10/14/2014

Chemistry
The central science
Chemistry is the study of
matter including their
 chemical and physical properties
 chemical and physical changes it
undergoes
 energy changes that accompany
GENERAL CHEMISTRY those processes
Rowel P. Catchillar, MS Phar

Chemistry: the central science Major Divisions

energy

General Inorganic
Laws
Chemistry Chemistry
changes
Principles

Study of matter Physical Organic

Chemistry Chemistry
composition properties

Major Divisions Matter

Anything that occupies space
and has mass
Analytical
Biochemistry
Chemistry

Nuclear Geological
Chemistry Chemistry

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Mass & Weight Mass vs Weight

Mass
 refers to the amount of matter
present in the material
 is a measure of how
much matter something contains
Weight
 the measure of the earth’s
gravitational attraction of an object;
 mass x gravitational attraction
 is a measure of how strongly gravity
pulls downwards

Units of Measurement States of Matter

 Metric System or SI is a decimal system STATE SHAPE VOLUME COMPRESSION IFA MOLECULAR
MOTION
of units for measurements of mass, Solid Definite Definite Very slight Strongest Vibration
length, time and other physical Liquid Indefinite Definite Slight Strong Gliding
quantities Gas Indefinite Indefinite High Weakest Constant
random
motion
Quantity Name of Unit Symbol
Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Seconds sec
Temperature Kelvin K
Amount of substance Mole mol
Electric current Ampere A
Luminous intensity Candela cd

Interconversion of Matter Classification of Matter

Element
 Simplest form of matter,1 kind of
material or atom
Compound
 Substance composed of two or
more elements united chemically
in definite proportion
Mixture
 Composed of 2 or more substances
that are not chemically combined

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Classification of Mixture Classification of Mixture

Based on Nature of Particles Based on Particle Size
 Solution – uniform mixture,
HETEROGENEOUS HOMOGENEOUS composed of solute and solvent
Consists of physically Consists of uniform  Suspension – aka Coarse mixture,
distinct parts, each with properties throughout finely divided solid materials
different properties given samples; two or distributed in a liquid
more substance but  Colloid – particles of solute are not
single phase broken down to the size of the
Eg: Sand and water mixture NaCl dissolved in water molecules but are small enough to
remain suspended and evenly
dispersed throughout the medium

Separation of Mixture Separation of Mixture

Decantation Evaporation
 Difference in specific gravity  escape of molecules from the
Distillation liquid state to gaseous/vapor
state
 Distillation followed by
condensation Magnetic separation
 metals

Separation of Mixture Separation of Mixture

Filtration Fractional crystallization
 use of filter paper  lowering the temperature so that
Sorting the more insoluble component
crystallizes first
 mechanical separation
 Based on the difference in
Centrifugation solubility
 to increase settling of a
precipitate
Chromatography
 difference in solvent affinity

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Properties of Matter Properties of Matter

Extrinsic or extensive Intrinsic or Intensive properties
properties  qualities that are characteristic of
 qualities that are not any sample of a substance
characteristic of the substance regardless of the shape or size of
itself; those that depend on the the sample; those that depend on
amount or quantity of materials the quality or kind of material that:
present Cannot be measured (taste, color and
 Eg: weight, volume, pressure, odor)
heat content Measurable (melting point, boiling
point, density, specific gravity)

Changes in matter Evidences of chemical change

 Physical change Evolution of gas
 Change in phase, no new substance is
formed
Formation of a precipitate
 Chemical change
 Change in both intrinsic and extrinsic
properties; new substance is formed
Emission of light
 Nuclear Change Generation of electricity
 Change in the structure, properties,
composition of the nucleus of an atom Production of mechanical
resulting in the transmutation of the
element into another element. energy
Nuclear fission - splitting of a heavy atom
Nuclear fusion- union of 2 light atoms to form Absorption/liberation of heat
a bigger molecule

