SPADE CLEP Manual - July 23 Small1 PDF
SPADE CLEP Manual - July 23 Small1 PDF
SPADE CLEP Manual - July 23 Small1 PDF
CHICKEN
FARMING
TRAINING MANUAL
ISBN : 978-9966-30-005-8
Contents
Foreword 1
TOPIC 1. ROLE OF INDIGENOUS CHICKEN IN HOUSEHOLD ECONOMY 2
Introduction 2
Ownership of Indigenous Chicken 3
TOPIC 2. GENDER AND INDIGENOUS CHICKEN FARMING 4
Topic 3. INDIGENOUS CHICKEN PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 5
Basic Production Characteristics for Indigenous Chicken 7
Topic 4. Cost Benefit Analysis Of A Small Scale Indigenous Chicken Production System 8
52 Weeks Plan 8
Topic 5. POULTRY DISEASE CONTROL 12
What is Disease? 12
Why Learn Disease Management and Control? 12
Causes of Disease 12
Factors Influencing the Health Status of Indigenous Chicken 13
Categories of Common Poultry Diseases 15
Topic 6. BIO-SECURITY 16
Common Bio-security Measures 17
Topic 7. VACCINES AND VACCINATION 18
Why Vaccinate? 18
Vaccine Specificity 18
Rules of Vaccination 18
Vaccine Administration 19
Poultry Disease Diagnosis 22
History 22
Observations of Chicken 22
Severity and Nature of the Disease 22
Management Factors 22
How the Disease Might Have Entered the Flock 23
Clinical Examination of the Whole Fock and its Environment 23
Examination of the Whole Flock 23
Examination of the Environment 23
Examination of a Bird 24
Pre-requisites for Brooding 26
Topic 8. CHICK PLACEMENT AND BROODING 26
Why Brood? 27
Preparations for Chick Placement 27
Preparation of a Brooder Guard 28
Chick Check 28
Feed Management 28
Light Management 28
Brooding Temperature 28
Chick Behaviuor 29
Induction of Chicks 29
Temperature Step Down 30
Chick Mortality 30
Topic 9. HOUSING 31
Why Should Chicken be Housed? 31
Site Selection for Poultry Houses 32
Materials for Building a Poultry House 32
Importance of Perches 33
Nests 34
Chicken Runs 35
Topic 10. FEEDING INDIGENOUS CHICKEN 36
What to Feed? 37
Scavenging 37
Types of Feeds 38
Simple Feed Mixing 40
Ingredient Quantity 40
Simple Techniques for Growing Maggots and Termites 41
How Much to Feed? 41
How to Feed? 42
Feed Mixing and Formulation 42
Cafeteria System 43
Common Feedstuff Problems 43
Feeders and Drinkers 43
Topic 11. POULTRY SELECTION AND BREEDING 45
Introduction 45
Chicken Selection 45
Breeds and Selection 45
Breeding 47
Different Types of Chicken Breeds 48
Features of Specialized Birds 49
Cross-breeding 50
Cockerel Exchange Programs 50
Topic 12. RECORD KEEPING 51
Types of Record Sheets 52
Commercialization 54
Topic 13. MARKETING OF PRODUCTS 54
Introduction 54
Birds for Sale 55
Eggs for Sale 55
Economic Analysis and Simple Risk Assessment 56
Topic 14. CHICKEN PROCESSING 57
Pre-slaughter 57
Slaughter 57
Evisceration 58
Foreword
Kenya has an estimated poultry population of 32 million birds, with indigenous chicken forming the
largest proportion of 75%, layers and broilers 24% while other poultry species make up 2 %. The industry
is thus an important source of food, income, employment and has many social and cultural uses in
addition to having linkages with other sectors of the economy.
Indigenous chicken offer a flexible production system, adaptable to many agro-ecological zones and are
often ranked highly as an existing resource whose productivity can be increased with minimal inputs.
As such, they are highly suitable for vulnerable households and are often owned and managed by women
and children. Products from these chickens can improve nutrition security by providing high-quality
animal protein (eggs and meat) at the household level. Commercializing the indigenous chicken sector
has had several challenges among them frequent disease outbreaks, poor access to improved breeding
stock, inadequate management skills, knowledge and information leading to poor productivity and loss
of market opportunities.
It is important for producers to learn and adopt good management practices that keep their chicken
healthy and productive. Training of service providers is thus an important part of a comprehensive
indigenous chicken improvement program. Good management practices and information should also be
accompanied by appropriate organizational and cost effective practices by all value chain stakeholders.
This manual is a reference material for trainers and other service providers who embark on an indigenous
chicken improvement program. The manual focuses on the use of good management practices for a
successful indigenous chicken business.
1
TOPIC 1.
Introduction
Indigenous chicken are the most abundant livestock in many rural and peri-urban households
in Kenya. These chickens are also referred to as rural, village, backyard, scavenging, traditional
or family chickens, and have various names in local languages. They play an important role in
household economies in that they convert feed resources available in the homestead or household
into highly nutritious and valuable protein products. Although their output in terms of weight gain
and number of eggs per hen per year is low, it is obtained with minimal labour and other inputs.
This factor of low input and, consequently, low risk is one of the major advantages of extensive
indigenous chicken production systems. Significant returns can be achieved from indigenous
chicken without the need for expensive housing, complex technology and funding just by utilizing
locally available resources.
Interventions aimed at improving productivity will consequently improve incomes and knowledge
of household members. Improvement programs should thus take advantage of the natural
competitive advantages inherent in indigenous chicken production systems.
Animal protein consumed in rural areas frequently comes from indigenous chicken meat and
eggs. Chicken can also be sold or bartered to meet family needs such as medicines, clothes and
school fees. In this way, they act as a ready source of cash for emergencies and small purchases.
They also provide manure and play a role in pest control. These birds are also important during
special festivals, traditional ceremonies and treatments..
Chicken meat and eggs provide a readily available, high-quality source of proteins, vitamins and
micronutrients. Eggs are an excellent source of iron, zinc and vitamin A, all of which are essential
to health, growth and wellbeing. Chicken and eggs contribute to a nutritious, balanced diet, which
is especially important for children, nursing mothers and many vulnerable groups.
