MEANING OF COUNSELLING

Counselling is the service offered to the individual who is under going a problem and needs professional help to
overcome it. The problem keeps him disturbed high strung and under tension and unless solved his development
is hampered or stunted. Counseling therefore is a more specialized service requiring training in personality
development and handling exceptional groups of individuals.
According to Willey and Andrew Counseling involves two individuals one skeeking help and other a
professionally trained person helped solved problems to orient and direct him to words a goals. Which needs to
his maximum development and growth?
Counseling services are there fore required for individuals having developmental problems because of the
handicap they suffer in any area of emotional either because of hereditary factors or environment conditions.
Generally such cases are only about five to seven percent in a population and therefore counseling is required
only for such a small number. As compared to guidance which is for percent of individuals. Counseling involves a
lot of time for the client to unfold the problem, gain an insight in to the complex situation.
Counseling techniques involve active listening, emphatic under standing releasing the pent up feelings
confronting the client and so on counseling there fore is offered to only those individuals who are under serious
problem and need professional help to overcome it.
References:
1. Guidance and Counseling for teachers parents and students Sister.Mary Wishala SND
2 Fundamental Principles of Guidance & Counselling. –R.Sharma
b) NEED OF COUNSELLING
Counselling is an integral part of an over-all programme of guidance. “Counselling is a specific process of
assistance extended by an expert in an individual situation to a needy person”. This means the counseling
situation arises when a needy person is face to face with and expert who makes available his assistance to the
needy individual to fulfill his needs.
Need of counseling
There is an urgent need of introducing and strengthening the counseling service in the schools and colleges of our
country to meet the various needs of the students administrational and the educational system.
1. To help in the total development of the student:
Along with the intellectual development proper motivation and clarification of goals and ideas to pupils in
conformity with their basic potentialities and social tendencies are important total development of the student
nauseates that individual differences among them are expected, accepted, understood and planned for and all
types of experiences in an institution are to be so organized as to contribute to the total development of the
student.
2. To help in the proper choices of courses
3. To help in the proper choices of carvers
4. To help in the students in vocational development
5. To develop readiness for choices and changes to face new challenges.
6. To minimize the mismatching between education and employment and help in the efficient use of manpower.
7. To motivate the youth for self employment.
8. To help freshers establish proper identity
Guidance and counseling service is needed to help students deal effectively with the normal developmental tasks
of adolescence and face life situations boldly.
9. To identify and motivate the students form weaker sections of society.
10. To help the students in their period of turmoil and confusion.
11. To help in checking wastage and stagnation.
12. To identity and help students in need of special help.
13. There are such students as the gifted, the backward the handicapped who need special opportunities. They
need special attention and opportunities.
14. To ensure the proper utilization of time spent outside the classrooms.
The manner in which student spend their non class hours clearly affects their success in achieving both academic
competence and personal development of all types a positive direction to students should be provided by
influencing how they can use those non class hours.
15. To help in talking problems arising out of students population explosion
16. To check migration to prevent brain drain.
17. To make up for the deficiencies of home.
18. To minimize the incidence of indiscipline.
Bargadon has mentioned the following situations where counseling in required:
1. When a pupil requires not only reliable information but also an interesting introspection of those in formations
which can solve his personal difficulties.
2. When a pupil needs intelligent listener who has more experience than the pupil to whom he can recite his
difficulties and through which can seek suggestions for his working plan.
3. When the counsellor has to assess those facilities which can help in resolving the pupil problems but the pupil
doesn’t enjoy such an access to those facilities.
4. When the pupil has some problem but he is unaware of that problem and his development, he is to be made
aware of that problem.
5. when the pupil is aware of the problem and difficulties created by the problem but he feels difficult to define it
and to understand it that is, when the pupil is familiar with the presence of the problem and its nature but he is
unable to face the problem due to this temporary tension and distraction.
6. When the pupil suffer the main maladjustment problem or some handicapped which is temporary and which
needs careful long due diagnosis by an expert.
Majority of students lack a sense of direction, a sense of purpose and a sense of fulfillment and include in
destructive activities which lead to social damage and loss. Adequate guidance and counselling facilities is the
only answer to help and guide the youth to worthwhile channels and help them to realize the goals of optimum
academic personal and social development.
Problems and needs in society are nothing new. But today they seen to be proliferating unprecedented rate. The
unique problems in the changing family, cities in up level, conflicts in values, attitudes and moral , the new
criticism about politics, economic factors the changing role of work, new pressure and demands on school and the
problems of the youth all points out the needs for the counselling services. Guidance and counselling have a
challenging role to play in every developing economy much more so if it is a labour surplus one.
References:
1. Fundamentals of Guidance and Counselling- R. S. Sharma
2. Guidance and Counselling-A. K. Nayak
c) SIGNIFICANCE OF COUNSELLING AT SECONDARY LEVEL
Introduction
The student life is getting complex day by day. Guidance and counselling is needed to help the students for
optimum achievement and adequate adjustment in the varied life situations. Need analysis of the students in the
schools shows the need of guidance and counselling services, in the education, profession, vocation, social, health,
moral, personal and marital areas. It is a simple enough to say that guidance is a function of secondary education.
This statement has been made over and over again.
There is a strong tendency among personnel in secondary schools to break up in to considerable array of interest
groups principles, supervisors, class room teachers and counselors all join organizations and associations to
which they manifest considerable interest.
Counselling
Counselling is a process of assistance extended by an expert in an individual situation to needy person. According
to Carl Rogers counselling is a series of direct contact with the individual which aims to offer him assistance in
changing the attitudes and behaviour.
Characteristics of Adolescence
Adolescence is best defined in relation to puberty . This is period which begins with puberty and ends with the
several cessation of physical growth, it emerges from the later childhood and merges into adulthood. Adolescence
is a critical period in the development of personal identity
A.T.Jersild observes Adol is that span of years during which boys and girls move from childhood to adulthood
mentally, emotionally, socially and physically.
Significance of Guidance At Secondary Level
To help understand on going behavior interference theory provides a frame of reference in terms of four ideas.
The first is that people behave as they do because of various attitudes, assumptions and beliefs, they have about
themselves from these assertions an individual makes decision about the feasibility of various kinds of behaviour.
The adequacy of his behaviour is largely a function of the validity of this assertions.
The second idea is that as an individual initiates behaviour he observes its effects. This feed back to the individual
can either confirm or disconfirm his assertions –
The third idea is that when assertions are disconfirmed, tent ions result which inhibit the reappraisal of
assertions.
Fourth, because of the inflexibility and rigidity resulting from tensions, the individual strives harder to confirm
initial assertions.
Significance of counselling
1. Decision marking construct:- The psychological problems of adolescents can be seen as decision making
problems.
2. Conflict:- These decision making problems almost always involve some conflict, either because of factour
emotional ambiguities or both.
3. Assertions:- Behaviour is a result at the assumptions, beliefs, and attitudes that one his about himself , others
and the world in which her lives.
4. Disconfirmations:-The effects of behaviour following decisions are feed back to the individual perceived and
they confirm or disconfirm ascertain to varying degrees.
5. Tension:- When assertions are disconfirmed, tensions result.
6. Redundancy:- Tensions inhibit the ability of an individual to reexamine his assertions and attempt to confirm
them and thus they cause redundant behaviour.
Conclusion
The general public tends to view counselling as a remedial function and emphasizes immediate goals, such as
problem solution , tension reduction and the like .counselee may refer to the resolution of a particular conflict or
problem situation. Counselling in its spirit and essence is generative it aims at assisting the individual to develop
such that he becomes psychologically mature and is capable at realizing his potentialities optimally. The
Secondary school counselling needs a meaningful, realistic, practical frame of reference constituent with the short
term nature at school counselling.