Processes involved in chemical change Processes involved in chemical change

Oxidation Neutralization
 LEORA  Salt formation
 Oxidation  (+) Oxygen Hydrolysis
 Breakdown of molecule in the
 Dehydogenation  (-) Hydrogen presence of water
Reduction Saponification
 GEROA  Soap formation
 Hydrogenation  (+) Hydrogen Fermentation
 Reduction  (-) Oxygen  Alcohol + CO2

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Laws Governing Matter & Energy Laws Governing Matter & Energy
Law of mass action Law of Mass Action
 the rate of the reaction is proportional
to the product of the concentrate of
the reactants to the power of its
coefficient in a balanced equation
aA + bB  cC + dD

Laws Governing Matter & Energy Laws Governing Matter & Energy
Law of Mass Action Law of Mass Action

Laws Governing Matter & Energy Laws Governing Matter & Energy
Result Analysis  Law of Conservation of Energy
 K >> 1, products favored  energy can neither be created
 K << 1, reactants favored nor destroyed, but it can be
transformed from one form to
another

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Laws Governing Matter & Energy Laws Governing Matter & Energy
Law of conservation of mass Law of Constant Composition
 no change is observed in the  Law of Definite Proportion
total mass of the substances  Proust’s Law
involved in a chemical reaction  States that: “in a pure
compound, the elements are
always present in the same
proportion by mass”
 Example: H2O

Laws Governing Matter & Energy ATOMS, MOLECULES & IONS

Law of Multiple Proportion
 atoms of two or more elements
ATOMS
may combine in different ratios to
produce more than one
compound MOLECULES

IONS

ATOMS, MOLECULES & IONS Discovery of Atoms & Atomic Models

 ATOMS Democritus
 smallest particle of an element  Matter is made up of
 MOLECULE indivisible particles
 smallest unit of a compound  he pounded up
 ION materials in his
pestle and mortar
 positively or negatively charged atom until he had reduced
Positive ion: cation them to smaller and
Negative ion: anion smaller particles
which he called
ATOMOS
(indivisible)

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Discovery of Atoms & Atomic Models Discovery of Atoms & Atomic Models
John Dalton J.J. Thomson
Dalton proposed a modern atomic
model based on experimentation not  Raisin Bread / Plum
on pure reason Pudding Model
All matter is made of atoms. (Negative electrons in
Atoms of an element are identical. a positive framework)
Each element has different atoms.
Atoms of different elements combine in  found that atoms could
constant ratios to form compounds. sometimes eject a far
Atoms are rearranged in reactions. smaller negative
 His ideas account for the law of conservation
of mass and the law of constant composition. particle which he called
 Model: “Billiard Ball Model” an electron

Discovery of Atoms & Atomic Models Discovery of Atoms & Atomic Models
Ernest Rutherford Gold Film
 Gold film experiment (99% Experiment
passed; <1% deflected) Most particles
passed through. So,
 Proposal: atoms are mostly
Atom is mostly an empty empty.
space (99% passed) Some positive -
particles deflected or
Most of its and (+) particles bounced back!
are concentrated in the Thus, a “nucleus” is
nucleus (<1% deflected) positive & holds most
of an atom’s mass

Discovery of Atoms & Atomic Models Planetary Model

Neil Bohr
 Refined Rutherford’s idea by electrons in orbits

adding that the electrons were in

orbits (like planets orbiting the
sun)
 Model: “Planetary Model”
nucleus

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Discovery of Atoms & Atomic Models Discovery of Atoms & Atomic Models
James Chadwick Erwin
 “Neutron” Schrodinger
discovery  Quantum
Mechanical
Model

Atomic Structure Nuclide Writing

Composition A nuclide is an atom
 Nucleus & electron cloud characterized by a definite
Atomic Particles atomic number and mass
 Proton number
 Neutron
 Electron
1,836 lighter than proton, thus
negligible