2
Ownership of Indigenous Chicken
Nearly all rural and peri-urban households keep small flocks of indigenous chicken,
mostly owned and managed by women and children. Simple changes in management of
indigenous chickens can significantly improve production and the living conditions of
many rural families in terms of enhanced nutrition and income generation through the
sale of surplus chickens or eggs. Improved indigenous chicken production is therefore
a low-cost and important aspect of enhancing food and nutritional security.
3
Topic 2.
Analysis of gender relations is of major importance for any type of intervention in rural areas,
because the paradigms of access, control and benefits of resources and consequently of exclusion
are based on the social relations between men and women.
Therefore, the understanding of gender relations and their implications for livestock rearing are
important in promoting appropriate interventions. Different members of the household can have
different, even contradictory, interests in agricultural production and livestock. The processes
of decision making in households and communities are complex and dynamic. Although male
and female farmers have a lot in common, they often have different interests and problems. Men
and women may have different interests in relation to animals they have access to and control
over. With the animals raised, each species plays a specific role and is owned and cared for by
different individuals in the household.
4
Topic 3.
A: Traditional free-range;
B: Improved semi-free-range and
C: Small-scale confined system
ii) Improved semi-free range system iii) Small scale confined system
5
Table 1: Indigenous Chicken Production Systems
Criteria A: Traditional free range B: Improved semi-free range C: Small scale confined
Flock size 1-10 birds 5-50 birds or above More than 100
Ownership Mostly owned by women Owned by women and family Businessmen and women
Annual egg
30-50 50-180 250-300
production
6
Basic production characteristics for indigenous chicken:
1. Hens will start laying when aged 24 - 30 weeks’ old
2. At any given time, only about half the hens are productive and some 8 - 10% are out of lay.
3. Egg weight averages 40 g (range 35 - 65 g).
4. Most birds produce 2 - 4 clutches per year, although some birds may produce 5 - 6 clutches. There
are about 10 eggs per clutch, with a range of between 5 and 20.
5. About 70 - 90% of the eggs will hatch (depending on management practices). Only 20 - 50% of chicks
hatched will reach productive age. Approximately 85% of these losses occur in the first 3 weeks of
life. Adult mortality is very variable and depends on specific local conditions and the occurrence of
diseases.
6. Both sexes have a body weight of about 1.2 kg at 10 - 12 weeks (although males are slightly heavier).
Adult hens weigh between 1.0 and 1.5 kg, while roosters weigh between 1.3 and 2.5 kg.
5 month period
Market
7
Topic 4.
52 weeks plan
In the example referred to in Table 2 (below), the flock size is initially 5 hens and 1 cock, all
indigenous chicken. A production may also start with less, i.e. only 1 hen laying eggs, fertilized
by a free range cock from a neighborhood. Figures will then have to be adjusted accordingly. With
1 cock and 5 hens, of which no more than 3 hens at any given time are allowed to go broody, the
flock size may grow to a maximum of 24 growers and 6 adults which is manageable for a free
range poultry enterprise. Under a free range system the scavenging feed resources on the farm
will be less depleted if the flock size is kept small (below 6 - 10 adults and 20 - 30 growers and
chicks).
1. 3 hens sitting on eggs, 1 cock roaming with 2 hens 2. 3 hens each with 8 chicks walking and feeding
3. Vaccinating chicken through an eye drop. 4. Selling of chicken (hens and cockerels)
8
Table 2: Input and output of a free range indigenous chicken enterprise
Supplementary feeding should also be low to reduce costs. However, chicks aged a day old-to-8 weeks
should be supplemented. On average each bird will be given 2 kg feed for 8 weeks. This corresponds to
2,000 g/56 days. Chicks will eat or feed on less while older birds will eat more. 2 batches of 24 growers
will require feed two times 22 - 24 weeks, i.e. 44 - 48 weeks, on average 46 weeks. The total annual need
for feed in a flock of 6 adults and 24 chicks and growers is calculated below.
Supplementary feed needed for a flock of 30 birds in one year.
9
Improved management and feeding increases egg production of the non-broody hens to 104 eggs per
hen per year, i.e. 2 eggs per week on average.
For three hens going broody only twice a year, the total egg production will be
3 x 72 = 216 eggs/year.
A production of 24 cockerels and 24 pullets per year (Table 2 and 3) is based on the following assumptions:
1. The sex ratio of hatched chicks is assumed to be 50:50.
2. A well-managed broody hen will sit on 12 eggs and hatch on average 10 chicks (about 80% hatchability).
3. Using the basket system (housing) and improved management, chick mortality will reduce to a maximum
of 1 chick out of ten during the first 4 weeks (equal to 10%) and 1 grower out of nine in the remaining 20
weeks.
4. At the age of 22-24 weeks, when the growers are sold, on average 8 growers per batch will be alive.
5. Using three broody hens, a total of 3 x 8 growers = 24 birds may be sold twice a year.
A well-managed production plan means selling birds at the time of highest price, and buying feeds, new
hens or inputs (e.g.feeders and drinkers) at the time of the lowest price. For many farmers this means
keeping the birds in the flock until the festive season (e.g. IDD, Christmas, Easter or national holidays),
where they may get a price often two or three times the normal price. However, it is important to stress
that keeping birds in the flock means more feed and a higher risk in terms of loosing birds through
predators, diseases or theft. In general birds should be sold no later than at the age of maturity, e.g. 22
- 32 weeks of age.
In the example, in Table 2 and 3, the cost of feeding one bird was KES. 110.50 every 4 weeks, as one
kg feed costing KES.15 would be spent during 4 weeks. In this case, if you want to keep a chicken for
4 weeks longer in the flock, you should be sure to gain more than KES. 110.50, from the market price.
Otherwise, it would be better to sell 4 weeks earlier at a lower price, and thus be able to restock with
new growers. Thus, by knowing the market and environmental conditions and by doing simple economic
calculations, you will be able to plan when you should sell your birds, when you should let your hens go
broody, and when you should keep your birds in the flock.
10
Table 3: Cost-benefit analysis
Miscellaneous
Income (Benefit)
11
Topic 5.
What is disease?
Disease can be defined as any change or impairment of normal body function that affects the chickens’
ability to survive, grow or reproduce.
An understanding of the cause of a disease and its method of spread (transmission) will assist in
controlling it. Knowledge of the clinical signs of a disease and the characteristics of lesions found at Post-
mortem will help in its diagnosis and instituting preventative measures.