COUNSELLING SKILLS :
ATTENDING SKILLS AND RESPONDIND SKILLS
Introduction
Counselling skills goals assumes that clients are the vast majority of ordinary people with many problems,many
people function reasonably well,some not.Counsellers assist clients to help themselves.They use counselling skills
to develop client’s capacity to use their human potential both now and in future.
1.ATTENDING SKILLS
Attending involves giving all of your physical attention to another person.The process of attending has a
considerable impact on the quality of communication that goes on between two people.By attending we are saying
to another person “I am interested in what you have to say”.
Attending physically
Attending cluster consists of following skills.
1) A posture of involvement
Body can be used as a tool to facilitate good communication.A relaxed awareness expressed by body posture
seems best suited for fostering good communication.
Bolton ,in his book ‘people skills’ suggests
· Lean towards the speaker –communicates energy and attentiveness.
· Face the other squarely (your right shoulder to the speaker’s left) – communicates your involvement.
· Maintaining an open posture –important for fostering inter personal relatedness –closed posture(crossed arms
or legs) often communicates coldness and defensiveness.
· Aware of your proximity to the speaker- personal space- when those boundaries are crossed it makes them feel
uncomfortable and defensive.Also too much distance communicates aloofness and disconnectedness.
2) Appropriate Body Motion
Body motion is good but it can be over done if you are not careful.The purpose of gesturing when you are listening
is to encourage the speaker to continue speaking. This can most easily be done with a periodic head nod. A good
listener moves his or her body in response to the speaker.
3) Eye Contact
Good eye contact involves focussing on the speakers face and occasionally shifting the focus to other parts of the
body.The key is that the other is aware that they have your attention because your eyes are on them.Good eye
contact should seem natural to the other person.But don’t stare them down.This makes you seem anxious and
sometimes critical of them.
4) Creating a non destructing environment
It is not possible to move the conversation into a private room or office,but every attempt should made to reduce
the number of distractions that are present.
Observing
Observing means asking clients about themselves. It involves
· .Ask clients about their reasons for coming.
· Help clients decide what decisions they face.
· Help clients express their feelings,needs ,wants and any doubts ,concerns or talking.
· Keep questions open,simple and brief.
· Look at your client as u speak.
· Ask clients what they want to do.
· Listen actively to what the client says.Follow where the client leads the discussion.
· Show your interest and understanding at all times.
· Express empathy.
· Avoid judgements and opinion.
· Ask for any information needed to complete client record.
Listening Skills
Effective is actually absorbing the information given to you by the speaker, showing that you are listening and
interested. Goal of listening is understanding what is trying to be communicated.
1) Door Openers
A door opener is a non coercive invitation to talk. It includes
a) Description on other person’s body language.(ie you don’t look like you are feeling well today)
b) An invitation to talk.
c) Silence .
d) Attending.
2) Infrequent Questions
This trick is to ask questions that are designed to spur the conversation on when it gets struck. This means
questioning will be infrequent and not yes or no questions.
3) Attentive Silence
Silence is an opportunity for the speaker to reflect on what he or she has said and to gather their thoughts before
their next statement.
This skill also includes maintaining eye contact, maintaining an interested facial expression, nodding, facing the
other person, maintaining an open position, keeping a close proximity etc.
----
2)RESPONDING SKILLS
An important aspect is to help the listeners to clarify his or her communication. It involves
Reflecting skills
Reflective listening is to serve as a mirror for the person speaking. Reflecting cluster includes
1) Para phrasing
A paraphrase is a concise response to the speaker that restates the essence of communication in the listeners own
words.
2) Reflecting feelings
It is mirroring back of the speaker’s emotions as they make their statements. It gives the speaker an opportunity
to evaluate how he or she is responding to the problem situation.
3) Reflect meanings
If you get the feelings or the content wrong then you can’t understand the speaker. It allows you to be sure that
you are getting what the speaker is saying.
4) Summative reflecting
It recap the major themes of the conversation. It helps the speaker to sort through the litter and to construct a
more complete and compact conceptualization of the issue being discussed.
Probing
Probing means asking for additional information. Effective probing is non judgemental and flows from what was
previously said. Good probing questions ask for elaboration, classification and repetition. It helps client to fill in
missing pieces.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD COUNSELLOR