Remember Me! Exercises

If neutral Determine the
 Atomic # = Proton = Electron  Proton
If charged (cation or anion):  Atomic #
 Atomic # = Proton (but not equal  Neutron
to electron)  Electron
 Mass Number
 Nucleon #

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Exercises Exercises
Determine the Determine the
 Proton  Proton
 Atomic #  Atomic #
 Neutron  Neutron
 Electron  Electron
 Mass Number  Mass Number
 Nucleon #  Nucleon #

Identify whether the following pairs

Essential Terms are: isotopes, isobars or isotones
Isotopes
Isobars
Isotones

Identify whether the following pairs Identify whether the following pairs
are: isotopes, isobars or isotones are: isotopes, isobars or isotones

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Identify whether the following pairs

are: isotopes, isobars or isotones
Allotropism
 phenomenon of an element
existing in two or more physical
forms
Same elemental constituent,
different form

Electron Configuration
representation of the Long-hand Method
arrangement of electrons that  Diagonal rule
Madelung’s rule
are distributed among the Klechkowski’s rule
orbitals. “An empirical rule for determining the
order in which atomic orbitals are
filled”
Short-hand notation
 Nobel gas method
Orbital Notation

Electronic Principles Quantum Mechanics

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principal quantum number
Theory impossible to determine simultaneously
the momentum & position of an electron  Determines the main energy
Pauli’s Exclusion Theory no 2 electron can have the level and the size
same set of quantum number  Symbol: n
Aufbau Principle  Diagonal
 Values: positive integer
rule lower energy levels are filled up first (1,2,3,4…)
Hund’s Rule orbitals are filled singly
before pairing up

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Quantum Mechanics Quantum Mechanics

Azimuthal QN / Angular Magnetic QN
Momentum Number
 Determines the shape and  Describes the spatial orientation
subshell/sublevel  Symbol: m or ml
 Shapes:
s = spherical  values: -l to +l
p = dumbbell-shaped
d = cloverleaf
f = too complex
 Symbol: l
 Values: 0 to (n-1)

Quantum Mechanics Quantum Number Determination

Spin QN 3p4
 Determines the spin/rotation 4s2
 Values: +1/2 (clockwise) or -1/2 3d10
(counterclockwise)

The Periodic Table of Elements The Periodic Table of Elements

Antoine Lavoisier Johann Dobereiner
 wrote the first extensive list of  Triads; According to physical
elements - containing 33 properties
elements  middle element of a triad was nearly
equal to the arithmetic mean
of atomic masses of other
two elements
Element Atomic mass
Lithium 7
Sodium 23
Potassium 39

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The Periodic Table of Elements The Periodic Table of Elements

John Alexander Newland
 Octaves
Li Be B C N O F
 "every eighth element had
(6.9) (9.0) (10.8) (12.0) (14.0) (16.0) (19.0)
properties similar to the first Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
element” (23.0) (24.3) (27.0) (28.1) (31.0) (32.1) (35.5)
K Ca

(39.1) (40.1)

The Periodic Table of Elements The Periodic Table of Elements

Meyer and Mendeleev Henry Moseley
 Physical and chemical properties  Elements are arranged based on
are periodic function of their atomic numbers
atomic weights  Modern periodic table

Parts of Periodic Table Parts of Periodic Table

Period Groups
 1st  shortest period  There are 18 groups in a
 2nd and 3rd  short period, 8 periodic table
elements  The groups are divided into A
 4th and 5th  long periods, 18 and B groups
elements each
 Group IA to VIIIA has all the
 6th period: Lanthanide series (rare normal (representative elements)
earth elements), 14 elements
 7th period: Actinide series, 14  Group IB to VIIIB holds all the
elements transition metal elements

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The Periodic Table Metals vs Nonmetals

