Biology Notes

Subject Code: 5090

2019 Edition

Features:
 Sequentially described processes
 Enlisted text
 Labelled and annotated diagrams
 Graphic organizers
 Flow charts

MUHAMMAD SHAHID
GreenHall, SICAS-SLC
Cell: 0334-4463339
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Title Biology O-Level Notes (Article# 207)

Author Muhammad Shahid

Cell: 0334-4463339
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 PREFACE

I am delighted to share such a valuable resource material which develops

essential exam based concepts. Based on research, inquiry and my personal
experience, most of the books available in market (for syllabus code 5090) either
do not fully address all topics or have a lot of irrelevant content (not written only
for one syllabus code).

The main intention behind writing these notes was to bridge the gap between
understanding of concepts and their exam based application. All exam based links
have been connected and every stuff is presented in accordance with the syllabus
objectives. Convenience of students learning was specially considered and
tackled through enlisted text, labelled and annotated diagrams, use of
graphic organizers, flow charts and well sequentially described
facts/processes.

In the end, I wish this resource will prove its effectiveness and will
transform your learning and grades to excellence.

MUHAMMAD SHAHID
M.Phil (FSQM)
B.S (Hons) Biology
B.S Ed. (Hons) Education

Cell: +92 334 4463339

Facebook Page: Biology with Muhammad Shahid
 CONTENTS
UNIT-1: CELL STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION ........................................................... 6
UNIT-2: DIFFUSION, OSMOSIS AND ACTIVE TRANSPORT ........................................... 16
UNIT-3: ENZYMES ............................................................................................................. 26
UNIT-4: NUTRITION AND ANIMAL NUTRITION ............................................................... 32
NUTRITION ..................................................................................................................... 32
ANIMAL NUTRITION ....................................................................................................... 40
UNIT-5: PLANT NUTRITION .............................................................................................. 56
UNIT-6: TRANSPORT IN FLOWERING PLANTS .............................................................. 70
UNIT-7: TRANSPORT IN HUMANS ................................................................................... 82
UNIT-8: RESPIRATION ...................................................................................................... 96
UNIT-9: EXCRETION ....................................................................................................... 108
UNIT-10: HOMEOSTASIS ................................................................................................ 114
UNIT-11: COORDINATION AND RESPONSE ................................................................. 122
NERVOUS SYSTEM ..................................................................................................... 122
THE HUMAN EYE ......................................................................................................... 129
THE HORMONES ......................................................................................................... 135
UNIT-12: SUPPORT, MOVEMENTAND LOCOMOTION .................................................. 140
UNIT-13: THE USE AND ABUSE OF DRUGS ................................................................. 144
UNIT-14: MICROORGANISMS AND BIOTECHNOLOGY ................................................ 150
UNIT-15: ECOLOGY AND HUMAN IMPACT ON ECOSYSTEM ...................................... 160
ECOLOGY .................................................................................................................... 160
HUMAN IMPACT ON ECOSYSTEM .............................................................................. 167
UNIT-16: REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND HUMANS ................................................. 174
REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS ...................................................................................... 174
REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS ..................................................................................... 183
UNIT-17: INHERITANCE .................................................................................................. 198
 Biology O-Level Notes 5 U-1: Cell Structure and Organization
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Syllabus 2019-2021

CELL
STRUCTURE
AND
ORGANIZATION

O-Level
Biology
Notes

Muhammad Shahid
SICAS-SLC, GHA
Cell: 0334-4463339

3-C, Zahoor Elahi Road, Gulberg II, Lahore.

Tel: 042-35714038
Cell: 0336-5314141
Web: www.readnwrite.org
E-mail: [email protected]
Biology O-Level Notes 6 U-1: Cell Structure and Organization
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UNIT-1: CELL STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION

Cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life or living organisms. Almost every cell
has the capability of dividing (by mitosis, meiosis or binary fission-bacteria) and carrying out
various specialized activities/jobs. On the basis of number of cells; living organisms can be
classified as:
1) Unicellular (Which consists of a single cell e.g. bacteria and yeast)
2) Multicellular (Which consists of many cells e.g. animals
and plants) Remember! Viruses are
Despite of the fact that either it’s an animal or a plant; their sub-cellular structures;
cells share some common features like having cell made up of protein and
membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus. Let’s have a look at nucleic acid (DNA or
the detailed structure and function of each component. RNA).
 Cell Membrane
Cell membrane surrounds the cytoplasm in animal cells whereas in case of plant cells it’s
present toward the inner side of cell wall (Plant cell – cell wall is outermost layer).
Function
Being partially/selectively/differentially permeable membrane; cell surface membrane
controls the movement of substance into and out of the cell. Here keep in mind one thing
that substances can only pass in form of solution (mixed with water). Some examples of
substances that are allowed to enter or leave the cells includes; O2, CO2 and H2O. On the
other hand salts, ions or minerals are not allowed to move freely across the cell surface
membrane; in fact active transport term is applied to their movement (details of active
transport are covered in next topic).
 Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm is a jelly like substance which is present in-between cell membrane and nuclear
membrane (also called as nuclear envelope). Various organelles (specialized structures for
definite function) like mitochondria, golgi bodies, endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes are
present in it.
Function
All the organelles present in cytoplasm carry out various chemical reactions; all these
reactions are termed as ‘metabolic reactions’. Metabolic process can be classified into two
types; namely catabolism and anabolism.

Metabolism

Catabolism
Catabolism is the breakdown of complex organic molecues into simpler molecules
e.g. respiration

Anabolism
Anabolism is the synthesis or formation of complex molecules from simpler molecules
e.g. photosynthesis
Biology O-Level Notes 7 U-1: Cell Structure and Organization
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 Nucleus
In animal cells nucleus is present in the center of cell whereas in plant cells it is present on
the side; because center is occupied by large vacuole. Nucleoplasm is the material
surrounded by nuclear membrane or nuclear envelope and altogether it forms the nucleus.
Function
For sake of understanding we can make an analogy that
nucleus act in the same way as brain of your body. Here in Remember!
cell; nucleus controls all the metabolic reactions in Chromosome number is
cytoplasm, but how? Nucleus contains the hereditary fixed in every species,
material in form of chromosomes. Each chromosome is like humans have 46
made of chemical called DNA – coiled around special chromosomes in their
proteins. Specific fragment or length of DNA encodes every cell.
information for a particular protein or trait. This fragment of
DNA is called as gene. Information from gene can be copied and carried to the cytoplasm;
where activities take place accordingly.

In conclusion we can say that cytoplasm and nucleoplasm altogether is called as

protoplasm – the living content of the cell. In addition to cell membrane, cytoplasm and
nucleus; plant cells additionally contain vacuole, cell wall and chloroplast.

 Vacuole
Plant cells possess a large central vacuole which is also called as SAP Vacuole. Sap
vacuole contains cell sap which is enclosed in vacuolar membrane (tonoplast). Main
ingredients of cell sap include water, sugar and most of the waste products.
Function
The main constituent of the cell sap is water which helps in Remember! Animal cells
generating turgor pressure (a force applied by water which are yet immature
molecules on vacuolar membrane). In plant leaves; turgor sometimes contain
pressure helps in keeping leaves firm and face to sunlight for numerous small
efficient process of photosynthesis. vacuoles, but once they
mature and become
 Cell Wall specialised these
vacuoles disappears.
Cell wall is fully permeable. Salts in water (solution) can
simply diffuse across it.
Biology O-Level Notes 8 U-1: Cell Structure and Organization
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Function
Being tough and flexible it serves various functions like Remember! Plant cell
maintaining cell shape and turgidity (when water enters the wall is made up of
cell as result of osmosis). Further it helps in preventing cell cellulose, fungi cell wall is
bursting on attaining turgor pressure. composed of chitin and
bacterial cell wall is made
 Chloroplast up of peptidoglycan or
Chloroplasts are green pigment containing organelles richly murein
present in green parts of the plants like leaves. Chlorophyll
is the pigment present in these membrane bounded structures.
Function
Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll pigment which has the capability to absorb/capture light to
produce a simple glucose molecule and O2 produces as waste. This overall process carried
by chloroplasts is termed as photosynthesis.

COMPARE AND CONTRAST

PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL

1. Outermost layer is 1. Outermost layer is cell

cellulose cell wall membrane (Cell wall
2. Excessive absent)
carbohydrates are 2. Excessive carbohydrates
 Nucleus are stored in form of
stored in form of starch
 Cell membrane glycogen (in cytoplasm)
(in cytoplasm)
 Cytoplasm 3. Chloroplasts absent
3. Chloroplasts present
4. Possess a large central 4. Immature cells have small
vacuole vacuoles, which disappears
5. Larger in size later
5. Smaller in size
Biology O-Level Notes 9 U-1: Cell Structure and Organization
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SPECIALIZED CELLS
Zygote is the first cell of any new living organism. Zygote continue to divide (as result of
mitosis) in order to make millions of cells in multicellular organisms. Here the concern is, why
these cells are different in shape despite of the fact that they arise from same cell (zygote)?
Answer is division of labor and adaption to become specialized cell! Every cell modifies its
shape to accomplish its function to perfection. Some of the examples of specialized cells
include; root hair cells, xylem cells and red blood cells.

