considerable increase in length of road.
2) The formation of rock differs in wide range. The geological condition varies from place to place within a
short section. This will make the assessment of the foundation for road embankment & other road structure.
3) Hill cross slopes which were stable before construction may turn into unstable after construction due to
removal of vegetation & other increased human activities.
4) Variation in hydro geological conditions (ground water condition) from place to place is difficult to
perceive & may be easily overlooked in the design phase which result in various unexpected damages
afterwards. e.g. Land slide, slip etc.
5) New earth fill is for road embankment may overload the relatively weak underlying soil layer on hill
slope which may trigger the new slide.
6) Highly broken relief is one of the major reasons requiring the installation of various types of special road
structure such as culvert, aqueduct, retaining wall, Chute, Rapid, bridge, tunnel etc. The cost of these road
structures for hill road may exceed 50-60 % of total cost of construction.
7) Presence of steep ground cross slope needs careful arrangement of erosion protection work.
8) Variation in climatic condition such as
 Temperature decreases as the altitude increases.
 Pressure decreases as the altitude increases.
 Precipitation increase as the height increases.
 Velocity of wind varies from place to place, should be considered in design & construction.
 100

Hair Pin Bend:-

When developing a route in hilly area we need to frequently set horizontal curve and some
times it becomes difficult or impossible to set curve following normal geometric standard of design. When
inscribing a curve inside the turning angle, the length of route will be substantially reduced, which result in
steep gradients. In such circumstances, it is preferable to round off the route not by inscribing but by
circumscribing the curve around the turning point. Such compounds curves are called hair pin bend or
reverse curve.
Figure shown in next page shows two different types of symmetrical hair bends consisting of main
curve C reverse curve Cr and tangents (straights) m. The acute angle of bend is ᾳ. The main curve with the
radius R has a total length C and subtend the angle ɣ at the centre. Points AQ & B are located at the apices
of the reverse curve. Between the ends of the reverse curves & the main curve of the bend tangents must be
introduced for the transitions of the super elevation & extra width in the curves.
A hair pin bend is located on the hill section having minimum cross slope & the maximum stability.
It must be against land slide & ground water seepage.
For the design & layout of hair pin bends elements such as radius of main curve & reverse curves (R & r)
and length of the tangent (m) are initially selected based on the site situation in comfortably with the
required geometric standards. The design of hair pin bend then basically consists of establishing the value
of turning angle β at point A & B which satisfies the pre selected parameters of the bend. For this purpose
following simple expression may be derived based on the geometry of hair pin bends as shown figure
below

Tangent length of reverse curve T

T = r tan (β/2)

Where, T = Tangent length.

r = radius of reverse curve
β = Deflection angle
 101

β m F

Cr

B
900 - β

α γ

A 900 - β

Cr
m

First type Hair pin bend

r1
α γ
A

β
r2
Second type
 102

The distance from the apex of reverse curve angle to the commencement of the main curve
is

AE = BF = T + m

From triangles AOE or BOF, it will be found that

Tan β = OE/AE = R/(T+m), Where R is the radius of main curve.

From trigonometry, it is also known that

Tan β = (2*Tan(β/2))/(1-Tan2(β/2)

Substituting this expression for Tan β in preceding expression, solution of Tan (β/2) becomes

-m + m2 – R(2r+R)
Tan β/2 =
R+2r
Hence the angle β to correspond to R, r & m can be easily determined.
The distance from the apex of the reverse curve to the centre of the main curve is determined by

AO = OB = (T+m)/Cosβ = R/Sinβ

The central angle γ corresponding to the main curve of the bend is equal to

γ = 360 – 2(90-β)-α
And the length of the bend is
C = (πRγ )/180
Hence total length of bend is
S = 2(Cr+m)+C
Where, Cr is the length of the reverse curve.
Having obtained these parameters, the hair pin bend can be plotted on the contour map or set out on the
ground.
These expressions given above are for symmetrical hair pin bends having reverse curves with equal
angles & of equal radius. If owing to land conditions, these curves should differ. In which case these are
referred as unsymmetrical hair pin bends. The bend is designated by the same method
The bends described so far above, which have reverse curves situated with their convexities in
opposite directions are called hair pin bend or reverse curve loop of first type. These configurations are
suitable in cases with more or less straight contours of hill slope.
In bends of second type, which may also be either symmetrical or unsymmetrical, the reverse curves
have their convexities facing toward the same side. These bends are introduced at places with the contours
representing shallow drainage basin or flat hill nose. Whatever may be their forms, hair pin bends are
introduced along the road that goes up to cross mountain pass, where route is to be developed on the same
side of hill slope in order to change the direction of route. There could be a series of hair pin bends in one
stack. Hill roads such as Tribhuvan Rajpath & Lamosangu – Jiri have over 10 hair pin bends in one stack.
The distance between the ends of the reverse curves of first hair pin bend should be as large as possible.
Recommendation regarding the separation distance of two bends vary widely. In the former USSR two
adjacent bends are required to be separated by at least 200 m. This appears to be too high for the type of
rugged hill terrain of the region. IRC recommendation in this regard is 60 m.
 103