 The modern periodic table is METALS NON-METALS
approximately divided into metals
and non-metals Good conductors of heat Poor conductors
 Metallic elements – left-hand side and electricity
 Nonmetals – right-hand side Form BASIC oxides Form ACIDIC oxides
 Inert gas – extreme right hand side
 Transition metals – bridged between Lustrous, Ductile, Dull & Brittle if Solid
highly metallic alkali elements and the Malleable
non-metals lie on the center of the High Density Low Density
table
 Lanthanide and actinide series – kept High Melting point Low Melting point
separately Tends to lose e- Tends to accept e-

Metalloids Periodic Trends

Intermediate between metals  Atomic Radius
 ½ the distance between 2 nuclei
& non-metals  Electron affinity
Si, Ge, Po, Sb, As, Te, B  amount of energy released when an
atom gains an electron ; property to
accept an electron
 Electronegativity
 Ability to attract electrons in itself
 Ionization energy or potential
 energy required to remove an electron
from a neutral atom

Periodic Trends Types of Chemical Bonding

 ATOMIC SIZE / METALLIC Intramolecular Force of
PROPERTY / ATOMIC RADIUS
 Right  Left :: INCREASE Attraction
 Top  Bottom :: INCREASE  Covalent Bond
 ELECTRONEGATIVITY / IE / EA Polar Covalent Bond
 From Left to Right  INCREASE Non-polar
 From Bottom to Top  INCREASE
 For, ION SIZE:  Ionic Bond
 Atom to CATION :: decrease in ion
size
 Atom to ANION :: INCREASE in ion
size

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Covalent or Ionic Bond? Memorize me!

Basis: electronegativity Element Electronegativity
Fluorine 4.0
differences
Oxygen 3.5
 >1.7  ionic Chlorine 3.0
 0.5-1.7  polar covalent Nitrogen 3.0
 <0.5  non-polar covalent Bromine 2.8
Carbon 2.5
Based on elemental attribute Sulfur 2.5
 Metal + Nonmetal  ionic Hydrogen 2.1
 2 Nonmetals  covalent Sodium 0.9
Potassium 0.8

Force of attraction: Ionic or covalent? Chemical Bonding

Based on Electronegativity  The Lewis Dot Diagrams
 Get the sum of valence electron
Difference present in a formula.
 Draw trial structure (single bonds only)
SrCl2 Ionic  Get the difference of valence
PCl3 Covalent electrons & electrons of single bonds
 Incorporate the missing electrons in
NH3 Covalent the structure. Be sure to satisfy octet
RbBr Ionic rule!
LiCl Ionic  Last resort: if octet rule is not satisfied,
indicate double or triple bonds

Chemical Bonding SOLUTIONS

Write the Lewis Diagram of Solution is a homogeneous (or
the following: uniform) mixture of two or more
substances.
 Water
Composition:
 CH3F  The solute is a compound of a
 Br2 solution that is present in lesser
 NH3 quantity than the solvent
 CH2O  The solvent is the solution
component present in the largest
 C 2H 2 quantity.

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Types of Solutions Factors affecting solubility

Based on the solubility of the The magnitude of difference
solution between polarity of solute
 Saturated and solvent
 Unsaturated  The greater the difference, the
 Supersaturated less soluble is the solute.
 Nature of solute and solvent
 “Like dissolves like”

Factors affecting solubility Factors affecting solubility

Temperature Pressure – affects gases only
 increase in temperature usually  Henry’s Law - the solubility of a
increases solubility gas increases as pressure
increases
 Exothermic
Solubility decreases with increase Particle size & Surface area
in temp.  Decreases particle size 
increase solubility
 Endothermic
 Increased SA  increased
solubility increases with increases solubility
in temperature

Concentration-Dependent Solution
Factors affecting solubility Properties
Presence of Salts “Raoult’s law”
 Salting-out – presence of salt  …”when a solute is added to a
decreases solubility solvent, the vapor pressure of
 Salting-in – Presence of salt the solvent decreases in
increases solubility proportion to the concentration of
the solute”

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Colligative Properties Colligative Properties

Colligative properties are Vapor pressure lowering
solution properties that  addition of non-volatile solute
depend on the concentration lowers the vapour pressure of
of the solute particles, rather the liquid
than the identity of the solute.