Causes of Disease
Many diseases – called infectious diseases – are caused by organisms that can be transmitted from
one bird to another. Such organisms include viruses, bacteria, fungi and protozoans. Other infectious
organisms are external (lice, fleas and ticks) or internal (roundworms, tapeworms, flukes) parasites.
In many cases, disease results from a combination of factors such as husbandry, nutrition, environmental
factors and flock management. All these have a direct and important influence on the health and
productivity of chickens.
12
Factors Influencing the Health Status of Indigenous Chicken
General condition
Age
Stress
Inherited characteristics Climate (temperature,
Susceptibility to disease rain, wind)
Housing conditions
Availablity of water
Chicken Availability of feed
Feed Quality
Air Quality
Environment
Infectious Agents
Viruses
Bacteria
Mycoplasmas
Fungi
Parasites
13
Characteristics of Unhealthy birds
• Tired and lifeless
• Dull eyes and comb
• Sit or lie down
• Eat and drink less
• Diarrhea
Droopy
• Lay less or stop laying eggs
• Ruffled and loose feathers
• Wet droppings with blood or worms
• Cough, sneeze and breathe noisily.
14
Categories of Common Poultry Diseases
Diseases in poultry are divided into three categories and the importance of a disease is judged by its
mortality rate and effect on production;
a) Diseases of High importance:
These are diseases with high mortality (more than 30% of the flock), highly contagious and difficult to
treat. They include diseases such as;
• Newcastle Disease
• Avian Influenza (AI)
• Fowl pox
• Fowl cholera (pasteurellosis)
• Coccidiosis (internal parasites)
15
Topic 6.
BIO-SECURITY
Biosecurity is a set of management practices which
when followed, collectively reduce the likehood of
introducing or spreading disease causing organisms
onto and between sites.
Most infectious agents enter the chicken via the beak
while eating, drinking or cleaning its feathers, or
during breathing. Other infectious agents can infect a
wounded chicken. The agent then multiplies within the
chicken and may spread, causing damage to certain
organs result into clinical signs. After multiplication,
some of the infectious agents leave the chicken through
droppings, in discharges from lesions, in its breath, or
even on dropped feathers. When other chicken come
Fig. 9: A fenced poultry unit with restricted entry
into contact with these contaminated items, then they
and a pedestrian foot bath at the entrance.
too may get infected.
Infectious agents can survive outside the chicken for
variable periods. Worm eggs and coccidia, for example,
can survive for several months in the environment NOTE: Some infectious poultry diseases for
while some other infectious agents are easily destroyed example Newcastle disease cannot be controlled
by sunlight, disinfectant or heat. by good production and flock management alone.
In the spread of diseases caused by agents that are Such diseases are caused by contagious viruses
easily destroyed, a direct contact between the chicken and can lead to high losses in chicken or other
and agents is necessary. Infectious agents that can poultry species. Because of their huge impact
survive for a certain period in the environment can on the poultry industry, they are referred to as
also be spread via persons, animals and materials that notifiable diseases. Outbreaks must be reported
might carry the agent. The infectious agent might be
to, and control measures coordinated by, the
carried with small traces of droppings on shoes, or
veterinary departments.
in the dust or small feathers attached to any rough
surface, on the eggshell or any part of a dead chicken.
Once infectious agent enter the chicken, the chicken does not get sick immediately. It usually takes some days
for the bird to show signs of illness. This period is reffered to as the ‘incubation period’. During this period the
bird does not show any signs of disease but the number of infectious organisms inside it increases rapidly and
some organisms may leave the bird when it breathes or drinks or passes droppings. This means that the agents
causing an infectious disease can be spreading even before clinical signs of the disease are manifested.
Some infectious diseases can also be spread vertically, i.e. from the hen to its offspring, via the eggs. To date,
vertically transmitted diseases are more of a problem in commercial poultry enterprises.
16
Vehicles
Environment
17
Topic 7.
Vaccines protect chicken from infectious diseases but they cannot treat diseases. Moreover, vaccines are
disease-specific and protect chicken against a specific disease rather than all diseases. Vaccines work
best on healthy, well-managed chicken.
Why Vaccinate?
1. Because many infectious disease agents are always
present in the environment and are difficult to control
even with the best bio-security measures
2. To reduce losses due to morbidity and mortality caused
by infectious agents
3. To protect chicken against diseases causing egg
production drop and egg shell deformities
Vaccine Specificity
A particular vaccine will protect chicken against a specific disease. Chicken may suffer from other
diseases despite successful vaccination. VACCINATION can NEVER provide 100% protection; but it is
part of a complex preventative policy of which biosecurity and hygiene are equally essential.
Rules of Vaccination
1. Vaccination should not to be administered to sick birds
2. Always adhere to the genetic make-up of the chicken
3. Cost the benefits of vaccination against potential loss
4. Maternal antibody status - often have a significant effect on the design of a vaccination programme.
18
Vaccine Administration NOTE: Vaccination programmes are NOT universal
Vaccines should be stored at 4 - 8oC and and have to be designed based on:
protected from heat and direct sunlight.
• Type of chicken
Vaccines should be transported in a coolbox.
All equipments used for vaccination should be • Production systems
disinfected in boiling water. • Disease prevalence in the local area
iii) Skin piercing (wing web) iv) Orally (in feed or water)
Fig. 12. Some vaccination methods
19
NOTE: It is best to vaccinate birds during the cool hours of the day, either in the
morning or evening. Vaccines should be used within 60 minutes after reconstitution.
Always consult a veterinarian when in doubt before vaccination
Vaccination tools include Vaccines, Distilled water, Sterile needles, syringes, Cool box and a clean
apron and gumboots.
Viral
Vent pecking,
Ages severely
Diarrhoea with urate
affected 14 -28
in mucus, Sudden • Moderate deaths
days;
Oral, death, PM-Skeletal • Secondary • Vaccination as
Gumboro signs commonest
Respiratory tract bleeding, Swollen infections scheduled
at 4-6 weeks of
Bursa of Fabricious,
life. Virus resistant
Dehydration, Swollen
in houses and
kidneys with urates.
droppings.