Introduction
The personal and professional qualities of counsellors are very important in facilitating any helping relationship.
A counsellor must be well equipped to assist individuals to make adjustments and live a happy and harmonious
life. The adjustment can be with regard to the school and curriculum, vocation and personality. For effective
counseling, the counsellor must be equipped with two kinds of data. First he must have data relating to the
counsellee’s background aptitudes, achievements, interests, plans etc. Further, he must have the skill to interpret
this data. Secondly, the counsellor must have information about the areas in which the counsellee may seek his
assistance. These areas may be educational or personal. With these two kinds of information he assists the
counsellee to match his individual patterns of potentiality with appropriate opportunity. As the process of
counselling develops, both the counsellor and counsellee must arrive at a common ground. Counsellor’s who
continually develop their self awareness skills are in touch with their values, thoughts and feelings. They are likely
to have a clear perception of their own and their client’s needs and accurately assess both. Such awareness can
help them be honest with themselves and others. They are able to be more congruent and build trust
simultaneously. Counsellors who possess this type of knowledge are most likely to communicate clearly
accurately.
Three other characteristics that make counsellors initially more influential are perceived expertness,
attractiveness and trustworthiness. Expertness is the degree to which a counsellor is perceived as knowledge able
and informed about his or her specialty. Counsellors who display certificates and diplomas in their offices are
usually perceived as more credible than those who do not and as a result, are likely to be effective. Clients went to
work with counsellor who appears to know profession well.
Attractiveness is function of perceived similarity between a client and counselor. Councellors can make
themselves attractive by speaking in clear, simple, jargon free sentence and offering appropriate self disclosure.
THE DESIRABLE QUALITIES OF A SCHOOL COUNSELLOR ARE THE FOLLOWING:-
1. Magnetic personality
2. Personal adjustment
3. Interpersonal relationship
4. Professional competence
5. Leadership
6. Professional dedication
7. Philosophy of life
8. Wide range of interest
Counsellors who are nonverbal cues in responding to clients, such as more nodding and eye contacts are seen as
more attractive than those do not. The attire of the counsellor also make a differences, clothes should be clean,
neat and professional looking but not call attention to themselves. Trustworthiness is related to the sincerity and
consisting of the counselor. The counsellor is genuinely concerned about the client and shows it over time by
establishing a close relationship with the client. “There is and can be no such thing as instant intimacy” or
trustworthiness. Rather, both are generated through patterns of behavior that demonstrate are and concern most
clients are neither completely distrusting nor given to blind trust. But, as Fong and Cox note, many clients test the
trustworthiness of the counsellor, deprecating themselves or questioning the motives and dedication the
counsellor.
It is essential, therefore, that the counsellor responds to the question of trust rather than the verbal content of the
client in order to facilitate the counselling relationship. Many beginning counsellors make the mistake of dealing
with surface issues instead of real concerns. For example if a client asks a counsellor, “Can I feel you anything “. A
novice counsellor might respond, “what do you mean by anything”? An experienced counsellor might say, it
sounds as if you are uncertain about whether you can really trust me and this relationship. A good counsellor
must have the knowledge of mental hygiene and the skill to interpret psychological tests. This is essential to from
a correct, reliable and objective assessment of the personality of the counselee.
Conclusion
An important quality of a counesllor is that he like and respects himself, but he does not use the counsellee to
satisfy his own needs. Every normal human being has a desire to be respected, recognized and accepted. Then the
counselor must qualities of good personality, good character and wholesome philosophy, health, emotional
stability, approachability, sympathic understanding of youth, intelligence, social culture, broad knowledge and
interest in guidance and personal working conditions and understanding of social economic conditions. They
above given qualities must be possessed by a counsellor.