Colligative Properties Colligative Properties

Freezing point depression Boiling point elevation
 presence of salt/non-volatile  BP is the equilibrium between
solid will cause lowering of the liquid and the gas
freezing point  VP=AP
 Application: Manufacture of ice
cream

Colligative Properties Gas Laws

 Osmotic pressure Kinetic molecular theory of
 Osmosis is the movement of solvent gases
from a dilute solution to a more
concentrated solution through a  Gases are made up of small
semipermeable membrane. atoms or molecules that are in
 osmotic pressure  applied pressure constant, random motion
to stop the movement of solvent
 Clinical Correlation:  The distance of separation
 Isotonicity among these atoms or molecules
 Hypertonic is very large in comparison to
 Hypotonic the size of the individual atoms
or molecules.

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Gas Laws Gas Laws

 Kinetic molecular theory of gases
 All of the atoms and molecules behave Boyle’s Law
independently. No attractive or repulsive  Sometimes: Mariotte
forces exist between atoms or molecules law
in a gas.
 Atoms and molecules collide with each  Relationship of
other and with the walls of the container pressure and volume
without losing energy. The energy is at constant
transferred from one atom or molecule to
another. temperature
 The average kinetic energy of the atoms  Inversely proportional
or molecules increases or decreases in
proportion to absolute temperature.  P1V1 = P2V2 (show
derivation)
 P 1/V

Gas Laws Gas Laws

Boyle’s Law Charles’ Law
 Relationship of
volume and
temperature at
constant
pressure
 Directly
proportional
 V T
 Formula:

Gas Laws Gas Laws

Charles’ Law Gay-Lussac’s Law
 Relationship of temperature and
pressure at constant volume
 Directly proportional (⬆
temperature, ⬆ pressure)
 Formula:

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Gas Laws Gas Laws

Combined Gas Law Ideal Gas Law (Ideal Gas
 Provides convenient expression Equation)
for performing gas law  Formula: PV = nRT
Where:
calculations involving the most  R = gas constant (R = 0.08206 L-atm / mol-
common variables: pressure, K)
volume, and temperature.  T = (Kelvin instead of degrees Celsius)
 n = moles
 STP:
 Formula: T = 273.15 K
P = 1 atm
V = 22.4 L

Gas Laws Gas Laws

Real Gas Equation Dalton’s Law of Partial
 Van der Waal’s Equation Pressure
 Formula:  Total pressure is equal to the
Where: sum of partial pressure of each
 accounts for the intermolecular
gas
attractive forces;  Pt = P1 + P2 + P3 + …
 accounts for the incompressibility
 If each gas obeys the ideal-gas
of the molecules. equation, then:

Gas Laws Gas Laws

Graham’s Law Avogadro’s Law
 States that the rate of diffusion of  Gases of equal volumes at the
same temperature and pressure
the gas and the speed of the gas contain the same number of
molecules are inversely molecules.
proportional to the square root of  volume of a gas maintained at
their density constant temperature and pressure
is directly proportional to the
number of moles of the gas
 Formula:

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Acids & Bases Acids & Bases

Dissociation  Electrolytes: substances whose
aqueous solution conduct
 separation of salt ions electricity such as acids, bases
and salts
Ionization  Strong electrolytes
 formation of ions strong acids and bases, most salts;
complete dissolution
 Weak electrolytes
weak acid/ weak bases; incomplete
**These terms are often used dissolution; slight dissociation
interchangeably to describe the  Non-electrolytes: do not conduct
processes taking place in water. electricity

Acid-Base Theories General Properties of Acids

 Taste: SOUR
THEORY ACID BASE  Litmus : blue  red
Arrhenius Substance that yields Substance that  Aqueous solutions conduct electricity
Theory H+ or H3O+ in H2O yields OH- in H2O  Reacts with metal to liberate hydrogen
Bronsted- Proton donor Proton acceptor gas
Lowry Theory  Reacts with carbonate and bicarbonate
Lewis Theory Electron-acceptor Electron donor to produce carbon dioxide
Pearson’s Hard acids are electron acceptor with high  Turns colorless with phenolphthalein
HSAB positive charges and relatively small sizes  Turns red with methyl orange indicator
while soft acids have positive charges and  Most common strong acids: HCl, HBr,
relatively large sizes HI, HNO3, HCIO3, HCIO4, H2SO4

General Properties of Bases pH

Taste: BITTER measure of acidity or basicity
Litmus: red  blue of a substance
Aqueous solutions conduct
electricity range: Sorensen scale (0-14)
Slippery to touch pH = 7; pH < 7; pH > 7
Pink color with phenolphthalein ⬆ alkalinity, ⬆ increase in
Yellow with methyl orange
number
Most common strong bases
NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2 ⬆ acidity, ⬇ in number

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Dissociation Constant Dissociation Constants

measures the propensity of a Acid Dissociation Constant
larger object to separate (Ka)
(dissociate) reversibly into  Formula: pKa = -log Ka
smaller components Base Dissociation Constant
(Kb)
 Formula: pKb = -log Kb
Dissociation contant of water
 Fomula: pKw = pH + pOH

Essential Formula Salts

SA: pH = -log (H+) SA + SB  neutral salt (pH =
WA: pH = -log ( 𝒌𝒂 . 𝑪𝒂 ) 7)
SB: pH = pkw – [(-log (OH-)] SA+ WB acidic salt (pH < 7)
WB: pH = pkw – [(-log 𝑲𝒃. 𝑪𝒃) WA + SB basic salt (pH >7)
Weak acid + Weak base
 Note
 pH = 𝒑𝒌𝒘 + 𝒑𝒌𝒂 − 𝒑𝒌𝒃
 Ka or Kb > 10O is strong acid/base
 Ka or Kb <10O is weak acid/base

Buffer Equation Nomenclature & Formula Writing

Henderson-Hasselbalch Rule of Inorganic Compound
Equation  “…an inorganic compound is
produced by simple attraction of
(+) & (-) particles

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Nomenclature & Formula Writing Binary Ionic

Binary ionic : metal + non-
metal (formation of one, two FORMULA NAME FORMULA NAME
AlCl3 Barium
or more cations) sulfide
 Binary ionic with one type of Al2O3 LiI
cation formed Calcium MgBr2
 Common metals; monovalent carbide
HCl Sodium
metal + nonmetal hydride
 Name the metal. Add stem (-ide) HI Na2O

Binary Ionic Binary Ionic

Binary ionic
FORMULA STOCK CLASSICAL
SYSTEM NAME
NAME
with two or Cu+1 Copper (I)
Cu+2 Copper (II)
more types Hg+1; Mercury (I) FORMULA NAME FORMULA NAME
(Hg2)+2
of cations Hg+2 Mercury (II)
SnF4 Iron (II) sulfide
Fe+2 Iron (II) Fe2O3 Cuprous oxide
Fe+3 Iron (III) PBI2 Stannous chloride
Sn+2 Tin (II)
Sn+4 Tin (IV) CuO Titanic bromide
Pb+2 Lead (II)
Pb+4 Lead (IV)
As+3 Arsenic (III)
As+5 Arsenic (V)
Ti+3 Titanium (III)
Ti+4 Titanium (IV)

Nomenclature & Formula Writing Binary Molecular

 Binary molecular: non-metal +
non-metal
 Name the first element using a prefix FORMULA NAME FORMULA NAME
if more than one atom of this element.
If atom is one, DO NOT USE –mono CO H2O
prefix (just name the element) CO2 N2O4
 Write stem name + (-ide). USE PCl3 NO
PREFIX TO INDICATE NUMBER OF CCl4 S2Cl2
ATOMS
N2O Cl2O
 Prefixes: -mono; -di; -tri; -tetra; -penta;
-hexa; -hepta; -octa; -nona; -deca

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Nomenclature & Formula Writing Ternary Ionic: Memorize me!

Ternary ionic: metal +
NAME FORMULA CHARGE
polyatomic ion Acetate C2H2O2- -1
 Naming: Write the name of the Ammonium NH4+ +1
cation and anion Arsenate AsO4 3- -3
Hydrogen carbonate HCO3- -1
or bicarbonate
Hydrogen sulfate or HSO4- -1
bisulfate

Ternary Ionic: Memorize me! Ternary Ionic: Memorize me!

NAME FORMULA CHARGE NAME FORMULA CHARGE

Borate BO33- -3 Chromate CrO42- -2
Bromate BrO3- -1 Cyanide CN- -1
Carbonate CO32- -2 Dichromate Cr2O72- -2
Perchlorate ClO4- Hydroxide OH- -1
Chlorate ClO3- Nitrate NO3- -1
-1
Chlorite ClO2- Nitrite NO2- -1
Hypochlorite ClO -

Ternary Ionic: Memorize me! Ternary Ionic

NAME FORMULA CHARGE NAME FORMULA
Oxalate C2O42- -2 NaNO3
Permanganate MnO4- -1
Calcium phosphate
Phosphate PO43- -3
Lithium carbonate
Sulfate SO42- -2
Sulfite SO32- -2 NaClO3
Potassium permanganate
Sodium bicarbonate

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Nomenclature & Formula Writing Binary Acids

Binary acid
 H + non-metal NAME FORMULA
 Hydro + <non-metal stem> -ic + Hydrochloric acid
acid HI
Hydrosulfuric acid
HF
Hydrophosphoric
acid

Nomenclature & Formula Writing Ternary Acid

Ternary acid
NAME FORMULA
 H + polyatomic anions H2SO4
 Rules: Sulfurous acid
If anion ends with –ate or –ide: Nitric acid
<root word of polyatomic> -ic + acid HNO2
If it ends with –ite: <root word of H2CO3
polyatomic> -ous + acid Boric acid

Chemical Reaction & Balancing of

Ternary Acid Equation
NAME FORMULA
H3PO4
HIO3
Acetic acid
H2C2O4
HBrO3

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Direct Union or combination or

Synthesis
Decomposition
Combination of two or more Opposite of synthesis
elements reaction
 A + B  AB  AB  B + A
 Hydrogen + Oxygen   Electrolysis of water
 Sodium metal + Chlorine 
 Magnesium ribbon burning

Single Displacement Double displacement

A + BC  AC + B Formation of two entirely
 Depends on activity series different compounds
 Mg + H2O Anions and cations switch
together
 Lead (II) Nitrate + Potassium iodide
Special kind: Neutralization
reaction
 Strong acid + strong base
 HCl + NaOH

Combustion Balancing of Equation

Reaction with oxygen to form By Inspection
water and carbon dioxide Algebraic Method
C10H8 + 12O2  10CO2 + 4H2O
By Redox-Reaction
NOTE: In performing
chemical reactions, it is
required to balance the
equations, if applicable.

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Figuring Out Oxidation Numbers Rules in assigning ON

Oxidation number In elemental form, ON = zero
 “charge” on an atom in a Hydrogen is always +1 (except
compound in hydrides, where it is -1)
 Rule: Assign a number (charge) Oxygen is always -2 (except in
to every atom peroxides where it’s -1)
Other atoms get the charge they
prefer, as long as the SUM of all
atom’s ON is the charge on the
particle

Determine the charge of each element Balancing of Equation: Redox Reaction

S8 AlH3 Acidic Solution
H2O KMnO4 Basic Solution
H2O2 NaH2PO4
HCOOH ClO4-
LiH

Thermodynamics Thermodynamics
study of energy, work, and Thermodynamic System- part
heat and their inter-relation to of the universe isolated from
one another the rest by a boundary

“Surrounding” = Everything
outside

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Types of System Important Terms

TERM SYMBOL DESCRIPTION
TYPE OF SYSTEM ALLOWS EXCHANGE
Heat Q Energy transfer due to
OF
temperature difference
Open (Non- Matter & Energy Work w A form of energy transfer between
conservative) and its surroundings in the form of
Closed (Conservative) Energy ONLY compression or expansion of the
gas
Isolated (Adiabatic) No matter, No energy

Important Terms Important Terms

TERM SYMBOL DESCRIPTION TERM SYMBOL DESCRIPTION
Enthalpy H Represents heat; energy of a Free G Represents the combined
reaction energy contribution of the enthalpy and
Entropy S Determines the degree of entropy values for a chemical
randomness or disorderliness. reaction.

A random, or disordered, system Heat c the amount of heat required to

is characterized by high entropy; capacity raise the temperature of an
a well-organized system has low object or substance by one
entropy. degree

Gases > liquid > solid : entropy

Laws of Thermodynamics Laws of Thermodynamics

1st Law of Thermodynamics 2nd Law of
 Heat and work are forms of energy Thermodynamics
transfer.  An isolated system, if not already
 Energy is invariably conserved, in its state of thermodynamic
however the internal energy of a equilibrium, spontaneously
closed system may change as heat evolves towards it.
is transferred into or out of the  Thermodynamic equilibrium has
system or work is done on or by the the greatest entropy among the
system states accessible to the system.

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Laws of Thermodynamics What you need to remember?

3rd Law of Thermodynamics First Law of Thermodynamics
 The entropy of a system
approaches a constant value as the  “conservation of energy”
temperature approaches zero  Energy of the universe is
 The entropy of a system at absolute constant
zero is typically zero, and in all
cases is determined only by the
number of different ground states it
has.
 Specifically, the entropy of a pure
crystalline substance at absolute
zero temperature is zero

What you need to remember? What you need to remember?

Second Law of Third Law of
Thermodynamics Thermodynamics
 Entropy  “entropy of a pure crystalline is
 Gibb’s Free Energy equal to zero”
(expendable amount of energy)
 ΔG(-) = SPONTANEOUS
 ΔG(+) = NON-SPONTANEOUS
 ΔG(0) = Equilibrium

Chemical Kinetics Question

the study of the rate (or speed) An ice cube is dropped into a
of chemical reactions glass of water at room
Exothermic reaction temperature. The ice cube
 releases energy to the surroundings
 surroundings become warmer
melts. Is the melting of the
Endothermic reaction
ice exothermic or
 absorbs energy from the endothermic?
surroundings
 surroundings become colder

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Factors Affecting Reaction Rate Chemical Equilibrium

 structure of the reacting species LE CHATELIER’S PRINCIPLE
 molecular shape and orientation  “…if a stress is placed on an
 concentration of reactants equilibrium system, the system
 temperature of reactants will respond by altering the
 The rate of a reaction increases as the equilibrium in such a way as to
temperature increases physical state
of reactants minimize the stress”
 presence of a catalyst
 A catalyst is a substance that
increases the reaction rate.

Factors Causing Equilibrium Shift NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

Pressure  Radioactivity:
decomposition
Temperature/Heat process of unstable nuclei to
more stable ones
Concentration  Radiation: energy and particles
released during the
Catalyst???  no shift of decomposition process
equilibrium

Types of Radiation Units of Reactivity

Non-SI
 Curie (Ci) : 1Ci = 3.7 x 1010
decays/sec
SI
 Bequerel (Bq) : 1Bq = 1 decay/sec
Unit of RADIATION DAMAGE:
 R.E.M.
Unit of AMOUNT OF EXPOSURE
to radiation
 rad or gray

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END…

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