Cutaneous form:
Nodular lesions or
non-feathered skin • Retarded growth
• Decreased egg
Diphtheritic form: • Vaccination and
Fowl pox Viral Contact production
Lesions on mucus Quarantine
• Low or moderate
membranes of mouth, mortalities
oesophagus, pharynx
and trachea
20
Incubation period of
1-3 days, fast spread • Antibiotic;
Bacteria of disease to the whole Flouroquinolones,
Survives for 2-3 flock • Loss of condition might prevent
Infectious days outside the Facial swelling • Drop in egg- carriers.
Conjuctiva or nasal
Coryza bird but is easily production • Keep Coryza-free
killed by heat,drying Purulent ocular and • Low mortality birds
and disinfectant. nasal discharge • Proper management
Sneezing and of the flock.
dyspnoea
Coccidia
A protozoan with • Outbreaks treated
several species immediately using
Parasites multiply coccidiostats
Bloody stained • Impaired feed
intracellularly, • Avoid contamination
Ingestion of droppings or yellowish utilization or
infection common in of feeds and water
contaminated feed diarrhoea conversion
Coccidosis over-stocked flocks by droppings
with bird droppings • Uneven growth
Oocysts remain • Avoid wet-litter
containing oocysts High mortality around • High death rates
viable for many the 6-8th week of life • Avoid over-crowding
• Low production
months but killed • Coccidiostats mixed
by freezing, extreme in feeds for young
dryness and high flocks
temperatures
• Downgrading of
• Use appropriate
eggs - Loss of shell
dewormers e.g.
colour, strength,
Several worms Fenbendazole,
yolk colour and
Piperazine or
Loss of body condition egg size
Infestation with e.g Ingestion of Levamisole
Internal • Poor weight
Round worms, infective stage of Death in heavy • Strict sanitation
parasites gain, poor feed
Ascarides, Cestodes, worms infestations • Segregate birds by
conversion
Tapeworms age group
• Increased
• Clean house before
cannibalism via
introduction of new
vent pecking due
batch
to straining
• Use appropriate
Uncomfortable- • Retarded growth acaricides
Scratching, pecking, • Reduced egg- e.g. Synthetic
External Mites, Fleas, Lice
Contact irritation, blood loss, production Pyrethroid,
parasites and Ticks
loss of feathers • Damaged plumage Organophosphates
• Death • Ensure strict
hygiene
21
Poultry Disease Diagnosis
History
The case history will give information about
the course of disease (number of birds affected,
severity and duration of the disease), the means
of introduction into the flock and whether or not
the disease is infectious. The person looking
after the chicken should be asked the following
questions since they generally have a better
understanding of what is going on in the flock.
Observations of chicken:
a) Why do you think the chickens are
sick?
b) Describe the signs observed.
c) What age groups are affected by the
disease (chicks, growers, adults)?
d) When did your chicken become sick?
Fig. 13: A farmer observing her chicken.
Management factors:
a) Do you provide feed and water for your chickens?
b) If yes: how often do you provide them with fresh feed and water?
c) What do you feed your chickens with and how much do you give them?
d) Where do you keep the chickens at night?
e) If you provide housing for your chickens, how often do you clean the shelter?•
f) Did you use any traditional remedies or drugs for your chickens?
22
g) Have the birds been vaccinated?
h) When and what vaccine was used?
23
examination of A bird
Comb
Bright and red
Eyes
Bright and clear of any
discharge or swelling
Nostrils
Dry and free of fluid
Beak
Meet perfectly and not
crossed
Feathers
Shiny and free of parasites Vent
Feathers should be clean
and free of mess
Shanks
Scales should be smooth Toes
and not scaly or falling off Should not be crooked or
twisted
To examine a sick chicken you will have to catch and hold it in your hands in a way that does not injure
the bird. Examine the bird thoroughly for the following signs:
General signs
a) Is the bird active or sleepy?
b) Are the feathers smooth, clean and free of external parasites?
c) Is the bird well nourished? (Feel the breast muscle of the bird: birds that have been sick for
a long time lose body weight and have a thin breast muscle. Feel the muscle of other birds for
comparison.)
d) Has the bird eaten within the last few hours? Feel the crop to confirm.
24
Respiratory signs
a) Is the bird breathing through an open beak?
b) Is the breathing noisy?
c) Is the bird coughing or sneezing?
d) Are there swellings around the eyes and discharge from the eyes, nose or beak? If present,
nasal discharge can be squeezed out by pressing gently above the nostrils.
Diarrhoea
a) Are the feathers around the vent dirty? The feathers will be dirty when the bird has diarrhoea.
Nervous signs
a) Does the bird show any nervous signs (e.g. twisted neck, trembling)?
Movement
a) Is the bird lame?
b) Are the joints swollen?
c) Are the legs and wings in a normal position
NOTE: Submit whole chicken (dead or alive) to the lab when necessary
for confirmatory diagnosis.
25
Topic 8.
Handling of the day-old chick and management of the brooding program has a direct relationship on life-
time production of the bird – whether indigenous chicken, breeders, layers or broilers, as well as flock
mortality. The four factors to control are;
1. Feed
2. Water NOTE: Effective chick management begins
3. Temperature before the day-old chicks arrive.
4. Air quality
5. Hygiene
26
Why Brood?
A newly hatched chick has not developed the
mechanism to regulate its body temperature.
Therefore, it cannot maintain its body temperature
properly for the first few weeks and is subject to
chilling.
Artificial brooding is mainly aimed at providing
the right temperature for the chicks. Brooding will
help to provide extra heat, from external sources
to newly hatched chicks. When artificial heat is not
provided the chicks will not take sufficient feeds
and water. This leads to retardation of growth and
poor development of internal organs, responsible for
digestion. Thus the chick will not be able to digest
the yolk completely.
Egg yolk is a highly nutritious feed for chicks. As
such if it is not absorbed completely by the chick, i) Cleaning of house and removal of cobwebs
27
Preparation of a Brooder Guard
Use an 18 inch cardboard sheet, aluminum sheet, coffee wire as brooder guard material to make a
circle that uses 20 feet in diameter of the brooder guard for 50 chicks; 25 feet for 100 chicks; 30 feet
for 150 chicks; 35 feet for 200 chicks. The brooder should be ready prior to disinfection. Fill the ring
with suitable litter material such as wood shaving or straw up to 4 inches thick from the floor, and then
spread newspapers to cover the litter on the floor. The heat source should be placed at the centre of the
brooder ring.