Design parameters of hair pin bends (Comparisons)

Country India/Nepal Former USSR

Design speed 20 km/hr 20 km/hr

Minimum radius of main curve 14 m 15 m

Maximum length of transition curve 15 m 20 m

Maximum gradient within bend 2.5 % 4%

Super elevation in curve portion 10 % 6%

Widening of carriage way 4m 3m

In stacking hair pin bends, care should be taken to ensure that the branches of the road in hair pin bends
could be accommodated in the given site. Sighting should be checked at the neck with respect to the cross
sections of all branches plotted together

Hair pin bends are not desirable elements of hill road. In these bends speed has to be restricted
substantially. The cost of construction also increases substantially because of extensive volume of earth
work & retaining walls, so also vehicular operation cost. When designing hill roads, several alternative
routes are investigated & preference being given to one having least number of hair pin bend.

Typical Cross section of Hill Road:-

The cross section of a road in hilly terrain is determined by the original ground slope
of the site, the slope of the road formation, width of road way, side drain size and shape & so on. Various
configuration of road cross sections include
 104

1) Cut and fill

2) Bench type
3) Box cutting
4) Embankment with retaining walls
5) Semi bridge
6) Semi tunnel
7) Platforms

Cut & fill:-

With a hill slope of over 2 % ,a cut & fill road bed is the cheaper & environment friendly type of
construction. The fill mass is obtained from the cut material at the same location or within the free haul
distance & problem of mass wasting is minimum. To ensure the adequate stability of the embankment,
benches are made on the surface of hill side with a height of 0.5 m & a length varying from 1.5 to 3.0 m
depending on the slope. The benches are given a gentle fall towards the hill side.
The design of cut & fill road bed involves comparatively less earth work. However, when
constructing a road bed of this kind on a steep mountain slope, a great amount of soil is lost, as it slides
uselessly down the slope. The design of benches on a slope often does not give sufficiently reliable
adhesion between the earth fill & natural slope and, in consequences, the embankment may slip gradually
downwards. The settlement of the fill portion of road bed sometimes causes the appearance of longitudinal
cracks in pavement. That is why it is recommended to locate roads on stable hills with cross slope
exceeding 1 in 3 entirely in a cutting at the higher cost of making full bench. Roads with hard & costly
pavement structures are to be located on full bench while those with low cost surfaces (WBM, Gravel,
Earthen) be made with cut & fill road bed.

2.25 1.0
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Bench Type: - A cross-section of bench type although entailing some increase in earthwork, ensures the
complete suitability of bed, if, of course the hill side itself is stable.

Box Cutting:-
When the location of road bed is unable or unsuitable along the hill side due to one or other
reason, the road bed is designed as trench type of cross section. This type of road bed increase the earth
work to a large extent, is introduced in order to meet the geometric design standards for given category of
road. When a road ascend up the grade is reduced substantially by raising the formation line at the
beginning with fill and lowering the same at the following section with box cutting. This way, the length of
road may be substantially reduced.

EMBANKMENT WITH RETAINING WALL:

On steep slopes over 30 to 35 degrees, the earthwork
involved in constructing the embankment increases substantially. This is so became the embankment
slope line meets the natural ground line at the acute angle far away from the centre line of the road. When
the original ground slope is steeper than the embankment slope these two slope lines never meet downhill.
In the first case the retaining wall is provided to reduce the cost of earthwork and to increase the stability
of embankment . In the second case retaining walls- are necessary to support the embankment soil on steep
ground at the edge of the road itself. An embankment with a retaining wall has a greater stability and
Should be preferred. Retaining walls are also constructed on a less steep ground slope to increase the
stability of the road bed.