TYPES-
1) DIRECTIVE COUNSELLING
In this type of approach the counselor plays an important role .A major goal is to replace the emotional behavior
of the individual with deliberately rationale behavior .Although he avoids dictatorial advice .This approach is also
known as counselor-centered. Under this process the counselor plans the counseling process, his work is to
analyze the problem, identify the triggers identify the exact nature of the problem and provide various options.
Williamson was a great profounder of this kind of approach as he stated that this approach is good to address the
problems relating to educational and vocational adjustment.This type of counseling is a concept,where
educational and vocational guidance relate to the personality dynamics and interpersonal relationship.This type
pf counseling is more useful where the individual wants information and advice for choice of a career.This
approach does not focus its attention on personality development as such.
Steps of Directive counseling:-
Williamson has given six steps Directive counseling:
1)Analysis :It includes collection of information about the individual which can be collected through structured
interviews,psychological case history methods, Interaction with family members, friends, etc.
2) Synthesis: After collection of lot data the information is organized in the logical manner to analyse the
individual in terms of his qualifications, assets, potentials, liability adjustment, cultural background, habits etc.
3) Diagnosis :The diagnosis consists of the interpretation of the data in relation to the nature and problem, the
causes of problems.
4)Prognosis: Under this step a prediction is made about the future development of the problem.
5)Counseling : The counseling here is to bring about adjustment and re-adjustment to the individual in relation
to his problem. Attitudes and interest of the individual are considered during the counseling.It emphasis the
individual to develop life cycle where an effort in the positive direction could lead to success and success in turn
could lead to further efforts and motivations.
6)Follow -up :The sixth step in directive counseling is follow up which is extremely important. An individual
may be able to solve immediate problems through counseling but new problems may occur or the original
problem may re-occur. Follow-up with the client is extremely necessary. The role of counselor is important as he
has to make the individual understand and accept his strength and also his weakness and faults.
That technique is considered as a most economic approach and important for student counseling because it is less
time consuming and student who lack experience are easily influenced by the counselor’s experience and
specialize knowledge. The students feel that the counselor has superior Knowledge and therefore a professional
relation takes place. The relation is the base of this kind of approach. A submissive and highly emotionalized
counseling of student can cultivate self-confidence in the individual. A relationship is based on dignity to help the
student to reach his goal.
Directive or Counselor-centered or prescriptive counseling: Counselor-centered counseling revolves around the
counselor. He tries to lit good relations to the friendship and assistance. In this, the counselor is active and he
expresses his ideas and attitudes independently. He evaluates expressions of the client. According to this view
point the counseling interview .In this, the counselor asks a series of standardized questions. Each carries a short
answer. The counselor does not allow the development of expression and feelings. He leads as an expert,
evaluates and gives suggestion vice.
I Basic Assumptions of Directive Counseling :
According to Willy, the following can be the basic assumptions of directive counseling-
a) Competency in giving Advice-: The counselor posses the best training experience and information. He is more
competent to provide an advice to problem.
b) Counseling as an intellectual process -: An client’s intellectual is not destroyed as a result of mal-adjustment.
Hence counseling is primarily an intellectual process .It stresses upon the intellectual aspects of a person instead
of emotional aspects of the personality.
c) Counseling objectives as problem solving situation-: The objective counseling are achieved through problem
solving situation.
d) Client’s incapability of solving the process-: The counselor does not posses the capability for solving the
problem always.
Advantages of Directive counseling:
1) This method is useful from the time consuming view- point .It saves time.
2) In this type of counseling, there is more focus on the problem and the person.
3) The counselor can look the client directly.
4) Counseling focuses more on the intellectual aspects of the person than emotional aspect of the personality.
5)In this process, the counselor becomes readily available to help which makes the client very happy.
Limitations of Directive counseling-:
1) In this process the client is more dependent. He is also less able to solve new problems of adjustment.
2) As the client is never independent of the counselor, it is not an efficient best guidance.
3) Unless and until a person does not develop some attitude through experiences, he cannot make any decision
himself.
4) The counselor fails in serving the client to commit the mistakes in future
CONCLUSION
As the client was in need of some information regarding his vocation, counselor provided that to the best of his
knowledge. He wanted to select a direction and the counselor helped him in choosing that the counselor gave
some alternatives in the same line so that the client may be able to select avocation according to his choice and
can choose a career if he is not able to go for IIT.
During counseling, the counselor tried to explore the reason for his choice of vocation, like why is he motivated
towards this job? Is his selection worthy and genuine?

2) CLIENT CENTERED COUNSELING

Introduction
This is also known as phenomenological approach to counseling or therapy. Kant described to different aspects of
the world. The phenomena would plan thing which are independent of our senses and hence unknown and
phenomena which means knowledge of things gained by our senses. Carl Rogers’s phenomenal field of this
individual meant the totality of his own experiences. His theory is also called self theory since he places greater
emphasis on getting to know oneself as much as possible the self being conscious part of the phenomenal field
and the self concept being a series of hypothesis one has about oneself, right or wrong. The nucleus of his theory
is his concept of self. He also assumed that h\the human being is an organism, the total individual.
Features
A few salient features of his personality theory are:
1) The individual is an organized whole and self actualization is his basic aim of life which is achieved only
through his interaction with the environment as experienced and perceived by him.
2) The totality of experiences at a given time of which he is aware constitutes his phenomenal field that part of
this field which the individual experienced as part of him self is his phenomenal self.
3) The most important and consistent self perceptions organize themselves in to a pattern that is self concise.
4) Most of the behaviors of the individual conform to the concept of self personality development Rogers’s means
congruence between the phenomenal field and the concept of self resulting in to a balanced personality free from
stress and anxiety.
5) The incongruence may lead to anxiety depression and threat.
Rogers’s approach to counseling first known as non-directive counseling and later called client centered therapy
is found on certain assumption about the nature of human being.

Techniques and Characteristics of Counseling

The counseling technique of the client centered therapy aims at releasing individual’s potential and capacities of
self actualization and self-development through the counseling interviews. It aims at helping the counselee grow,
learn to solve his problems at his own and be a self-reliant being capable of facing life problems. It aims at
bringing about an internal evaluation with in the counselee.
An important factor in non-directive counseling is the behavior of the counselor. The role of the counselor is that
of a sympathetic and interested listener who passes no value judgments. He simply reflects back and relates in his
own words the statements of the client, clarifies them only with out approving or disapproving them. Counselee
relationship is of paramount importance. The counselor is required in this relationship to show warmth of feeling
and understanding coupled with a non-evaluating attitude the counselor remains highly permissive, accepting the
counselee neither probing nor interpreting nor showing any personal relation to what the counselee says. Internal
change in the counselee is regarded a function of this permissive relationship.
He does not distort what happens between himself and his client. He always considers the client of great value
irrespective of his faults and short comings. He is empathetic towards his client capable of accurately perceiving
what the client things or feels.
Verbal behavior here is taken as data and one looks for what the person is “saying” beyond or behind the words
he uses. Such sessions are carried on over periods of many hours and through overall workshops lasting for
several days or a week or more. The groups eventually over come to discuss very basic feelings of one participant
towards another and become more sensitive to the possible meanings statements that seem unit devoid of
emotional content to the untrained.

3) There are three main types of counseling. They are directive, non-directive and eclectic counseling. In
directive counseling counselor is active. In non-directive, counselor is passive.

ECLECTIC COUNSELING
Eclectic counseling is defined as the synthesis and combination of directive and non-directive counseling. It
represents a middle status between the two extremes represented by the ‘non-directive’ technique on one hand
and the ‘directive’ technique on the other. In eclectic counseling, the counselor is neither too active as in the
directive counseling nor too passive as in the non-directive counseling. He just follows the middle path between
these two.
The chief advocate of this type of counseling is Thorne. In eclectic counseling, the needs of a person and his
personality are studied by the counselor. After this the counselor selects those techniques, which will be useful for
the person. The main techniques used are reassurance giving information, case history, testing etc.
In eclectic counseling the counselor first takes into consideration the personality and need of the counselee. He
selects the directive or non-directive technique that seems to serve the purpose best. The counselor may start with
the directive technique. When the situation demands, he may switch over to the non-directive counseling and
vice-versa. An attempt is made to adjust the technique to the requirements of the situation and the individual.