Chick Check
The crops of chicks should be checked the morning after placement to ensure they have found feed and
water. At this time, a minimum of 95% of the crops should feel soft and pliable indicating chicks have
successfully located feed and water. Hard crops indicate chicks have not found adequate water and
water availability should be checked immediately. Swollen and distended crops indicate chicks have
located water but insufficient feed and in this case the availability and consistency of the feed should be
immediately evaluated.
Feed Management
The use of supplemental feeder trays at placement is recommended to help chicks get off to the best
start possible. Trays should be provided at the rate of 1 per 100 chicks and should be placed between
the main feed and drinkers adjacent to the brooders. Supplemental feeders should be provided for the
first 7-10 days.
Light Management
Continuous lighting should be provided for the first 48 - 72 hours post placement. For the first 7 days
light is required to help chicks find feed and water.
Brooding Temperature
The ideal brooding temperatures are as measured at the edge of the hover and 5 cm above the litter
surface. The best time to observe the chicks and make temperature adjustment should be during the
coldest times of the day. Thermometers may not always be available. Therefore, use the behaviour of
chicks as a guide.
28
Chick Behaviuor
Adequate floor, feeder and drinking spaces are also important, relative humidity, light and ventilation
should be provided for optimum comfort of the chicks. Free moving spaces should be provided all around
the feeders and drinkers, so that the chicks can feed and drink freely.
Induction of Chicks
1. Light the brooder heat source an hour prior to chick arrival so that the ring temperature is 32oC.
2. Count the chicks properly while receiving.
3. Release the chicks into the brooder ring after dipping their beaks in water.
4. Wait for some time to allow the chicks to take water before introducing feed in a chick feeding tray
or clean egg tray. Do not sprinkle feed on the newspaper as this will get contaminated.
5. For the first 3 days watch whether the chicks have taken feed and water at 2-3 hours interval
6. Remove and replace the top newspapers daily and remove any wet litter immediately
29
Temperature Step Down
Step down temperatures in the brooder at the rate of 2o C every 7 days. This will ensure that chicks
adapt to the ambient temperatures of 18 - 22o C after the brooding period of 28 days.
34.0
32.0
30.0
28.0
Degrees Celcius
26.0
24.0
22.0
20.0
18.0
16.0
0 7 14 21 28 35
Days
Chick Mortality
It is important to know the reasons for early chick mortality as they can be prevented. These may
include; poor brooding conditions high and low brooding temperature, feed poisoning, fungal, toxins,
litter poisoning (ingestion of sawdust), injuries rough handling and pro-longed transportation stress,
starvation, humidity, nutrition, deficiency, genetic disorder, predators.
30
Topic 9.
HOUSING
i) A farmer inside a chicken house standing normally ii) A farmer squatting inside a chicken house
31
Site Selection for Poultry Houses
The site should be dry and flat or alternatively the house can be elevated from the ground. Trees and
bushes close to the site will provide shade, windbreaks and protect birds from flying predators. The site
should be secured near the family house so as to hear the chickens get disturbed at night by predators
or thieves. In a rectangular house the end walls should face East and West to ensure that only the end
walls face the hot afternoon sun and wind. Clear all grass and bushes for about 3 meters on all sides of
the house to keep snakes and rats away
4ft
3ft
20ft
30ft
Figure 21: A chicken house (to accommodate upto 300 birds) set in an East West
direction fully covered on the east and western sides and open on other sides.
In addition a hole or ridge on the roof will ensure proper ventilation and give light making it easier to work
in the house. Make sure winds ventilate the house without causing draughts (cold). Heat, humidity, and
harmful gasses may be considerably reduced through good ventilation. High temperatures may cause
deaths, a drop in egg production, low shells quality and reduced weight gain. A combination of high
temperatures and high humidity may cause death in young chicks.
To protect against build-up of disease causing agents and parasites the house must be accessible and
easy to clean.
Use slatted or raised floors to remove droppings and avoid predators. Remove any sharp edged objects
from the house to prevent possible injury to the birds and humans.
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Housing Density (for adult birds)
Production
Floor type Flocking density
System
NOTE: This spacing will
cater for mature chicken
Slatted (Raised) 6-8 birds per m2 2 birds per sq. ft.
and equipments.
Intensive
Deep-Litter 4-5 birds per m2 1 bird per sq. ft.
Importance of Perches
Perches are important for chicken to roost on at night and
during daytime. It also reduces boredom which can lead to
vices like pecking and fighting. Diseases and parasites may
attack poultry when left to rest on the floor (in contact with
litter). Each one-meter perch may roost five adult birds.
Perches are best made from rounded sticks which are not too
big or too small. They should be treated with used engine oil
or kerosene to keep away parasites. Perches should match
the size of the birds’ feet.
Figure 23: Birds resting on perches.
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Nests
Laying nests ease egg collection and help avoid dirty
and cracked eggs. Avoid building nests on the ground or
outside chicken houses as this will expose the eggs to
predators and thieves. Removing eggs continuously from
the nests is important to stop hens from going broody.
Nests should be placed inside the chicken house and
preferably above the ground. There are two types of nests:
• Battery and communal nests where more than one
hen lays at the same time.
• Individual nests where one hen lays at a time.
34
External parasites reduce hatchability, since brooding hens spend too much time and energy leaving the
nest, cleaning and scratching her body hence leaving the eggs cold. One can use ashes, tobacco leaves or
other anti-parasitic substances with the nesting material to keep out most external parasites.
Chicken Runs
Chicken runs are a fenced open air space of 25 m² or more where poultry are kept and protected against
predators and thieves. Runs are also used for feeding, watering, for daily flock observation and collection
of eggs. The walls are 2 meters high and can be made of clay or woven mat or chicken wire. A chicken
run is relatively costly but provides security to the poultry. Allow adult birds to scavenge outside the run
during daytime to reduce feeding costs.
35
Topic 10.
36
What to Feed?
The composition and availability of feeds will vary, depending on the season, locality and production
system. Poultry, as other animals need feed containing energy and protein, as well as vitamins, minerals
and water. The need for feed will change, depending on the age and status {chicks, growers (pullets), egg
layer, broody hen} of the bird.
The cheapest – and also often the best – way to supplement the diet of your poultry is to use local
resources.