SEMI BRIDGEL: if the road is located across a steep hill slope the retaining will may have to be
substantial height . In such as cases , in order to reduce the quantities of work, road bed with a semi bridge
type of structure may be constructed. Part of road way is accommodated on bench cut and part on the semi
bridge.

.SEMI-TUNNNEL- When inscribing cutting into steep hills in a stable rock faces the rock may be
permitted to overhang the road, reducing rock works. Such a cross section is called semi-tunnel.

PLATFORM- On the precipitous slopes, where shifting of the route into the hills side will lead to
enormous rock work, which would substantially increase the cost of road construction and where semi-
tunnel cannot be constructed- owing to the geological condition, platforms are usually cantilevered out of
the rock on which road way is partially located.

4.6 SPECIAL STRUCTURES IN HILL ROADS

Construction of hill roads involves many special structure. These many include wide range of
structures which are used to retain soil mass, to increase stability of road embankment slopes as
well as natural hill slopes to accommodate road bed in steep slope, to penetrate deep through
mountain pass and so on. Special structures are also required to dissipate energy of surface water
in the hill road drainage system , to provide snow avalanche control and protection system , river
training and erosion control to prevent scour under cutting and the cutting by the river.
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The following types of special structures are most frequently used in the hill road in Nepal:

1. Retaining structures.
2. Drainage structures.
3. Slope protection structures.

Retaining Structures:- A Retaining structure is usually a wall constructed for the purpose of supporting or
retaining a vertical or nearly vertical earth bank which in turn may support vertical roads. It provides
adequate stability to the roadway and to the slope. Retaining walls are constructed on the valleys side on
the roadway and also on the cut hills sides to prevent slides toward the roadway. They are also provided to
retain the earth mass for elevated and depressed road where the embankment slopes or cuts slopes can not
be extended beyond roadway.
Retaining wall may be classified based on
a) Materials used
b) Structurally scheme or based on their location with respect to the roadway
`
BASED ON MATERIAL USED
 Dry stone masonary
 Stone filled gabion wire crates
 Stone masonary with cement sand mortar
 Composite
 Plain cement concrete
 Reinforced cement concrete
 Steel or timber

Based on their location with respect to the roadway

 Breast wall
 Retaining wall
 Toe wall
 Cut of wall
 Revetment wall
 Valley side retaining wall
Based on Structurally scheme

 Gravity walls
 Semi gravity walls
 Cantilever walls
 Counterfort walls
 Buttressed wall
 Crib walls
 Reinforced soil walls
Dry stone masonry wall is preferred to masonry in mortar as it affects easy drainage of seeping water.
The design of retaining wall is based on the thumb rules and suggested thickness of retaining wall should
not be less 0.5 of height and minimum top width of 0.45 m to 0.6 m and front batter of 1 in 4 with the rear
side vertical.
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Revetment or breast wall is provided on the inner side of the road to give support to loose and unreliable
soil of cut up hill side. The embankment slopes are normally protected with the rough stone pitching about
30cm thick in order to avoid erosion due flow of water.

Toe wall is preferred if the sloping length is too long.

Gravity walls are made of dry stone masonry, gabion dry stone masonry, stone masonary filled with cement
bmortar or concrete. Obviously there does not exists the problem of backfill drainage in dry stone or gabion
box retaining walls. In case of stone masonary filled with cement mortar and cement concrete wall weep
holes are provided for drainage.

DRAINAGE STRUCTURES

a) Drainage of water from hill slope :- Surface water from the hill slope towards the roadway is one of
the main problems in hill roads.It is desirable that the water from the hill side is not allowed to flow
into the side drain because side drain is constructed for water fro0m roadway. In order to intercept
the water from hill slope catch water drain is constructed running parallel to the roadway. Water
from catch drain is diverted by sloping drains and carried across the road by means of culvert.
b) Road side drain:- side drain is provided on the hill side of road and not on both sides. Due to
limitation of formation width,the side drains are constructed to such a shape that at emergency the
vehicle could utilize the space for crossing at low speed or parking. The usual types oif drains are
angle,saucer and kerb& channel drain.
c) Cross drainage :- As far as possible, cross drainage should be taken under the road and right angle ti
it.
d) Sub surface drainage
SLOPE PROTECTION STRUCTURES
HILL ROAD ALIGNMENT
The following are the special points which should be considered in design of hill
road alignment
1. Deep cutting should be avoided as they are very difficult and costly.
2. Rises and falls in hill roads should be as easy as possible. Very steep gradient shold be
avoided and if provided it should not be continued for long stretches
3. For the safety of vehicle parapet wall should be constructed on the outer side of horizontal
curve
4. Road alignment should be on the side of hill which is sound and solid
5. There should be proper arrangement of drainage system
6. As far as possible the cross section of hill road should be kept fully in cutting
7. Road should be aligned on the side of hill which remains exposed to sun for the most of
winter
8. Sight distance should be at least equal to stopping distance.
9.