Steps in Eclectic counseling

The leading exponent of the Eclectic counseling Thorne, suggested the following in the process;
1) Diagnosis of the cause.
2) Analysis of the problem.
3) Preparation of a tentative plan for modifying factors.
4) Securing effective conditions for counseling.
5) Interviewing and stimulating the client to develop his own resources and to assume its responsibility for trying
new modes of adjustment.
6) Proper handling of any related problems which may contribute to adjustment.

Assumptions of Eclectic Counseling

1) In general, passive methods should be used whenever possible.
2) Active methods may be used with specific indications.
3) In the early stages when the client is telling his story, passive techniques are usually the methods of choice.
This permits emotional release.
4) Until simple methods have failed, complicated methods should not be attempted.
5) All counseling should be client centered.
6) Every client should be given an opportunity to resolve his problems indirectly. Inability of the client to
progress through therapy as using passive methods alone is an indication for utilizing more directive methods.
7) Directive methods are usually indicated in situational mal adjustment where a solution cannot be achieved
with out co-operation from other persons.

Characteristic of Eclectic Counseling

1) In this, objective and coordinating methods are used.
2) In the beginning of counseling, client-active methods are used and the counselor remains passive.
3) In this, more importance is assigned to the job efficiency and treatment.
4) In this, the principle of low expenditure is emphasized.
5) In such counseling, for the use of all the methods and techniques, the professional efficiency and skill of the
counselor are must.
6) Keeping in mind the need of the client, it is decided whether directive method or non-directive methods should
be used.
7) Making an opportunity available to the client is insisted so that he may find himself the solution of the
problem.

Disadvantages of Eclectic Counseling

1) Some people are of the view that eclectic counseling is vague, opportunistic and superficial.
2) Both directive and non-directive counseling cannot be mixed together.
3) In this, the question arises how much freedom should be given to the client? For this there is non-definite rule.
4) The problem with an eclectic orientation is that counselors often do more harm than good if they have little or
no understanding about what is helping the client.

Hierarchy of Eclectic Practices

McBride and Martin advocate a hierarchy of eclectic practices and discuss the importance of having a sound
theoretical base as a guide. The lowest or first level of eclecticism is really syncretism – a sloppy unsystematic
process of putting unrelated clinical concepts together. It is encouraged when graduate students are urged to
formulate their own theories of counseling without first having experienced how tested models work. The second
level of eclecticism is traditional. It incorporates “an orderly combination of compatible features from diverse
sources harmonious whole“. Theories are examined in greater depth. On a third level, eclecticism is described as
professional or theoretical or as theoretical integration.
This type requires that counselor master at least two theories before trying to make any combinations. A final
level of eclecticism is called technical eclecticism. In this approach, procedures from different theories are
selected and used in treatment.

CONCLUSION
F.C. Thorne, who is the exponent of this view, finds that it is possible for a counselor to alternate between
directive and non-directive methods even in the same interview without disrupting the non-directive permissive
relationship with the client. He selects the techniques according to the requirements of the situation and the
individual. The counselor must be competent and proficient in the use of all available methods. The validity of the
results is determined by the skill with which any method is used. The critical factor is not what method is used
but rather the skill with which it is used.
(Notes in OHP Sheets)
Eclectic Counseling
- Synthetic and combination of directive and non-directive counseling
- Counselor is neither too active nor too passive
- Chief advocate: Thorne
- Counselor studies the personality and needs of client based on the need of client, eclectic counseling is used
-techniques used are:
· Reassurance
· Giving information
· Case history
· Testing
Counselor starts with directive technique, then switches on to the non-directive technique.

Steps in Eclectic Counseling

1) Diagnosis of the cause
2) Analysis of the problem
3) Preparing tentative plans for modifying factors.
4) Securing effective conditions for counseling
5) Stimulating the client to develop his own resources and trying new models of adjustment.
6) Proper handling of related problems which help in adjustment.

Assumptions of Eclectic counseling

1) Passive methods must be used whenever possible.
2) Active methods are used only with specific indications.
3) In the early stages when the client is telling his stories passive methods are used. It permits emotional release.
4) Complex methods are used only when simple methods fail.
5) Client-centered
6) Client is given opportunity to resolve his problems indirectly.
7) Directive methods are used where co-operations of other persons are needed for the solution.
Characteristics of Eclectic Counseling
1) Objective and coordinating methods are used.
2) In the beginning client active methods are used
3) Counselor remains passive.
4) Importance is given to job efficiency and treatment.
5) Principle of low expenditure.
6) Professional efficiency and skill of counselors are must.
7) Based on the need of client, directive and non-directive methods are used.
8) Provide opportunity to client to find solutions to his problems himself.
Disadvantages of Eclectic Counseling
1) It is vague, opportunistic and superficial.
2) Directive and non-directive cannot be mixed.
3) How much freedom should be given to the client?
4) Lack of skill of counselor can do more harm than good.