However, many vitamins and nutrients are destroyed if stored too long or under sub-optimal conditions,
e.g. high humidity and heat. Knowledge of feed quality and sources of different feed types is important
for feed safety.
If your production is based on improved breeds or hybrids for egg production, different types of commercial
diets may be offered. These are divided into three distinct categories, with decreasing amount of protein
as follows;
a) Chick mash (or starter diet): high in protein; offered from day old up to 8 weeks;
b) A growers’ diet/mash: medium in protein; offered from 9 weeks up to when they start dropping
eggs;
c) A layers’ diet/mash: medium in protein; offered to hens from when they start laying.
When buying commercial feeds, calculate whether it is profitable based on the market price for eggs
or meat/live birds. If the product price is lower than the price of feed consumed by the birds it is not
economical to offer commercial feeds. Indigenous chicks may be offered commercial diets profitably from
day old to six weeks of age, for optimal performance.
Scavenging
Scavenging for feed is a major characteristic of traditional/free range/extensive poultry production
systems. Birds are free to forage and they usually manage to get a reasonably balanced diet. Nevertheless,
their diet is restricted in quality and quantity to what they manage to find.
37
Forage diets comprises of household waste, crop by-
products and a range of food from the farm, fields and
kitchen waste. It varies from one area to another, with
season, with the size and wealth of the household,
and with the area that the chickens have to roam
(population density)
In a traditional/free range or semi-intensive poultry
rearing system, pullets and mature birds ought to
Maize
be given enough time and space for scavenging in their
surroundings daily. The best time for scavenging is
during early morning and late afternoon when there
are plenty of insects and less heat.
Chicks below six weeks of age should be confined.
Supplementary feeds should be offered in the morning
and evening when the birds come back for the night.
Sorghum
Access to clean water should be provided at all times.
Types of Feeds
a) Energy feeds
As a rule 75% of a quality poultry diet is made up of
energy feeds. These are the most important feeds for Millet
maintenance requirements (e.g. body temperature,
vital functions, exercise).
Examples of energy feeds are cereals like maize and
its by-products (bran), sorghum, wheat and its by-
products (bran), rice and its by-products (bran,
polishing), cassava root meal, yams and sweet
Cassava
potatoes. Roots and tubers should be soaked in water
for 60 minutes or cooked before drying to remove Fig. 28: Energy foods.
harmful substances and the proportion in the diet
in general kept below 10%. Fat is also a good source
of energy particularly, in hot climates as the heat NOTE: Some harmful substances (anti-
produced during metabolism is less than that from nutrients) are present in protein- rich plants
traditional energy feeds, e.g. cereals. Sources of fat such as beans. As such their proportions in
are animal fats and oil seed cake meals. Such oils and chicken diets should be low, based on the
type and processing prior to feeding. Cooking
fats should only be given in small amounts, i.e. less
will reduce the anti-nutritional factors in
than 10% of the total diet.
beans, sweet potatoes and cassava.
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b) Protein
Protein is needed for growth and optimal health
status. Normally no more than 20% of a poultry diet
is made up of protein-rich feeds mainly due to cost.
Protein sources may originate from animals or plants.
Examples of protein-rich local feeds include; termites,
insects, worms, meat scraps, fish scraps, fresh-water
shrimps, fish meal, meat meal, bone meal, blood meal,
soya bean meal, peas, beans, oil cakes from; ground
nuts, cotton seeds, palm kernels, and coconuts.
c) Minerals
Minerals are important for bone formation, eggshell
formation and for optimal health status. The most
important minerals are calcium and phosphorous. To
produce strong egg shells, laying hens need free access
to calcium (limestone or crushed shells). Mature
birds are usually able to balance their mineral intake Fig. 29: Protein foods.
according to their requirements. When phosphorous
rich feeds are added to the diet, they should be
balanced with calcium rich feeds, since high levels of
one mineral will cause deficiency of the other. Sources
of minerals include: bone meal, limestone and burned
eggshells.
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d) Vitamins
Scavenging birds get vitamins from eating green grass,
vegetables, fresh cow dung and through sunlight.
Vitamins A, B2, and D3 are important because many
problems arise when birds are deficient of these.
Sunlight and green grass or green fodder normally
provide Vitamin A and D, whereas Vitamin B may
come from fresh cow dung. Vitamin B may also be
added by giving multivitamins.
Additional vitamins are given in very small quantities
and purchased from agro-vet stores or feed stockists.
Supplementary vitamins are usually not required
when birds are left to scavenge. Confined or intensively
managed birds always need additional vitamins added
into their feeds. Figure 31: Vitamin foods (Vegetables).
Ingredient Quantity
1. Crushed maize/sorghum or millet 1 kg tin
2. Wheat by-products/sorghum or millet bran 1 kg tin
3. Sunflower/sesame/groundnut cake 2 match boxes
4. Bone meal/salt mix 1 match boxes
5. Blood or fish meal 2 match boxes
6. Sesbania/leucaena leaves 2 match boxes
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Termites or maggots may also be added during the first 8 weeks. Depending on the types of crops grown
in the locality; cereals and oil cakes may be substituted. Alternatively a commercial chick starter ration
can be used from day old to 8 weeks of age. In this way you will ensure that the chicks have the daily
requirements during the most vulnerable weeks.
Maggots may be grown by a simple technique whereby, blood, offal and cow dung are mixed in a large
open pot. The pot is filled with 1/3 water. Flies will lay their eggs in the mixture and maggots hatch and
feed on the mixture. The pot is left open during daytime and closed during the night. After 5-10 days
(depending on temperature) the maggots will be ready to pupate. Collect the maggots by gently pouring
water into the pot. The maggots will float and you can then wash them and feed them directly to the
birds. Remember to place the pot away from public places, as the smell at times may be offensive.
Take a pot with a short neck and a capacity of at least 10 litres. Fill it up with cow dung and straw and
sprinkle a little water. Set the pot upside down with the opening on sandy soil.
After one day and one night, the pot will be full of termites and you may empty the living contents in front
of the hen house in the morning.
41
Limit the quantity of feed offered to the birds daily to at least 30% - 50% of their full daily intake. Allow
a maximum of 30-40 g/bird/day from week 4-6 and gradually reducing the supplementary feeding. At
day old to 4 weeks young chicks will receive feed according to their needs. As the birds grow, they will
gradually get a smaller portion of what they need, until they only get between 1/3 and half of their needs
as adults.