Introduction to Bio engineering:-

Nepal is very prone to soil erosion & slope instability. Each
year, thousands of lives and properties of several million dollars are lost & soil echo system is also
disturbed.
In this text, it is big challenge for engineers to solve the problems of erosion & slope
instability. Since, heavy civil engineering Structure is too costly, engineers of this field performed the
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research and experiments with living plants to control soil erosion and slope instability. The experience of
past several years also proved that such problems can be effectively controlled by using living plants with
or without medium or small scale civil engineering Structure. This integrated approach to control soil
erosion & slope instability (Shallow Seated) is known as Bio engineering.
Definition: - It is the use of living plants either alone or in combination with small scale civil engineering
structures to perform engineering function to control soil erosion & slope instability. The engineering
functions performed by bio engineering structure are
1) Catch
2) Armor
3) Reinforce
4) Anchor
5) Support
6) Drainage
Problems on slopes and function carried by civil & Bio engineering. Structure
Engineering function to be performed to control it
Problems on Hill
Civil engineering structure Bio engineering technique
Materials roll down the slope CATCH FUNCTION CATCH FUNCTION
Water enters into the slope
and liquefies the slope ARMOUR FUNCTION ARMOUR FUNCTION
material
Loose state of material REINFORCE FUNCTION REINFORCE FUNCTION
Slip of overlaying layer
SUPPORT FUNCTION SUPPORT FUNCTION
(Sedimentary layer) or strata
Tendency of slope to move
ANCHOR FUNCTION ANCHOR FUNCTION
outward and downward
Accumulation of water on the
DRAIN FUNCTION DRAIN FUNCTION
slope
CATCH FUNCTION: - It is the function which catches the eroded material rolling down the slope.
Movement may occur as a result of gravity alone, or with the aid of water as well. Material is caught by
physical barrier such as wall or the steam of vegetation or combination of both.
ARMOUR FUNCTION:- It is the function which armor the slope against erosion from surface run off and
rain splash. This may be got by stone pitching or plantation of grass, brush layering or combination of both.
REINFORCE: - This function physically stiffen the soil to increase the shear strength. Plants roots are
effective for it
ANCHOR:-It is the function which anchors the outer layer/surface layer to the stable deeper layer by soil
pinning. The roots of large plants emulate soil anchor or Rock bolts.
SUUPORT:-This function of support a soil mass by buttressing. On a large scale a retaining wall or the
roots of large plants like big bamboos clump can buttress the soil mass.
DRAINAGE:-This function drains the excess water from the slope.Dried materials tend to be more stable
than wetter ones. Generally failure occurs when the soil mass reaches the state of liquefaction. Standard
civil engineering drains or vegetation planted in lines angled down the slope help to drain the surface layer.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Bio engineering
Advantages
1) Protect almost all slopes against erosion.

2) Reduces the chance of shallow seated slope failure

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3) Improves the surface drainage and reducing the slumps

4) It is versatile and can be used in different forms

5) It is cost effective

6) It is environmental friendly

7) It is also beneficial to society and enhance the aesthetical look

8) It is the only solution when civil engineering solutions are not possible.

Disadvantages:-
1) Depth of root zone limits the performance of vegetation or Bio engineering.

2) It is not able to function in initial stage.

3) Root penetration into foundations and drains may damage it.

4) It may chok the waterway

5) Growth of vegetation on the structure reduces its life.

6) Needs aftercare, regular repair & maintenance.

Scope of Bio Engineering

1) Mining & reclamation

2) Highways & Railways

3) Construction sites

4) Waste disposal & public health

5) Airfields & helipads

6) Waterways

7) Land drainage

8) Reservoir & dams

9) Coastal and shoreline protection

10) Buildings and recreation

11) Pipelines & site appraisal.

JUSTIFICATION OF THE USE OF BIO ENGINEERING

1) By observation
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2) By calculation

3) By estimation

4) By interviews with local people

5) By case studies

6) By field visits.
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