4) RATIONAL EMOTIVE BEHAVIOUR THERAPY (R E B T)

a)Introduction
The goal of rational emotive therapy is to show the client how his misinterpretation of events are causing him
problems and to teach him to see things in a more rational manner and aid him in the process of adjustments
.Rational Emotive therapy was developed by Albert Ellis .According to Ellis every human being who gets
disturbed really is felling himself a chain of false sentences.
b)RATIONAL EMOTIVE THERAPY
Rational Emotive Therapy was developed by Albert Ellis. According to him human being is both rational and
irrational.Irrationality is the cause of emotional problems, such as guilt,anxiety,anger and depression. Emotional
problems cannot be separated from ideas. Ellis thinks that the mistake most people make us rating
themselves.against other people and then labeling themselves.This prevents them from accepting their natural
fallibility and almost always result in self contempt or in a defensive pose of superiority.
Ellis has developed his own made of behaviour which is called X, B, C model. ”A” is the activating event Vis the
belief system and “C” is the emotional consequence. Here made “A” is not the cause of “C”rather W is the cause of
C. According to Ellis every human being who gets disturbed really is telling himself a chain of false sentences.
That is the way humans seem almost invariably to think in words, phrases and sentences and it I s these
sentences which really constitute his neurosis.
1. It is absolutely essentional for an individual to be loved or approved by every significant person in his
environment.
2. It is necessary that each individual be competent, adequate and achieving in areas of interest if the individual is
to be worthwhile.
3. Some people are bad, wicked or villainous and these people should be blamed and punished.
4. It is terrible and catastrophic when things are not in the way an individual wants them to be.
5.Unhappiness is a function of events outside the control of the individual.
6.If something is dangerous or harmful, an individual should constantly be concerned about it.
7.It is easier to run away from difficulties and self responsibility than it is to brace oneself up to learn on.
8.Petty events in an individual‘s life determine present behaviour and cannot be changed.
9.An individual should be every concerned and upset by other individual problems.
10.There is always a correct and precise answer to every problem and it is catastrophic if it is not found.
c)The Goal
Regardless of what happened to the individual in the past,the therapist assures that the person is solely
responsible for the way he feels about himself and this is responsible for his happiness. The goal of rational
emotive therapy is to show the client how his misinterpretation of events is causing him problems and to teach
him to see things in a more rational manner and aid him in the process of adjustments.
d)The process
In the initial interview the responsibilities of the counselor and the client are defined. The client is responsible for
practicing any learning acquired during the counseling sessions. Practicing means home work.
e)Techniques Used
Rational therapists use a wide verity of techniques to correct the illogical and self –defeating goals and beliefs of
the client. These include persuasion, confrontation, challenge, command, even theoretical arguments. They do
not ‘baby’ their clients .He may go so far as to give ‘home work’ assignments encouraging the clients to risk
arguing with their boss .patting a dog that frightens them directive.
f)Conclusion
Ellis says human being is both rational and irrational. Irrationality is the cause of emotional problems, such as
guilt, anxiety, anger and depression. Ellis has identified eleven irrational ideas. The goal of rational emotive
therapy is to show the client how his misinterpretation of events is causing him problems and to teach him to see
things in a more rational manner and aid him in the process of adjustments.

5) Gestalt Therapy has developed into a form of therapy that emphasizes medium to large groups, although
many Gestalt techniques can be used in one-on-one therapy. Gestalt Therapy probably has a great range of format
than any other therapy techniques. It is practiced in individual, couples, and family therapies, as well as in
therapy with children.
Ideally, the patient identifies the current sensation and emotions, particularly ones that are painful or disruptive.
Patients are confronted with their unconscious feelings and needs and are assisted to accept and assert those
repressed parts of themselves.
GESTALT THERAPY
Gestalt comes from the German meaning “an organized whole”. Frederick Perls was the first person to formulate
application of Gestalt psychology in the area of psychotherapy. Gestalt Therapy rose from its beginning in the
middle of the twentieth century to rapid and wide spread popularity during the decades of the 1960s and early
1970s. During the 70s and 80s Gestalt Therapy training centers spread globally, but they were, for the most part,
not aligned with formal academic settings. Later Gestalt Therapy became an applied discipline in the field of
psychotherapy, organizational development, social action and eventually coaching.
Gestalt Therapy was co-founded by Frederick Perls, Launa Perls and Paul Goodman in the 1940s.It is an
existential and experimental psychotherapy that focuses on the individuals experience in the present moment, the
therapist-client relationship, the environmental and social context in which these take place, and the self-
regulating adjustment people make us a result of the overall situation. It emphasizes personal responsibility.
Gestalt Therapy focuses more on process (what is happening) than content (what is being discussed). The
emphasis is on what is being done, though and felt at the moment rather than on what was, might be, could be or
should be.
Gestalt Therapy is a method of awareness by which perceiving, feeling and acting are understood to be separate
from interpreting, explaining and judging using old attitudes. Distinction between direct experience and indirect
or secondary interpretation is developed in the process of therapy. The client learns to become aware of what they
are doing psychologically and how they can change it. By becoming aware of transforming their process they
develop self acceptance and the ability to experience more in the “now” without so much interference from
baggage of the past.
The objective of Gestalt Therapy, in addition to helping the client to overcome symptoms, is to enable him or her
to become more fully and creatively alive and to be free from the blocks and unfinished issues that may diminish
optimum satisfaction, fulfillment and growth. Thus, it falls in the category of humanistic psychotherapies.
Edwin Nevis describes Gestalt Therapy as “a conceptual and methodological base from which helping
professionals can craft their practice”. Joel Latner asserted that Gestalt Therapy is built around two central ideas:
that the most helpful focus of psychology is the experiential present moment and that everyone is caught in webs
of relationships; thus it is only possible to know ourselves against the background of our relation to other things.
The historical development of Gestalt Therapy shows the influences that have resulted in these two foci.
Expanded, they resulted in the four chief theoretical constructs that comprise Gestalt Theory and guide the
practice and application of Gestalt Therapy.
AIMS OF GESTALT THERAPY
A)Present-Centered Awareness:-
Gestalt Therapy focuses on the present. Living in the present is the more central than dwelling in the past or
imagining a future discovered from present. Described by its founder Frederick .S. Perls, as the therapy of the
obvious, it starts from what is in front of us , the surface and examines a persons experience, staying with what is
present and aware in the here and now , looking for the totality of the awareness, and including what is being left
out.
B)Profound Respect:-
Gestalt Therapy approaches the person who has come to therapy. Whether, it is an individual, a couple, family or
an institution in a deeply respectful manner. This greatly influences the therapist’s attitude towards change and
resistance to change.
C)Emphasis on Experience:-
A person’s experience is more than just ideas and memories, though they are certainly important. Experience also
includes emotions, perceptions, behavior and body sensation. Therapy aims to support all of these experiences in
the vivid present.
D)Creative Experiment and Discovery:-
Therapy’s experimental methodology requires that therapists constantly test their hunches against the client’s
experience and modify them accordingly. The therapist is both highly creative and flexible, while concentrating
on the client’s process.
E)Social Responsibility:-
Gestalt Therapy acknowledges responsibility for oneself and for others and its principles extend into the border
social realm. In asking for respect for all people and for the difference among them, it reflects a humanistic,
egalitarian approach to social life encourage people to live out these principles in the community at large.
F)Relationship:-
Being involved with others is central to human experience, and so it is it in Gestalt Therapy. One becomes fully
alive when one is congruent with oneself and fully aware with oneself and involved with others, vigorously and
directly, with intimacy and love. These also characterize the therapeutic relationship in Gestalt Therapy.
DEMERITS OF GESTALT THERAPY
Lacking a distinct clearly defined and fully elaborates theory of human development.
Lack of advanced research in the field.
It is a philosophical underpinnings.
In compatible with are empirical research.
It is powerful mean for facilitate and nurturing the functioning of human feelings.
At the end of the therapy the client is not necessarily ‘cured’ but able to access tools and equipments to deal with
problems encountered.
CONCLUSION
Gestalt Therapy is a humanistic therapy technique that focuses on gaining an awareness of emotions and
behaviors in the present rather than in the past.

6) BEHAVIORISTIC APPROACH
a)Introduction
Education should be organized in view of the psychology students. Educational courses and opportunities are
provided according to the abilities scholastic aptitude for optimum development of students. In counseling
include so many theories. Behaviorist theory is more importance in counseling. Counseling theory cannot delink
from theories of learning as the goal of counseling happens to be to modify the counselee’s behavior. The two
theories in common practice today;
1. The S-R Theory
2. The Perceptual Theory
b)The S-R Theory
The S-R theory says that behaviors of the people is the result of the forces existed upon them, that is a direct out
growth of the stimuli to which people are subjected, outgrowth of forces that operate upon them at a particular
time. If this is the case, then counseling, that is modification of behavior in a matter of the manipulation of the
forces exerted upon people. Behavioral therapy is the method of counseling human behavior.
Skinner’s theory runs like this: “ It a tasty bit of food falls into a skinner box after a pigeon pocks a button or a rat
presses a bar, the pigeon or the rat is likely to pock or press again behavior is affected by its consequences”.
Reinforcement in changing the behavior of persons who suffered from various behavioral disturbances as single
individuals and also as small groups. This was a very significant achievement in the field of behavioral
modification.
Behavior therapy, as described by Good all was a “mid century out growth of classical conditioning
experimentation and learning theories of Clark Hull, the psychologist”. “Predominantly one to one, therapist-
client relationship; scheduled sessions in the therapists’ office or clinic, fees paid by clients”. Behavior therapy
assumes that a behavior or emotion this interferes with effective living is not necessarily the result of some inner
problem that has to be worked out in therapy. Proximations to approach in behavior therapy is that of shaping
approximation to appropriate responding through careful schedules of reinforcement. This is used to when
responses are needed but they are not present.
Thousands of parents have learned to use ABA through short term work shops and courses. They use for this
purpose all kinds of methods and techniques such as tokens, shaping, modeling, desensitization’s or any other
behavioral technique which may be found effective in practice. The ABA therapists claim a big success in
changing a man.
c)Behavioral Therapy of Joseph Wolpe
Pavlov’s theory influenced to Wolpe. He develops the Behavioral therapy. He used anxiety as his core concept. If
something makes a person anxious while meeting other persons, the feeling of meeting others gets attached to
feeling of anxiety which he tries to avoid and, in course of time, develops ‘shyness’ or ‘reservedness’ or ‘feeling of
inferiority’. Hence he argues, the approach to are should be to reintroduce the person, gradually to the thought of
being anxious while meeting others. To achieve this person is brought to counseling interview through which he is
first made to give a detailed account of everything related to the problem.
Wolpe suggested the use of assertive training in case of highly unexpressive persons that is persons who would
express their emotions even though suffering from great anxiety. He also suggested the use of aversive therapy in
which case some unpleasant sensation is induced in the person every time he indulges in undesirable behavior.
d)Dallard and Milles’s Behavioral Psychoanalysis
“Man is essentially a product of learning, particularly emphasizing the principle of reinforcement.”
Thus method of counseling and therapy runs as follows:
1. Talking phase
2. Performance phase
1. Talking phase
During this phase efforts are made to examine, identify and analyze the undesirable habit pattern of behaviors by
talking to the person as much as possible.
2. Performance phase
During which efforts are made to make the client learn desirable behaviors by making them more rewarding.
e)Perceptual Theories of Learning
Perceptual theories of learning assert that human behavior is a product of perception. According to perceptual
theorists learning is not simply a matter of motivation, repetitions, presentation, stimulation, conditioning etc…
although all these play their roles in the process of learning. A piece of information affects human behavior to the
extent to which the individual discovers its personal meaning.
Seven factors on which an individual’s perception depends for discovery of meaning. These are as follows:
1. Physical nature of human organism
2. Length of time he has lived
3. The opportunities he has had in the past to perceive
4. The goals and values the individual holds. People perceive what they value.
5. The operation of his current needs. People perceive what they need to perceive.
6. The Self-Concept
7. The experience of threat. Thereat his dress in perception.
f)Behavior Therapy
Aimed at modification of maladaptive outward behavior. Based on the learning theories of psychology and
depends on the principle that learned behavior can be unlearned.
These psychological methods are most important and effective tools available for the treatment of
psychoneuroses personality disorders, drugs addictions and alcoholism and behavior disturbances of child hood.
They are also useful as supportive ancillary methods are the treatment of psychoses and psychosomatic diseases.

7) TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS ( T A)
a) Introduction
Counselling is a relationship between two persons which includes providing the assistance to an immature person
regarding defining his problem, to think about him and to develop some habits and attitudes for intelligent
decision making. The aim of counseling is to help a person in dealing with developmental tasks fit for his age-
group.
b) Transactional Analysis
Transactional analysis defined by Eric Berne is a theory of personality and social action and a clinical method of
psychotherapy based on the analysis of all possible transaction between two or more people on the basis of
specially defined ego states. Transactional analysis is useful to any person who wants to be a real person. A real
person is one who acts spontaneously in a rational and trust worthy way with decent consideration for others.
Real people are autonomous.
The salient feature at transactional analysis is that it basically views people as products of relationship and their
behavior as the functions of the past interactional fearing experience. It holds the view that people are responsible
for what they do. If a man understands what is wrong with him and has enough motivation he can become a
winner. It is usually practiced in groups.
c)Concepts
v People can be autonomous
v They are not enslaved by their past
v Change is an autonomous process
v Autonomous people are real people and they have the qualities like awareness, spontaneity and intimacy.
d)Theory of Personality
TA is a dynamic theory at personality in the sense that uses the concepts of psychic energy and the distribution of
energy. The structure of personality is based on the personality theory of parent, adult, child ego states. He
defines the ego states on the patterns of feeling, thinking and behaving. Any individual in a social grouping will
exhibit one of these states.
Parent ego state
It refers to the parental and cultural influences. The person behaves like one of his parents/elders when he was
young. This is a set of feelings, thoughts, attitudes and behaviors which one came across during his childhood. It
contains behaviors that are copied stored information, Opinions, judgment and inner influence.
Parental ego states are in two forms. They are controlling parent and Nurturing parent.
Adult ego state
Adult ego state keeps us from being ‘hijacked’ by emotions and traumatic experiences of yester years. It helps us
to make use of our mental and physical capabilities to meet the challenges that we face day after day. It discards
unrealistic inappropriate messages and feelings and makes his own decisions. The important characteristics are
organization, intelligence, processing, probability and decision making. It is devoid of feelings.
Child ego state
It contains all the feelings, needs potentialities of a child. Berne says we all carry within ourselves a little boy or a
little girl who feels, thinks, acts and responds just as we did when we were children. It also contains creative
intuitive capacities such as rebellion, compliance etc. TA has identified three different forms of child ego state
they are
1. Natural child
2. Adaptive child
3. Little professor
e) Four type of analysis of TA
1. Structural analysis
2. Transactional analysis
3. Games
4. Script
1. Structural analysis
It is the first stage of counselling. It is the analysis of the Structure of the personality. It diagnoses and separates
feelings, patterns and ego states from one another. It helps people to understand who they are, why they behave
so. It helps the person to remain in control of the personality in stressful situation.
2. Transactional analysis
This is the second stage of the counselling. It helps the client to understand the three distinct types of
transactions. They are complementary, crossed and ulterior. They are more analyzing the on-going transactions
of group members.
3. Complementary Transaction
It occurs when the stimulus given by one person gets the expected response from another person.
4.Crossed Transaction
This happens between two ego states when a message sent from one person gets the unexpected response. The
lines between the two ego states cross and communication breaks down.
5. Ulterior Transaction
It involves more than two ego states at the same time. In this type of transaction two messages are exchanged one
in the social level and one in psychological level. There are two types of ulterior transaction. They are Duplex
transaction and Angular ulterior transaction.
3. Games
A game is an on-going series of transactions seemingly complementary, covertly ulterior which leads to a well
defined pay off. Pay off are usually negative feelings like fear, anger, sadness for one or both the players. Game is
defined as a series of complementary transactions, progressing to a well defined predictable outcome. Most of
what happens in life is game. The client is encouraged to learn more satisfying ways of structuring time and
acquiring strokes.
4. Scripts
Script analysis is the analysis of life dramas that people without awareness act out compulsively some of the
impressions which get imprinted in the earlier experiences will influence our behavior. It is a tool of TA. It tells us
how we got the impression and how we can get rid of it scripts are two
1) Winning script 2) Losing script
Dr Berne defines script as a life plan based on decision in childhood, reinforced by parents.
Transactional analysis counselling process
The success of TA treatment largely depends on the setting of the room where there is held. The furniture, the
color of the curtains and walls, the dress of the therapist all constitute the setting.
In the initial interview, the therapist very carefully tries to assess the ego state; the client seems to be in. From
which the therapist draws certain conclusions. TA interview records are kept for future references. Brief notes on
summary of the interview are recorded in standard forms. With the client complaints, his life position, symptoms,
ego states, childhood experiences etc.
Contract theory and techniques- the establishment and completeness of contracts is one of the important TA
techniques that can be used for effective therapy. A contract is the bilateral agreement between the therapist and
the client.
The first stage of TA relationship is meeting the confused client with the parent. The counsellor seeks the
information to establish a contractual relationship.
In the second stage, the counsellor explains the client’s behavior using the information obtained in the first stage.
The counsellor make client aware of the internal conflicts and explore.
The third stage is marked by confrontation make him aware of the contamination of the other ego states and
make him break the contamination and elicit a commitment to some action. The client is self conditioned.
It frees people from their foggy feeling and behavior and helps in improving the communication process. It is
used for everyday problem solving.
Conclusion
Transactional Analysis can be said to be an effective method in the process of counselling. Recently its scope is
increasing. Individuals especially the young adults are the needy clients of this transactional analysis counselling,
because present generations carry different complex ego states. It enable the clients to identity the sorts of
relationship.