Economic benefits are calculated from the break-even point (where cost of production is equal to revenue
generated) from the sale of eggs and live birds relative to the cost of disease control, housing, labour and
feeds.
To ensure sustained egg and meat production, offer feeds on a continuous basis rather than large
quantities during the harvest season and none during the dry season. Reduce the flock size when feed
costs are high rather than reducing the amount of feed given to each bird.
How to Feed?
It is important to use simple local measures to administer feeds. The table below shows calculated daily
feed requirements based on a flock of 1 cock, 4 hens and 15 three week old chicks.
42
Cafeteria System
Adult birds are able to mix their own feed according
to their needs. The best way to feed semi-intensively
managed birds above 8 weeks of age is a cafeteria
system, whereby various types of feeds are offered
separately.
In the cafeteria system, there should be at least one
feeding compartment for:
a) Energy rich feeds, e.g. maize, millet, sorghum.
b) Protein rich feeds, e.g. beans, peas, oil cakes,
fish, meat, bone meal, maggots, termites. energy protein mineral & vitamins
c) Mineral rich feeds, e.g. bone meal, burned
eggshells. Figure 32: Chicken on a cafeteria
system of feeding.
An additional compartment for oil rich feeds may be added, e.g. animal-based fat, oil cake meals, or fish oil.
By giving adult birds feeds in compartments, observe their feeding behaviour and avoid feeding unnecessary
amounts and types of feed. For example, during harvest seasons you may find that they birds feed less
on energy feeds in the evenings because there is plenty of cereal in the environment. You may also try out
alternative feeds that the birds do not find tasteful. The cafeteria system is a good way of learning about
your birds´ behaviour and taste.
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i) Simple drinker made of an old tin can and a plate.
iii) Commercial drinker/feeder in plastic or metal.
ii) Feeders and drinkers may also be made locally of wood, clay, plastic or metal.
Ensure that feeders minimize feed wastage. Feed wastage can be minimized when feeders are not filled
to the top. Fill the feeders half full and check them regularly for refills.
Commercial feeders and drinkers may also be bought at the market, either in metal or plastic. However
they are often expensive and normally not any better than locally produced feeders or drinkers.
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Topic 11.
Introduction
Selection of healthy and sound-looking chicken in the villages or markets is important, if you want to
assure a healthy flock with high productivity. Judging a day old chick, a full-grown cock or a laying
hen, requires different skills. The features to look for become even more complicated, when dealing with
different breeds with distinct looks, behaviour and purpose, i.e. egg laying or meat producing.
Chicken Selection
It is important to look for different features in chicks, growers, hens and cocks. Select or buy new chicken
early in the day, as stress from lack of water, feed and rest, will make most animals look rather sick and
drowsy.
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b) Growers/Pullets:
Features of a healthy grower;
• should appear healthy and lively
• feathering shiny and normal (depends on the
breed)
• large size for the age
• eyes clear and shiny
• clean, dry beaks and nostrils
• clean feathers around the vent Growers/Pullets
• straight legs and toes
c) Laying birds
Features of a healthy good egg-layer;
• should appear healthy and lively
• feathering normal for the breed
• A red comb (more coloured when in lay
• eyes clear and shiny
• clean, dry beaks and nostrils
• clean feathers around the vent
• straight legs and toes, with no signs of scaly
legs
• Legs less coloured in lay
• The breast bone should not be too sharp
• A big broad bottom (laying status can be
checked, see illustration) Layers
46
Using the comb, a laying hen will have a long shiny
comb, whereas a hen not laying will have a small
shrivelled comb (holding this hen you will find that the
one with a long comb is heavier than the other one).
Such hens, which are not laying, should be selected and
fed differently from the rest of the flock so as to attain
the laying weight.
d) Cocks:
Features of a healthy and good cock;
• alert and protective nature
• shiny and normal feathering for the breed
• clear and shiny eyes
• clean, dry beaks and nostrils
• clean feathers around the vent
• straight legs and toes with no signs of scaly legs Cockerel
Breeding
A breed is a group of chicken with a characteristic body form and feather contour. These unique
characteristics are inherited from one generation to the next. Features such as the comb, colour of ear
lobes and shank colours and length are usually determined by breed. In every breed, different varieties
can occur usually determined by plumage colour. Thus a white and a black hen may just be different
varieties of the same breed.
It may be an advantage to keep records on the growth and productivity of each bird in order to select
birds according to features such as egg production, growth (meat production) and broody behaviour.
Keeping records may help you select the best layers or the best mother to protect the chicks. If new birds
are bought on the market it is important to isolate the new birds in separate baskets for the first two
weeks. This will enable you to discover possible diseases or disorders in the new birds. If they show signs
of any kind of illness you should dispose them. When you have succeeded in improving your productivity
and survival of your local poultry through improved management, housing, feeding, chick protection etc,
you may want to further increase productivity by introducing better breeds.
47
Different types of chicken breeds
Frizzled Feathers, Naked-Neck, Dwarf and the Normal type are commonly found in the warm regions.
Naked- Neck genes are found in almost every village, and are believed to be a natural adaptation to avoid
heat stress. Frizzled feathers may look ill at a first glance, but is also common in most village based
systems. In some parts of the country, Frizzled Feathers are higher priced in the markets than normally
feathered poultry. Dwarf poultry show standard colours and plumage, but tend to be 2/3 of the normal
size for poultry, mostly because of the short shanks.
Naked-Neck
Normal
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Chicken in commercial systems are usually kept
for two distinct purposes, that is either egg or meat
production. A high productivity in either egg or
meat production is a result of specialised breeding
programs. The dual purpose breed is also a result
of breeding programs, and may produce more eggs
as well as more meat than traditional birds. It is
important to select birds, which are suited for a
particular production system, and which are suited
for the conditions under which they are kept, e.g. Layer
free-range or confinement.
49
Cross-breeding
To increase production from local chickens, crossbreeding with other breeds can be practiced. It is
however, important to consult professional breeders or breeding companies, who may recommend
suitable and available breeds to increase egg production, growth or both. It is important to be aware that
the offspring will obtain different qualities depending on whether the cock or the hen of the new breed is
used. This is because some qualities are sex-linked and thus it is important to consult a breeder.