 Root Hair Cell in View

 Red Blood Cell Appearance

 Xylem Vessels
An immature plant cell went through series of changes to be
modified into specialised xylem vessels
1. Increase their length (elongate)
2. Loss of cell contents as result of cell death and thus
become hollow inside
3. Loss of end walls
Remember! Lignin (a
4. Addition or accumulation of strengthening material complex natural polymer)
like lignin. as constituent of cell wall
cause death of cell and
add strength
Biology O-Level Notes 10 U-1: Cell Structure and Organization
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 A summary of Specialized Cells

Root Hair Cell Red Blood Cell Xylem

 Protrusion or  Thinner in middle  Just made up of
outgrowth in the and thicker at the cellulose cell wall
root epidermal cells edges thus they (No protoplasm)
Structural make the rood hair appear biconcave  Dead cells due to
Characteristics  Nucleus present  Contains a pigment deposits of lignin
 Vacuole also called haemoglobin
extended in the  Lack nucleus
outgrowth
Absorb water, Absorb/carry/transpor Transport water and
Function minerals and t oxygen and carbon minerals and provide
salts/ions dioxide support to the stem
Root hairs are in RBCs are equipped Xylem vessels are
direct contact with with haemoglobin extended from roots,
the soil particles and with large through stem to the
(surrounded by thin surface area to leaves. Firstly being
moisture film). volume ratio (being hollow inside (due to
Protrusion/outgrowth biconcave). They can death of cell and loss
(root hair) provides diffuse gasses at a of protoplasm) xylem
large surface area to faster rate and vessels transport
volume ratio for beauty of perfection water and minerals to
Reasoning greater and faster is absence of the aerial parts of the
rate of absorption of nucleus. The plant. Secondly the
mineral ions and absence of nucleus deposits of lignin
water helps in cause death of cells
accommodating more and added
haemoglobin and support/strength to
squeezing through the stem particularly.
narrow blood
capillaries (added
flexibility).

CELL TO ORGANISM
Different organelles in the cell collectively perform functions for a simplistic unit of life termed
as a ‘cell’.
Normally cells prefer to show a collective effort by grouping with other similar structured and
functioned cells. This group of cells which have common/specific function is called a ‘tissue’
e.g. blood, muscle, nerve, xylem, phloem, palisade, mesophyll and epidermis.
Tissues in turn work and combine together with other tissues to make an ‘organ’ e.g. heart,
leaf, flower, root and stem.
Several organs jointly perform a particular function through a system. This system is termed
as ‘organ system’ e.g. digestive, respiratory, excretory, reproductive, and nervous.
Now various systems work together to accomplish bodily activities and form an ‘organism’.
Biology O-Level Notes 11 U-1: Cell Structure and Organization
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CELL
Nerve Cell (Neuron)

TISSUE
Nervous Tissue

ORGAN
Brain

ORGAN SYSTEM
Central Nervous System

ORGANISM
Human Being

Levels of Organization

 An analysis of level of organization in plants

Biology O-Level Notes 12 U-1: Cell Structure and Organization
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CONCEPT MAP

SYLLABUS CHECK LIST Cell Structure and Organization

After reading chapter are you able to:
 examine under the microscope an animal cell (e.g. from fresh liver) and a plant
cell (e.g. from Elodea, a moss, onion epidermis, or any suitable, locally available
material), using an appropriate temporary staining technique, such as iodine or
methylene blue
 draw diagrams to represent observations of the plant and animal cells examined
above
 identify, from fresh preparations or on diagrams or photomicrographs, the cell
membrane, nucleus and cytoplasm in an animal cell
 identify, from diagrams or photomicrographs, the cellulose cell wall, cell
membrane, sap vacuole, cytoplasm, nucleus and chloroplasts in a plant cell
 compare the visible differences in structure of the animal and the plant cells
examined
 state the function of the cell membrane in controlling the passage of substances
into and out of the cell
 state the function of the cell wall in maintaining turgor (turgidity) within the cell
 state, in simple terms, the relationship between cell function and cell structure for
the following:
 absorption – root hair cells
 conduction and support – xylem vessels
Biology O-Level Notes 13 U-1: Cell Structure and Organization
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 transport of oxygen – red blood cells

 identify these cells from preserved material under the microscope, from
diagrams and from photomicrographs
differentiate cell, tissue, organ and organ system as illustrated by examples covered
in sections 1 to 12, 15 and 16.
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