Note: If a cross-breed is introduced, it is crucial that management, feeding and health protection schemes
are improved.
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Topic 12.
RECORD KEEPING
Management of poultry requires detailed records on a daily or weekly basis. It is important to spend some
time each day observing your flock carefully.
Keeping of records is a useful management practice for farmers, service providers and business people in
order to identify problems and optimize profitability of the enterprise. In this way early signs of disease,
malnutrition, or other problems may be detected and the necessary action taken.
Important parameters to record on a daily, weekly or monthly basis include:
Fig. 37. Recording in a ledger. Fig. 38. A farmer selling chicken and
eggs at the market
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Types of Record Sheets
HOUSE No. ......................... Breed............................. No. Placed ..................... Date Placed ............................. MONTH ...........................
POULTRY MEDICATION AND VACCINATION RECORD SHEET
HOUSE No. ......................... Breed............................. No. Placed ..................... Date Placed ............................. MONTH ...........................
52
POULTRY MORTALITY AND CULLING RECORD CARD
HOUSE No. ......................... Breed............................. No. Placed ..................... Date Placed ............................. MONTH ...........................
MONTH ......................... FEED TYPE............................. BAGS IN STOCK ..................... Date Placed ............................. MONTH ...........................
53
Topic 13.
MARKETING OF PRODUCTS
Introduction
It is important to know your market requirements, investment costs, running costs, and expected revenue
for the different products before starting any production activity. These include Whole birds (for meat
etc), Eggs, Parts (Gizzards, Drumsticks, Chicken wings, Chicken breasts) manure etc.
A detailed market study including a cost and benefit analysis should be carried out before choosing the
production system. Start with a production based on local breeds, local feeds and local demands before
proceeding into a more sophisticated production system with improved breeds whose products require
a stable market.
In general the economic outcome as well as the necessary investments and risk involved in the production,
will vary from one system to the other e.g. A free range production system will have relatively low risks
compare to an intensively managed systems (higher risk).
Commercialization
Live birds and fertile eggs are sold in local markets
while hybrid table eggs are more often found in peri-
urban and urban areas or along traffic corridors,
where confined production systems can be managed.
In local markets, live birds are sold at highly variable
prices depending on factors such as demand (high
during festivals), size and weight, plumage and colour.
Cocks are usually highly priced at most markets
compared to hens. In certain regions e.g. Western
Kenya indigenous chicken are also highly priced
compared to exotic breeds irrespective of size.
Likewise eggs from indigenous chicken are often more
valued than table eggs from exotic hens, despite their
smaller size. The taste and texture of meat and eggs
from indigenous chicken are a major reason for the
higher prices of local products.
Fig. 39: Selling of chicken and eggs in the market.
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Birds for Sale
Cockerels in a flock should be sold as soon as they
attain the correct weight for the market. At the age of
6 months and a weight of approximately 1.5 kg, cocks
are usually big enough for sale in prime markets.
Retain a breeding cock for every 10-15 hens in the
flock. Breeding cocks should be sold when mating
is inefficient (low fertility/hatchability) or to stop
inbreeding. Breeding cocks should be kept for 12-18
months. Care should be taken not to return live birds
from the market back to the farm due to disease. Old
hens which are out of lay should also be sold. It is
best to restrain birds for sale in the night or attract
them with feed then hold them using a piece of metal
wire bent at the end.
55
Economic Analysis and Simple Risk Assessment
Before starting any poultry production enterprise, calculate if it is economically feasible, thereby making
the right decisions regarding the production system and the necessary interventions.
Revenue or Income
Revenue or income is all the money earned in relation to the poultry enterprise such as:
• Income from sale of live birds, e.g. growers, cockerels or spent hens;
• Income from sale of eggs;
• Value of eggs or poultry eaten or given away.
Value the standing stock, e.g. the production flock which is the foundation of future income. Poultry
manure also represents a value when used on the farm or sold for other activities. Manure reduces the
cost of buying fertilizer and improves crop production.
Expenditure or Costs
These are costs involved in relation to the poultry enterprise:
• Material for baskets, shelters or poultry houses;
• Starting up flock e.g. Growers, hens or cocks;
• Fertile eggs for incubation;
• Day old chicks;
• Supplementary feed, vitamins or minerals;
• Vaccines and other medication;
• Labour and technical advice.
When the birds are offered crops (cereals or forage) that would otherwise be sold, this also represents
a value and should be included in the calculation. Money acquired through loans, the repayment and
interest on loans is also an expense that has to be included among the inputs. In a free range system
where outputs are usually low, the inputs are also low. This means that expenses for buildings and other
equipment are kept at a minimum. Small basket or shelters may be built using locally available materials
without incurring high costs.
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Topic 14.
CHICKEN PROCESSING
Proper slaughter practices ensure wholesome poultry
products. Hygienic slaughter of poultry enhances access to
premium markets. These practices facilitate better slaughter
waste management, which reduces the spread of diseases.
Transportation of poultry using cages minimises heat stress,
which may cause death. Cleaning and disinfection of trucks
and equipment, helps to prevent disease transmission from
one farm to another.
Pre-slaughter
Birds should be transported to the slaughter place in
appropriate cages made from plastic or wire. At the
slaughter place birds should be held in the holding area,
awaiting inspection by the veterinarian. It is after inspection
that healthy birds are presented for slaughter.
Slaughter
Slaughtering can be performed manually or by a slaughter
machine. Slaughtered birds should be bled for at least two
minutes to ensure a total bleed out. They are then dipped
into hot water (scalding) to loosen feathers for plucking to
take place.
Birds for subsequent freezing/chilling should be scalded at
60 - 65oC.
57
Evisceration
In this process the head, feet and internal organs are removed. The open bird and the organs are then
presented for inspection by a trained individual. Birds that are unfit for human consumption should be
disposed off hygienically.
Certified carcasses should be rinsed under clean running water and cooled as quickly as possible to 4oC
or below. It is important to ensure that, the carcass is packed using approved materials.
1
3
1. Stunner 2. Bleeding cones (12)
4
9
3. Scalder 8. Drying rack
6. Carousel
Dispatch
10
9.Packing table
4. Plucker 5. Finisher
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SPADE POULTRY TRAINING MANUAL REVIEW
PARTICIPANTS LIST: