Cambridge IGCSE Biology 3rd Edition PDF

Biology
Third Edition
D G Mackean
Dave Hayward
Biology
Third Edition
D G Mackean
Dave Hayward
i.1 HODDER
EDUCATION
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Cl DG Mackean 2002 and Dave Ha)"''ard 2014
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Cm·erphoro C mathisa - Fotolia
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Contents
Acknowledgements vi
To the student viii
1 Characteristics and classification of living organisms
Characteristics ofliving org.misms
Concept and use of a classification system
Features of organisms
Dichotomous keys 21
2 Organisation and maintenance of the organism 24

Cell structure and organisation 24
Levels of organisation 29
Size of specimens 33
3 Movement in and out of cells 36

Diffusion 36
Osmosis 40
Active transport 48
4 Biological molecules 51
Biological molecules 51
Proteins 53
Structure of DNA 54
Water 55
5 Enzymes 59
Enzyme action 59
6 Plant nutrition 66
Photosynthesis 66
Leaf structure 77
Mineral requirements 81
7 Human nutrition 86
Diet 86
Alimentary canal 95
Mechanical digestion 98
Chemical digestion lOO
Absorption l03
8 Transport in plants 110

Transport in plants llO
Water uptake ll4
Transpiration ll6
Translocation 121
•
9 Transport in animals 124
Transport in animals 124
Heart 125
Blood and lymphatic vessels 132
Blood 136
10 Diseases and immunity 142

Pathogens and transmission 142
Defences against diseases 148
11 Gas exchange in humans 156

Gas exchange in humans 156
12 Respiration 165
Respiration 165
Aerobic respiration 165
Anaerobic respiration 169
13 Excretion in humans 174

Excretion 174
14 Co-ordination and response 180

Nervous conrrol in humans 181
Sense organs 186
H ormones in humans 190
H omeostasis 192
Tropic responses 197
15 Drugs 205
Drugs 205
Medicinal drugs 205
Misused drugs 207
16 Reproduction 213
Asexual reproduction 213
Sexual reproduction 219
Sexual reproduction in plants 221
Sexual reproduction in humans 232
Sex hormones in humans 241
Methods ofbirth control in humans 243
Sexually transmitted infections (STls) 245
17 Inheritance 250
Inheritance 250
Chromosomes, genes and proteins 250
Mitosis 254
Meiosis 255
Monohybrid inheritance 259
•
18 Variation and selection 270
Variation 270
Adaptive features 274
Selection 279
19 Organisms and their environment 284

Energy flow 284
Food chains and food webs 285
Nutrient cycles 292
Population size 296
20 Biotechnology and genetic engineering 305

Biotechnology and genetic engineering 305
Biotechnology 305
Genetic engineering 310
21 Human influences on ecosystems 316

Food supply 316
Habitat destruction 320
Pollution 324
Conservation 334
Examination questions 347

Answers to numerical questions 384
Index 385
•
Acknowledgements
I am gr,tefuJ to FJeanor Mile, and Nina Konrad at Hodder Education fur their guidance and encouragement. I would also Like to th>nk Andreas
Sdtindler fur his skill and ('tt'istance in tracking do"n suit1ble phorogr,.ph,, :md Sophie Q,rk, Oiarlone Pi{'('()]o >nd Anne Tr<'\iJLion wo,re im·aluable
ineditingthetCJ.tandCD.
With special th>nks to Margaret M,.d,ean for ghing h.<r blessing to the production of this nev, fflition.
Thepublishersl'ouldliketothankthefollowingfurpermissiontoreprodU<:e col'l'TiShtmaurial:
Examination questions
AUtheexarninationqucstionsused inthisl,ooj:;..rereproducedbypennissionofCambridgtlntemation>IE.urnination,.
Artwork and text acknowledgements

Figurc3.27frornJ .K.Briertey,PlantPhysiology( TheAs.sociationforSdem,eEducation,1954 ); Fi gu re4.4 fromJ .Bonnerand A..W. G,Jston,
~.~t~o~d~~~iid~~1Wi!.vi~"i:':;·~ ~~tj:';~~;;9.!;t~ !:~~}~:a~:;:·~;,~~~,;:i~~~·:r:tt~~~~:o~:1 ii;:~~~.~~'

Agricultural Re=rdt Ser.ic,, Unittd Statts ~~tment of Agriculture; Figure 7 .18 from John Btsfurd, Good Mouthkttping; or how to .,,., )-UUr
children's tuth and p,ur own wh.il, you"re about it (Oxford UniYtrsit)· Pres.s, 1984 ); Fi gure 9 .1 2 and Figure 15.6 from Ro)·al College of Physicians
(1977 ), Smoking or Health . Th, third rtport from the Roy.ii College of Phy,;idans of London (London : Pimun J\.foik.i.l); Fig ure 10 .2 from World
Resources Report 1998-9; Fi gure 10.8 (afttr) Brian Jonts, Introduction to Human :mdSociaJ Biology, 2/t (John Murray, 1985); Table p.1 73 from
Donald Emslit -Smith et.al ., Tenbool< of Physiology, I Ith Re\i,..d Edition (Ornn:hill Li,ingstone, 1988); Figure 16.58 from G.W. Corntr, The
Hormonts in Hu nu n Reproduction (Princeton Univo,rsity Pr=, 1942 ); Figure 19 .1 2 from IIDMt H . Wh.ituktr, Communities :md Ecosystems, 2nd
ed iton (Mam,iUanCoU,geTcxtboob, 1975 ); Figures 19 . 27, 19.28and 19 .30fromTremrLtwisand LR. Taylor, Imroductiontofa~im,ntl!
Ecology (Academk Prcs.s, 1967); Fi11-ure 19 .2 2 from J:t111es Bonner, Th, \\\:irld"s Peoplt and the \\\:Jrld"s Food Supply (CaroLina Biology Readers
Strit"S, 1980), ropyrigh.t Cl Carolina. Biological Supply Company, Burlington, North Carolina; Figure 19 .24 from F.M. Burnett, Narural History of
lnf«tiou, Disease, 3rd tdition (Cambridge University Prcs.s, 1962 ); Figure 2 1.1 5 from W.E . Shev.·,11 -0:>op<,r, Th, ABC of Soils (English Uni-,ersitie,
~}a':.5fL~~ ;...:1·1 _f~%,;~t/H~!';.,~~s~~~ [.,~~u~~~~~!
8
~,t:.0~1 ~i~it;"J~fs)~can, 1969 ), ropyrigh.t C 1969 by Scirntific
Ewrydfurth.asbeenmadetotraee or roman :i.llrightsholders.ThepubLish,rswiUbtpleastdtorectify:myomissionsor,rrorsbrough.ttotheir
noticeatthtearlitst opponunity.
Photo acknowledgements
p.3 ,I C Reddogs - Fotolia., ,r Cl Rfrerv,alker- Fotol.ia; p.4 ,I C Science Photo Library/Alam)·, tr Cl Prtmium Stock Photogr"f'hY GmbH/Alamy,
bi C Simon Colmer/ Al.lilly, /,r Cl Premium Stock Photography GmbH/Alamy; p. 5 I C Eric Gevatrt - Fotolia, ,I C Eric l=l<'e - Fotolia, , Cl Tom
Brakdield/Stoekbytt/Thinicstock, ,r C uzuri71/iStockphoto/Th.inbtock, r C Ph.iLip Datt - Fotolia; p.14 C Naturt Picture Library/Britl.in
~~~:;~\~~!:,,~)-'. t ~ ~;:c~~'f.. /~!;,: ~~ : o~~::."~':cia~.':~%~~! ~ : ot~ =:'{1;~c;::;i~~~:~~~[i::c, Photo

Library; p. 25 C Biophoto As.sociatts/Scienct Photo Libr:,ri-·; p. 27 C Medic:i.1-on-Lint/Alamy; p.28 d C Dr. Martha Pow,lljVisuals UnLimittd/
Getty Images, br Cl Robert H.,rding Picture Libr,ry Ltd/Al.llll)"; p.29 I C Biophoto As.sociatts/Science Photo Library, r C Biophoto As.socia.tcs/
Scienct Photo Library; p.41 C Nigel Cattlin/ALlmy; p.44 /,J C inga 'P"nce/ Alant)", r Cl London Nev.~ Pictures/Re,; Features; p.45 d C Mark
Enanct/ REX, ,r Cl Science Photo Libruy/ALlmy, br C Gonzalo Arroyo Moreno/Gttty Images; p.46 ,r C D.G . Macke:m, br C J.C. Re\y, Ism/
Scienct Photo Library; p.47 C J.C . Rery, Ism/Science Photo Library; p.52 C Biophoto As.sociatesjSci,nce Photo Librar)~ p.54 C Dr A. Lcslc,
Lll.borato')' Of Molecul.tr BiologyjSci, nce Photo Libmy; p.56 Cl Scienc, Soun:e/Science Phoro Libra')·; p. 57 Cl A. Barrington BrownjSci,nc,
Photo Library; p.65 Cl D .G. Macktan; p. 72 C Natural Visions/Alanty; p. 76 Cl Dr Tim Wheeler, Universit)·of Reading; p.78 d C Sidn,y Moulds/
Scienct Photo Library, b/ Cl Dr GeofTHolroyd/L:tncaster Uni\'ersity; p.81 Cl Gene Cox; p.83 C Dilston Physic Ganlen/CoLin Cuthbert/Scienc,
Photo Libr.try; p.89 Cl Romto Gacad/AFP/Getty Images; p.94 C Medic:i.1-on-Lint/Alamy; p.95 C JeffRomun / Al.lilly; p.1 05 C Da-id Scharf/
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Alan,y; p.127 C ACE STOCK LIMITED/Alamy; p.128 Cl Biophoto As.sociatts/ Scienc, Photo Library; p.133 Cl Biophoto ASllociatts/Scienc, Photo
Library; p.137 C Biophoto As.sociam/Sci,nc, Photo Library; p.138 C Andr,w S}TtdjScitn<ce Photo Libr.,ry; p.146 tr Cl tornalu - Fotolia, 1,J C
Da.id R. Frazier Photolibrary, Inc ./Al=y; p. 148 C RioPatuca/Alanty; p.1 50 C PhotoEuphoria/iStock/fbink.stoek; p.1 5 1 Cl Juan Mabromao,/
AFP/Gttty Juuges; p.1 58 C Biophoto As.sociates/Science Photo Library; p.1 60 Cl Ph.iLip Harris Education/wv,.w.findd -tducuion.ro.uk; p.163 Cl
Stew G<;chmds.snerjSci, nce Photo Libr,r)·/SuperSrock; p.1 76 C Biophoto ASllOCiatesjSci,nce Photo Libnry; p.1 78 C ~n Welsh/Design Pies/
Corbis; p.180 C Jason Oxtnh.llll/Getty images; p.183 C Biophoto As.sociates/Scienc, Photo Library; p.1 9 1 Cl Biophoto As.sociatts/Sci,nc, Photo
Library; p.1 93 Cl Biophoro As.sociatts/Sci,nce Photo Library; p.1 94 C milphoto - Forolia; p.1 97 Cl D .G. Mackt:tn; p.1 98 Cl D .G . Macke:m; p.1 99
Cl D.G . Mackean; p.202 Cl D.G. Macktan; p. 2 10 ,,II C BiophotoA.SllociattsjSci,nc, Photo Library; p.21 2 C Michel Lipch.itz/ AP/Pres.sASllOCiation
Images; p. 2 14 I C Biophoto ASllOCiatrsjSci,nce Photo Library, ,r C P. Morris/ Ardea., ,re Kurt Holter - Fotolia, br C SyB - Fotolfa; p.21 5 ,I
Cl Oiris Hov.u/Wild Places Phorography/ Al amy. tr C photonev.manjiStock/Gett)· Images; p. 2 17 •/I C D.G. Mackean; p. 2 18 tr C Roseufitld
Image LtdjSci,nce Photo Library, br C Scienct Picture, Limittd/ Scienc, Photo Library; p. 222 Cl D .G . Machan; p.2 23 ,I C, Ami lmagesjSci,nc,
Photo Library, ,r C Power And S)Ttd/Science Photo Library; p.224 C lu -photo - Fotolia; p.225 C bLickv.inkeljAlarny; p.231 •/I C D.G . Macktan;
p.232 C D.G. Mackean; p. 235 l C John Walsh/Scienc, Photo Librari-·, r Cl Biophot0 As.sociatts/Sci,nc, Photo Library; p. 237 C London FertiLity
C.mrc; p.238 I C Edtlmann/Scienct Photo Library, r Cl Hannes Htmann/DPA/Prcs., As.sociation hn.tges; p.239 / C GOUNOT3B SCIENTIFIC/
BSIP/Su~Stotl. r C ~ith/Custom MtdiCJl Stotl Photo/ Scienc, Photo Librari-·; p. 25 1 Cl SMC lrnages/OllOrd Scientific/Getty Images; p.255
C Ed Reschke/Photolibr:,ri-·/Gett)" Images; p.257 Cl Manfrtd Kage/Scienc, Phot0 Library; p.259 C Biophoto ASllociatrsjSci,nce Photo Library;
p.263 C Ph.iLip Harris Education/wv,.w.findd -tduci tion.ro.uk; p. 270 With permission from £.;is, Malling Re~.,rclt; p.273 C Biophoto As.sociatc,/
Scienct Photo Librari-·; p. 275 I C Va.le')· Sh:min - Fotolia, r Cl outdoorsman - Fotoli a; .2 76 b/ C Muro ULiana - Fotolia, ,r C Kirn Ta}1or/Warrtn
D.P. Wilson/Flpa/1'Iindtn Picturt"S/Getty Irru.ges, tr C Wint t - Fotolia;

p. 288 d C CoLin Green, ,,. C Colin Green. 1,J C Mohammed Huw.Us/AFP/Gettyimages, imrr, C Emironmentl.l lnvcstigations Agency; p.291 C
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Marc do BrodstyjSci,nce Photo Libmy; p.2 92 C Mmfo ~mbin~y Photo Associatts / Alamy; p.293 C bufb - FotoLia; p. 295 Cl Dr Jeremy
Burges.sjScience Ph.oto Library; p. 298 0 Ecosph.ere Associates Inc, Tnscon, Arizona; p.300 0 Mart Edv.-.rrls/Still Pkrures/Robert H>rtling; p.302
0 AndreAnir.i/LSroet/Jltinicsroet; p.306 0 Marqn F. Chillnuid/Scienc, Ph.oro Library; p. 309 0 Dr. Ariel Loul'Ti<r, StressMarq Biosciences Inc .;
p.310 0 Julia. KamLishjScience Ph.oto Library; p .3 11 l Cl Visual, UnLimit«l/Corbi,, r Cl Manyn F. Ch.iUm>id/&ience Phoro library; p.312 10
Dung Vo Trung/SygmajCorbi,, r Cl adrian arbib/Al.lDly; p. 3 16 O Ph.orosh.ot Holdings Ltd/Ala my; p.317 / Cl D .G. Mact=i, ,r O by p-.ul - Fotoli >,
br O S<rgbob - Fotolia.; p.31 g I O Nigd C..ttlin/Al.lDly, r O Bioph.oto Asoociatesj&ience Ph.oto Library; p.321 tl Cl Nigel Cattlin/Alamy, d O Piwo
D'Antonio - FotoLia, /JI O •pa euro~an pr=ph.oto agency b.v./Alam)·, ,r Cl paul abbitt rmljAJamy; p.322 Cl Biophoto Associates/&ience Ph.oto
library; p.323 Cl Simon Fra.S<r/Science Ph.oto Library; p. 326 10 GAMJl.!AjGan1m.1-Raph.o ,ia Getty lnuges. r Cl J Svedberg/Ardea.com; p.327 I
0 Phoroshot Holdings Ltd/Al.lDly, r O Roy P«lersen - FotoLia; p. 328 d O Mite Goldwater/Al>my, ,r Cl Th.omas Nilsen/Science Ph.oto Library, br
0 P.B.leza,Publiphoto DiffusionjSdence Photo library; p.329 Cl Simon Fnser/Science Ph.oto Library; p. 334 Cl Alex BartdjSdence Photo library;
p.335 0 D, ,id R. Frazier/Science Photo Librar)·; p.336 I Cl James HolmesjudcorjSdence Photo library, r O Sicut Emerpri= Limited/ww.lirut .
co.ut; p.337 / Cl Andrey ~~.Jyaynen/Alamy, r O Dr D.nid J.Patterson/Science Photo Library; p.338 I Cl lmagcsme M«lia (John Fon ), r O
NHPA/Phoroshot; p.339 tr Cl KeystoneUSA-ZUMA/Rn Features, br O photob),i,ixie777 - FotoLia; p.340 0 OAPhorograph.y - FotoLia; p. 34 2
0 Johannes Graupner/JGB; p.343 I C, Jact Hobh.ouS< / Al.IIllJ', tr Cl O.ret Croucher/Al>my, br C, "ildpit/Al.IIll)'; p.350 C, PHOTOTAKE Inc ./
Alillly; p.351 C, Science Ph.oto Library/Alamy; p.353 ,r C, C)·ew,ve - Forolia, br C, S,·etlana Kuznet:50\-a - FotoLia; p. 360 Cl Dr Jeremy Burgess/
&ience Ph.oro library; p.365 Cl PHOTOTAKE Inc ./Al.IIllJ'
t - top,b - bottom,1 - ldi, , - centr•
Everydfurthasbttnmadetocontactcop)Tigh.tholders,andth.epublishers apologiS<fiJranyomissionswhkh.th.eywiUbepleas«lrorectif)·atth.e
earliest opportunity.
•
To the student
Cambridge !GCSE® Biology Third Edition aims to
provide an up-to-date and comprehensive coverage ( Questionsarehighlightedbyaboxlikethis.
of the Core and Extended curriculum in Biology,
specified in rhc current Cambridge International The accompanying Revision CD·ROM pro\~des
Examinations IGCSE<il syllabus. invaluable exam preparation and practice. We wanr to
This third edition has been completely restructured rest your knowledge wirh interactive multiple choice
to align the chapters in the book with the syllabus. questions that CO\"Cr both the Core and Extended
Each chapter starts with the syllabus St3remcms to curriculum. l11csc arc organised by chapter.
be covered in that chapter, and ends with :i check.list, Together, the te xtbook and CD-ROM will
summarising the important points covered. The provide you with the inlormation you need for the
questions included at the end of each chapter arc Cambridge IGCSE syllabus. I hope you enjoy using
intended to rest your undersrandi ng of the rcxr you them.
have just read. lfyou cannot answe r the question I am indebted ro Don Mackean for a substantial
straighraway, read that section of text again with the ammmt of the conrem of this textbook. Since 1962,
question in mind. There arc past paper examination he has Ix-en responsible for writing excellent Biology
questions ar rhc end of the book. books to support rhe. education of countless students,
To hdp draw attention to the more important as well as providing an extremely useful source of
words, scientific terms arc printed in bold the first informatio n and inspiration for your teachers and
time they arc used. As you read through the book, their teachers. Don 's diagr.i.ms, many of which are
you will noricc three sorts of shaded area in the text. reproduced in this book, arc legendary.
Material highlighted in green is for the Cambridge Dave Hayward

!GCSE Extended curriculum.
Areas highlighted in yellow cont-Jin material that

is not pan ofrhe Cambridge !GCSE syllabus. Iris
extension work and will not be examined .
•
Characteristics and classification of
G) living organisms
Characteristics of living organisms The ba~ features of plants and animals
Lr..ting and describing thecharacteristicsoflivingorganivrn The m11in features of groups in the animal kingdom
Concept a nd use of • dassifil:ation 5ystem The main features of groups in the plant kingdom
Ho.v organisms are dassified. using corrmon features Themainfeaturesofviruses
Defining species
U5ing the binomial system of naming spec~ Dichotomous bys
U5eofkeysba5edoneasilyidefltifiablefeatures
featurHof organisms
ldentifyingthem11infeaturesofcells Comtruction of dichotomous keys
The five.kirigdom classification scheme
• Characteristics of living Key defi nitions

lfyouare51.udyingtheextendedsyllabusyouneedtolearnmore
organisms deta iled definitions of some of the characteri51.ics of living things
Mo ve me nt is an action by an organism or part of an organism
c.iusing achangeofpositionorplace.
Key defi nitions Mo51. ~ngle-celled creatures and animal s move about as a
Move me n t is an action by an organism causing a change of
whole. Fungi and plants may make -ments with parts
positiooorplace(see(hapter14).
of their bodies (see Chapter 14).
Resp iration describesthechemkajreactionsincellsthat Respi ration describes the chemU reactions in cells that break
breakdownnutrientrnoleculesandreleaseeoergy(see down nutrient molecules and release energy for meYbolism.
Chap ter1 2) Mo51.organismsneedo><ygenforthis(seeChapter12).
Sensitivity is the ability to detect and respond to changes in Se nsitivity istheabiitytodetectorsensestimuliinthe
theenvironment(see(hapter 14). internal or external environment and to make appropriate
Growt h isa permanent increase in size (see Chapter 16).
respon~(seeChapte.-14)
Reproductio n is the processes that make mon.- of the 'lilffle kind
Growt h is a pemwnent increase in size and dry mass II'{ an
oforganism(seeChapter 16).Single-celledorganismsand
incre;iseincelnumberorcellsi:zeorboth(seeChapter 16).
bacteria may simply keep dividing rlto two. M.Jlticelh.Jlar
Even bacteria and single<elled creatures show an increase
plants and animals may rep,~ sexually or asexually.
insize.Multicelularorg.anismsincreasethenumbers
Excre t ion is the remcwal from organisms of toxic materials and of cells in their bock-5, become more complicated and
:;ubstancesine~cessofrequirements(seeChapter 13). changetheirshapeasweUasincreasinginsize(see'Sexual
Nutrition is the taking in of materials for energy, growth and
reproductioninhumans"inChapter16).
de...elopment (see Chapters 6 and 7).
Excretion is the removal from organisms of the waste prodocts
of metabolism (chemical reactions in cells including
All living organisms, whether they arc single- rt5Piration),toxicmaterialsandsobstancesinexce,s.sof
cdkd or multicellular, plants or animals, show requirements(seeChapter13).
the characteristics included in the definitions Respirationandotherchemicalchangesinthecells
above: movement, respiration , sensitivity, growth, produce waste products such as carbon dioxide. l.Ning
organi1.ms expel these sobstances from their bodies in
reproduction, excretion and nutrition.
variousways{seeChapter13).
O ne way of remembering this list ofrhe Nutrition is the taking in of materials for energy, growth and
characteristics of living things is by using the development. Plants require light, carbon dioxide, water
mnemonic MRS GREN. The lcrrers stand for the and ions. Animals need organic compounds and ions and
first letters of the characteristics. usualtyneedwate.-(seeChapters6and7).
Mnemonics work by helping t0 make the material Organi1.mscantakeinthematerialstheyneedas50lid
food,asanimalsdo,ortheycandigestthemfir51.and
you arc kaming more meaningful. They give a then absofb them, like fungi do. or they can build them
structure which is easier to recall later. This structure up for themsel...es, like plants do. Animals, using ready-
may be a word, or a name (such as MRS GREN) or a made organic molecules as their food source. a,re called
phrase. For example:, 'Richard of York gave bank in heterotrophs and form the conwmer levels of food chains.
vain' is a popular way of remembering the colours of Photo:;,yntheticplantsarecalledautottophsandareu'IUally
thefirstorganismsinfoodchains(seeChapters6and 19)
rhe rainbow in the correct sequence.
•
1 CHARACTERISTICS AND CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANISMS
a species are al most identical in their anatomy,

• Concept and use of a physiology and behaviour.
classification system Closely related species arc grouped inro a genus
( plural : genera). For example, sroms, weasels and
polecats are grouped into the genus Musttla.
Key defi niti ons
A species isagroupoforganismsthatcanreproduceto
producefertileofkpring. Binomial nome ncl ature
The binomial syste m is an intefn.ationatly agreed 9{Stem in Species must be named in such a way that the name is
which the scientific name of an organism is made up of recognised all over the world.
twopartsshowingthegenusandthespec:ies. 'Cuckoo flower' and 'Lady's smock' :i.re two
common names for the same wild plant. lfyou are
You do not need to be a biologist to realise that not aware that these :ire altern:itive names this could
there are millions of different organisms living on lead to confusion. If the botanical name, Cardamint
the Earth, but it takes a biologist to son them into a prattnsis, is used, however, there is no ch:ince of
meaningfiil order, i.e. to classify them.
error. The Latin fo rm of the name allows it to be
There are many possible ways of classifying used in all the countries of the world irrespecri\'e of
org.misms. You could gro up all aq uatic organisms
language barriers.
together or put all black and white creatures into People living in Britain arc fumiliar with the
the same gro up. However, these do nor make very appearance of a blackbird - a very com mon garden
meaningfii l g roups; a seaweed and a porpoise are visitor. The male has jct bl:ick plumage, while the
both aquatic o rganisms, a magpie and a zebra are female is brown. Its scientific name is Turd us meru/a
both black and white; but neither of these pairs has and the adult is about 24cm long (see Figure 1.1 ).
much in common apart from being living organisms Ho\\"e\·er, someone living in North Americ:i would
and the latter two being animals. These would be describe a blackbird very differently. Fo r example,
artificial systems of classification. the male of one species, Agt/aius phoenite1u, has
A biologist looks for a na tural system of
black plumage with red sho ulder patches and }'Cllow
classification using important features which are flashes , while tl1e female is speckled brown. lr is
shared by as large a group as possible. In some cases about the size ofa sparTO\V- only about 20cm long
it is easy. Birds all have wings, beaks and feathers;
(see Figure 1.2). A British scientist could get very
the re is rarely any doubt abom whether a crearnre confused talking to an American scientist about a
is a bird or not. In other cases it is nor so easy. As a blackbird ! Again, the use of the scientific name avoids
result, bio logists change their ideas from time to time
any confiLSion.
about how livi ng things should be grouped. New The binomial system of naming species is an
groupings are suggested and old ones abandoned. internationally agreed system in which rhe scientific
name of an organism is made up of two pans
Species showing the ge nus and the species. Binomial means
TI1e smallest natural group of organisms is the species. 'two names'; the first 11:imc gives the genus and the
A species can be defined as a gro up of organisms that second gi,·es the species. For example, the stoat and
can reproduce to produce fertile offspring. weasel are both in the genus Musrcln b ur they are
Members of a species also ofi:cn resemble each difkrent species; the stoat is Musuln erminea and the
other very closely in :ippearance, unless humans we:1selisM11sre/n11iM/U.
have taken a hand in the breeding programmes. All The name of the ge nus ( the generic name ) is
cats belong to the same species bur rhere are wide always gi\"en a capital letter and the name ofrhe
variations in the appearance of different breeds (see species (the specific name ) always starts \vith a small
'Variation' in Chapter 18). An American Longhair letter.
and a Siamese ma y look very different bur they Frequently, the specific name is descrip tive, for
have few problems in breeding rogerhe r. Robins, example edu/u means 'edible', nquarilis means 'living
blackbirds and sparrows are three differe nt species in water', b11/boms means 'having a bulb', serrams
ofbird. Apart from small \'ariations, members of means 'having a jagged (serrated) edge'.
0
Concept • nd use of a classification s~em
Flgure 1.1 Turdusmeru/aa Rgure1 .2 AgelaiusphoenicetJ5 <1
If you are smdying the extended syllabus you need at the other. It makes a joint with two other bones
to be able to explain why it is important to classify (the radius and ulna ) which join to a group of small
organisms. By classif)11lg organisms it is possible to wrist bones. The limb skeleton ends with five groups
identify those most at risk of extinction. Strategies of bones (the hand and fingers ), although some of
can then be put in place to consen•e the threatened these groups are missing in the bird.
species. Apart from the fuct that we have no right to l11e argument for evolution says that, if these
wipe out species forever, the chances are that we will animals are not related, it seems very odd that such
deprive ourselves not only of the beauty and diver.iity a similar limb skeleton should be used to do such
of species, but also of potential sources of valuable different things as flying, running and swimming.
products such as drugs. Many of our present-day drugs If, on the other hand, all the animals came from
are derived from plants (e.g. quinine and aspirin) and the same ancestor, the ancestral skeleton could have
there may be many more sources as yet undiscovered. changed by small stages in different ways in each
We are also likely to deprive the world of genetic group. So we would expect to find that the basic
resources (see 'Conservation' in Chapter 21 ). pattern ofbones was the same in all these animals.
By classif)ing organisms it is also possible to l11ere are many other examples of this kind of
understand evolutionary relationships. Vertebrates all evidence among the vertebrate animals.
have the presence of a vertebral column, along with Classification is traditionally based on studies of
a skull protecting a brain, and a pair of jaws (usually morphology (the smdy of the form, or outward
with teeth ). By smdying the anatomy of different appearance, of organisms) and anatomy (the study
groups of vertebrates it is possible to gain an insight of their internal structure, as revealed by dissection).
into their evolution. Aristotle was the fir.it kn0\\11 per.ion to attempt to devise
The skeletons of the front limb of five types of a system of classification based on morphology and
\'ertebrate are shown in Figure 1.3. Although the anatomy. He placed organisms in a hierarchy according
limbs ha\·e different functions, such as grasping, to the complexity of their structure and function.
flying, running and swimming, the arrangement Indeed, some of his ideas still existed just 200 years ago.
and number of the bones is almost the same in all He separated animals into two groups: those with blood
five. There is a single top bone (the humerus), with and those without, placing i.nvertebrates into the second
a ball and socket joint at one end and a hinge joim group and vertebrates into the first. However, he was
•
not aware that some invertebrates do have a furm Plants have been classified according to their
of haemoglobin. Using blood as a common feamre morphology, but appearances can be deceptive.
would put earthworms and humans in the same group! The London Plane rree and the British Sycamore
Earthworm bloa:I is red: it contains haemoglobin, were considered to be closely related because
although it is not contained in red blood cells. of the similarity in their leaf shape, as shown in
ball and hinge flvegroupsofbonl!S, Figure 1 .4.
socketJolnt Joint eacharrangedlna'chaln'
1
(~~~~:,
one bone two bones group of 5
{humerus) (radlusanduln a) smallbonl!S(wrlst)
(a) patternofboneslnhumanforellmb
Flgure1.4 Le.wl'5oftheBriti1hSyc:amore(left)andlondonPlane(riifot)
(b)llzard
H owever, a closer smdy of the two species exposes
radius ulna wrist major differences: leaf insertion (how they are
arranged on a branch) in London Plane is alternate,
~
while it is opposite in the Sycamore. Also, their fruits
are very different, as shown in Figure 1.5.
(c)blrd
h ~
(d)whale
Figure 1.5 Fruits of the British Sycamofe ~ell) and London Plane (right)
The scientific name of the London Plane is Pia um us

acerifolia (meaning 'leaves like an Acer'); that of the
British Sycamore is Acer pseudoplatanus ('pseudo'
means 'false' ). They do not even belong in the
(e) bat
~. same genus.
The use of DNA has revolutionised the process
of classification. Eukaryotic organisms contain
chromosomes made up of strings of genes. The
Rgure1.3 Skeletomoffivevertebratl'limbs chemical which forms these genes is called DNA
0
Concept • nd use of a classification s~em
( which is short for deoxyribonucleic acid ). The Human and primate evolution is a good example
DNA is made up of a sequence of bases, coding for of how DNA has been used to clarify a process of
amino acids and, therefore, proteins (see Chapters 4 evolution. Traditional classification of primates (imo
and 17). Each species has a distinct number of monkeys, apes and humans ) was based on their
chromosomes and a unique sequence of bases in anatomy, particularly their bones and teeth. This put
its DNA, making it identifiable and distinguishable humans on a separate branch, while grouping the
from other species. This helps particularly when other apes together into one family called Pongidae.
different species are very similar morphologically (in However, genetic evidence using DNA provides
appearance) and anatomically (in internal structure ). a different insight - humans are more closely
TI1e process ofbiological classification called related to chimpanzees ( 1.2% difference in the
cladist ics involves organisms being grouped together genome - the complete set of genetic material of
according to whether or not they ha\·e one or more the organism) and gorillas ( 1.6% different ) than to
shared unique characteristics derived from the orang-utans ( 3.1 % different ). Also, chimpanzees are
group's last common ancestor, which are not present closer to humans than to gorillas ( see Figure 1.6).
in more distant ancestors. Organisms which share a Bonobos and chimps an: found in Zaire and were
more recent ancestor (and an:, therefore, more closely only identified as different species in 1929. TI1e two
related ) have DNA base sequences that are more species share the same percentage difference in the
similar than those that share only a distant ancestor. genome from humans.
Orang-utan Chlmp; nzee

48chromosomes 48chromosomes
Flgure 1.6 Cla1sificationofprim.ite1.based onDNAevideoce
0
• Features of organisms • Extension work

All living organisms han: certain features in As scientists learn more about organisms,
common, including the presence of cytoplasm and classification schemes change . Genetic sequencing
cell membranes, and DNA as genetic material. has provided scientists with a diffi:rem way of
studying relationships between org,rnisms. The
All living organisms also contain ribosomes t hree-do m a.in scheme was introduced by Carl
in the cytoplasm, Rooting freel y or attached to Woesc in 1978 and invol\'eS grouping org:misms
membranes called ro u gh endo plasmic retic ulum using differences in ribosomal RNA srrucmre.
(ER). Ribosomcs arc responsible for protein Under this scheme, organisms arc classified into
synthesis. three domains and six kingdoms, rather than five .
The sixth kingdom is created by splitting the
Prokaryotc kingdom into two. The domains arc:
The Whittaker five-kingdom
scheme 1 Arc haea: containing a.ncicnt prokaryor:ic organisms
which do not have a nucleus surrounded
The largest group of organisms recognised by by a membrane . They ha\·e an indqx ndenr
biologists is t he kingdom. Bm how many kingdoms evolutionary history to other bacteria and their
should there bd Most biologisu used to favour biochemistry is very different to other forms oflifc.
the adoption of two kingdoms, namely Plants 2 Eubacteria: prokaryotic organisms which do nor
and Animals. lltis, however, caused problems have a nucleus surrounded by a membrane.
in trying to classify fi.mgi, bacteria :md single- 3 Eukarya: organisms that have a membrane-bound
celled organisms which do not fit obviously into nucleus. l11is domain is farther subdi\ided into the
either kingdom. A scheme now favoured by many kingdoms Protoctist, Fungus, Plant and Animal.
biologists is the Whittaker fo-e-kingdom scheme
A summary of the classification schemes proposed
consisting of Anhm1l, Pkun, Fungus, Pro kar yote
by scientists is shown in Figure 1.7.
and Protoctist.
It is still not easy to fit all organisms into ( two-kingdom Khem4!: Lln~j
the live-kingdom scheme. For example, many
protoctista with chlorophyll (the protophyta) show A five-kingdom Kheme:Whrttikff
important resemblances to some members of the
algae, but the algae arc classified into the plant
I AnFm;il I Pbnt I Fungi.Ji I Prok;iryotel Protoctlst I
kingdom. A sill-kingdom S)'5tem: woe,se
Vimses arc 1101 included in any kingdom - they
arc not considered to be living organisms because
I I I
Anlm.il l Plant Fungus Eub.ctei-l;i I Afch;ieb.lctei-l;i I Protoctkt I
they lack cell membranes (made of protein and A three-dom;iln system: woese
lipid ), cytoplasm and ribosomes and do nor

demonstrate the characteristics of living things: they
do not feed, respire, excrete or grow. Although
viruses do reproduce , this only happens inside the
cells of living organisms, using materials provided by An outline classification of plants and animals follows
the host cell. and is illustrated in Figures 1.8- 1. 11 .
This kind of problem will always occur when
we try to devise rigid classification schemes with The plant kin gdom
distinct boundaries between groups. The process l11csc are made up of many cells- they arc
of evolution would hardly be expected to result multicellular. Plant cells have an outside wall made of
in a tidy scheme of classification for biologists cellulose. Many of the cells in plant leaves and srcms
contain chloroplasts \vith photosynthetic pigments, e.g.
chlorophyll. Plants m.1ke their food by phoro~ymhesis.
0
w~
~~ Jelly·fish(X0.3)
Livet fluke {X 1.4) Tapeworm{X0.5)
C' loe•
{X fl'r
14)
CRUSTACE,
Woodlou,e(X1.5)
+5
Mite (XS) Millipede (X0.8)
~
s,1,.. 1xu) ~
""~'"
Figure 1.8 The animal kingdom; ex.imple1 of five inwrtetxate groups (ph:;1a)
D"ooofo(XO.S( ¥ ' Centipede
(XO.S)
0
Flgure1.9 Theanimalkill()dom;thevertebrateda1se1
0
{al LIVERWORTS
(b)MOSSES
Funaria(X 1)
Hypnum(X 1.5)
Polytrichum(X0.75)
Polypody(X0.3)
Flg u re 1.10 Theplantkirigdom:pl,mtsthatdonotbear'i!.'l'd1
0
lris(X0.3)
{b)DICOTYLEDONS
Flgure1.11 Toeplantkingdom; seed-bearingplants

The an imal kingdom Crustacea

Marine crustacca arc crabs, prawns, lobsters, shrimps
Animals arc multicellular organisms whose cells have
and barnacles. Freshwater crustacca arc water fleas,
no cell walls or chloroplasts. Mosr :mimals ingest
Cyclops, the freshwater shrimp (Gammarus) and the
solid food and digest it internally.
water louse (Asel/us). Woodlice arc land-dwelling
Animal kingdom crustacca. Some of these cruscacca arc illustrated in
(Only eight groups oui of23 arc listed here.) Each Figure 1.8 on page 7.
grou p is called a phylum (plural • phyla). Like all arthropods, crusracea have an
exoskeleton and jointed legs. They also ha\'c two
Coelenter.11es(1eaancmonc-i,jcllyfoh) pairs of antennae which arc sensitive to touch
Flatwom u and to chemicals, and they have compound eyes.
Nemalodo wonns Compound eyes arc made up ofrcns or hundreds
Annelids (1egmcntcd wom11) of separate lenses with light-sensitive cells beneath .
Arthropod s They arc able to for m a crude image and arc \'cry
CL>\SS sensitive to movement.
Crustacea (cr.tbs, shrimps, wat~r fl~as) Typically, cru stacca have a pair of jointed limbs
Insects on each segment of the body, but rhosc on the
Arachnids(spidcrsat1d mi11,o) head segme nts arc modified to form amennac
Myriapods (centipedes and millipedes} or specialised mouth parts for feeding (sec
Mo\1uscs(snails.slugs,mus1els,octopu=) Figure 1.1 2).
Echi nodenns (sur6sh,scaurchins)
Vertebrales
CL>\SS
Fish
Amphibi:l(frogs.to.>ds,nnvcs)
Rep1iles(liurds.snakcs,turtlts)
Birds
Mamma.Js
(Only four subgroups out of about 26 :,re, listed.)
lnscctivorn
Cami'"orn
Rodents
Prinutcs
· Mlheo,gamms....tlidi donot'-11-..erlebfllooiu'mareoftenr~tfflMlm~
~alPS.W-leb<ate!RnotinaMll?"oop.but&oetermi<m'M.'rlientto""'.
Flgure1.12 Exterfl.llfeaturesof ;icf\JStilCun(lot,ster><0.2)
Arthropods Insects
The arthropods include the crusracca, insects, 1l1e insects form a very large class ofarrhropods.
centipedes and spiders (sec Figure 1.8 on page 7). Bees, butterflies, mosquitoes, ho usefli es, earwigs,
The name arthropod means 'jointed limbs' , and this is greenfly and beetles arc just a few of the subgro ups in
a feature common to them all. They also have a hard, this class.
firm external skeleton, called a cuticle, which encloses Insects have segmen ted bodies with a firm
their bodies. Their bodies arc segmented and, exoskeleton, tluee pain of jointed legs, compound
between the segments, there arc flexible joints which eyes and, typically, two pairs of wings. The segments
permit mo\·cmcnt. In most arthropods, the segments arc grouped into distinct head, thor.i.x and abdomen
arc grouped together to form disrincr regions, the regions (sec Figure 1. 13).
head, tl1orax and abdomen. Table l . l outli nes the key
features of the four classes of arth ropod.
compound eye onepalrofantennae are used in reproduction; the chelicerae are used
to pierce their prey and paralyse it with a poison
secreted by a gland at the base. There are usually
several pairs of simple eyes.
pedlpalp
(IT'
' \
polsonsacl..::_j
chellcera(polsonfang)
Flgure 1. 13 Extl'malfeatureo;ofanin'i!.'d:{greenbottle. ~s). Flk>s.
held on underside
midgeo;andmosquitoeshaveonlyooepairofwings ofcephalothorax
Insects differ from crustacea in having wings, only

one pair of antennae and only three pairs of legs. Flgure 1.1 4 Extl'malfeatureo;ofanarachnid{~2.5)
There are no limbs on the abdominal segments.
The insects have very successfully colonised rhe Myriapods
land. One reason for their success is the relative TI1ese are millipedes and centipedes. They have a head
impermeability of their cuticles, which prevents and a segmented body which is not obviously divided
desiccation even in very hot, dry climates. imo thorax and alxlomen. There is a pair oflegs on
each body segment but in the millipede the abdominal
Arachnids segments are fused in pairs and it looks as if it has two
These are the spiders, scorpions, mites and ticks. pairsoflegspersegment (see Figure 1.15 ).
Their bodies are divided into two regions, the As the myriapod grows, additional segmems are
cephalothorax and the abdomen (see Figure 1.14 ). formed. TI1e myriapods have one pair of antennae
They have four pairs of limbs on the cephalothorax, and simple eyes. Centipedes are carnivorous;
two pedipalps and two chelicerae. TI1e pedipalps millipedes feed on vegetable matter.
upto70abdomlnal
segments fused In pairs
slmpleeye
Flgure 1.1 5 Extemalfeatures ofamyr iapod(~2.5)
Tab le 1.1 Keyfeature1ofthefourcla1sesofarthropods

Myr1 apods
e.g.draganfly.wa1p e.g.s.,KX'r.mite e.g.aab.woodloo,e e.g. cenlipede.millipede
• threepair1ofleg1 lour pairs of legs • fiveormorepa irsofteg1 • tenorrnorepairsollegs
(usualtvooeo.ir""'"""ment)
• bodydMdedintohead. thorax • bodydividedinto • bodydivkledinto • tJodynotobviouslydMded
and abdomen a>ph aklthoraxandabdomen cephalothoraxandabdomen intothor.ixandabdomen
• onepairolantennae
• ooe airofrnml){)\)nde e1 several airsofsimolee eo; • onepair ofrntr00undeves
• usuallyhavetwopairsof chelicer..eforbitingand • exoskeletonollencakifiedto
"'= ooisoni- nr-· formacara{l;)(P(hard)
Vertebrates Fish
Vertebr.i.tes are animals which have a vertebral Fish are poikilothermic (cold blooded) vertebrates.
column. The vertebral column is sometimes called Many of them have a smooth, streamlined shape
the spinal column or just the spine and consists of which offers minimal resistance to the water through
a d1ain of cylindrical bones (,·ertebrae ) joined end which they move (see Figure 1.16 ). Their bodies are
to end. covered with overlapping scales and they have fins
Each vertebra carries an arch of bone on its dorsal which play a part in movement.
(upper) surface. TI1is arch protects the spinal cord Fish breathe by means of filamentous gills which
(see Chapter 14), which runs most of the length of are protected by a bony plate, the operculum.
the vertebral column. The from end of the spinal Fish reproduce sexually but fertilisation usually
cord is expanded to form a brain which is enclosed takes place externally; the female lays eggs and the
and protected by the skull. male sheds sperms on them after they have been laid.
TI1e skull carries a pair of jaws which, in most
vertebrates, have rows of teeth.
TI1e five classes of vertebrates are fish, amphibia,
reptiles, birds and mammals. Table 1.2 summarises
the key features of these classes.
Body temperan1re
Fish, amphibia and reptiles are often referred to as operculum
'cold -blooded ' . TI1is is a misleading term. A fish in a cOV<"rin g gill,
tropical lagoon or a lizard basking in the sun will have Figure 1.16 He1ring (Clupea. ~0 3)
warm blood. The point is that these animals have a
variable body temperature which, to some extent, Amphibia
depends on the temperature of their surroundings. Amphibia are poikilothermic (cold blooded )
Reptiles, for example, may control their temperature vertebrates with four limbs and no scales. The class
by moving into sunlight or retreating into shade but includes frogs , toads and newts. The name, amphibian,
there is no internal regulatory mechanism. means 'double life' and refers to the fuct that the
So-called 'warm-blooded' animals, for the most organism spends part of its life in water and part on
part, have a body temperature higher than that of the land. In fuct, most frogs, toads and newts spend
their surroundings. The main difference, however, is much of their time on the land, in moist situations,
that these temperatures are kept more or less constant and return to ponds or other water only to lay eggs.
despite any variation in external temperature. There The external features of the common frog are
are internal regulatory mechanisms (see Chapter 14 ) shown in Figure 1.17. Figure 1.9 on page 8 shows
which keep the body temperature within narrow the toad and the newt.
limits.
It is better to use the terms poikilothermic
(variable temperature ) and homoiothermic (constant
temperature ). However, to simplify the terms, 'cold
blooded' and 'warm blooded' will be referred to in
this section.
The ad vantage of homoiothermy is that
an animal's activity is not dependent on the
surrounding temper.i.ture. A lizard may become
sluggish if the surrounding temperature fulls.
This could be a disadvantage if the lizard is being Figure 1.17 Rafl.1 (~0.75)
pursued by a homoiothermic predator whose
speed and reactions are not affected by low TI1e toad's skin is drier than that of the frog and it
temperatures. has glands which can exude an unpleasant-tasting
chemical which discourages predators. Newts differ
from frogs and roads in having a tail. All three groups The reptiles include lizards, snakes, turtles,
are carnivorous. tortoises and crocodiles (see Figure 1. 19 and
Amphibia have four limbs. In frogs and roads, Figure 1.9 on page 8).
the hind feet have a web of skin between the roes.
This offers a large surf.tee area ro thrust against the
water when the animal is swimming. Newts swim by
a wriggling, fish -like movement of their bodies and
make less use of their limbs for swimming.
Amphibia have moist skins with a good supply of
capillaries which can exchange oxygen and carbon
dioxide with the air or water. They also have lungs
whid1 can be inflated by a kind of swallowing action.
They do not ha\'e a diaphragm or ribs. Figure 1.1 9 l.a<Pfla{~l .5)
Frogs and toads migrate to ponds where the
males and females pair up. The male climbs on the Apart from the snakes, reptiles have four limbs, each
female's back and grips firmly with his front legs with five toes. Some species of snake still retain the
(see Figure 1.18 ). When the female lays eggs, the vestiges of limbs and girdles.
male simultaneously releases sperms over them. Male and female reptiles mate, and sperms
Fertilisation, therefore, is external even though the are passed into the female's body. The eggs are,
frogs are in close contact for the event. therefore , fertilised internally before being laid. In
some species, the female retains the eggs in the body
until they are ready to hatch.
Birds
Birds are homoiothermic (warm blooded )
vertebrates.
The vertebral column in the neck is flexible but
the rest of the vertebrae are fused to form a rigid
structure. TI1is is probably an adaptation to flight,
as the powerful wing muscles need a rigid frame to
work against.
The epidermis over most of the body produces a
covering of feathers but, on the legs and toes, the
Flgure 1.18 Fmgspairing.Themalecling;tothefema'e"sbackand
release1hi11pe11Tiasshelay1theeggs epidermis forms scales. The feathers are of several
kinds. The fluffy down feathers form an insulating
Reptiles layer close ro the skin; the contour feathers cover
Reptiles are land-living vertebrates. Their skins are the body and give the bird its shape and colouration;
dry and the outer layer of epidermis forms a pattern the large quill feathers on the wing are essential for
of scales. This dry, scaly skin resists water Joss. Also flight.
the eggs of most species have a tough, parchment- Birds have four limbs, but the forelimbs are
like shell. Reptiles, therefore, are not restricted to modified to form wings. The feet have four roes with
damp habitats, nor do they need water in which claws which help the bird ro perch, scratch for seeds
ro breed. or capmre prey, according to the species.
Reptiles are poikilothermic (cold blooded ) The upper and lower jaws are extended to form a
but they can regulate their temperature to some beak which is used for feeding in various ways.
extent. They do this by basking in the sun until Figure 1.20 shows the main features of a bird.
their bodies warm up. \Vhen reptiles warm up , In birds, fertilisation is internal and the female
they can move about rapidly in pursuit of insects lays hard -shelled eggs in a nest where she
and other prey. incubates them.
as wings
Figure 1.20 The main features ol a pigeon (~0.1 4)
Mammals
Mammals are homoiothermic (warm blooded )
vertebrates with four limbs. They differ from birds
in having hair rather than feathers. Unlike the
Figure 1.21 Mammalian fe.iture1. The furiy rna~ the eJd:emalear
other vertebrates they have a diaphragm which pinnae and the facial whiskers (vibris1ae) are visible mammalian features
plays a part in breathing (see Chapter 11 ). They in this gerbil
also have mammary glands and suckle their young
on milk. The young may be blind and helpless at first, e.g. cats, or
A sample of mammals is shown in Figure 1.9 they may be able to stand up and move about soon after
on page 8 and Figure 1.21 illustrates some of the birth, e.g. sheep and cows. In either case, the youngster's
mammalian feamres. first food is the milk whid1 it sucks from the mother's
Humans are mammals. All mammals give birth teats. 1l1e milk is made in the manm1ary glands and
to fully formed young instead of laying eggs. 1l1e contains all the nuaiems that the offipring need for the
eggs are fertilised internally and undergo a period of first few weeks or months, depending on the species.
development in the uterus (see 'Sexual reproduction As the youngsters get older, they start to feed
in humans' in Chapter 16 ). on the same food as the parents. In the case of
carnivores, the parents bring the food to the young
until they are able to fend for themselves.
"&lble 1 2 Keyfe.itull'Softhefrl'edasseo;ofverMxate1
Rsh Amphibia Reptlles
Examples herring.perdi.al:so frog.toad.newt lizard.1nake robin.pigeon
1harks
Bodycover1ng dryskin.withsales feathefl.withsc.ile1
on legs
lim {al,;o used for lour limbs. back feet four leg; (apart from two wings ;md two
balance) makl'I) legs
make swimming mote
efficient
Reproduction produc:eje lly-covered producejelly-covered produceeggswitha produc:eegg1witha producelrl'eyoong
-~--
eggs in water eggsinwater rubbery.waterproof hardshell;laidooland
shell;laidooland
-
Sense organs eyes;
ooears; earswithapinna(eJd:ernal
/~~~:'ing vibratKJns
mid blooded; rnldblooded; rnklblooded; wa rm blooded; warm blooded;

gilllfor breathing lungs and skin for lung;forbreathing lungsforbfeathing; lung1f0<breathing;
bre.ithing beak lemaH!1 have mammary
glandstoproducemilkto
feed young;
lourtype1ofteeth
The plant kingdom Chapter 8). This is the name given ro any roots
which grow directly from the stem rather than from
It is useful to have an overview of the classification other roots.
of the plant kingdom, although only two groups The stem and lea\·es have sieve tubes and water-
(ferns and flowering plants) will be tested in the conducting cells similar to those in the xylem and
examination. phloem ofa flowering plant (see Chapter 8). For
Plant kingdom this reason, the ferns and seed -bearing plants are
sometimes referred to as vascular plants, because
they all have vascular bundles or vascular tissue.
Red algae
al ) seaweeds and filamentous
. Ferns also have multicellular roots with vascular
~:::n al;a:e forms; mostly aquatic tissue.
The leaves of ferns vary from one species to
Bryophytes (no specialised conducting tissue) another (see Figure 1.22, and Figure 1.10 on
page 9 ), but they are all several cells thick. Most of
them have an upper and lower epidermis, a layer of
palisade cells and a spongy mesophyll similar to the
leaves of a flowering plant.
Vascular plants (well-developed xylem and phloem)
Ferns
!Conifers(seedsnotenclosedinfruits) } Sometime,
Floweringplams(seedsenclosedinfruits) :i 1
11
:!;ively,
'seed-bearing
plants'
Monocotyledons (grmes,lilie,)
Dicotyledons{trees, shrubs, herbaceous plants)
e.g. Ranunculaceae (oneofabont70families}
e.g.R<>nu..,.,,/,.,
e.g.R..nun.,1/usbu/bcsru
{bulbous buttercup)
Flg ure 1.22 Youngfemle.we1.Fernsdooot!Ofmbvd1l ikethoseof

Ferns thefklweringplants.Themklrtiandleaftetsoftheyounglealaretightly
Ferns are land plants with quite highly rnik>dandunwindasitgmw,;
developed structures. Their stems, leaves and
roots are very similar to those of the flowering Ferns produce gametes but no seeds. The zygote
plants. gives rise to the fem plant, which then produces
The stem is usually entirely below ground and single-celled spores from numerous sporang ia
takes the form of a strucmre called a rhizome. (spore capsules) on its leaves. The sporangia are
In bracken, the rhizome grows horizontally formed on the lower side of the Jeafbut their
below ground, sending up leaves at intervals. TI1e position depends on the species of fern. The
roots which grow from the rhizome are called sporangia are usually arranged in compact groups
adventitious roots (see 'Transport in plants' in (see Figure 1.23 ).
Summa<y oftllekeyfeatu1es ofmo r1ornt1anddk:ot1

Feab.J re Monocotyledo n Dicotyledo n
leafshaoe lona.iodna.rmw bro.Kl
leafveim branchinn
cotyledons one two
gmupingoffkmerparts l hr!'!.'1
(petal1.sepal1andcalpl'l1)
In addition to knowing the features used to place

animals and plants into the appropriate kingdoms, you
also need to know the main features of the following
kingdoms: Fungus, Prokaryote and Protoctist.
Flgure1.23 Pol)?O{lylem.EachbroYmpatdlontheundersideofthe
ie.ifismadeupofm.iny~angia The fungi kingdom
Flowering plants Most fungi are made up of thread-like hyphac (sec
Flowering plants reproduce by seeds which arc Figure 1.25 ), rather than cells, and there are many
formed in flowers. The seeds arc enclosed in an nuclei distributed throughout rhc cytoplasm in their
ovary. The general structure of flowering plants hyphac (see Figure 1.26 ).
is described in Chapter 8. Examples are shown
in Figure 1.11 on page 10. Flowering plants are
divided into two subclasses: monocotyledons
and dicotyledons. Monocotyledons (monocors
for short), are flowering plants which have only
one cotyledon in their seeds. Most, but not all,
monocots also have long, narrow leaves (e .g.
grasses, daffodils, bluebells) with parallel leaf veins
(see Figure l.24(a)) .
The dicotyledons (dicots for short), ha\'e two
cotyledons in their seeds. Their leaves are usually
broad and the leaf veins form a branching network
(see Figure l.24(b)).
The key features of monocots and dicots are
Fig u re 1.25 The tx;mdling hyphae fOfm a mycelium
summarised in Table 1.3.
pa
"' oe<wo'f
of veins
main
vein
(a)monocotle.ives (b) adlcotleaf
Flg u re 1.24 Leaftypesinfloweringplants Flg u re 1.26 The1tructuR>offungalh:;phae

The fungi include fuirly familiar organisms such as 0.01 mm in length. They can be seen only with the
mushrooms, toadstools, puflballs and the bracket higher powers of the microscope.
fungi that grow on tree trunks (Figure 1.2 7). There Their cell walls are made, not of cellulose, but of
are also the less ob\ious, but very important, mould a complex mixture of proteins, sugars and lipids.
fungi which grow on stale bread, cheese, fruit or Some bacteria have a slime capsule outside their cell
other food. Many of the mould fimgi live in the soil wall. Inside the cell wall is the cytoplasm, which may
or in dead wood. TI1e yeasts are single·celled fungi contain granules of glycogen, lipid and other food
similar to the moulds in some respects. reserves (see Figure 1.29 ).
Some fungal species are parasites, as is the bracket
fungus shown in Figure 1.27. They live in other ( ~~ - flagellum
=-er-=
organisms, particularly plants, where they cause
diseases which can affect crop plants, such as the
mildew shown in Figure 1.28. (See also Chapter 10. )
strand · .. ,· (In some)
colledup) . .• '.,
.. ·.,!
· .• • cytoplasm
cellwall ,·'.· :.. -..; ~ glycogen granule
=·""
Flgure1.29 Gener.i li-.eddiagramofabacterium
Each bacterial cell contains a single chromosome,

consisting of a circular strand of DNA (see Chapter 4
Rgure1.27 Apar.r;iticfungus .The 'bradets'arethereproductive and 'Chromosomes, genes and proteins' in
~···
structures.Themyceliuminthetrunkwilleventuallykillthetree
Chapter 17 ). The chromosome is not enclosed in a
nuclear membrane but is coiled up to occupy part of
the cell, as shown in Figure 1.30.
;~::
,., '
.:- ... '
Rgure 1.28 Milciewoowheat. Most of the hyphae are inside the
leal'l's, digesting the ce lls, but some gmwout and produce the powdery
spores'il'l'nhere
The Prokaryote kingdom

These are the bacteria and the blue -green algae.
Flgure1.30 Loogitudinalll'd:Kmthroughabactefium(~nooo).The
They consist of single cells but differ from other
light area-; are rniH!d ONA strand-i . There all' three of them b«~use the
single-celled organisms because their chromosomes bacteliumisabouttodMdetwke(seeFigure1.31)
are not organised into a nucleus.
Individual bacteria may be spherical, rod-shaped
Bacterial structure or spiral and some have filaments, called flagella,
Bacteria (singular: bacterium) are very small projecting from them. TI1e flagella can flick and so
organisms consisting of single cells rarely more than move the bacterial cell about.
Viruses
TI1ere are many different types of virus and they vary
(a)bacterlalcell (b) chromosome replicates in their shape and strncture. All virnses, however,
have a central core ofRNA or DNA (see Chapter 4 )
surrounded by a protein coat. Viruses have no
nucleus, cytoplasm, cell organdies or cell membrane,
though some forms have a membrane outside their
protein coats.
(c)celldMdes (d)eachcelldlvldes agaln Virus particles, therefore, are not cells. They do
Flgure1.31 11..Kteriumreproducing. Thisisasexualrl'pfoductOObycl'II not feed, respire, excrete or grow and it is debatable
~ (-"Asexuaill'f)md\!ctioo"inCh~ er16and"Milo'ii'i"inCnapter17). whether they can be classed as lhing organisms.
Viruses do reproduce, but only inside the cells ofliving
The Protoctist kingdom organisms, using materials provided by the host cell.
TI1ese are single-celled (unicellular) organisms A generalised virns particleis shown in Figure 1. 33.
which have their chromosomes enclosed in a nuclear TI1e nucleic acid core is a coiled single strand of RNA.
membrane to form a nucleus. Some examples are The coat is made up of regularly packed protein units
shown in Figure 1.32. called capsomeres each containing many protein
Some of the protoctisra, e.g. Eug/ena, possess molecules. The protein coat is called a capsid.
chloroplasts and make their food by photosynthesis.
TI1ese protoctista are often referred to as unicellular
'plants' or protophyt1.. Organisms such as Amoeba
and Paramcci11m take in and digest solid focxi and
thus resemble animals in their feeding. They may be
called unicellular 'animals' or protozoa.
Amoeba is a protozoan which moves by a flowing
movement of its cytoplasm. It feeds by picking
up bacteria and other microscopic organisms as it
goes. Vorticella has a contractile stalk and feeds by
creating a current of water with its cilia. The current
brings particles of food to the cell. E11g/rna and
Ch/amydomonas have chloroplasts in their cells and Flgure1.33 Gel\l'fali'il'dstructureofavirus
feed, like plants, by photosynthesis.
,
"
nucleus • Extension work
<hlo,opl,{ J J § '
Amoeba( X 75) Chlamydomonas( x 7SO)

envelope
{from host's
flagell,m1\ cell membrane)
protein co.it
(capsld)
"'"t.r-
'
.(.,>-
Paramec/um(x150)
Vortlce//a(x1000) <hlo,oplart~ I
Eug/ena(x250)
\
colledRNA
strand
Flgure1.32Prntoclrita. ChfamyUOm(J{ld5andfuglenahavech~ sl:5

andcanphotosynthesise.The others.ireprotozoaandingest 'ididfood Flgure1.34 Structureofthelnfluenzavlrus
Outside the capsid, in the influenza virns and some make a distinction between monocots and dicots.
other virnses, is an envelope which is probably derived Ray also published a classification of animals, based
from the cell membrane of the host cell (Figure 1.34 ). on hooves, toes and teeth. Ultimately he de\ised
classificatory systems for plants, birds, mammals, fish
Ideas abo ut class if icatio n and insects. ln doing this, he brought order out of a
From the earliest days, humans must have given chaos of names and systems.
names to the plants and animals they observed , At the same time he studied functions, adaptations
particularly those that were useful as food or medicine. and behaviour of organisms.
Over the years, there have been many attempts to ln 1691 he claimed that fossils were the
sort plants and animals into related groups. Aristotle's mineralised remains of extinct creatures, possibly
'Ladder ofNature' (Figure 1.35 ) organised about 500 from a time when the Earth was supposedly covered
animal species into broad categories. by water. This was quite contrary to established (but
varied ) views on the significance of fossils. Some
thought that the fossils grew and developed in the
rocks, others supposed that God had put them there
'for his pleasure' and still others claimed that the
OCTOPUSES & SQUIDS Devil put them in the rocks to 'tempt, frighten or
confuse'. A more plausible theory was that a huge
flood had washed marine creatures on to the land.
<'oo,, Despite Ray's declaration, the modern idea of the
ltrrEs significance of fossils was not generally accepted until
Dan\in's day (see 'Selection' in Chapter 18 ).
""'GHER Pll>-~'\'>
,~;:,::~:-~=~~~; Carl Li nnaeus (1707-1778)

Linnaeus was a Swedish naturalist who initially
Flgu re 1.35 Arlstotle's'LadderofNature' graduated in medicine but became interested in
plants. He travelled in Scandinavia, England and
The 16th -century herbalists, such as John Gerard , Eastern Europe, discovering and naming new plant
divided the plant world imo 'kindes' such as grasses, species.
rushes, grains, irises and bulbs. Categories such In 1735 he published his Systema Nat11rac, which
as 'medicinal plants' and 'sweet-smelling plants', accurately described about 7700 plant species
however, did not constitute a 'natural' classification and classified them, largely on the basis of their
based on strnctural features. The herbalists also gave reproductive structures (stamens, ovaries, etc. , see
the plants descriptive Latin names, e.g. Anemone 'Sexual reproduction in plants' in Chapter 16). He
ten11ifoliaflorecoccinea ('the small-leaved scarlet further grouped species into genera, genera into
anemone' ). The first name shows a recognition of classes, and classes into orders. ('Phyla' came later. )
relationship to Anemone nemorumflorepltmoalbo He also classified over 4000 animals, but rather less
('the double white wood anemone' ), for example. successfully, into mammals, birds, insects and worms.
This method of naming was refined and popularised Linnaeus refined and popularised the binomial
by Carl Linnaeus (see below). system of naming organisms, in which the first
name represents the genus and the second name
Jo hn Ray( 1625-1705) the species. (See 'Concept and use of a classification
Ray was the son of a blacksmith who eventually system' earlier in this chapter. ) l11is system is still
became a Fellow of the Royal Society. He travelled the official starting poim for naming or revising the
widely in Britain and Europe making collections of names of organisms.
plams,animalsand rocks. Although the classificatory system must have
In 1667 and 1682 he published a catalogue of suggested some idea of evolution, Linnaeus
British plants based on the structure of their flowers, steadfastly rejected the theory and insisted that no
seeds, fruits and roots. He was the first person to species created by God had ever become extinct.
Dichotomous keys
• Dichotomous keys INHABITANTS O F ,\ COMPOST H EAP
Did1otCMllOl1S keys are used to identify wlfumiliar

organisms. 'Jhc:y simplify the process of identification.
Each key is m:1de up of pairs of contraSting kamrcs
(dichotomous means two br.mchcs), starting "~th quite
2i~ix'7~h:~-~'.:.~-~. . . . ..
general ch:tr:icteristics and progressing to more specific
ones. By following the key and making appropriate
choices it is pos.siblc to identify the organism correctly.
3
1~=·b~:::"i;:cc ~ Woodlouse
Cenlipede
Figure l .36 shows an example of a dichotomous key 41~:;:;:!::~~:.'. ~'.'.'.. . Earwig

Beetle
that could be used to place an unknown vertebrate in
the correct class. Item I gives yo u a choice between s j ~; ;:·:;;~e;.,~~·:::···· Earthworm
~=
6
two altern:itives. If the animal is poikilothermic (cold
blooded ), you move to item 2 and make a further
choice. !fit is homoiothermic {warm blooded), you
6 ! .~~t~.:::··· Snail
Slug
Figure 1.37 AdchotornouskeyfOfsomelovertetlf~tesinicompoo; t
mm'e ro item 4 for your next choice. heap
111e same rechnique may be used fur assigning
an organism ro its class, genus or species. However, Figure 1.39 (overleaf) shows five different items
rhc important fcarurc s may not always be easy to oflaborarory glassware. If you were unfamiliar
sec and you have ro make use of lc:ss fundamental with rhe resources in a science lab yo u ma y not
characteristics. be able ro name them. We arc going to create a
dichotomous key ro help with id entification . All
,.ER TE BR/\TE C L-\SSES
rhc items have o ne thing in common - they arc
made of glass. However, each has featu res whi ch
make it unique and we can devise questions based
on these features. The first 1-ask is to stud y the
items, to work our what some of them have in
common and what makes the m diffe re nt fro m
others. For ex:implc, some ha\"e a po uring spout,
Amphibian others have graduations marked on the g lass for
Reptile measuring, some have a neck (where t he glass
•l~:::::•h'." . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bird
Mammal
narrows to form a thi nner structure ), some can
stand without support because they have a flat
base, and so on.
FlguniU6 AdlchotomouskeyforWfl.eb!"itedis:.es
111e first question sho uld be based on a feature
Figure: 1.37 is a key for identifying some of the: possible which will split the group into rwo. The question is
invertebrates ro be found in a compost heap. Of course, going ro generate a ·yes' o r ·no' answer. Fo r each of
you do not need a key to identify these familiar animals the two sub-groups formed, a further question based
bur it docs show you how a key can be constructed. on the features of some of that sub-group should
You need to be able ro develop the skills to then be formulated. Figure 1.40 {overleaf) shows one
construct simple dichotomous keys, based on possible solution.
easily identifiable features. If you know the main This is not the only way that a dichotomous
characteristics of a group, it is possible to draw key could be devise d for the laboratory glassware
up a systematic plan for identifying an unfumiliar shown. Construct yo ur own key and test it for
organism. One such plan is shown in Figure 1.38 each object.
(on the next page).
lsltunlcellular? 1f---------1 1
hy~:Se ~~:~s?
hyphae
~
J,..
. ' PROKARYOTES
!""'
Dothecellshavecell
l yes walls and chloroplasts?
PROTOCTISTA
Flgure1.38 ldentificationplan
l
Flgure1.39 1tem1oflaboratoryglassware
1 Ha,itgotapouringspout?
2 H asitgotabroadbase?
B eaker
M easuring
cylind er
J H asitgotstraight sidesforthewholeofitslength?
Boiling tub e
4 Hasitgotslopingsides?
Conic al flask
Round-b o tto m ed
fla sk
Flgure1.40 DkhotomouskeyfOfidentifyingtaboratorygtassware
Dichotomous keys
Questions Checklist
After studying Chapter 1 youshouldknowandunderstandthe
Core following:
1 Why do you think ~kilothermic (cold blooded} animals .ire
• The seven characteristics of living things are movement,
~=ed down by IO'N temper.iture57 {See Chapter 5.)
respiration, sensitivity, growth, reproduction, excretion and
2 Whichvertebr.itedasses:
nutrition.
a are w.irm-blooded
• A species is a group of organisms that can reproduce to
b havefourlegs
produce fertile offspring.
c layeggs
• Thebinomialsystemisaninternationallyagreedsystemin
d haveintemalfertilisation
which the scientific name of an organism is made up of two
e have some degree of parental care?
partsshowingthegenusandthespecies
3 Figure 1.32onpage 19showswmeprotoctista.Using
• Classification is a way of sorting organisms into a
only the features shown in the drawings, construct ii
meaningfulorder,traditionallyusingmorphologyand
dichotomouskeythatcouldbeusedtoidentifythese
anatomy, but recently alw using DNA.
organisms.
• All living organisms have certain features in common,
4 Construct a dichotomous key that would lead an observer
including the presence of cytoplasm and cell membranes,
to distinguish between the following plants: daffodil,
poppy,buttercup,meadO'Ngrass,iris(seeFigurel.11, andDNAasgeneticmaterial.
• Animals get their food by eating plants or other animals
page10}.(Thereismorethanoneway.}
• Arthropodshaveahardexoskeletonandjointedlegs.
Whythisisan'artificial'keyratherthana'natural'key7
• Crustaceamostlyliveinwaterandhavemorethanthree
Ext en ded pairs of legs
5 Classify the following organisms: beetle, sparrow, weasel, • lnsectsmostlyliveonlandandhavewingsandthreepairsof
gorilla, bracken, buttercup. legs
For example, butterfly: Kingdom, animal; Group, arthropod; • Arachnidshavefourpairsoflegsandpoisonousmouthparts
Class.insect. • Myriapods have many pairs of legs.
6 The white deadnettle is Lamium .t!bum; the red deadnettle • Vertebrateshaveaspinalcolumnandskull.
is Lamium purpureum. Would you expect these two plants • Fishhavegills,finsandscales.
tocr05s-pollinatesucces.sfully7 • Amphibiacanbreatheinairorinwater.
7 1fafiredestroysalltheabove-groundvegetation,the • Reptilesarelandanimals;theylayeggswithle;itheryshells.
bracken{atypeoffem}willstillgrowwellinthenext • Birdshavefeathers,beaksandwings;theyare
season. Suggestwhythisshouldbew. homoiothermic (warm-blooded}.
8 Which kingdoms contain organisms with: • Mammals have fur, they suckle their young and the young
a manycells develop inside the mother.
b nudeiintheircells • Keysareusedtoidentifyunfamiliarorganisms.
c cellwalls • Dichotomous means two branches, so the user is given a
d hyphae choiceoftwopossibilitiesateachstage.
e chloroplasts?
• Prokaryotes are micr05Copic organisms; they have no
proper nucleus
• Protoctistsaresingle-celledorganismscontaininga
nucleus.
• Fungiaremadeupofthread-likehyphae.Theyreproduce
by spores.
• Plants make their food by photosynthesis
• Ferns have well-developed stems, leaves and roots. They
reproduce by spores.
• Seed-bearing plants reproduce by seeds.
• Flowering plants have flowers; their seeds are in an ovary
whichformsafruit
• Monoc:otshaveonecotyledonintheseed;dicotshave
twocotyledonsintheseed.
• Viruses do not pos.sess the features of a living organism.
Organisation and maintenance of the
@ organism
Ce ll s tructure and organ isation Levels of organ isat ion

Plantandanimalcellstructures Specialisedcellsandtheirfunctions
Functions of structures Definitions and examples of tissues, organs and systems
Ribosomes,roughERandmitochondria Size of spec imens

Mitochondria and respiration Calculationsofmagnificationandsize,usingmillimetres
Cakulatiom of magnification using micrometres
Thin slices of this kind are called sections. lfyou

• Cell structure and cut along the length of the structure, you are taking
organisation a longitudinal section (Figure 2.2 (b )). Figure 2.1
slmws a longitudinal section, which passes through
two small developing leaves near the tip of the
Cell structure
shoot, and two larger leaves below them. The leaves,
If a very thin slice of a plant stem is cut and studied buds and stem are all made up of cells. If you cut
under a microscope, it can be seen that the stem across the structure, you make a transverse section
consists of thousands of tiny, box-like strncmres. These (Figure 2.2(a)) .
strncmres are called cells. Figure 2.1 is a thin slice
taken from the tip of a plant shoot and photographed
through a microscope. Photographs like this are called
photomicrogrnphs. The one in Figure 2.1 is 60 times
larger than life, so a cdl which appears ro be 2 mm
long in the picture is only 0.03mm long in life.
(a)transversesoctlon (b)longltudlnalsectlon
Flgure2.2 Cuttingsectiamofap!antstem
It is fairly easy to cut sections through plant

structures just by using a razor blade. To cut sections
of animal structures is more difficult because they
are mostly soft and flexible. Pieces of skin, muscle or
liver, for example, first have to be soaked in melted
wax. When the wax goes solid it is then possible to
cut thin sections. l11e wax is dissolved away after
makingrhesection.
When sections of animal strnctures are examined
under the microscope, they, too, are seen to be made
up of cells but they are much smaller than plant cells
and need to be magnified more. The photomicrograph
of kidney tissue in Figure 2.3 has been magnified 700
Flgure2.1 Larigrtudinal section through ttle lip of aplant 1haot{~60)
times to show the cells clearly. The sections are often
ThesJKei1anly anecellthid. '>O lightcanpa51throoghitaodallowttle treated with dyes, called stains, in order to make tl1e
•
cellstobeseenclearly. strnctures inside tl1e cells slmw up more dearly.
Cell structure and organisation
In plant cells it may be seen to be f!o,,ing about. The

particles may be food reserves such as oil droplets
or granules of starch. Other particles are structures
known as organelles, which have particular functions
in the cytoplasm. In the cytoplasm, a great many
chemical reactions are taking place which keep the
cell alive by pro,iding energy and making substances
that the cell needs.
The liquid part of cytoplasm is about 90% water
\\ith molecules of salts and sugars dissolved in it.
Suspended in this solution there are larger molecules
of fats (lipids) and proteins (see Chapter 4 ). Lipids
and proteins may be used to build up the cell
Figure 2.3 Transver,;e 5!.'ction through a kklneytubule{~700). A section structures, such as the membranes. Some of the
throughatubewilllookl ikearing{seefigure2.14\b)).lnthi'i c~,;e. e.Kti
"ring"rnmistsofabout12cells proteins are enzym es (see Chapter 5). Enzymes
control the rate and type of chemical reactions
Making sections is not the only way to study cells. which take place in the cells. Some enzymes are
111in strips of plant tissue, only one cell thick, can be attached to the membrane systems of the cell,
pulled off stems or leaves (Experiment 1, page 28 ). whereas others float freely in the liquid part of
Plant or animal tissue can be squashed or smeared the cytoplasm.
on a microscope slide (Experiment 2, page 29) or
Cell membrane
treated with chemicals ro separate the cells before
111is is a thin layer of cytoplasm around the outside
studying them.
of the cell. It stops the cell contents from escaping
111ere is no such thing as a typical plant or animal
and also controls the substances which are allowed
cell because cells vary a great deal in their size and
to enter and leave the cell. In general, o:x1'gen, food
shape depending on their function. Nevertheless, it
and water are allowed to enter; waste products are
is possible to make a drawing like Figure 2.4 to show
allowed to leave and harmful substances are kept out.
features which are present in most cells. Al/ cells have
In this way the cell membrane maintains the structure
a cell membrane, whicl1 is a thin boundary enclosing
and chemical reactions of the cytoplasm.
the cytoplas m. Most cells have a nucleus.
Nucleus (plural: nuclei)
Most cells contain one nucleus, which is usually
seen as a rounded structure enclosed in a membrane
and embedded in the cytoplasm. In drawings of
cells, the nucleus may be shown darker than the
cytoplasm because, in prepared sections, it takes
up certain stains more strongly than the cytoplasm.
The function of the nucleus is to control the
type and quantity of enzymes produced by the
cytoplasm. In this way it regulates the chemical
changes which take place in the cell. As a result,
the nucleus determines what the cell will be, for
example, a blood cell, a liver cell, a muscle cell or
mitochondria granules a nerve cell.
Flgure2.4 Agroupof livercell1.Thesecellshaveal lthecha1..c:teristic:o; 111e nucleus also controls cell division, as shown
olanimalcells in Figure 2.5. A cell \\ithout a nucleus cannot
reproduce. Inside the nucleus are thread-like
Cytoplasm structures called chromosomes, which can be seen
Under the ordinary microscope (light microscope), most easily at the time when the cell is dhiding (see
cytoplasm looks like a thick liquid with particles in it. Chapter 17 for a fuller account of chromosomes).
2 ORGANISATION AND MAINTENANCE OF THE ORGANISM
(a) Animal cell about to (b) The nucleus dlvlde,s flm. (c) The daughter nuclei sep.uate (d) lWo cells are formed - one
dM de. andthecytoplasmplnche,s maykeeptheabllltyto
offbetweenthenuclel. dlvlde,andtheothermay
becomespecl allsed.
Flgure2.5 Celldivisiooin ao animalcell
Plant cells 2 Most mature plant cells have a large, fluid-filled

A few generalised animal cells are represented by space called a vacuole. l11e vacuole contains cell
Figure 2.4, while Figure 2.6 is a drawing of two sap, a watery solution of sugars, salts and sometimes
palisade cells from a plant leaf. (See 'Leaf structure' in pigments. lbis large, central vacuole pushes the
Chapter6. ) cytoplasm aside so that it forms just a thin lining inside
the cell wall. It is the outward pressure of the vacuole
on the cytoplasm and cell \vall which makes plant cells
and their tissues firm (see 'Osmosis' in Chapter 3).
Animal cells may sometimes have small vacuoles in
chloroplast their cytoplasm but they are usually produced to do a
particular job and are nor permanent.
3 In the cytoplasm of plant cells are many organelles
cytoplasm called plastids. These are nor present in animal
nuclear
membrane cells. If they contain the green substance
chloroph yll , the organelles are called chlo roplast s
·u
(see Chapter 6). Colourless plastids usually contain
starch, which is used as a food store. (Note: the
term plastid is not a syllabus requirement. )
Flgure2.6 P.ili1adecellsfrom aleaf
Plant cells differ from animal cells in several ways.

1 Outside the cell membrane they all have a cell wall
which contains cellulose and other compounds.
It is non-living and allows water and dissolved
cell
<hlo,opl~s
membrane
vacuole
,
.
, ,
~ •
substances to pass through. The cell wall is not cytoplasm I •
selective like the cell membrane. ( Note that plant cell w all
cells do have a cell membrane but it is not easy to
see or draw because it is pressed against the inside
0
of the cell wall (see Figure 2.7 ).)
Under the microscope, plant cells are quite
distinct and easy to see because of their cell walls.
In Figure 2.1 it is only the cell walls (and in some
(a)longltudlnalsectlon (b)tranwersesectlon
cases the nuclei ) which can be seen. Each plant cell
has its own cell wall but the boundary between two Flgure2.7 Structureofapalisademesophyllcell. ltisi~rt.intto
cells side by side does not usually show up clearly. rell\l'mberlha~ although cells loo k flat in se ctiom orin th in stfipsof
tissue. they are in fact three-dimensional aod may seem to have different
Cells next to each other therefore appear to be 1ha~1 amird ing to the dirl'Clkm in whkh the ll'Ctkm is rut. If the cell i1
sharing the same cell wall. rntacrossitwillkmklike(b); ifrnt loogitudinally it'Mll look li ke'-')
Cell structure and organisation
111e shape of a cell when seen in a transverse section why this is so. Figures 8.4( b) and 8.4(c ) on page 112
may be quite different from when the same cell is show the appearance of cells in a stem vein as seen in
seen in a longitudinal section and Figure 2.7 shows transverse and longitudinal section.
"&lble2 .1 Summaf}':theport-;oface ll
Na me of part Description Fu nction
(su pp lement o nly)
}l'lly-like.wilhpartide-;a!ldorganelll"iin eoclasedbylhecell contaimlhecellOO}anelle1.e.g. mitachondfia.nucleu1
membrane 1iteofchemkalreaclions
apartial!ypermeablelayerthatform-;a arou!ldthecytoplasm prevent1cellcon tent1frome1C.ipng
baundary;miu ndthecytoplasm controlswhatsub1t.iru 11'11lerandleavelhea>II
acirc:ularorovalstruc:turernntaining insidethecytopl.ism
DNAintheformofc:hrommornes rnntrolscell development
controlscell ..ctivitie-;
atough.non-lMnglayermadeof aroo!ldtheoollideof prevent1pl;mtcel!sfrombur1ting
cellulose1UrroundingthecellmemtJr.wie plantcell1 allow<;waterand1.lt-;topas1thrnugh{ffeelypermeable)
~
afluid-filled1p,Ke1urroundedbya imidethecytopla1mof con taimsalt-;and1ugars
membr.wie pi.wit cells helpstokeepplantcellslirm
j chloroplast aoorgaf\ellernntainingchlorophyll imidethecytoplosmol trap,;lightenergyfor photmynlhesi1
1omeplontcell1
When srndied at much higher magnifications with

the electron microscope, the cytoplasm of animal
and plant cells no longer looks like a smKtureless jelly
but appears to be organised into a complex system of
membranes and vacuoles. Organelles present include
the rough endoplasmic reticulum, a network of
flattened cavities surrounded by a membrane, which
links with the nuclear membrane. 111e membrane holds
ribosomes, giving its surf.tee a rough appearance.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum has the fimction
of producing, transporting and storing proteins.
ribosome(onrough
Ribosomes can also be found free in the cytoplasm. endoplasmic reticulum)
They build up the cell's proteins (see Chapter 4). (a) diagramofalivercell (~lOOOO)
Mitocho ndria are tiny organelles, which may
appear slipper-shaped, circular or oval when viewed in
section. In three dimensions, they may be spherical,
rod-like or elongated. They have an outer membrane
and an hmer membrane with many inward-pointing
folds. Mitochondria are most numerous in regions
of rapid chemical activity and are responsible for
produch1g energy from food substances through the
process of aerobic respiration (see 01apter 12).
Nore that prokaryotes do not possess mitochondria
or rough endoplasmic reticulum in their cytoplasm.
Figure 2.S(a) is a diagram of an animal cell magnified nuclear pore
10000 times. Figure 2.S(b) is an electron micrograph
of a liver cell. Organelles in the cytoplasm can be seen
clearly. They have recognisable shapes and features. rough
Figure 2.S(c) is an electron micrograph of a plant endoplasmic
cell. In addition to the organelles already named and reticulum
described, other organelles are also present such as (b) electmnmic:rographoftwolJVercell1(~10000)
chloroplasts and a cell wall. Fig u re 2.8 Ce ll1athighmagnific:ation
nucleus
cell wall
rlbosomes
cell membra ne
cytoplasm
mllochondrlon
(a) peeltheepidermisfrnmtheimideofanooionOOlbleaf
rough
endoplasm ic
reticulum
(c) electroomKJOQraphofap(antcell{~6000)
Rgure2.8 Cel!s.ithighmagnihcatkm(rnn~nued)
Practical work
Looking at cells
1 Pla nt cells - preparin g a slide of o nio n epide rmis cells
Theon ionprovidesaveryuseful50Urceofepidermalplanttissue
(b) place theepidermisooto theslide.aoding2- 3d!Ofl5oliodifll'
whichisonecellthick,makingitrelativelyeasytosetupasa ,;olution aodcarefullyklwering a coversl ipon toit
temporary slide. The onion is made up of fleshy leaves. On the
inrurveofeachleafthereisanepidermallayerv..+iichcanbe
peeledoff{Figure2.9(a)}.
• Using forceps, peel a piece of epidermal tissue from the
incurveofanon ionbulbleaf.
• Pli!Ce the epidermal tissue on a glass microscope slide.
• Usingascalpel,cutouta lcm5quareoftissue{discardingthe
rest}andarrangeitinthecentreoftheslide.
• Add two to three drops of iod ine o;olution. {This will stain any
starch in the cells and provides a contrast between different
components of the cells.)
• Using forceps, a mounted needle or a wooden splint, support (c) altematively. peelastf~ ofredepide1TTii1fromapk>ceof
acoverslipwithooeedgerestingnea r totheoniontissue,at rtiubarbskin
an angle of about 45° {Figure 2.9(b)}. Flgure2.9 Lool<ingat plantcel!s
• Gently lower the coverslip over the onion tissue, trying to
avoidtrappingany a ir bubbles. (Airbubbleswillreflectlight
v..+ienviewingunderthelightmicroscope,obscuringthe
features you are trying to observe.}
• Leave the slide for about 5 minutes to allow the iod ine stain
toreactwiththeo;pecimen.Theiodinewillstainthecellnudei
paleyellowandthestarc:hgrainsblue.
• Placetheslideontothemicroscopestage,selectthelowest
power objective lens and focus on the specimen. lncrea5e the
magnificationusingtheotheroti;ectivelenses.Underhighpower,
thecellsshouldlooksimilartothosesho<Mi infigure2.10.
• Makealargedrawingof on ecellandlabelthe following
parts: cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus
Analternativetissueisrhubarbepidermis(Figure2.9(c)). This
can be strippedofffromthesurfaceofa stalkandtreatedinthe
5amewayastheoniontissue. lfredepidermisfromrhubarbstalk
is used, you will see the red cell sap in the vacuoles Flgure2.10 Ooion epidennis cells
Levels of organisation
2 Plant cells - preparing ce lls with ch loroplasts willreflectlightwhenviewingunderthelightmicroscope,

obscuring the features you are trying to observe.)
• Using forceps, remOYe a leaf from a mos:. plant • Leave the slide for a few minutes to allow the methylene blue
• Placetheleafinthecentreofamicrosc:opeslideandaddone staintoreactwiththe'ij>e(imen
ortwodropsofwater. • Place the slide on to the microscope stage, select the lowest
• Placeacoverslipovertheleaf power objective lens and focus on the specimen. Increase
• Examine the leaf c~ls with the high power objective of a the magnification using the other objective lenses. Under
microscope. The c~ls should look similar to those shown in high power, the cells should look similar to those shown in
Figure2.11 Figure2. 12,butlessmagnified
• Makealargedrawingofo ne cellandlabelthefollowing
parts: c~I membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus
• Placeyourusedslideinlaboratorydisinfectantbeforewashing.
Flgure2.12 Cel!sfrnmtheliningepitheliumofthecheek(~lSOO)
3 An ima l cells - preparing human cheek cells
An alternative method of obtaining cells is to press some
Humancheekcellsareconstantlybeingrubbedoffinsidethe
mouth as they come in contact with the tongue and food. They transparent sticky tape on to a well-washed wrist. When the tape
canthereforebecollectedeasilyforuseinatemporaryslide isremovedandstudiedunderthemicroscope,cellswithnuclei
Note: TheDepartmentofEducationandScienceand, canbeseen.Afewdropsofmethylenebluesolutionwillstain
subsequently,LocalAuthorities,usedtorecommendthat the c~ls and make the nuclei more distinct.
schoolsshouldnotusethetechniquewhichinvolvesstudying
the epithelial cells which appear in a smear taken from the
inside of the cheek. This was because of the very small risk of
transmitting the AIDS virus. However, this guidance has now
changed. A document, Safety in Science Education {1996) by
• Leve ls of orga nisat ion
theDfEEinBritainstatesthatofficialgovemmentguidanceon
cheekcellshasbeeneffectivelyreversed,indicatingthattheuse Specia lisation of ce ll s
of cotton buds is now 'permitted' together with appropriate Most cells, when they have finished dividing and
precautions to treat contaminated items with disinfectant or growing, become specialised. \Vhen cells are specialised:
by autoclaving.
• Rinse your mouth with water to remOYe any fragments of food. • they do one particular job
• Take a cotton bud from a freshly opened pack. Rub the cotton • they develop a distinct shape
budlightly ontheinsideofyourchrekandgumstocollect • special kinds of chemical change take place in their
somechrekcellsinsaliva. cytoplasm.
• Rub the cotton bud on to the centre of a clean microscope
slide,toleaveasampleofsaliva. Repeatifthesampleistoo l11e changes in shape and the chemical reactions
small. Then drop the cotton bud intoacontainerofabsolute enable the cell to carry out its special function. Red
alcohol or disinfectant. blood cells and root hair cells are just two examples
• Add two to thrre drops of methylene blue dye. (This will stain of specialised cells. Figure 2 .13 shows a variety of
partsofthecheekcellstomakenucleimorevisible.}
• Using forceps, a mounted needle or wooden splint, support a specialised cells.
coverslip with one edge resting near to the cheek cell sample, The specialisation of c.ells to carry out particular
at an angle of about 4S 0 • Gently lower the coverslip over the fi.mctions in an organism is sometimes referred to as
tissue,tryingtoavoidtrappinganyairbubbles. (Airbubbles 'divisio n of labour' within the organism. Similarly,
the special functions of mirochondria, ribosomes and

other cell organelles may be termed division of labour
within the cell .
nuc.Jear
membrane
(a) dliatedcells
Thesecellslo rmthellnlngofthe110Seandwinct,ipe,andthetiny (d) pal~mesophyll cells
cytoplasmic'hairs',calleddlla,,1relnacontinualllkkingmoYement Thesea refoundunclerneathtneuppereplc!ermlsot
whichcreatesastreamoffluld(m1JC1.1s)lhatcarriesdustandb.Kteria plantJeaves.Thl>yarecolumnar(qul!elong)andpacked
lhroughthebronchland1r.Ktiea,.wayfrom thelungs wilhchloroplaststotraplightelll!fgy.Thelrfunctlonls
tomakeloodfOftheplJn t byphotosyntheslsuslng
carbondioxide,waterJndlightenergy.
(bi roo1hace11
Theseceh;bsorbwaterandmineral~lromthesoil. Thehair~ike
projectiononNChceDpenetmesbetweenthesoilp;irtide!iandoffers
a lMge absorbing 9..lrf.Ke. The cell membr¥1e Is ~e to control which
dissolwdsubsUncesenterthecel
llgnlffedwall
u
r+-""'·"'"'" fo,mloogwt.,
(e) riervecells
ThesecellsarespecialisedfOfcooductlng
(c) xylemwssels electricaliJTµJlsesaloogthefbe,toand
Thesecellstransportmineralloosfromtherootstotheleaves.A frnmthebrainandsf)4nJICOfd . Thelibres.1re
rubstanceulledlignlnlmpfl!gnatesandthickensthecellwallsmaking oftenvf!f'jlongandconnectalstantpanso!
lhece llsvf!f'jstrongandlmpermeable. Thlsglwstrlestemstrength.The lhebodytotheCNS,e.g.thefoot.idthe
~9ninlormsdistlnctivep;1ttemslnthewssels-splrals, l.rllershapes, spinaj columo. Chemiul reactions c;iuse
rntk ulate(oet-like)andpltted.Xylemvesselsarem..de upof.isertesof lheimpulses totrawlalo!lgthelibre
lorg~ylemcellsjoinedel'lO-to-tnd(Flgure8.4(alOncearegionoflhe
planthasstoppedgrow\ng,theendwaHsofthecellsaredigesled;w,t;1/
tofOfTllacontinuous,finetube(Flgure8.4(c)). Thelignin thkl:ening
preventslhetreepassageofw.iter.indnutrlents.sothecytoplasminthe
cellsdies.Effect~thecelsformloog.thW\strongstr.l'-M.
Flgu1e2. 13 Specialisedcels(llottosc.ile)
Levels of organisation
plants and animals cannot survive on their own. A

o - - ; cytoplasmcontalnlnghaemoglobln muscle cell could not obtain its own food and 0:1.)'gen.
Other specialised cells ha\'e to provide the food and
r~ O
(f) redbkJod {e11'i
oxygen needed for the muscle cell to live. Unless
these cells are grouped together in large numbers and
made to work together, they cannot exist for long.
These(ellsaredistif\ctivebecau'i!'theyhaveoomx:leu1whenmoture. They
.n> tinydisc:~ike cel!swhi::h{oot~n aredpigmentLl llOO haemogbbin. This
Tissues
readi lycombineswithoxygenandtheirfunctioni'ithetransportofoxygen A tissue, such as bone, nerve or muscle in animals,
.tourid thebody. and epidermis, xylem or pith in plants, is made up
of many hundreds of cells often of a single type.
l11e cells of each type have a similar structure and
fimction so that the tissue itself can be said to have
a particular function; for example, muscles contract
to cause movement, :1.)'lem carries water in plants.
Figure 2 .14 shows how some cells are arranged to
form simple tissues.
Key defin it ion

A tissue isagroupof{ellswith~milarstru{tures,v,,:irl<ing
together to perform a shared function .
Organs
Organs consist of several tissues grouped together to
(g) spermce ll make a srructure with a special function. For example,
Spermcellsarema~sexce!l:s. Theffontofthecell i'ioval lohapedond the stomach is an organ which contains tissues made
contaimanucleu1which{arriesgenetk:informatkln. Therei1atip,
LlllOOan..c:rosOO\l',whic:hsecretl'Senzymestodigestthecellsaroundan from epithelial cells, gland cells and muscle cells.
egg arid the egg membfane. Behind this i'i a mki-pil.'{e whk:h is packed l11ese cells are supplied with food and oxygen brouglu
with m~o<tioodrio to prnvkle energy for movement. The tai l movl'S by blood vessels. The stomach also has a nerve supply.
with a whip~ike action enabling the ~m to 1,,.,.;m. Their function Is
reproduction ,achlevedbyfertilisinganeggcell
l11e heart, lungs, intestines, brain and eyes are further
examples of organs in animals. In flowering plants, the
O
root, stem and leaves are the organs. l11e tissues of the
leaf include epidermis, palisade tissue, spongy tissue,
J,lly,oa< X)'km and phloem (see Chapter 8).
nucleus ~ cell membrane
Key defin it ion
cytoplasm ~ An organ is a structure made up of a group of tissues, working
{ontalnlngyolk together to perform a specifi{ function .
droplets folllcle{ells
(h) eggce ll Organ systems

Eggce!l:s(OYa,1ingular.ovum) arelargerthan1permcellsaridare An organ system usually refers to a group of organs
1pherkal.Theyhavealargeamountolcytoplasm, rnntainingyo lk
droplet1madeupofproteinondf.t.Thenucleu1ca1riesgenetic:
whose fimctions are closely related. For example,
informatkln. Thelunc tionoftheeggcelli1reproduction the heart and blood vessels make up the circulatory
Flgure2.13 Spedali'i2dcells(notto 1cale)(rnnbnued) system ; the brain, spinal cord and nerves make up
the nervous system (Figure 2.I5 ). In a flowering
plant, the stem, lea\·es and buds make up a system
Tissues and organs called the shoot (Figure 8.1 on page 110) .
l11ere are some microscopic organisms that consist
of one cell only (see 'Features of organisms' in Key defin it ion
Chapter 1 ). These can carry out all the processes A system is a group of organs with related functions,
working together to perform a body function.
necessary for their survh'al. The cells of the larger
spinal
cord
(a) cellsforming<mepithelium
A thin layer of tissue, e.9. theliningofthemmrthc.wily.Oifferent
typesofepitheliumformtheinternalliningofthewindpipe,air
:::::~':':'.:' eoc :odp: ~:.e.•gaml,=ph,skal

0 0 "
(a) nervou11y'ilem
(b) cellsformingas.m.:illtube
e.9. akidneytubule(seep.1 77). Tubule111Khasthi1carryliquidsfrom
onepartofanorgontoanother.
(c) onekindofmusdecell
Formsasheetofmusde~11ue. Bl ood vessel1,nervefitxesaml
rnrmectivl'lissueswillalmbepre'il'llt.Contrac:tkmsofthisk iridof
musde help to move food along the food GJnal or dose down
smallbloodvl.'lse!s
(d) cellsformingpartofaglarKl
The ce llsmoke chemkalswttichorereleasedintotttecentral1pac:ean
{a1Tied.maybyatubule1u{ha11hownin(b). Hu ridredsofcellgroup1
like this would form a glarid like the sajr\tary gland (b) cirrnlatory system
Flgure2.14 Howcellsfonntissues Flgure2.15 lWoexample-;ofsystem1inthehumanbody
Size of specimens
Organisms An example in the human body of how

An organism is formed by the organs and systems cells, tissues and organs are related is shown
working together to produce an independent plant in Figure 2.16.
or animal.
~ :,-.__
~
(b)anorg':n ~
m,Klelay"
somachU • ,og
t-
from the d1~~~t~~~·~;~·m --;).
(cutopentoshowthe
llnlngandthemusclelayer)
gland
: :,: dloal - {~ -~
circular
muscle
~ (c)tluue-asmallplece
of stomach w all with
(a) a s~em - the digestive system (d) cells - some muscle cells muscle tissue and
of the human organism from the muscle tissue gland tissue
Flgure2.16 Allexample of how cells, ti11uesaridorgan1arerelatl.'d
quick to prepare, but the specimens dry out quite

• Size of specimens rapidly, so they cannot be stored successfully. A
cm•erslip (a thin piece of glass ) is carefully laid
The light microscope over the specimen. This helps to keep it in place,
Most cells cannot be seen with the naked eye. slows down dehydration and protects the objective
A hand lens has a magnification ofup to x20, lens from moisture or stains. A permanent
but this is not sufficient to observe the detail in preparation usually involves dehydrating the
cells. The light microscope ( Figure 2.17 ) has specimen and fixing it in a special resin such as
two convex lenses, providing magnifications of Canada Balsam. These types of slides can be kept
up to x 1500 , although most found in school for many years.
laboratories will only magnify to x400. The
eyepiece lens is usually x lO and there is a choice of Calculating magnification
objective lenses (typically x4, x lO and x40 ), set in A lens is usually marked ,,ith its magnifying power.
a nosepiece which can be rotated. Light, provided l11is indicates how much larger the image will be,
by a mirror or a bulb, is projected through the compared to the specimen's actual size. So, if the lens
specimen mounted on a microscope slide. It passes is marked x lO, the image will be ten times greater
through the objective and eyepieces lenses and the than the specimen's real size. Since a light microscope
image is magnified so that detail of the specimen has two lenses, the magnification ofboth of these
can be seen. Coarse and fine focus knobs are used lenses needs to be taken into account. For example,
to sharpen the image. Specimens are mounted if the specimen is viewed using a x 10 eyepiece lens
on microscope slides, which may be temporary and x40 objective lens, the total magnification will be
or permanent preparations. Temporary slides are 10 X 40 - 400.
When performing this type of calculation, make

sure that the units of both sizes are the same. If
they are difli:rent, convert one to make them the
same. For example, if the actual size is in millimetres
and the observed size is in centimetres, convert the
centimetres to millimetres. (There are 10 millimetres
in a centimetre.)
You may be required to calculate the actual size of
a specimen, given a drawing or photomicrograph and
a magnification.
Actuals.izeof observedsizeoftheimage{ordrawing}
the ~cimen = magnification
\Vhen you state the answer, make sure you quote

Flgure2 .1 7 Alightmic rosc~ the units (which will be the same as those used for
measuring the observed size).
When the image is drawn, the drawing is usually
much larger than the image, so the overall
magnification of the specimen is greater still.
Organelles in cells are t(X) small to be measured in scale is in nanometres because of the tiny size of
millimetres. A smaller unit, called the micrometre some of the objects. There are I OOO nanometres in
(micron or µm ) is used. Figure 2.18 shows a 1 micrometre. (Nore: the term nanometre is not a
comparison of the sizes of a range of objects. The syllabusrequiremem. )
electron microscope optical microscope unaided eye
water wgar antibody a full stop

molecule molecule
Rgure2 .1 8 Co~aringthe1ize,;ofarangeofobject1
There are Remember ro make sure that the units ofboth

sizes used in a calculation involving magnification
1 OOO OOO micrometres in a metre
are the same. So, if the actual size is in micrometres
10 OOO micrometres in a centimetre and the observed size is in millimetres, convert the
millimetres to micrometres.
1000 micrometres in a millimetre.
Size of specimens
Questions Checklist
AfterstudyingChapter2youshouldknowandunderstandthe
Core following :
1 a What structures are usually present in both animal and
plant cells? • Nearly all plants and animals are made up of thousands or
millions of microscopic cells
b Whatstructuresarepresentinplantcellsbutnotin
• All cells contain cytoplasm encl05ed in a cell membrane.
animalcells7
• Mostcellshaveanudeus.
2 Whatcellstructureislargelyresponsibleforcontrollingthe
• Manychemicalreactionstakeplaceinthecytoplas.mtokeep
entryandexitofsub5tancesintooroutofthecell7
3 In what way does the red blood cell shown in Figure 2. 13{f} the cell alive.
differ from most other animal cells? • Thenudeusdirectsthechemicalreactionsinthecelland
al50controlscelldivision.
4 How does a cell membrane differ from a cell wall?
5 Why does the cell shown in Figure 2.7(b}appear to have no
• Plantcellshaveacellul05ecellwallandalargecentral
vacuole.
nudeus7
• Cellsareoftenspecialisedintheirshapeandactivitytocarry
6 a lnordertoseecellsdeartyinasectionofplanttissue,
out particular jobs
which magnification would you have to use?
A <5
• Large numbers of similar cells packed together form a tissue.
B ><10
• Different tissues arranged together form organs.
• A group of related organs makes up a system
• The magnification of a specimen can be calculated if the
b What is the approximate width (in millimetres} of one of actual size and the size of the image are known .
thelargestcellsinFigure2.37
• Cytoplas.mcontainsorganellessuchasmitcx:hondria,
7 In Figure 2.3, the cell membranes are not always dear. Why
chloroplasts and ribo50mes.
isitstillpossibletodecideroughly howmanycellsthereare
in each tubule section? • Themagnificationandsizeofbiologicalspecimensc.anbe
calculatedusingmillimetresormicrometres.
S a StudyFigure8.7onpage113andidentilyexamplesof
tissues and an organ.
b StudyFigure7. 13onpage97andidentilyexamplesof
tissues and an organ.
@ Movement in and out of cells
Diffusion Water potential
Definition Theuptakeofwaterbyplants
lmportanceofdiffusionofgases;mdsolutes The importance of turgor pressure to plant support
Movementofsubstancesinandoutofcells
Kineticenergyofmoleculesandiom Active transport
Factors that influence diffusion Definition of active transport
Movement of molecules and iom against a concentration
Osmos is
gradient, using energy from respiration
Movement of water through the cell membrane
Plant support Theimportanceofactivetran~rttotheuptakeofglucose
Definition ofosmosisandothertermsa'>SOCiatedwiththepro::e»
Theeffectofdifferentsolutionsontissues
Cells need food materials whid1 they can oxidise until the concentration everywhere is the same.
for energy or use to build up their cell structures. Figure 3.2(a) is a diagram of a cell with a high
They also need salts and water, which play a part in concentration of molecules (e.g. oxygen) outside
chemical reactions in the cell. Finally, they need to and a low concentration inside. The effect of this
get rid of substances such as carbon dioxide, which, if diffi:rence in concentration is to make the molecules
they accumulated in the cell, would upset some of the diffuse into the cell until the concentration inside and
chemical reactions or even poison the cell. outside is the same, as shown in Figure 3.2(b ).
Subs~nces may pass through the cell membrane
G GJ
either passively by diffusion or actively by some form
of active transport.
• Diffusion
Key defi nit ion
Diffu sion is the net movement of molecules and ions from a
region of their higher concentration to a region of their
lower cOflcentration down a concentration gradient, as a
(a)greaterconcentratlon (b)concentratlonsequalonboth
result of the ir random movement.
outside cell sldesofthecellmembrane
Flgurel.2 Moleruk>smteringacellbycliffu1ion
l11e molecules of a gas such as oxygen are moving
about all the time. So are the molecules of a liquid or Whether this will happen or nor depends on whether
a substance such as sugar dissolved in water. As a result the cell membrane will let the molecules through.
of this movement, the molecules spread themselves Small molecules such as water (H 20 ), carbon dioxide
out evenly to fill all the available space (Figure 3. 1). (C0 2) and oxygen (0 2) can pass through the cell
membrane fairly easily. So diffi1sion tends to equalise
the concentration of these molecules inside and
outside the cell all the time.
When a cell uses oxygen for its aerobic respiration,
the concemration of oxygen inside the cell fulls
and so m.1'gen molecules diffuse into the cell until
molecules moving about become evenly distributed
the concentration is raised again. During tissue
Flgure3.1 Diffusion
respiration, carbon dioxide is produced and so its
This process is called diffusion. One effect of concentration inside the cell increases. Once again
diffusion is that the molecules of a gas, a liquid or a diffusion ~kes place, but this time the molecules
dissolved substance will move from a region where move out of the cell. In this way, diffusion can
there are a lot of them (i.e. concentrated) to regions explain how a cell takes in its oxygen and gets rid of
where there are few of them (i.e. less concentrated ) its carbon dioxide.
Diffusion
The im portance of diffusio n of gases gas so, under normal circumstances, it causes no
problems. However, divers a.re at risk. As a diver
and solutes swims deeper, the surrounding water pressure
increases and this in rums raises the pressure in the
Gases dh•er's air tank. An increase in nitrogen pressure in
Most living things require a reliable source of oxygen the a.ir rank results in more nitrogen diffusing into
for respiration. This moves into the organism by the dh•cr's tissues, the amount going up the longer
difTI.lsion down a concentration gradient. Small the di,·cr stays at depth. Nitrogen is not used by
animals with a large surf.ace area to volume ratio may the body tissues, so it builds up. When the diver
obtain oxygen through their body surf.ace. Larger begins to return to the surface of the water, the
animals rely on gas exchange organs such as lungs pressure decreases and the nitrogen can come our
or gills, which provide a large surface area for gas of solution, forming bubbles in the blood if the
exchange, and a circulatory system to transport the diver ascends too quickly. These bubbles can block
oxygen to all their cells. Carbon dioxide, produced blood Aow and become lodged in joints resulting
during aerobic respiration, is potenti:illy toxic if it in a condition called decompressio n sickness,
builds up. It is removed using the s:ime mechanisms, or 'the ben ds'. Unless the diver rises slowly in
again bydiffi1sion. planned stages, rhe effect ofrhe nitrogen bubbles is
Photosynthetic plants need carbon dioxide for potentially lethal and can only be overcome by rapid
making their food. This diffuses through the stomata rccompression.
in the leaves (sec Chapter 8) into the air spaces in
the mesophyll, evcnmally reaching the palisade cells. Solutes
Oxygen, produced during photos)'nthesis, along Mineral ions in solution, such as nitrates and
with ,,.irer \'apour from the transpiration stream, magnesium, arc thought to diffuse across the tissues
diffuses our of rhe leaf through the stomat:1. The of plant roots, but most arc absorbed into the roots
rate of diffusion of water vapour depends on the by active transport.
tempcr,uurc, humidity and wind speed (s« ·warer In the ileum, water-soluble vitamins such as
uptake' in Chapter 8). Any m.ygen needed for vitamin B and vitamin C arc absorbed into the
respir:ition (some is generated by photosynthesis) bloodstrea m by diffusion.
and c:irbon dioxide produced (some is used up by In the kidneys, some solutes in the renal capsule,
photosynthesis) also diffuses through the stomata of such a.s urea and salts, pass back into the bloodstream
the leaves. by diffusion. Initially, glucose is reabsorbed by
Nitrogen is the commonest gas in the diffusion, but acti,·c rranspon is also inmlvcd.
atmosphere. (78% of the air is nitrogen. ) Nitrogen Dialysis machines (sec Chapter 13) use diffusion to
gas also e nte rs the bloodstream by diffusion, bur it remove small solmes ( urea, uric acid and excess salts)
is 1101 used by the body. It is an inert (unreacri\'e) from the blood.
Rates of diffusio n Surface area

Molecules and ions in liquids and gases move If 100 molecules diffiise through 1 mm2 of a
around randomly using kinetic energy (energy membrane in I minute, it is reasonable to suppose
from mo\"ement). The speed with which a substance that an area of 2 mm2 will allow twice as many
diffuses through a cell wall or cell membrane will through in the same rime. Tims the rate of diffusion
depend on rcmpcramrc and many other conditions into a cell will depend on the cell's surf.tee area.
including the distance it has to diffuse, the difference 1hc greaterthesurfucc area, the fustcris the
between its concentration inside and outside rhc cell, total diffusion. Cells which arc in"olvcd in rapid
the size of irs molecules or ions and the surface area absorption, such a.s those in the kidney or the
across which the diffusion is occurring. imcstinc, often have their ·free' surface membrane
3 MOVEMENT IN AND OUT OF CELLS
formed into hundreds of tiny projections called Distance

microvilli (see Figure 3.3) which increase the Cell membranes are all about the same thickness
absorbing surf.tee. (approximately 0.007µm ) but plant cell walls vary in
mlcrovllll 'free'(absorblng)surface their thickness and permeability. Generally speaking,
the thicker the wall, the slower the rate of diffusion.
"' When oxygen diffuses from the alveoli of the lungs
into red blood cells, it has to travel through the cell
membranes of the alveoli, the blood capillaries and
the red blood cells in addition to the cytoplasm of
each cell. This increased distance slows down the
diffusion rate.
Size of molecules or ions
Rgure3.3
In general, the larger the molecules or ions, the
The shape of a cell will also affect the surf.tee area. slower they diffiise. However, many ions and
For example, the cell in Figure 3.4(a ) has a greater molecules in solution attract water molecules around
surf.tee area than that in Figure 3.4(b ), even though them (seep. 43 ) and so their effective size is greatly
they each have the same volume. increased. It may not be possible to predict the rate
of diffusion from the molecular size alone.
,.__ C,
Controlled diffusion
(a) (b) Although for any one substance, the rate of diffusion
Rgure3.4 Surface area. Thecell1both havethes..me througl1 a cell membrane depends partly on the
volumebutthecellin (a)has.imuc:hgre.i\:efrnrfacear!'a concentration gradient, the rate is often fuster or
Temperature slower than expected. Water diffuses more slowly and
amino acids diffuse more rapidly through a membrane
An increase in temperature causes an increase in the
than might be expected. In some cases this is thouglu
kinetic energy whid1 molecules and ions possess.
to happen because the ions or molecules can pass
This enables them to move fuster, so the process of
througl1 tl1e membrane only by means of special
diffusion speeds up.
pores. These pores may be few in number or tl1ey may
Concentration gradient be open or dosed in different conditions.
The bigger the difference in the concentration In other cases, the movement of a substance
ofa substance on either side ofa membrane, may be speeded up by an enzyme working in the
the fuster it will rend to diffuse. The difference cell membrane. So it seems tl1at 'simple passive'
is called a concentration gradient or diffusion diffusion, even of water molecules, may not be so
gradient (Figure 3.5 ). If a substmce on one side simple or so passive after all where cell membranes
of a membrane is steadily removed, the diffusion are concerned.
gradient is maintained. When oxygen molecules When a molecule gets inside a cell there are a
enter a red blood cell they combine with a chemical great many structures and processes which may move
(haemoglobin ) which takes them out of solution. it from where it enters to where it is needed. Simple
Thus the concentration of free oxygen molecules diffusion is unlikely to play a very significant part in
inside the cell is kept very low and the diffusion this movement.
gradient for oxygen is maintained.
Practical work
Experiments on diffusion
1 Diffusion and surface area
moleculeswlllmovefrom
the densely packed are~ • Useablockofstarchagar °' gelatineatlea513cmthick.
Rgure3.5 Concentration gradk>nt U1ing.iruleranda1harpknife,me<1!.Ure.indcutfourcubes
Diffusion
fromthejellywithsidesof3 .0crn.2.0cm, 1.0crnand

0.5cm.
• Placethecubesintoabeakerofmeth)4enebluedyeor
potassium permanganate solution.
• After 15minutes,remo,.,ethecubeswithforcepsandplace
them on to a white tile.
• Cut each of the cubes in half and measuAL" the depth to whid,
thedyehasdiffused.
• Calculate the surface area and volume of each cube and
con5tructatableofyourdata. Remembertostatetheunitsin
theheadingforeachcolurm.
Flgure3.6 Experirnenttomeasurathemeofdlffusionof.immonia
Question
lmagine thatthesecubeswereanimals.withthejelly
representing living cells and the dye represen ting oxygen.
Questions
Which of the ·animals' '.YOuld be able to survive by relying
1 Which ammonia solution diffused faster? Can you explain
on diffusion through their surface to provide them with
why?
oxygen? 2 Study your graph. Whathappenedtotherateofdiffusion
Taking it furth e r astheammoniatravelledfurtheralongthetube?Canyou
Trycuttingdifferentshapes,forex.amplecuttingabloc:k3.0cm explain why?
long, 1.0cm wide and 0.5cm deep. What type of animal would
thisAL"present?(RefertoFigure1.7onpage6.)Researchhow 4 Diffusion and particle size
this type of animal obtains its oxygen.
• Takea 15cmlengthofdialysistubing""1id,hasbeensoal<:ed
2 Diffusion and t emperature inwa tefandtieaknottighttyatoneend.
• Useadroppingpipettetopartlyfillthetubingwithamixture
• Set up t'.YO beakers with equal volumes of hot wa!ef and iced of 1%starchsolutionand 1%g!uc05esolution.
water. • Rim;ethetubingand test•tubeunder the taptoremo,.,eaH
• Add a few grains of potassium pe,manganate to each beakef tracesofstarchandgluc05esolutionfromtheoutsideofthe
and obsefve hoN rapidly the dissolved dye spreads through dialysis tubing.
each column of water. An alternative is to~ tea bags. • Putthetubingina boiling tube and hold itrl place with an
elastic band as shown in Figure 3.7 .
Question • Filltheboilingb.Jbewithwaterandleavefor30minutes.
GiYeanei1pl,mationfortheresultsyouobserved. • Use sep,arate teat pipettes to remcwe samples of liquid from
thedialysistubingandtheboilingtube.Testbothsamples
3 Diffusion and concentration gradients and withiodinesolutionandBenedict'sAL"agent
distance
• Push squares of wetted AL"d litmus paper with a glass rod
orwireintoawideg)asstubewhichisatleast30crnlong
and corked atone end. so that theystid: to the side and
are evenly spaced out, as shown in Figure 3.6. (It is a good
strategy to mark 2 cm intervals along the outside of the
tube,startingat10cmfromoneend,withapermanent
markerorOOitecorrectionfluidbefoAL"insertingthelitmus
paper.)
• CI05ethe openendofthetubewith acork carryingaplug
of cotton wool sat urated with a strong solution of ammonia.
dlalyslitublngcontalnlng
Start a stopwatch. st.irchandglucow,solutlon
• Observe and record the time ""1en each square of litmus
startstoturnblueinO<dertodeterminetherateatwhichthe
alkaliM ammonia vapour diffuses along the tube
• Repeattheexperimentusingadilutesolutionofammonia
• Plot both sets of results on a graph, labejling each
plot line.
Flgun13.7 Demonilratingthepartl~perrneabilityofdialysistubing
3 MOVEMENTINANDOUTOFCELLS
Result Animal ce lls

Theliquidinsidethedialysistubinggoesbluewithiodine
solution and may give a pomive Benedict's test, but the sample In Figure 3.9 an ani mal cell is shown very simply. T he
from the boiling tube only gives a po$itive Benedict's test coloured circles represent molecules in the cytoplasm.
Inte rp ret a ti o n
They may be sugar, salt or protein molecules. The
Thebluecolourischaracteristicofthereactionwhichtakes blue circles represent water molecules.
place between starchandiodine,and isusedasatestfor The cell is shown surrounded by pure \v;J.rer.
starch. A positive Benedict's test gives a colour change from Nothing is dissolved in the water; it has 100%
bluetoclouctygreen,yelloworbrickred(see(hapter4).The concentration ofwater molecules. So the
reil.Jttsshowthatglucosemoleculeshavepassedthroughthe
concentration offree water molecules outside the cell
dalysis tubing into the water but the starch molecules have not
mewed out of the dialysis tubing . This is what we would expect is greater than that inside and, therefore , water \\-ill
if the dialysis tubing was partially permeable on the basis of its diffi.1se into the cell by osmosis.
poresize.Starchmolea.JlesareYefYlarge(seeChapter4)and T he membrane allows warcr ro go through either
probably cannot get through the pores. Glucose molecules are ~y. So in our example, wa rcr can move into or out
much smaller and u.n, therefore, get through. ofrhecell.
The cell membrane is partially permeable ro
most ofrhc substances dissoh·ed in the cytoplasm.
• Osmosis So alt hough rhe concentration of these substances
inside may be high , they cannot diffiise freely out of
If a dilute solution is separated from a concentrated
the cell.
solution by a partially permeable membrane, water
The water molecules move into and out of the cell,
diffuses ac ross the membrane from the dilute to the
bur because 1here are more of them o n rhc outside,
concentrated solution . l11is is known as osmosis and
they will move in fustc r tha n they move out. The
is shown in Figure 3 .8.
liquid outside the cell docs nor have to be J00% pure
.·:
p.utl,1llypermei1ble ~tcr. As long as the concentration of water outside
is higher than that inside, water will diffuse in by
" ~~:,:' ~ --U_J--

f¥f : ,: ·"·
osmosis.
~'"°"
Flgurt3.8 ~mosis.w.iterwildiff~efromthedilutesoluliontothe
result.theliquldlevelwilrheontheleft~df,1lontheright.
A partially permeable membrane is porous but allows

water to pass through more rapidly than dissolved
substances.
wl~loo
concentrilted solution through the p;irti~ly permeible membr-. As ,1
(a) Thllre ls a higher

conc11ntr,1tlonoffreewo1ter
moleculf)ovtsld"th .. cell
thilnlnslde,sowaterdlff~es
O .
.
.
(b)Theextrawa1er m,1kesthe
ceUSWi!IIUp,
.
Since a d il ute solution contains, in effect, more Into the cell.

warer molecu les than a concentrated solutio n, there is Flgure l.9 Osmoslslninanimalcell
a diffusion gradient which fuvours the passage of water
from the dilute solution to the concentrated solution. Water emering the cell will make it swell up and,
In Jiving cells, the cell membrane is partially unless the extra water is expelled in some way, the cell
permeable and the cytoplasm and vacuole (in plant will burst.
cells) contain dissolved substances. As a consequence, Conversely, if the cells arc surrounded by a solution
warer tends to diffuse inro cells by osmosis if they arc which is more concentrated than rhc cytoplasm,
surrounded by a weak solution, e.g. fresh water. If wate r will pass out of the cell by osmosis and the
the cells arc surrounded by a stronger solution, e.g. cell will shrink. Excessi\·e uptake or loss ofwarcr by
sea \v;J.tt:r, the cells may lose water by osmosis. These osmosis may damage cells.
effects arc described more fully larer.
Osmosis
For this reason, it is very important that the cells corresponds to the vacuole. If enough air is pumped
in an animal's body are surrounded by a liquid which in, it pushes the inner rnbe against the tyre and makes
has the same concentration as the liquid inside the the tyre hard.
cells. The liquid outside the cells is called tissue fluid When plant cells have absorbed a maximum
(see 'Blood and lymphatic vessels' in Chapter 9) and amount of water by osmosis, they become very rigid,
its concentration depends on the concentration of due to the pressure of water pressing outwards on
the blood. In vertebrates, the concentration of the the cell wall. The end result is that the stems and
blood is monitored by the brain and adjusted by the leaves are supported. If the cells lose water there is no
kidneys, as described in Chapter 13. longer any water pressure pressing outwards against
By keeping the blood concentration within the cell walls and the stems and leaves are no longer
narrow limits, the concentration of the tissue fluid supported. At this point, the plant becomes limp and
remains more or less constant (see 'Homeostasis' in wilts(seeFigure3.ll).
Chapter 14 ) and the cells are not bloated by taking in
too much water or dehydrated by losing too much.
Pla nt cell s
TI1e cytoplasm of a plant cell and the cell sap in its
vacuole contain salts, sugars and proteins which
effectively reduce the concentration of free water
molecules inside the cell. The cell wall is freely
permeable to water and dissolved substances but
the cell membrane of the cytoplasm is partially
permeable. If a plam cell is surrounded by water or
a solution more dilute than its contents, water will (a) p!antwiltifl9 (b) planlrl'Coveredafterwatering
pass into the vacuole by osmosis. The vacuole will Flgurel .11 Witting
expand and press outwards on the cytoplasm and cell
wall. The cell wall of a mature plant cell cannot be
stretched, so there comes a time when the inflow of
Practical work
water is resisted by the inelastic cell wall, as shown in
Figure 3.10. Experiments on osmosis
Someoftheexperimentsuse'Visking'dialysistubing.ltis
made from cellulose and is partially permeable, allowing water
moleculestodiffusethroughfreely,butrestrictingthepassage
ofdissolvedsubstancestovaryingextents. llisusedinkidney
dialysis machines because it lets the small molecules of harmful
waste products, such as urea, out of the blood but retains the
blood cells and large protein molecules {Chapter 13).
1 Osmosis and water f low

• Take a 20cm length of dialysis tubing which has been soaked
inwaterandtieaknottightlyatoneend
• Place3cmlofastrongsugarsolutioninthetubingusinga
plasticsyringeandadda little coloured dye.
1slncetherelseffectlvely alOY11er • Fitthetubingovertheendofalengthofcapillarytubingand
concentratlonofwaterlnthecellsap holditinplacewithanelasticband.Pushthecapillarytubing
2waterdlffuseslntothevacuole intothedial~stubinguntilthesugarsolutionentersthe
3 andmakesltpushoutagalnstthecellwall capillary.
Flgurel .10 Osmoo;isinaplontcell • Nowclampthecapillarytubingsothatthedialysistubingis
totally immersed in a beaker of water, as shown in Figure 3.12.
TI1is has a similar effect to inflating a soft bicycle • Watchthelevelofliquidinthecapillarytubingoverthenext
tyre. The tyre represents the firm cell wall, the floppy 10~15minutes.
inner rnbe is like the cytoplasm and the air inside
• leave the tubes for 24hours

• After this time, renl0\11! the cylinder from tube A and measure
itslength. Noticealsowhetheritisfirmorflabby.Repeat
thisforthepotatointubeB, butrinseitinwaterbefore
measuring it.
(a) place t hepotatoonaboird
cellulosetube--+----c!L
containing
wgirsolutlon
(wlthreddyi!)
flgur•l.12 Dtmorutratialolosmosls (~ pushthepotatocyllnderoutWlthapencll

flgurel.13 ObUiningcylindersofpoutoussue
Result
Thelevelofliquidinthecapillarytuberises. Result
The cylinder from tube A should have 911ined a millimetre a t'NO
Interpret at ion and feel firm. The cytir"lder from tube B should be a millimetre or
Water must be passing into the sugar solution from the beaker. two shorter and feel flabby.
This is what~ would expect when a concentrat ed solution is
separated from water by a partially permeable membrane. Int e rp re tatio n
Aprocesssimilartothis1T'aghtbepartiallyresponsiblefor ThecellsofthepotatointubeAhaveabsorbedwaterby
moving water from the roots to the stem of a pla.nt. = i s , causing an increase in the length of the potato
cylinder.
2 The effects of water and sugar solutio n on pot ato lntubeB,thesugarsolutionisstrongerthanthecellsapofthe
tissue potato cells, so these cells have lost water by osmosis, resulting in
the potato cylinder becoming flabby and shorter.
• Push a No.4 or No.S cork borer into a large potato An alternative to meaS\.lring the potato cores is to weigh them
Caution: Donotholdthepotatoinyourhandbutuse a board before and after the 24 hours' immersion in water or 51.1gar
asinFigure3.13(a) solution. ThecoreintubeAshouldgainweightandthatin
• Push the potato tissue out of the cork borer using a pencil l!.ibeBsho!.ildloseweight. ltis importanttoblotthecoresdry
asinFigure 3.13(b). Prepareanumberofpotatocylindersin with a paper towel before weighing them.
thiswa-tandchoosethet'NOlongest.(Theyshouldbeatleast Whichever method is used, it is a good idea to pool the results
50mm long.) Cut these t'NO accurately to the same length, of the whole class since the changes may be quite smat A gain
e.g.50,60or70mm. Measurecarefylly. in length of 1 or 2 mm might be due to an erl\'.ll" in measurement,
• Label t'NO test-t!JbeS A and B and place a potato cylinder in but if mo51 of the class record an increase in length, then
each. C ~ the potato tissue in tube A \Mth water; cOYer the experimentalerrorisunlikelytobethecause.
tissueinBwitha20%sugarsolution.
Osmosis
Key defi nition p;irtl;illypermeable~sug;irmoleculespns

Osmosis is the net movement of water molec:ules from a membr;ine through pores more slowly
region of higher water potential (a dilute §aution) to a 0 0 O 0 ~ 9--o O
0 ~
r ~ of lower water potential (a concentrated §aution)
through a partially permeable membrane o !;._
6-,b
o o D 'o':.
o o- 0- o d--0 o
A.
How osmosis works 0000600~
fewer water molecules --;::;-o ~
0 0
O
cx:i
When a substance such as sugar dissolves in water, the gofntlltsdlrectlon O 6-""' 0
sugar molecules attr.lCI some of the water molccuks 0 - 0 p_
and stop them moving freely. This, in effect, reduces o OO O'p o o-6
the concentration of warer molecules. In Figure 3. I 4 O &)> 0 O o O ~ 0
the sugar molcculcs on the right ha\"e 'captured'
half the water molecules. Tiicre arc more free water a O O a~ a vr- a
molecules on the left oftl1c membrane than on the
right, so water will diffuse more rapidly from left to
;oor~ ;~:~i:C~\~ules O O :1~~~: sugar
right across the membrane than from right to left. high concentration of D lowconcentr;,tlonof
freew;itermo/ecu/es freew;itermo/ecu/es
111c partiaUy permeable membrane does not act like
Flgure 3. 15 Thediffusiootheoryofosmosls
a sic\'C in this case. The sug..r molecules can diffuse
from right to left but, because they are bigger and
surrounded by a cloud of water molecules, they diffuse Water potential
more slowly than the warer, as shown in Figure 3.15. l11e water potential of a solution is a measure of
Artificial partially permeable membranes arc made whether it is likely to lose or gain water molecules
from cellulose acetate in sheets or tubes and used from another solution. A dilute solution, with its
for dialysis. The pore size can be adjusted during high proportion of free water molecules, is sa.id to
ma..nufucturc so that large molecules cannot get ha\·e a higher water potential than a concentrated
through at all . solution, because water will flow from the dilute to
l11e cell membrane behaves like a partiaUy the concentrated solution (from a high potential to
permeable membrane. lllC p.mial pern1Cability a low potential). Pure \\.ltcr has the highest possible
may depend on pores in the cell membrane bur the water potential because water molecules will flow
processes involved are fur more complicated than in an from it to any other aqueous solution, no matter
artificial membrane and depend on the scrucmre of the how dilute. When adjacent cells contain sap with
n1Cmbranc and on living processes in the cytoplasm. diffi:rem water potentials, a water potential gradient
The cell membrane contains lipids and proteins. is created. Water will move from a cell with a higher
Anything which denatures proteins, for example, heat, water potential (a more dilute solurion) to a cell
also destroys the structure and the partially permeable with a lower water potential (a more concentrated
properties of a cell membrane. If this happens, the cell solution). This is thought to be one way in which
will die as essential substances diffi1se out of rhe cell water moves from root hair cells through t0 the
and ham1fol chemicals diffiise in. xylem ofa plant root (sec Figure 8.11 on page 115 ).
p.irtl;illyperme;ible sug;irmolecule
membr;ine
The importance of water potential
and osmosis in the uptake of
water by plants
A plant cell with the vacuole pushing our on the cell
wall is said to be turgid and the vacuole is exerting
turgor pressure on the inelastic cell wall.
If all the cells in a leaf and stem are turgid, die
stem will be firm and upright and the leaves held out
straight. Ifd1e vacuoles lose \\.lter for any reason, the
•
cells will lose their turgorand become flaccid. (See

Experiment 4 'Plasmolysis' on page 46. ) If a plant
has flaccid cells, the leaves will be limp and the stem
will droop. A plant which loses water to this extent is
said to be 'wilting' (see Figure 3. 11 ).
Root hair cells are in contact with water trapped
between soil particles. When the water potential
of the cell sap is lower than that of the soil water,
the water will enter the cells by osmosis providing
the plant ,vith the water it needs. (This process
is described in more derail in 'Water uptake' in
Chapter8. ) Flgurel.17 Saltgritteratwolktopn,yent iceformatiooona road
When a furmer applies chemical fertilisers to the
soil, the fertilisers dissolve in the soil water. Too
much fertiliser can lower the osmotic potential of the The importance of water potential
soil water. This can draw water out of the plant root and osmosis in animal cells and
hair cells by osmosis, leading to wilting and death of tissues
crop plants.
Irrigation of crops can have a similar effi:ct. lt is vital that the fluid which bathes cells in
Irrigation which provides just enough water for the animals, such as tissue fluid or blood plasma, has
plant can lead to a build-up of salts in the soil. TI1e the same water potential as the cell contents.
salts will eventually cause the soil water to have a lower This prevents any net flow of water into or out of
water potential than the plant root cells. Crops can the cells. If the bathing fluid has a higher water
then no longer be grown on the land, because they potential (a weaker concentration ) than the cells,
wilt and die because of water loss by osmosis. Much water will move into the cells by osmosis causing
agricultural land in hot countries has become wrnsable them ro swell up. As animal cells have no cell wall
due to the side-effi:cts ofinigation (Figure 3.16 ). and the membrane has little strength, water would
continue to enter and the cells will eventually
burst (a process called h aemolysis in red blood
cells). Single -celled animals such as Amoeba (see
Figure 1.32 on page 19 ) living in fresh water
obviously have a problem. They avoid bursting by
possessing a contractile vacuole. This collects the
water as it enters the cell and periodically releases
it through the cell membrane, effecth•ely baling
the cell out. When surgeons carry out operations
on a patient's internal organs, they sometimes
need to rinse a wound. Pure water cannot be used
as this would enter any cells it came into contact
with and cause them to burst. A saline solution,
Rgurel.16 Anirrigationfurrow with the same water potential as tissue fluid , has to
be used.
In England in 1995 , a teenager called Leah Betts
Some countries apply salt to roads in the winter
(Figure 3.18 ) collapsed after raking an Ecstasy tablet.
to prevent the formation of ice (Figure 3.17).
One of the side-effects of taking Ecstasy is that the
H owever, vehicle wheels splash the salt on to plants
brain thinks the body is dehydrating so the person
at the side of the road. The build -up of salts in the
becomes very thirsty. Leal1 drank fur too much water:
roadside soil can kill plants living there, due to water
over? litres ( 12 pints) in 90 minutes. Her kidneys
loss from the roots by osmosis.
could not cope and the extra water in her system
Osmosis
Flgurel.18 Posterrnr~a~nfe;UurlngLeahBettstoraiseawa!l'ness
ofthedan~oftatlngthedrugecstasy.
salts and glucose and arc designed ro repb.cc lost water
and salts, as well as providing energy, without creating
Diarrhoea is the loss of watery &eces. It is caused osmotic problems to txxiy cells. Howe\"er, use of such
when water cannot be absorbed from the contents drinks when not exercising vigorouslyC:J.n lead to weight
of the large intestine, or when extra water is secreted
gain in the same way~ the prolonged use of any sugar-
into the large intestine due to a viral or bacterial
rich drink.
infection. For example, the cholera bacterium
produces a toxin ( poison) thar causes the secretion
of chloride ions into the small intestine. TI1is lowers
the water potential of the gut come ms, so water is
drawn into the intestine by osmosis. The result is the
production ofwarcry faeces. Unlcs.s the condition is
treated, dchydr.ition and loss ofsalrs cx:cur, which
can be futal. Patients need rchydr.ition therapy. This
involves the provision of frequent sips of water and
the use of rehydration drinks. l11esc usually come in
sachets available from pharmacists and supermarkets.
TI1e contents arc dissolved in water and drunk to
replace the silts and glucose that are lost through
dehydration.
During physical activity, the body may sweat in Flgure3.20 Peoplem~uselsotonlcsportsdrlnks
order to maintain a steady temperature. If liquids
are not drunk to compcnsare for water loss through
sweating, the body can become dehydrated. Loss Practical work
of water from the blood results in the plasma
becoming more concentrated (its water potential Further experiments on osmosis
decreases). Water is then drawn out of the red blood
cells by osmosis. Titc cells become pbsmolysed. 3 Osmosis and turgor
Their surf.tee area is reduced, causing them to be
less cflcctivc in carrying oxygen. The shape of the • Takea20cmleogthofdialysistubing'Mlichhasbeenso.*ed
in water and tie a knot tightly at one end.
cells is known as being cren:ued (sec Figure 3.19). • l'tace 3anJof a strong sugar solution in the tubing u5ing a
People doing sport sometimes use sports drinks p1aruc ~ringe(Figure 3.21(a)) and then knot the open end
(Figure 320) whidt arc isotonic (dtcy havc dtc same ofthell.lbe(Figure3.21(b)). Thepartly-filledtubeshouldbe
water potential as body fluids). Titc drinks comain water, quitefloppt(Figure3.21 (c)).
•
• Placethetubinginatest-tubeofwaterfor30--45minutes. This is a crude model of what is thought to happen to

• After this time, remO\le the dialysis tubing from the water and aplantcellwhenitbecomesturgid.Thesugar50lution
noteanychangesinhowitlooksorfeels. representsthecellsapandthedialysistubingrepresentsthe
cellmembraneandcellwallcombined.
4 Plasmolysis
• Peel a small piece of epidermis {the outer layer of cells} from a
redareaofarhubarbstalk(seefigure2.9(c)onpage28}.
• Plac:e the epidermis on a slide with a drop of water and cover
withacoverslip(seefigure2.9(b}).
• Puttheslideooamicrosc:opestageaodfindasmallgroupofcells.
• Place a 30% solution of sugar at one edge of the coverslip
withapipetteandthendrawthe50lutionunderthecoverslip
byplacingapieceofblottingpaperontheoppositeside,as
showninfigure3.22.
• Study the cells you identified under the micro5e:ope and watch
foranychangesintheirappearance.
(a) place3cm1 sugarsolutlonlnthedlalyslstube
~ ';f::::~:r;.,
I J;P ~ ;··- Flgurel.22 Changingthewaterfor1ugarsolution
Res ult
Theredcellsapwillappeartoshrinkandgetdarker,1ndpullthe
cytoplasm away from the cell wall leaving dear spaces. Otis not
pos.sibletoseethecytoplasmbutitspresencecanbeinferred
fromthefactthattheredcellsapseemstohaveadistinctouter
(c)thepartlyfllledtubeshould boundaryinthoseplaceswhereithasseparatedfromthecell
beflexlbleenoughtobend wall.} Figure 3.23 shows the turgid and plasmolysed cells.
dlalyslstube
containing
sugar solution
Rgure3.21 Experiment toi ll ustfateturgorinaplaotcell
Res ul t
The tubing will become firm, distended by the solution inside.
In terp retatio n
Thedialysistubingispartiallypermeableandthe50lution
inside has fewer free water molecules than outside. Water has, (a) Turgfdcell1{x100).Thecell1areina1tlipofepidennisfrom.1
therefore,diffusedinandincreasedthevolumeandthepressure rhubarti1talk.Thecytopla1mi1pre,;sedagaimttheimicleolthecellwall
ofthe50lutioninside. bythev.Koole
Flgure3.23 Dl!momtrationofplasmoly,isinrhubarticell'i
•
Osmosis
• Push the potato tissue out of the co,lr: borer using a pencil
asinFigure3.13(b). Preparesi~potatocylindersinthisway
and cut them all to the same length . (They should be at least
50mm long.) Measure them carefully.
• Labelsixtesr..tubeswiththecoocentrationolsucrosesolution
in them (e .g. O.Omoldm-l , 0.2moldm-J, 0 .4moldm-J,
0.6moldm-J, 0.Bmoldm-Jand 1.0moldm-J) and place them
in a test-tube rad: .
• AddthesameWllumeofthecorrectsuoosesolutiontoeach
test-tube.
• Weigh a cylinder of potato, record its mass ilnd place it in the
fim:test-tube . Repeiltuntilallthetest-1ubeshavebttnset
"'·
• Leavethetubesforatleast30minutes.
• After this time, remove the potato cylinder from the first
(b) Pbsmofysedcells (~100). Thes.lmecelJs ~ they appear after tube, surface dry the potato ilnd re-wetgh it. Notice ill'iO
treatmentwithsugarso~tion.Thev;icoole~k)stw.iterb'josmosis, whetheritisfirmorflabby.Repeiltthislortheotherpotilto
shrunk and pul"'d the cytopl~m aw~ from the cell wall cylinders.
Flgurel.23 Oemomtratk>nolplasmolys.isl11rhubarbcells(rn11tinued) • Calculatethechangeinmassandthepercentagedlilngein
massforeachcylinde<.
Inte rpretation
Theinterpretationinte<msofosmosisisootlinedinFigure3.24
Percentagechangeinmass;; c~:a~ns:ss x100
Thecellsaresaidtobepla smo lysed .
1
• Plotthere5U!tsonagaphv.ithsucroseconcentrationonthe
....
horizontalilmaridpen:entagechaogeinmassonthelleflical
Note:th~ewillbenegativeaswellaspositivepercentage
changes in mass, so your graphaxeswil haYetoallowfor
this.
Resu lt
The cylinders in the weak~ sucrose solutions will have gained
mas5 and feel firm. One of the cylinders may have shown no
1 thesolutlonoutsldethtcelllsmore change in mass. The cylinders in the more conantrilted sucrose
concentr.itedth.inthtctllSilp
2 w.iterdlffuseloutolthtv.Kuolt solutionswillhaYelostmassandfeellimp.
lthevxuoleshrlnks,pulllngtht()'lopl;ism
aw.iy from the cell wall, luvlng the cell flaccid lnterpnlation
If the cells of the potato have absofbed wa ter by osmosis,
Flgu rel.24 Pwnolysis there will be iln increase in the mass of the potato cylinder.
This happens when the external solution has ii higher wa ter
The plasm~s can be reversed by drawing water under the potential than that inside the potato cells. (The sucrose
cover.ilipinthesamewaythatyoodrewthesugar'iOlution solution islesiiconcentrated than the contents of the potato
under. It may need two or three lots of wale< to flush out all cells.) Water molecules move into eilch cell through the cell
thesugar. lfyouwatdlagroupofcells,youshouldseetheir membrane. The water molecules move from ii highe< Wille<
vawoles eJll)andingtofillthecellsonceagain potential to a lower water potentiill. The cells become turgid,
Rhubarbisusedforthisexperimentbe<:ausethecolouredcell 'iOthecylinderfeelsfirm.
5ap shows up. If rhubarb is not available, the epidermis from a lfthecellsofthepotatohavelostwilterbyosmosis. there
redonionscalecanbeused. will be a decrease in mass of the potato cylinder. This happens
when the external solution has a l~r water potential than
5 The effects o f varying the concentration of sucrose
that inside the potato cells. (The sucrose solution is more
so luti on on potato tissue concentratedthanthecontentsofthepotatocel!s.)Water
• Push a No.4 Of No.S cork bore< into a large potato. molecules move out of each cell through the cell membrane
Caution; Do not hold the potato in your hand, but use a The water molecules move from a higher water potential to a
boardasinfigure3. 13(a)on page42 iaNeJ wateJ potential. The cells become plasmolysed or flaccid,
'iOthecylinderfeelsflabtr,
Q ues ti o n • Active transport

Study your graph. Can you predict the sucrose concentration
which would be equivalent to the concentration of the cell s.ap Key d ef in iti o n
in the potato cells? Active transport is the movement of particles through a
cell membrane from a region of lower concentration to
6 Partial pe r meab ility aregionofhigherconcentrationusingtheenergyfrom
respiration .
• Take a 15cmlengthof dialysis tubingwhichhasbeensoaked
inwaterandtieaknottightlyatoneend.
• Useadroppingpipettetopartlyfillthetubingwith 1%
starch solution.
• Putthetubinginatest-tubeandholditinplacewithan
The importance of active transport
elasticbandasshowninfigure3.25.
• Rinsethetubingandtest-tubeunderthetaptoremoveall
If diffusion were the only method by which a cell
traces of starch solution from the outside of the dialysis tube . could take in substances, it would have no control
• Fillthetest-tubewithwaterandaddafewdropsofiodine over what wem in or out. Anything that was more
solutiontocolourthewateryellow. concentrated outside would diffuse into the cell
• Leavefor10-1Sminutes. whether it was harmful or nor. Subsr.mces which
• Afterthistime,cbse!veanychaogesinthesolutioointhetest-tube
the cell needed would diffuse out as soon as their
concentration inside the cell rose above that outside
it. TI1e cell membrane, however, has a great deal of
control over the substances which enter and leave
the cell.
In some cases, substances are taken into or
expelled from the cell against the concentration
gradient. For example, sodium ions may continue
to pass out of a cell even though the concentration
outside is greater than inside. TI1e cells lining
the small intestine take up glucose against a
dlalyslstublngcontalnlng
starch solution concemration gradient. The processes by which
substances are moved against a concentration
gradient are not folly understood and may be quire
different for difli:rent substances but they are all
generally described as active transport.
Anything which interferes with respiration, such
Rgurel.25 Expetimenttodemomtratetheeffectof;ip"'lially as a lack of oxygen or glucose, pre\'ents active
permeable membrane transport raking place. This indicates that active
transport needs a supply of energy from respiration.
Res ult
Figure 3.26 shows a possible model to explain active
Thestarchinsidethedialysistubinggoesbluebuttheiodine
outsidestaysyellow(J(brown. transport.
The carrier molecules shown in Figure 3.26
Interpretation
Thebluecolourischaracteristicofthereactionwhichtakes
are protein molecules. As shown in (b ), they are
place between starchandiodine,and isusedasatestforstarch responsible for transporting substances across the
(see Chapter 4). The results show that iodine molecules have membrane during active transport.
passedthroughthedialysistubingintothestarchbutthestarch In some cases, a combination of active transport
molecules have not moved out into the iodine. This is what we and controlled diffusion seems to occur. For
would expect if the dialysis tubing were partially permeable on
example, sodium ions are thought to get into a cell
thebasis ofitsporesize. Starchmoleculesareverylargeand
probably cannot get through the pores. Iodine molecules are
by diffusion through special pores in the membrane
much smaller and can, theref(J(e, get through . and are expelled by a form of active transport. TI1e
Note : This experiment illustrates that movement of water is not reversed diffusion gradient for sodium ions created
necessarily involved and the pore size of the membrane makes it in this way is very importam in the conduction of
genuinelypartiallypermeablewithrespecttoiodineandstarch. nerve impulses in nerve cells.
Active transport
Epithelial cells in the villi of the small intestine have Plants need to absorb mineral salts from the
the role of absorbing glucose against a concentration soil, bur these salts are in very dilu te solution.
gradient. The cells contain numerous mitochondria Active transport enables the cells of plant roots to
in which respiration takes place . The chemical en ergy take up salts from this dilute solution against the
produced is conven ed into kinetic energy fo r the concentration gradient. Again, chemical energy
movement of the glucose molecules. The same rype from respiration is conve rted into kinetic energy for
of process occurs in the cells of the kidney mbules movement of the salts.
for the reabsorption of glucose molecules into the
bloodstream against their concentration gradient.
0
Q
';!;''"" carrier protein
~j{L
INSIDE
(a) substancecomblneswtth
carrier protein molecule
Flgure3.26 AtheoretiQlmodeltoexplainaclivetraosport
Qu estions c ThesugarsolutionwilsinthebeakerandthewaterwilS
in the cellulose tube?
4 In Experiment 1, the column of liquid ilccumulat ing in the
1 A 10% solution of copper sulfate is sepa rilted by ii capillary tube exerts an ever-increasing pressure on the
partially permeable membrane from a 5% solution of 50lutioninthedialysistubing.Bearingthisinmindand
coppersulfate ilssuming a very long capillary, at what stage would you
Will water diffuse from t he 10% 50lutio n to the 5% expect the net flow of water from the beaker into the
solution or from the 5% solution to the 10% solution? dialysis tubing to cease?
Explain your answer.
2 lf ilfreshbeetrootiscutup,thepieceswi!Shed inwate rilnd Extended
thenleftforanhour inilbeilkerofwater,littleornored 5 When doing experiment s wit h animal tissues they
pignent esG!pes from the cells into the water. If the beetroot ilreusuallybathedinRinger's50lution,whichhi1Si1
is boiled first, the pigment does escape into the Willer. concent ration similar to that of blood or tissue fluid
Bearing in mind the properties of a living cell membrilne, Whydoyouthinkthisisnecessary?
offerilnexplanationforthisdifference. 6 Why does a dis'iolved substance reduce the number of
3 In Experiment 1 {Figure 3.12), what do you t hink would 'free'watermolecules inasolution?
happeninthesecilses? 7 When a plant leaf is in daylight, its cells milke sugar from
a Amuchstrongersugarsolutionwasplacedinthe carbondioxideandwater.Thesugilrisiltonceturned into
cellulose tube. starchanddepo5itedinplastids.
b Thebeakercontainedilweaksugilr50lutioninsteadof What is the osmotic advilntage of doing this? {Sugar is
50lubleinwilter;starchisnot.)
8 In Experiment 3 (Figure 3.21), what lnght happen if the

Check list
cellulosetubel~ledwithsugarsolutionwMleftinthe After studying Chapter 3 you should know and understand the
waterforsevffaltlours? following:
9 In Experiment 4, Figure 3.24 explains why the vitCUOle • Diffusion is the result of moleaAes of liquid, gas Of di=llved
gJrinks. Give a brief explanation of why it swels up ag.ain solid ITIOYing about.
when the cell is surroonded by water • The molecules of a substance diffuse from a region where
10 An alternative interpretation of the results of Experiment theyareveryconcentratedtoaregionwheretheyareless
6mightbethatthedialysistubingallowedmolecules(of concentrated.
ilnY size) to pass in but not out. Describe an experiment to • Substancesrnayentercellsbysimplediffusion.controllecl
testthispossibilityandsay'M'lcltresultsyouv.ouk:lexpect: diffusiono,aclivetransport.
• ifitwerecorrect • Osmosisistheaffusionofwaterthroughapartia!ly
b ifitwerefalse permeable membrane, from a dilute solution of salt o,
11 LookatFigure9.25onpage 136. ThesymbolOi sugartoaconcentratedsolu!Klll because the concentrated
representsanoxygenmolecu~. solution contains fewer free water molecvles
Explain why oxygen is entering the cells drawn on the left • Cell membranes are partially penneable and cytopla= and
butle.ivingthecellsontheright. cellsapcootainmanysubstancesinsolution.
12 Look at Figure 11.Son page 158. ltrepresentsoneofthe • Cells take up water from dilute solutions but lose water to
=<1llairpockets(analveolus)llllhichformthelung concent ratedsolutionsbecauseofosmosis.
• Suggestareasonwhytheoxygenandcarbondioxide • Osmosis maintains turgor in plant cells.
are diffusing in opposite directions • Active transport involves the movement of substances
b Whatmighthappentotherateofdiffusionifthe against their concentration gradient
blood flow were to speed up? • Activetransportrequiresenergy.
13 List the ways in which a cell membrane might regulate the
flowofsubstancesintothecell .
• Kineticenergyofmoleculesandionsresultsintheir
14 What is your interpretation of the results shown by the
diffusion.
gaptlinFigure3.2?7
• ChlnWs involves the diffusion of water from a region
olhigherwa terpotentialtoaregionofloNerwater
potential through a partialy permeable membrane.
• The meanings of the terms turgid, n,gor fJfE'SSI.IE',
pl;umo/ysisandflaccid.
• The i ~ e of water potential and osmosistoanfllal
and plant cells.
• Turgorpressureincellsprovidessupportinplants
• Active transport is important as it allows moYement of
substances across membranes against a concentrauon
gradient.
hours
Flgunil.27 Theabsorptlonofphosphatelonslnalrandln
nlt rogenbyrootsofbeech. A representstheconcentratlonof
phosphatelne~temalsolutlon
@ Biological molecules
Biological molecules Theshapeofproteinsandthefrfunctions
The chemical elements that make up carbohydrates, fats and The structure of DNA
proteins Rolesofwaterasasolventinorganisms
Thesub-unitsthatmakeupbiologicalmolecules
Food tests for starch, reducing5ugar:s, proteins, fatsandO.ls,
vitaminC
Theroleofwaterasa501vent
l11e glucose molecule is often in the form of a ring,

• Biological molecules represented as
Carbon is an element present in all biological CHiOH
molecules. Carbon atoms can join together to form
" I
chains or ring structures, so biological molecules i.--\-........,,0
can be very large (macromolecules ), often
constructed of repeating sub-units ( monomers). Hci\ fH H \7
Other elements always present are oxygen and
hydrogen. Nitrogen is sometimes present. When
macromolecules are made of long chains of
monomers held together by chemical bonds, they
~~ i;
C
Flgure4.1
H~ c
6H
simply as
Glurn1emok>cuH''ihowingring1tructure
are known as polymers ( poly means 'many' ).
Examples are polysaccharides (cha.ins of single sugar Two molecules of glucose can be combined to form a
units such as glucose ), proteins (chains of amino molecule of maltose C 12 H 220u (Figure 4.2 ).
acids ) and nucleic acids (chains of nucleotides).
Molecules constructed oflots of small units often
have different properties from their sub -units,
y;HuOo y;H110o C11Hu011
making them suitable for specific functions in living glucose glucose maltose
things. For example, glucose is very soluble and has Flgure4.2 foonatioo ofmaltose
no strength, but cellulose (a macromolecule made
of glucose units) is insoluble and very tougl1 - ideal Sugars with a single carbon ring are called
for the formation of cell walls around plant cells. monosaccharides, e.g. glucose and fructose. Those
Cells need chemical substances to make new sugars with two carbon rings in their molecules
cytoplasm and to produce energy. Therefore the are called disaccharides, e.g. maltose and sucrose.
organism must take in food to supply the cells Mono- and disaccharides are readily soluble in water.
with these substances. Of course , it is not quite as When many glucose molecules are joined together,
simple as this; most cells have specialised functions the carbohydrate is called a polysaccharide.
(Chapter 2 ) and so have differing needs. H owever, Glycogen (Figure 4.3 ) is a polysaccharide that
all cells need water, oxygen, salts and food forms a food storage substance in many animal
substances and all cells consist of water, proteins, cells. The starch molecule is made up of hundreds
lipids, carbohydrates, salts and vitamins or their of glucose molecules joined together to form long
deri,·atives. chains. Starch is an important storage substance
in the plastids of plant cells. Plastids are important
Carbohydrates organelles in plant cells. They are the sites where
l11ese may be simple, soluble sugars or complex molecules like starch are made and stored. One
materials like starcl1 and cellulose, but all familiar example of a plastid is the chloroplast.
carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen Cellulose consists of even longer chains of glucose
only. A commonly occurring simple sugar is glucose, molecules. l11e chain molecules are grouped
which has the chemical formula 4 H u06. together to form microscopic fibres , which are laid
down in layers to form the cell wall in plant cells
(Figures 4.4 and 4.5 ).
•
Polysaccharides are not readily soluble in water.
4 BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES
Flgure4. 3 Partofag!ycogeomolecule Flgure4.4 Cellulo'i!'. Plantcellwa ll1arecomposedolloog.interwoveo

andinterrnrmectl.'dcellulosefibre1.wllicha1Elarqeeooo ghtobeseeo
withtheelectroomicro'>rnpe . tachfib1Ei1madeupofmaoy lon g-chain
cellukl'i!'molecule'i
Fats
Fats are a solid form of a group of molecules called
lipids. When lipids are liquid they are known
as oils. Fats and oils are formed from carbon,
hydrogen and oAygen only. A molecule of fat ( or
oil ) is made up of three molecules of an organic
acid , called a fatty acid, combined with one
molecule of glycerol.
H~G---0----1 fauy acid
I
glym ol H - ~ fauy acid
Hz-C-----0----- fattyacid
Drawn simply, far molecules can be represented as in

Figure 4.6.
Figure 4.5 Scanning electron micrograph of a pion! cell wo ll (~20 000)

showing thecelMo'il'fibres
~-~
Figure 4.6
glycerol
Fat mole rule
Proteins
Lipids form part of the cell membrane and the obtain many oftl1eir vitamins ready-made. Vitamins,
internal membranes of the cell such as the nuclear or substances derived from them, play a part in
membrane. Droplets off.tt or oil form a source of chemical reactions in cells - for example those which
energy when stored in the cytoplasm. involve a transfer of energy from one compound to
another. If cells are nor supplied with vitamins or the
Prot ein s substances needed to make them, tl1e cell physiology
Some proteins contribute to the strucmres of the is thrown out of order and the whole organism
cell, e.g. to the cell membranes, the mitochondria, suffi:rs. One example of a vitamin is ascorbic acid
ribosomes and chromosomes. These proteins are (vitamin C) (see 'Diet' in Chapter 7).
called structural protein s.
TI1ere is another group of proteins called enzymes. Wa t er
Enzymes are present in the membrane systems, in Most cells contain about 75% water and will die if
the mitochondria, in special ,·acuoles and in the fluid their water content falls much below this. Water is a
part of the cytoplasm. Enzymes conrrol the chemical good solvent and many substances mo,·e about tl1e
reactions that keep the cell alive (see Chapter 5). cells in a watery solution.
Although there are many different types of protein,
all contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nirrogen, Synt hes is and co nve rsio n in ce ll s
and many contain sulfur. Their molecules are made Cells are able to build up (synthesise) or break down
up oflong chains of simpler cl1emicals called amino their proteins, lipids and carbohydrates, or d1ange
acids (Figure4.7). one to another. For example, animal cells syntl1esise
glycogen from glucose by joining glucose molecules
together (Figure 4.3 ); plant cells synthesise starch
and cellulose from glucose. All cells can make
proteins from amino acids and tl1ey can build up fats
from glycerol and fatty acids. Animal cells can d1ange
carbohydrates to lipids, and lipids to carbohydrates;
they can also change proteins to carbohydrates bur
Flg u re 4. 7 Prnteio molecule{partol)
they cannot make proteins unless they are supplied
Vitam ins with amino acids. Plant cells, on tl1e otl1er hand , can
make their own amino acids starting from sugars and
TI1is is a category of substances which, in their
salts. The cells in rhe green parts of plants can even
chemical structure at least, have little in common.
make glucose starting from only carbon dioxide and
Plants can make tl1eir own vitamins. Animals have to
water (see 'Photosynthesis' in Chapter 6 ).
• Proteins
TI1ere are about 20 different amino acids in animal For example, the shape of an enzyme molecule
proteins, including alanine, leucine, valine, glutamine, creates an active site, which has a complementary
cysteine, glycine and lysine. A small protein molecule shape to the substrate molecule on which it acts.
miglu be made up from a d1ain consisting of a lbis makes enzymes very specific in their action
hundred or so amino acids, e.g. glycine- valine-valine- (they usually only work on one substrate).
cysteine- leucine--glutamine- , etc. Ead1 type of protein Anti bodies are proteins produced by white
has its amino acids arranged in a particular sequence. blood c.ells called lymphocytes. Each antibody has
The chain of amino acids in a protein takes up a a binding site, which can lock onto patlmgens such
particular shape as a result of cross-linkages. Cross- as bacteria. This destroys the patlmgen directly, or
linkages form between amino acids tl1at are not marks it so that it can be detected by other white
neigl1bours, as shown in Figure 4.8. TI1e shape ofa blood cells called phagocytes. Each pathogen has
protein molecule has a very important effect on its antigens on its surf.ice that are a particular shape, so
reactions with substances, as explained in 'Enzymes' specific antibodies with complementary shapes to the
in Chapter 5. antigen are needed (see Chapter 10, page 149 ).
When a protein is heated to temperatures over G (guanine ). The double strand is twisted to form a
50°C, the cross-linkages in its molecules break helix (like a twisted rope ladder with the base pairs
pho,c~'-r
down; the protein molecules lose their shape and will representing the rungs) (Figures 4.11 and 4.12).
not usually regain it even when cooled. The protein
is said to have been denatured. Because the shape of
the molecules has been altered, rhe protein will ha\·e
Jost its original properties.
s.r-cr - Val - Gly-~r - cr-Ala ..._
S S Val-.._ orgJcbase
I I Val deoxyrlbose
l f _.. S&r_..
v,1-ey,-s.,-1• - V•I-C,,-Go Flgure4.9 An ud eotk!@ (adeoosine monophosphate)
Val-Cys-Ala-Ala-~r-Gly
Rgure 4.8 A small imaginary pmtein made from on ly five different
ki!ldsofaminoac:id. Notethatcros1-linkage cx:rur1betweencr,;tl'ine organic
moieculeswiththeaidof1ullur.1tDm1 bases
Egg-white is a protein. When it is heated, its

molecules change shape and the egg-white goes
from a clear, runny liquid to a white solid and cannot
be changed back again. The egg-white protein,
albumen, has been denatured by heat.
Proteins form enzymes and many of the structures in
the cell, so if they are denatured the enzymes and the
cell smicrures will stop working and the cell will die.
Whole organisms may survive for a time above 50°C
depending on the temperature, the period ofexix,sure Flgure4.10 Part olaONAmolerulewilhfournudeoticil'5
and the proix,rrion of the cells that are damaged.
• Structure of DNA
A DNA molecule is made up oflong chains of
nucleotides, formed into rwo strands. A nucleotide is a
5-carbon sugar molecule joined to a phosphate group
(-P03) and an organic base (Figure 4.9). In DNA
the sugar is deoxyribose and the organic base is either
adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C) or guanine (G ).
Note: for exam purposes, it is only necessary to be
able state the letters, not the names of these bases.
The nucleotides are joined by their phosphate
groups to form a long chain, often thousands of
nucleotides long. The phosphate and sugar molecules
are the same all the way down the chain but the bases
may be any one of the four listed above (Figure 4.10).
The DNA in a chromosome consists of two
strands (chains of nucleotides) held together by
chemical bonds between the bases. The size of
the molecules ensures that A (adenine ) always
•
pairs with T (thymine ) and C (cytosine ) pairs with Flgure4.11 Modelolthe 'itrvc:tureofDNA
Water
• Water
Water molecules take pan in a great many vital
chemical reactions. For example, in green plants,
water combines with carbon dioxide to form sugar
(see Chapter 6). In animals, water helps to break
sugar-phosph~te down and dissolve food molecules (see 'Chemical
chain
digestion' in Chapter 7). Blood is made up of cells
and a liquid called plasma. This plasma is 92% water
and acts as a transport medium for many dissolved
substances, such as carbon dioxide, urea, digested
food and hormones. Blood cells are carried around
the body in the plasma.
Water also acts as a rransporr medium in plants.
Water passes up the plant from the roots to the
leaves in :\)'lem vessels and carries with it dissolved
mineral ions. Phloem vessels transport sugars and
amino acids in solution from the leaves to their
places of use or storage (see Chapter 8).
Water plays an important role in excretion in
animals. It acts as a powerful solvent for excretory
materials, such as nitrogenous molecules like urea, as
well as salts, spent hormones and drugs. The water
has a diluting effect, reducing the toxicity of the
excretory materials.
The physical and chemical properties of water
differ from those of most orher liquids but make
it uniquely effective in supporting living activities.
For example, water has a high capacity for heat
(high thermal capacity). This means that it can
absorb a lot of heat without its temperature rising
to levels that damage the proteins in the cytoplasm.
H owever, because water freezes at O °C most cells
are damaged if their temperature falls below this
and ice crystals form in the cytoplasm. (Oddly
enough, rapid freezing of cells in liquid nitrogen at
below -19 6°C does not harm them ).
"&!ble4.1 Summ.iryofthemainnutrients
Elementsoresent Ell.1m les
cart>o hydrate c.rtio n.hydrogen. 'itarch.glycogen. glue=
celluk>se.suaose
c.itbon.hy{lrogen. vegetable oil'i,
(oil'iareliquid oxygen(but e.g.oliveoil;
at roo m loY;eroxygen .lllim.ilfats.
temper.iture.but contentthan e.g.cod liver oil.
latsare50lid) c.rt>ohydr.ites)
protein catbon.hydrogen, eozymes.musd e. amino ..dd1
oxygen. nitrogen. haemoglobin. cell (aboutlO
sometimes,;utfur membranes different
Figure 4.12 The drawing slums part of a ONA molecule 1dlematially orphn<nhoru1 fu=I
•
• Extension work
DNA
In 1869, a chemist working o n cdl chemistr y
discovc:rc:d a compound that contained nitrogen and
phosphorus (as wdl as carbon). This was an unusual
combination . TI1c substance: seemed to originate:
fro m nuclei and was at first called ·nuckin' and thc:n
·nucleic acid'. Subsc:quc:m analysis revealed th e: bases
adenine:, thymine:, cytosine: and guanine: in nucleic
acid, together with a carbohydrate: later idc:mific:d
as dc:m.1'ribosc. In the early 1900s, the: structure: of
nucleotides (base-sugar- phosphate, Figure 4.9 ) was
detc:rminc:d and also how they linked up to form (b) one of the X-ray Images produced by X-rays ruttered by
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA. The number ,;md positions of the dark area, allows the
In the: 1940s, a chemist, Chargaff, showed rhat, molecularstructuretobe calculated.
in a sample: of DNA, the number ofadc:nines (A) By precise measureme nts of the spots on rhe
was always the same as the number of rhyminc:s (T ). photograph and some ve ry complex mathematics,
Similarly, the amounts of cytosine (C) and the molecular structu re of many compounds could
guanine (G) wc:rc always eq ual. TI1is information was be discovered.
to pro\·c: crucial to the work of Crick and Watson in It proved possible: to obt:i.in DNA in a cryscalline
determining the: structure of DNA. form and subject it to X-r.iy analysis. Most of the
Francis C rick was a physicist and James Watson necessary X-ray crystallogr.iphy was carried out by
(from the USA) a biologist. TI1c:y worked rogc:thc: r Maurice Wilkins and Ros.1\ind Fr.mklin at King's
in the: Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge: in College:, Londo n.
d1c: 1950s. Thc:ydid not dochc:mical analyses or Crick and Watson assembled mcxlds on a trial-
c:xpcrimc:nts, but used the: darn that was available: and-c:rror basis. The: suirability of the: modd was
from X-ray cryst:'lllogr.iphy and the chemistry of judged by how wdl it conformed to the: X-ray
nucleotides to try out diffc:rc:m mcxlds lor the: mc:asu rc:mc:nts and the: chemical propc:nks of the:
structurc:ofDNA. compone nts.
The regular pattern of atoms in a crysral causes The c:vidcncc: all pointed to a helical smicmre (like
a beam of X-rays to be scanc:rc:d in such a way that a spiral staircase ). At first they tried models with a core
the structure of the molecules in the crysral can be of three or four nucleotide chains twisted around each
determined (Figure 4 . l 3(a)) . TI1e scattered X-rays o ther and with the bases att:lChed to the: outside.
arc directed on to a photographic plate which, when These models did not really fit the X-ray data or
dcvdopcd , reveals images si milar to the one in the chemical structures of the nucleotides. Warson
Figure 4 . 13(b). tried a two-chain helical model with rhe bases
pointing inward s. Initially he paired ade nine (A) with
photographic
plate adenine (A), cytosine (C) with cytosine (C), etc. Bur
thymine (T ) and cytosine (C) were smaller molecules
X-ray beam than adenine (A) and guanine (G) and this pairing
would distort the double helix.
This is where C hargaff's work came to the resc ue .
Ifthc:re were equal numbers of adenine: (A) and
th ymine (T), and equal numbers of cytosine: (C )
and guanine: (G ), it was likely that this pairing of
(a) slmpllfledrepresentaUonofthescatt'lflngofX-raysby bases, large: plus small, would fit inside: the sugar-
~;illlnestructures phosphatc: double: hdix without discortion.
Aguni4.13 X-raycrystallography
Water
The X-ray d ata confirmed that the diameter of

the helix wo uld allow this pairing and the chemistry
of the bases would allow them to ho ld together.
The o utcome is the m odel of DNA sh own in
Figures 4.10, 4. 11 and 4.12.
Crick, Watson and Wilkins were awarded the
Nobel Prize for medicine and physiology in
1962. Rosalind Franklin died in 19 58, so her vital
contri bution was not formally rewarded.
Rgure 4.14 Crlck(rlghl)andWatsonwlththelr modelofthe

ONA molecule
50lution without mixing, a violet halo appears where the two

Practical work liquids come into contact.
Food tests 4 Test for fat

• Shake two drops of cook ing oil with about Scml ethanol in a
1 Test fo r sta rch drytest-tube untilthefatdissolves
• Shake a little starch powder in a test-tube with some warm • Pour this 50lution into a test-tube co ntaining a few cml water.
water to make a suspem,ion A milky white emulsion will form. This shows that the 50lution
• Add 3 or 4 drops of iod in e so lu t io n. A dark blue colour contained50mefatoroil.
should be produced
5 Test for vita min C
Note: itisal50possibletouseiodine50lutiontotestforstarch
• Draw up 2cml fresh lemon juice into a plastic syringe.
inleaves,butadifferentprocedureisused{seeChapter6}.
• Add this juice drop by drop to 2cml of a 0. 1% solution of
2 Test fo r red uci ng suga r OCPIP (a blue dye} in a test-tube. The OCPIP will become
colourlessquitesuddenlyasthejuiceisadded. The amount of
• Heat a little glucose solution with an equal volume of juice added from the syringe should be noted down.
Be ne d ict'ssolu tio n inatest-tube . Theheatingisdone • Repeattheexperimentbutwithorangejuiceinthesyringe.11
byplacingthetest-tubeinabeakerofboilingwater{see ittakesmoreorangejuicethanlemonjuicetodecolourisethe
Figure4. 15), or warmingitgentlyoverablueBunsenflame. OCPIP, the orange juice must contain less vitamin C.
However, ifthissecondtechniqueisused,thetest-tube
shouldbemovedconstantlyinandoutoftheBunsenflame
to prevent the liquid boiling and shooting out of the tube Application of the food tests
The50lutionwillchangefromclearbluetocloudygreen, The tests can be used on samples of food such as milk, potato,
thenyellowandfinallytoaredprecipitate (deposit)of raisins, onion, beans, egg-yolk or peanuts to find out what food
copper{1}oxide. materialsarepresent.The solidsamplesarecrushedinamortar
and shaken with warm water to extract the 50luble products.
3 Test fo r prote in (Biurettest) Separate samples of the watery mixture of crushed food are
• To a 1% solutiOl"l of albumen (the protein of egg-white) add testedforstarch,glucoseorproteinasdescribedabove. Totest
Scml dilute sodium hydroxide (CARE: this solution is caustic), for fats, the food must first be crushed in ethanol, not water, and
followed by Scml 1% copper sulfate 50lution. A purple colour then filtered. Thedearfiltrateispoured intowatertoseeifit
indicates protein. If thecoppersulfate isrun into the food goes cloudy, indicating the presence of fats.
8i
~ -k~-'- =----e-
::~"
foodsample
/
4 ~ ~ w i te,trac,
h
w,,.,
alcohol
dilute
f/I <OPF"'
sulfate
'°"'
filtrate
Into Benedict's
Bluret
test
solution
Flgure4.15 Expefimenttote1tfoodsford iffl'rentnutrient1
• Carbohydrates are usedasanenergysource; glycogen and

Question starch make good storage molecules. Cellulose gives plant
cell walls their strength.
• Proteins are built up from amino acids joined together by
1 a What do the chemical structures of carbohydrates and
chemical bonds.
latshaveincommon7
• Lipidsindudefats,fattyacidsandoils.
b How do their chemical structures differ?
• Fats are made from fatty acids and glycerol.
c Suggestwhytherearemanymoredifferentproteins
• Proteinsandlipidsformthemembranesoutsideandinside
than there are carbohydrates.
the cell.
• Food tests are used to identify the main biological
molecules
Checklist • Waterisimportantinlivingthingsasasolvent.
After studying Chapter 4 you should know and understand the
following: • lndifferentproteinsthe20or50aminoacidsarein
different proportionsandarrangedindifferentsequences.
• Living matter is made up of a number of important types of • Thestructureofaproteinmoleculeenablesittocarryout
molecules, indudingproteins,lipidsandcarbohydrates specific roles as enzymes and antibodies.
• All three types of molecule contain carbon, hydrogen and • ONA is another important biological molecule. It has a
oxygen atoms; proteins al50 contain nitrogen and 50metimes very distinctive shape, madeupofnudeotidescontaining
phosphorusorsulfur. ba~s
• Carbohydratesaremadefrommoom.accharideunits,often • Waterhasanimportantroleasasolventinorganisms.
glucose.
,
@ Enzymes
Enzyme action Description of enzyme action
Definitions of catalyst and enzyme Active site
Theimportanceofenzymesinlivingorgani'>lns Explanation of the effect of temperature and pH on enzyme
Thespecificnatureofenzymes molecules
The effects of pH and temperature on enzyme activity Specificity
Complementary shape of enzyme and substrate
Key definitions molecules to form a molecule of maltose. You

Aca talyst isasubstancethatincrea5eslherateofachemic.il can see that the enzyme and substrate molecules
reactionandisnotchangedby thereaction. ha,·e complementary shapes (like adjacent pieces
Ane nzyme isaproteinthatfunctionsasabiologicalcataly5t.
of a jigsaw) so they fit together. Other substrate
Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts. They molecules would not fit into this enzyme as they
are made in all living cells. Enzymes, like catalysts, would have the 'wrong' shape. For example, the
can be used over and over again because they substrate molecule in Figure 5.2 (b ) would not
are not used up during the reaction and only a fit the enzyme molecule in Figure 5.2 (a ). The
small amount is needed ro speed the reaction up product (substance AB in Figure 5.2 (a)) is released
(Figure 5.1 ). by the enzyme molecule and the enzyme is then
free to repeat the reaction with more substrate
molecules. Molecules of the two substances
,rartofarnu,1~, might have combined without the enzyme being
enzymeplcks Q ~l molecule present, but they would have done so very slowly
~or~i;:e ~ C>C>C) (it could take hours or days to happen without
Q Q' the enzyme ). By bringing the substances close
l ~J'~
enzym:nzymeJolnsglucose
(:) 0 ~
1
together, the enzyme molecule makes the reaction
moleculetotheothers
take place much more rapidly. The process can
be extremely fast: it has been found that catalase,
gl,co~
molK,l"O o
enzyme
a very common enzyme found in most cells,
C) Q j rnll,I~, molKol,
can break down 40000 molecules of hydrogen
~ grows longer peroxide every second! A complete chemical
reaction takes only a few seconds when the right
0 i'""""J OOC>O enzyme is present.
1 ~ eo,ym,rnl,a,ed As well as enzymes being responsible for joining
J ""'"' ' "" two substrate molecules rogerher, such as two glucose
molecules to form maltose, they can also create long
chains. For example, hundreds of glucose molecules
Flgure5.1 Buiklingupacellulosemok>cute can be joined together, end to end, to form a long
molecule of starch to be stored in the plastid of a
plant cell. TI1e glucose molecules can also be built
• Enzyme action up into a molecule of cellulose to be added to the
H ow an enzyme molecule might work to join cell wall. Protein molecules are built up by enzymes,
two other molecules together and so form a more which join together tens or hundreds of amino acid
complicated substance (the product) is shown in molecules. TI1ese proteins are added to the cell
Figure 5.2. membrane, to the cytoplasm or to the nucleus of
An example of an enzyme -controlled reaction the cell. They may also become the proteins that
such as this is the joining up of two glucose act as enzymes.
5 ENZYMES
a enzyme
~ A ( J molKol"
c!)s
molecules of two
Joined
together
molecules of substances
Q]
enzyme free to new substance
molecule subrtancesAandB combine with enzyme take part In ABformed
moleculefor a shorttlme another reaction
(a)a'bulldlng-up'reactlon(anabollc)
enzyme
molecule
amolecule of
substance
0
enzyme combines with
subrtanceforashorttlme
mo1Kol,
breaks at
this point
~
enzyme free to two substances
produced
~::~:a';\~n
(b) a'breaklng-down'reactlon(catabollc)
FlgureS.2 Possibleexplanation ofenzymeaction
Enzymes and temperature

A rise in temperamre increases the rate of most
chemical reactions; a fall in temperamre slows them
down. H owever, above 50°C the enzymes, being
proteins, are denamred and stop working.
Figure 5.2 shows how the shape of an enzyme
molecule could be very important if it has to fit
the substances on which it acts. Above 50°C the
shapes of enzymes are permanently changed and the
enzymes can no longer combine with the substances.
This is one of the reasons why organisms may be
killed by prolonged exposure ro high temperamres.
l11e enzymes in their cells are denamred and tl1e
chemical reactions proceed too slowly to maintain life. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
One way to test whether a substance is an enzyme
is to heat it to boiling point. lfit can still carry FlgureS.3 '"
TheeffectofpHondigeo;tiveenzymes
out its reactions after this, it cannot be an enzyme.
The protein-digesting enzyme in your stomach, for
This technique is used as a ·control' (see 'Aerobic
example , works well at an acidity of pH 2. At this pH ,
respiration' in Chapter 12 ) in enzyme experiments.
the enzyme amylase, from your saliva, cannot work
Enzymes and pH at all. Inside the cells, most enzymes will work best
in neurral conditions (pH 7 ). The pH or temperature
Acid or alkaline conditions alter tl1e chemical
at which an enzyme works best is often called its
properties of proteins, including enzymes. Most
optimum pH or temperamre. Conditions in tl1e
enzymes work best at a particular level of acidity or
duodenum are slightly alkaline: tl1e optimum pH for
alkalinity (pH), as shown in Figure 5.3.
pancreatic lipase is pH 8.
Enzyme action
Although changes in pH affect the activity of Intra- and extracel lular enzymes
enzymes, these effects arc usually reversible, i.e. All enzymes arc made ir~idc cells. Most of them remain
an enzyme that is inactivated by a low pH will inside dlC cell to speed up reactions in the cy10plasm
resume its normal activity when irs opt imum pH and nucleus. l11csc an:: called i.ntracelluklr enzymes
is restored. ('intra' nlCans 'inside'). In a few cases, rllC enzymes
Rates of enzyme reacti o ns made in the cells arc let out of the cell to do their
work omsidc. TI1csc arc cxtrncclluk1r enzymes ('extra'
As explained above, the rate of :m enzyme-controlled
nlCans 'outside'). Fungi and bacteria {sec ·Fcamrcs of
reaction depends on the tcmpcrarurc and pH . It also organisms' in Chapter I ) release extracellular enzymes
depends on the concent rations of the enzyme and its in order to digest their food. A mould growing on a
subsrnte. The more enzyme molecules produced by piece of bread rcka.scs starch-digesting enzymes imo
a cell, the fustcr the reaction will proceed, provided the bread and ab.sorbs the soluble sug:irs that the
there arc enough substrate molecules available. enzyme prcxluccs from the bread. In the digesti\'e
Similarly, an increase in the substrate conc.enrration systems of animals ('Alimentary canal' in 01aprer 7),
will speed up the reaction if there arc enough extracellular enzymes arc released into rhe stomach and
enzyme molecules to cope with the additional
intestines in order to digest the food.
substrate.
An enzyme-controlled reaction involves three groups dioxide and water in o rder to produce energy
of molecules, altho ugh the prod uct ma y be two or (Chapter 12 ).
more different molecules: Reactio ns d1at split large molecules into smaller
ones arc called catabo lk reactions.
substrate enzyme product
111c substance on which an enzyme acts is called its Enzymes are specific
substrate and the molecules produced arc called 111.is means simply d1at an enzyme which normally
the products. Thus, the enzyme sucrasc acts on the acts o n one substance will not act on a different
substrate sucrose to produce the monosaccharidc one. Figure 5.2(a) shows how the shape ofan
products glucose and fr uctose. enzyme can control what substances it combines
Reactions in which large molecules arc built up with. The cnZ}'lllC in Figure 5.2 (a) has a shape called
from smaller mo lecules arc called anabolic reactions tllC active site, which exactly fits the substances
(Figure 5.2(a)). When the enzyme combines with on which it acts, but will not fil the subsrancc in
the substrate, an enzyme-substrate complex is Figure 5.2(b). So, the shape ofthe active site ofrhe
formed temporarily. enzyme molecule and the substrate molecule arc
Figure 5.2 (b) shows an enzyme speeding up complementary. Thus, an enzyme which breaks
a chemical change, bur this time it is a reaction down starch to maltose will not also break down
in which the molecule of a substance is split proteins to amino acids. Also, if a reaction takes
into sma ller molecules. Again, when the enzyme place in stagcs,c.g.
combines with the substrate, an enzyme-substrate
complex is formed temporarily. Try chewing a starch - maltose (stage I )
piece ofbread, but keep it in your mouth without maltose - glucose (stage 2 )
swallowing it. Eventually yo u sho uld detect the
food tasting sweeter, as maltose sugar is formed. a difkrent enzyme is needed fo r each stage.
If starch is mixed with water it will break down 111c nanlCs of enzymes usually end with -ase and
\·cry slowly to sugar, ta king se\'eral years. In your they arc named according to the substance on which
saliva there is an enzyme called amylase that can they act, or the reaction which they speed up. For
break down starch to sugar in minutes or seconds. example, an enzyme that acts on proteins may be
In cells, many o f the 'breaking-down' enzymes called a protease; one that removes hydrogen fro m a
arc helping to break down glucose to carbon substance is a de hyd rogc nase.
5 ENZYMES
Enzymes and temperature turns solid and becomes opaque and white. It cannot
be changed back to its original state or appearance.
Figure 5.4 shows the effect of temperature on an
enzyme·controlled reaction.
Enzymes and pH
Extremes of pH may denature some enzymes
irreversibly. This is because the active site of the
enzyme molecule can become deformed (as it does
when exposed to high temperatures ). As a result,
the enzyme and substrate molecules no longer have
complementary shapes and so will not fir together.
Practical work
Testsforproteins,fatsandc.arbohydratesaredescribedin
Chapter 4. Experiments on the digestive enzymes amylase and
pepsinaredescribedinChapter7.
temperature/'C
RgureS .4 Grap!l'ihowingtheeffl.'d:ofte~tureontherateofan 1 Extracting and testing an enzyme from living cells
enzyrrn_,.rnntrolk>dll'.Ktioo lnthisexperiment,theenzymetobeextractedandtestedis
cata laseandthesubstrateishydrogenperoxide(H 10 1}.Certain
reactions inthecellproducehydrogenperoxide,whichis
Generally, a rise ofl0°Cwill double the rate of poisonous. Catalase makes the hydrogen peroxide harmless by
an enzyme -controlled reaction in a cell, up to breaking it down to water and oxygen.
an optimum temperature of around 37°C (body
2H101 catalase 2H10+01
temperature ). This is because the enzyme and
substrate molecules are constantly moving, using • Grind a 5mall piece of liver with alx>ut 20cml water and a
kinetic energy. The reaction only occurs when the littlesandinamortar.Thiswillbreakopenthelivercellsand
release their contents.
enzyme and substrate molecules come into contact
• Filter the mixture and share it between two test-tubes, A
with each other. As the temperature is increased , the and B. Thefiltratewillcontainagreatvarietyof substances
molecules gain more kinetic energy, so they move diswlved out from the cytoplasm of the liver cells, including
fuster and there is a greater chance of collisions many enzymes. Because enzymes are specific, however, only
happening. Therefore the rate of reaction increases. oneofthese,catalase,willactonhydrogenperoxide.
Above the optimum temperature the reaction will • Add some drops of the filtrate from test-tube A to a few cml
of hydrogen peroxide in a test-tube. You will see a vigorous
slow down. This is because enzyme molecules are reaction as the hydrogen peroxide breaks down to produce
proteins. Protein molecules start to lose their shape oxygen.(Theoxygencanbetestedwithaglowingsplint.}
at higher temperatures, so the active site becomes • Now boil the filtrate in tube 8 for about 30 seconds. Add a
deformed. Substrate molecules cannot fit together fewdropsoftheboiledfiltratetoafreshsampleofhydrogen
with the enzyme, stopping the reaction. Not all the peroxide. There will be no reaction because boiling has
denaturedthecatalase.
enzyme molecules are afli:cted straight away, so the
• Next, shake a little manganese{111) oxide powder in a test-
reaction does not suddenly stop - it is a gradual tube with some water and pour this into some hydrogen
process as the temperature increases above 37°C. peroxide. There will bea vigorous reaction similar to the one
Denaturation is a permanent change in the shape withtheliverextract.lfyounowboilsomemanganese(111)
of the enzyme molecule. Once it has happened oxidewithwaterandaddthistohydrogenperoxide,the
the enzyme will not work any more, even if the reactionwill5tilloccur.Manganese(1v}oxideisacatalyst
butitisnotanenzymebecauseheatinghasnotalteredits
temperature is reduced below 37°C. An example catalytic properties.
of a protein denaturing is the cooking of egg-white • The experiment c.an be repeated with a piece of potato to
(made of the protein albumin). Raw egg-white is compareitscatalasecontentwiththatoftheliver. The piece
liquid, transparent and colourless. As it is heated, it ofpotatoshouldbeaboutthesamesizeastheliver5ample.
Enzyme action
• Extension work • Preparethreewaterbathsbyhalffillingbeakersorjarswith:

a ic:e and water, adding ice during the experiment to keep
Investigate a range of planr tissues to find out the temperature at about 10°C
which is the best source of catalase. Decide how b water from the cold tap at about 20°C
to make quantitative comparisons (o bservations t warm water at about 35°C by mixing hot and cold water.
which involve measurements). Possible plant tissues • Place tubes 1 andAinthecoldwaterbath, tubes2andB
in the water at room temperature, and tubes 3 and C in the
include potato, celery, apple and carrot. warm water.
• Leave them for S minutes to reach the temperature of the
2 The effect of temperature on an enzyme reaction water{FigureS.S)
Amylase isan enzyme that breaks OCl'IMl 5tarch to a sugar (maltose}. • After S minutes, take the temperature of each water bath,
then pour the amyla5e from tube A into the starch solution in
• Orawup5an'of 5%amylasesolution in aplasticsyringe{or tube 1 and return tube 1 to the water bath
graduatedpipette}andplace lcmlineachofthreetest-tubes
• Repeatthiswithtubes2andB,and3andC.
labelled A, Band C. • As the amylase breaks down the starch, it will cause the blue
• Rinse the syringe thoroughly and use it to place 5cm' of a 1% colourtodisappear.Makeanoteolhowlongthistakesin
starch solutionineachofthreetest-tubeslabelled 1, 2and3. each case.
• To each of tubes 1 to 3, ;idd six drops only of dilute iodine
50lution using a dropping pipette. Questi ons
1 At what temperature did the amyla5e break down starch
mostra~dly?
6dropslodlnesolutlon
In tubes 1-3 2 What do you think would have been the result if a fourth
waterbathat90°C hadbeenused7
3
A ~~ 3 The effect of pH on an enzyme reaction

• Labelf1Vetesttubes 1 to5andu5eaplast1csyr1nge{Of
graduatedp1pette)toplaceScmlofa l%starchsolut1on1n
each tube
• Add ilCld Of alkali to each tube as 1nd1cated m the table below
Rinse the syringe when changing from 500ium carbonate to
acid.
Approl! lmatep H
1an•sodiumcatbonate 9 (alkal irie)
5c>ll/1:Km(0.05maldm- ')
O.Sun'sodiumcatbonate 7--8 (~ightlyalkaline)
5alutian(0.0Smaldm- •)
nothing (rieutral)
2on•ethaook:{acetic) {~ightlyac:id}
ac:id(0.1maldm- •)
4cm•ethaook:{acetic) {acid}
acid(0.1maldm- •)
• Place several rows of iodine solution drops in a cavity tile

• Draw up Scml of 5% amyla5e solution in a dean syringe and
place 1 cml in each tube. Shake the tubes and note the time
{FigureS.6).
1
• ~=hat::~nd;::~~gd~:;: t;;~:;;~ :'3~;'1;~~: fi~7ne
dropsinthecavitytile.. Rinse.thepi.pettei~abeakerof.water
between each sample. Keep on samphng m th1sway.
• Whenanyofthesamplesfa1lsto91veabluecolour,th1s
means that the starch m that tube has been completely
notethellmeandaddtheamylasetothestarchsolutlon broken down to sugar by the amylase. Note the time when
this happens for each tube and stop taking samples from
Figure 5.5 Experiment ta investigate the effectaftemperatureanan
enzyme reaction
5 ENZYMES
i
that tube. Do not continue sampling for more than about
15 minutes, but put a drop from each tube on to a piece of
pH paper and compare the rolour produced with a colour
chart of pH values.
odium carbonate ethanolc ethanolc

,m'
carbonate
olutlon
~><m',oa,,m
solution "m'
acid «m'f
acid
, ~ , '
( tJ ~
~ ·-====
~~, .,moaod__'.d~, ><m'"•«h,olo<loO,omh<,bo
00
tl!'ltsamples
with Iodine
rinse the pipette

betweensampll!'l
RgureS.6 Experiment toinvesligatetheettectofpH ooanenl)Tllereaction
Q ues ti o ns l Explain why you might have expected the result that you got
4 Your stomach pH is about 2. Would you expect starch
1 At what pH did the enzyme, amylase, work most rapidly?
digestiontotakeplaceinthestomach?
2 Is this its optimum pH?
Questions 2 How would you expect the rate of an enzyme-<:ontrolled

reaction to change if the temperature was raised:
Extended a from20°Cto30°C
1 Which of the following statements apply both to enzymes b from35°Cto55°C?
andtoanyothercatalysts? Explain your answers.
a Theiractivityisstoppedbyhightemperature 3 Therearecellsinyoursalivaryglandsthatcanmakean
b Theyspeedupchemicalreactions. extracellular enzyme, amylase. Would you expect these
c Theyareproteins. cells to make intracellular enzymes as well? Explain your
d Theyarenotusedupduringthereaction.
Enzyme action
4 Apple cells contain an enzyme that turns the tissues brown Checklist
when an apple is peeled and left for a time. Boiled apple AfterstudyingChapterSyou!.houldknowandunderstand
does not go brown {Figure 5.7). Explain why the boiled the following :
• ••
apple behaves differently. • Catalystsaresubstancesthatincreasetherateofchemic.al
reactionsandarenotchangedintheprocess
• Enzymesareproteinsthatfunctionasbiologicalcatalysts.
• Enzymesareimportantinallorganismsbec.ausethey
maintainareactionspeedneededtosustainlife.
• Thesubstanceonwhichanenzymeactsiscalledthe
substrate. After the reaction, a product is formed.
g II D • An enzyme and its substrate have complementary !.hapes.
• EnzymesareaffectedbypHandtemperatureandare
denaturedabove50°C.
Flg ure5.7 Experlmenttolnvestlgateenzymeactlvllylnan
apple.S11ceAhasbeenfreshlycut.BandCwerecut2days • Different enzymes may accelerate reactions which build
~a~:~~~~t C was dipped Immediately In boiling water for up or break down molecules
• Each enzyme acts on only one substance (breaking down}
orapairofsubstances{buildingup)
• Enzymestendtobeveryspecific in the reactions they
catalyse, due to the complementary shape of the enzyme
and its substrate.
• Changesintemperatureaffectthekineticenergyof
enzyme molecules and their shape.
• Enzymesc.anbedenaturedbychangesintemperature
and pH.
@ Plant nutrition
Photosynthesis Leaf structure
Definition of photosynthesis ldentifythemaintissuesinaleaf
Word equation
lflvffi.igationsintothenecessityforchlorophyll,lightandcarbon Adaptationsofleavesforphotosynthesis
dioKidefOf photosynthesis, using appropriate controls
~tionsil1tolheeffectsolvar)'Wl9icj,triln~carbonciacide Mineral requ irements
ooncentration and temperature on the rate of photosynthez The importance of nitrate ions and magnesium ions
Balancrdchemicalequation Explaining the effects of mineral deficiencies on plant growth

U5e;mdstorageoftheprodoctsofphotosynthl'VS
Definitionoflimitingfactoo;
Roleofgias:sh:lusesinaeatrig~a::nditicnsfaphdosyn1hesis
willow
• Photosynthesis
Key definition
Ph o tosyn t hesisistheprocessbywhichplantsmanufacture
carbohydrates from raw materials using energy Imm light.
All living organisms need food. TI1cy need it as a source

of raw materials to build new cells and tissues as thcv
grow. They also need food as a source of energy. F~
is a kind of·fud' that dri.\"CS csscnrial living processes
and brings about c hemical changes (sec 'Dier' in
Oiaptcr 7 and ·Aerobic rcspir.ition' in C hapter 12 ).
Animals take in food, digest it and use the: digested
products to build their tissues or to produce energy.
Plants also need energy and nw materials but, apart
from a few insect-caring species, planrs do not appear to
2.3kg - Syeirs
witeronly n.okg
rake in food. lnc: most likclysourceof thc:irraw materials

would appear to be the soil. HowC\·er, experiments show
that the wc:ight g.tined by a growing plant is fur greater
than the wc:ight lost by the soil it is growing in. So
there must be additional sources of raw materials.
illi90.8kg
Figure 6. 1 V.m Helmont'S fJll)eflment
imi 90.8kg
Jean-Baptiste van Hdmo nt was a Dutch scientist A hypoth esis to explain the source offocxl in a
working in the 17th ccnrur y. Ar that time very link plant is that it maka it from air, water and soil salts.
was known about the process of photosynthesis. He Carbohydrates (Chapter 4 ) conrain the elements carbon,
carried out an experiment using a willow shoot. H e hydrogen and oxygen, as in glucose (C6H1206)- 111c
planted the shoot in a container with 90.8 kg of dry carbon and m..")'gen could be supplied by carbon dim.idc
soil and placed a metal grill over the soil to prevent (C0 2) from the air, and the hydrogen could come from
any accidental gain o r loss of mas.s. He left the shcx)t the water ( H 20) in the soil. 111e nitrogen and sulfur
for 5 years in an open yard, providing it with only needed fur making proteins (Chapte r 4 ) could come
rainwate r and distilled water for growth. After 5 years from nitrates and sulfutcs in the soil.
he reweighed the tree and the soil (sec Figure 6.1 ) This building-up of complex food mo lecules from
and came to the conclusion rhar the increase in mass simpler substances is called synthesis and it needs
of the tree (74 .7 kg) was due entirely to the water it enzymes and e nergy to make it happen. The e nzymes
had received. H owever, he was unaw.i.rc that plants arc present in the plant's cells and the energy for the
also take in mine ral salts and carbon dioxide, or that first stages in the synthesis comes from sun light. 1l1e
they use lig ht as a source of e nergy. process is, therefore, called 1>ho tosym hesis ("photo'
Photosynthesis
means ·light'). There is evidence to suggest that the identical situation, except that the conditioo missing from the
green substance, chlo rop hyll, in the chloroplasts o f eJ+)el"fflent,e.g.lightcartx>ndioxideorchlorophyl!,ispre5entin
thecontrol(see 'Aerobicr~ration'inChapter12).
plane cells, plays a pan in photosynthesis. Chlorophyll
absorbs sunlight and makes the energy from sunlight Oesta rchingaplant
available for chemical reactions. Thus, in effi:ct, the If the prodoction of starch is your evidence that photosynthesis
istakingplace,thenyoumustmakes.urethattheleafdoesnot
foncrion of chlorophyll is 10 convert light e nergy to
contain any starch at the beginning of the e)q)efiment. This is
chemical e nergy. done by d estar<hing the leaves. It is not possible to remove
A chemical equation for photosynthesis would be the sta/UI chemically, without damaging the leaves, so a plant
isdestarchedsiflWbyleavingitindartmessfor2or3days.
~~~~~ + water
Pottedplantsaredestarchedbyleavingtheminadarkcupboard
~:~~::;,:~ glucose + oxygen forafowdays.lnthedari(ness,anystarchintheleaveswillbe
<hanged to sugar and carried away from the leaves to other
In order to keep the equation simple, glucose is partsoftheplant.Forplantsintheopen,theexperimentis
shown as the food compound produced. In reality, set up on the day before the test. During the night, most of
the glucose is rapidly con\'crted to sucrose for the 51:arch will be removed from the leaves. Better 51:ill, wrap
theleavesinaluminiumfoilfor2dayswh iletheyarestill
transport around the plant, then stored as starch or
on the plant. Then test one of the leaves to see that no starch
convened inro other molecules. is present.
Testin ga lea f for starch
Practical work Iodine solution (yellow,brown) and starch {'M'lite) form a deep
bluecolour'M'lentheymix. The test for starch, therefore, isto
add iodine solution to a leaf to see if it goes blue. However, a
Experiments to investigate ~ving leaf is impermeable to iodine and the chlorophyll in the
photosynthesis leafmasksanycolour<hange. So. thelealhastobetreated
as follows:
The design of biological experiments is discussed in Chapter 12
'Aerobicll:'Spiration'.andthisshouldberevisedbefore5tudying
the next section.
Ahypothesisisananempttoexplaincertainob5ervations.
In this case the hypothesis is that plants make their food by
6C01
1
uptake
+ 6H10
1
uptak e
=t
photosyn~s. The equation shown aboYe is one way of stating
the hypothesis and is used here 10 show ho.vii rright be tested.
~
CviuO,
l
production
+ 60i
l
release
""''"'--
;kohol
- --I'.---'
-,,,.,.___, _L_ _
ofcarbon ofwa1er ofsugar of

dioxide (orsta/UI) oxygen
If photosynthesis is occurring in a ~ant, then the leaves gjould
beprodudngsugars. lnmanyleaves, asfastassugarisproduced
itisturnedintostarch. Sinceitiseasiertotestforstarchthan for
sugar, we regard the production of starch in a leaf as evidence
thatphotosynthesishastakenplace
Thefirstthreeexperimentsdescribedbelowaredesignedto
seeiftheleafcanmakestarchwithoutchlorophyll,:1Unlightor
carbon dioxide. in turn . If the photosynthesis hypothesis is sound,
t hen the lack of any one of these three cond itions should stop Figure 6.2 Ell$l!'riment to remove chlorophyll from ; leaf
photosynthesis. andsostoptheproduction of starch. But, if
starch prodOO:ion continues. then the hypothesis is no good and
mustbealteredorre;ected. • Heat some water to boiling point in a beaker and then turn
In designing the experiments, it is very important to make wre off the Bunsen flam e
that only one variable is altered. If, fcx eMmple, the method of • Use forceps to dip a leaf in the hot water for about
keeping light from aleafalsoclJISoffitscarbondiao:.ides.upply-, 30 seconds. This kills the cytoplasm, denatures the e nzymes
it would be fflpossible to decide whether it was the lad: of light and makes the leaf more permeable to iodine solution.
or lack. of carbon dioxide that stopped the prro.Ktion of starch. • Note: make sure the Bunsen flame is eKlinguished before
To make sure that the e)(pel'imental design has not altered more startingthenext.partofthepnx:edure,asethanolis
than one variable. a<o ntrol issetupin eadl c.ase. This is an flillTVTlable
6 PLANT NUTRITION
• Push the leaf to the bottom of a test-tube and cover it with

ethanol {alcohol}. Pli!Ce the tube in the hot water (Figure 6.2). leafstlll
attached
Thealcoholwillboilanddissolveoutmostofthechlorophyll. to tree
Thismakescolourchangeswithiodineeasierto'il!I!.
• Pour the green alcohol into a spare beaker, remove the leaf
and dip it once more into the hot water to soften it.
• Spread the decolouri51!d leaf flat on a white tile and drop iodine
solution on to it. The parts containing starch will tum blue;
partswithoutstarchwillstainbrownoryellw,,withiodine. aluminium
foll stencil
1 Is chlo rophyll necessa ry fo r photosynthesis?

It is not possible to remove chlorophyll from a leaf without
killing it, and so a variegated leaf, which has chlorophyll only in
patches. isused.Aleafofthiskindisshw,,ninFigure6.3(a}. The
whitepartoftheleafservesastheexperiment,becauseitlach (a) (b) aflertestlngforstarch
chlorophyll, while the green part with chlorophyll is the control. Flgure 6.4 Experi/l\l'nltoshowthatli~tisf)l.'(l.'Ss.lfY
Afterbeingdestarched,theleaf-stillontheplant - isexposed
to daylight for a few hours. Remove a leaf from the plant; draw
it carefully to show where the chlorophyll is {i.e. the green parts) Inte rpretation
As starch has not formed in the areas that received no light,
andtestitforstarchasdescribedabove
it seems that light is needed for starch formation and thus for
Res ult photosynthesis.
Only the parts that were previously green turn blue with iodine You could argue that the aluminium foil had stopped carbon
The part<; that were white stain brown (Figure 6.3(b}) dioxide from entering the leaf and that it was shortage of
carbondioxideratherthanabsenceoflightwhichprevented
photosynthesistakingplace.Afurthercontrolcouldbedesigned,
using transparent material instead of aluminium foil for
the stencil.
3 Is ca rbon dioxide needed for phot osynthesis?

• Water two destarched potted plants and endose their shoots
in polythene bags.
• In one pot place a dish of soda-lime to absorb the carbon
dioxidefromtheair{theexperiment).lntheotherplaceadish
of sodium hydrogencarbonate solution to produce carbon
dioxide (the control}, as shown in Figure 6.5.
(a)varlegatedleaf (b) aftertestlngforstarch • Place both plants in the light for several hours and then test a
Flgure6.3 Expl'fi/l\l'nltoshowthatc:hlomphyll isnecl.'S1ary leaf from each for starch.
Inte rp re ta tion
Sincestarchispresentoolyinthepartsthatoriginallycontained
chlorophyll, it seems reasonable to suppose that chlorophyll is plastic bag
neededforphot05ynthesis.
It must be remembered, however, that there are other possible
interpretationsthatthisexperimenthasnotruledout;for
eXilmple,starchcouldbemadeinthegreenpartsandsugarin
thewhiteparts.Suchaltemativeexplanationscouldbetestedby
further experiments.
elthersoda-llme
2 Is lig ht necessa ry fo r phot osynthesis? or sodium
hydrogencarbonate
solution
• Cut a simple shape from a piece of aluminium foil to make
astencilandattachittoadestarchedleaf(Figure6.4(a)).
• After 4 to 6 hours of daylight, remove the leaf and test
it for starch.
Res ult
Only the areas which had received light go blue with iodine
Figure 6.5 Experiment to show that carbon dioxide is 1)1.'(l.'Ss.lfY
{Figure6.4{b)}.
Photosynthesis
Resu lt
The leaf that had no carbon dioxide does not turn blue.
Controls
The one from the polythene bag containing carbon dioxide When setting up an experiment and a control, which of the two
does turn blue. pnxedt.-es constitutes the 'control' depends on the way the
predictionis'Mlfded.Forexample,ifthepredictionisthat'inthe
Inte rpre tation absence of light. the pondweed wil notproduce()J(ygen', then
The fact that stan:h was made in the leaves that had carbon the'control'istheplantinthelight. lfthepredictionisthat'the
dioxide, but not in the leaves that had no carbon dioxide, pondweed in the light wil produce oxygen·, then the'control' is
'lllggeststhatthisgasmust benecessaryforphotosynthe5is. the plant in darknes.s.Asfarastheresultsandinterpretationare
Thecontroll\llesoutthepossibi1itythathighhumidityorhigh concerned, it does not matter which is the 'control' and which is
temperatureintheplasticbagpreventsnormalphotosynthesis. the'experiment'.
Theresultsofthefourexperimentssupportthehypothesisof
4 Is oxygen produced during photosynthesis?
photoo;ynthesis as stated at the beginning of this chapter and
• f'tace a short-stemmed funnel over some Canadian pondweed as represen ted by the equation. Starch formation (our evidence
inabeakerofwater. forphotosynt hesis)doesnot tak.eplace in the absence of light,
• Fill a test-tube with water and place it upside-down over chlorophyll or carbon dioxide, and oxygen production occurs only
thefunnelstem(Figure6.6).(Thefunnelisraisedabovethe in the light
bottom of the beaker to allow the water to circulate.) If starch or oxygen production had occurred in the absence
• f'tacetheapparatus insunlight.B ubblesofgas:Jlouldappear of any one of these conditions, we 5hould have to change
fromthecutstemsandcollectinthetest-tube . our hypothesis about the W<l-f plants obtain their food. Bear
• Setupacoritrolinasimilarwaybutplaceitinadark in mind, however, that although our results support the
cupboard. photosynthesistheory,theydonotproveit.Forexample,it
• When sufficient gas has collected from the plant in the light, isnowkno'Nflthatmanystagesintheproductiooofsugar
removethetest-tubeandinsertaglowingsplint. and starch Imm carbon dioxide do not need ligh t {the 'light-
independent' reaction).
Resu lt
The9'owingsplintbursts into flames. 5 What is the effect of chang ing lig ht inte nsity on
the rate of photosynthesis? (Method 1)
In this irwestigation, the rate of prodLOCtion of bubbles by a pond
g~collectlng plantisusedtocalculatetherateofphotosynthesis.
• Prep.are a beaker of water or a boi~ng tube, into which a
sunlight spatulaendofsodiumhydrogencarbonatehasbeenstirred
(thisdissolvesrapidlo/andsaturatesthewaterwithcarbon
dioxide, so C01 is not a limiting lactOf).
• Collect a fresh piece of Canadian pondweed and cut one end
of the stem, using a scalpel blade.
• Attach a piece of modelling day or paperdip to the stem and
putitintothebeaker(Ofboilingtube).
• Set up a light source 10cm aw<1-1 from the beaker and =itch
on the lamp (Figure 6 .7). Bubbles should start appearing from
the cut end of the plant stem. Count the number of bubbles
overafixedtimee.g.1 minuteandrecordtheresult. Repeat
supporttokeep---'dSCL_ __[:::'.l) the count.
funnel off bottom
Figure 6.6 el(J)enment to show th.it o~n Is produced
Interpretation
Therelightingofaglowingsplintdoesnotprovethatthegas
mllectedinthetest-tubeis,x,eoxygen,butitdoes5howthatit
mntainsextraoxygenandthismusthavecomefromtheplant.
bubbles .ippe~rfrom
Theaxygenisgivenoffonlyin thelight. thecutendofthestem
Notethatwa tercontainsdiSSONedoxygen,carbondioxide
p~perdlpholds
andnitrogen.Thesegasesmaydiffuseinoroutofthebubbles
as theypas.s through the water and collect in the test-tube. The
romposition of the gas in the test-tube may not be the same as
-"'--------1.C
upside down
that in the bubbles leaving the plant Figu re 6,7 Experiment 10 i'l\<estlgi,l!e light Intensity~ oqgen production
6 PLANT NUTRITION
• Now move the light source so th.at it is 200'!1 from the beaker.
Switch on the lamp and leave it for a few minutes, to allow
the plant to adjust to the oew light intensity. Count the
bubblesasbeforeandrec:Ofdtheresults.
• Repeattheproceduresothatthe numbersofbubblesforat
least live different distances have been recorded. Also, try
switchingoffthebenchlampandobserveanychangein the
production of bubbles
• There is a relatiom,hip between the distance of the lamp from (b)
the plant andthelightintensityrece ived by the plant. Light
intensity= ""iji 'NhefeD:di!ctance.
• Convertthedistancestolightintemity, thenplotagraph
oflightintensity/arbitraryunits "'"-ax is) againstrateof
photosynthesislbubblesperrrinutefy-aicis).
Note: inthisinvestigationanothervariable,....tlichcouldaffect
the ra te of photosynthesis, istheheatgivenofffromthebtilb. To
improve the method, aoother beaker of water could be placed
between the bulb and the plant to act as a heat filter while (<) (d)
allowingtheplanttoreceivethelight. Flgure6.9 Usln9~.1fdiscstoinYe<;tigatetlleeffectofHgl\tlntenslty
• lfthebubblesappeartoorapidlytocount, try tapping a pen onphot~)'llthesls
orpencilonasheetofpaperatthesamerateasthebubbles
• U5e a cork borer or paper hole punch to cut out discs from
appearandgetyourpartnerto51idethepaperslowfvalongfor
afresh, healthy leaf such as spinach, avoiding any veins
\Sseconds . Thenc01J1tthedots(Figure6.8).
(Figure 6.9(a)). The le<M:"Scontain airspaces. These cause the
leaf discs to float when they are placed in water.
• Atthestartoftheexperiment,theairneedstobe-d
from the discs. To do this place about 10 diKS into a large
( \OcmJ) syringe and tap it so the discs latl to the bottom
(opposite the plunger end).
• Placeone fir1gerr:,1erthe hole at the endolthe syringe barrel
Fillthe barrelwithwater,thenreplacethe plunger.
• Turnthe syringesotheneedleendisfacingupandrelease
your linger.
• Gentlypushtheplungerintothebarrelolthesyringetoforce
outanyairfrornabovethewater(Figure6.9(b)).
Flgurt6.8 Estlm;itingtherateof bubbleproductlon • Now replace your finger ewer the SYfinge hole and withdraw
the plungertocreateavacuum.
• Keep the plunger withdrawn for about 10secoods. This sucb
Res ult
out a l the air from the leaf disa. They should then sink to the
The rate of bubbling 'ihould decrease as the I ~ is moved
bottom(Figure6.9(d). Release the plunger.
fortherawayfrorntheplant. lllhenthelightisswitchedoff, the
• Repeat the procedure ii the discs do not all sink.
bubbling should stop.
• RemOYe the discs flOrTI the syringe and placr them in a beaker,
In terpretation containingwa ter,withaspatulaofsodiumhydrogencarbonate
Assumingthatthebubblescontainoxygenproducedby dis.solvedinit(Figure6.9(d)).
photosynthesis.asthelightintensityisincreasedtherateof • Start a !ctopwatch and record the time taken for each of the
photosynthesis(asindicatedbytherateofoxygenbubble discstolloattothesurface.lgnorethosethatdidnotsink
production)increases.Thisisbecausetheplantusesthelight Calculateanaveragetimeforthediscstolloat.
energytophotosynthesiseandaxygenisproducedasawaste • Repeatthemethod.varyingthelightintensitythediscsare
produ<t. The oxygen escapes from the plant through the cut exposedtointhebeaker(5eeExperiment5forvaryingthe
stem. We are assuming also that the bubbles do not change light intensity produced by a bench !amp).
in size during the experiment. A fast stream of small bubbles
Result
might represent the same volume of gas as a slow stream of
Thegreaterthelightintensity,thequid.erthe lealdiscs floatto
large bubbles.
the surface.
6 What is the effect of changing light intensity on Int erpretation
the rate of photosynthesis? (Method 2) A5the leafdiscs photosyntheWtheyproduceoxygen,whichis
This alternative investigation uses leaf discs from land plants releasedintotheairspacesinthedisc. Theoxvgenmakesthe
{Figure6.9)
Photosynthesis
di5esmorebuoyant,soastheoxygenaccumulates,theyfloatto Inte rpre tation

thesurfaceofthewater. Aslightintensityincreases, the rate of A5 the concentration of available carbon dioxide is increased,
photosynthesisincrea..es thedistancetravelledbythemeni5eusalsoincreases.The
movement of the meni5c:us is caused by oxygen production by
7 What is the effect of cha ng ing ca rbon dioxide the pondweed due to photosynthesis. So an increase in carbon
concentratio n o n the rat e of photosynthesis? dioxideincreasestherateofphotosynthesis
Sodium hydrogencarbonate releases carbon dioxide when
dissolvedinwater. Usetheapparatusshowninfigure6.10. 8 What is the effect of chang ing t e mperature o n the
rat e of photosynthesis?
Use the methods described in Experiments 5 or 6, but vary the
temperatureofthewaterinsteadofthelightintensity.
Qu estions
syringe
1 Which of the follov..ing are needed for starch production in
a leaf?
gugivenoff carbondioxide,oxygen, nitrates,water,chlorophyO,soil,light
2 In Experiment 1 (concerning the need for chlorophyll), why
pond~ ,e.g.Elodea wasitnotnecessary tosetupaseparatecontrolexperiment7
3 What is meant by 'destatt.:hing' a leaf? Why is it necessary to
destarch leaves before setting up some of the photosynthesis
experiments?
4 lnExperiment3(concerningtheneedforcarbondioxide},
whatwerethefunctionsof:
the soda-lime
thesodiumhydrogencarbonate
the polythene bag?
capillary tube Why do you think pondweed, rather than a land plant,
is used for Experiment 4 (concerning production of
oxygen)?
b In what Wirf might this choice make the results les.s
useful?
6 A green plant makes sugar from carbon dioxide and water.
Flgure 6.10 ApparatmfD< investigatingtheeffectofdwigingc~lbo n Why is it not suitable to carry out an experiment to see if
dioxide rnn centrationootherateofphotrnynthesi'i deprivingaplantofwaterstopsphotosynthesis?
7 Does the method of destatt.:hing a plant take for granted the
resultsofExperiment2?Explainyouranswer.
• To ..et this up, remove the plunger from the 20cm' syringe and
place two or three pieces of pondweed, with freshly cut stems
facing upwards, intothesyringebarrel. Holdafingeroverthe
endofthecapillary tubeandfillthesyringev..ithdistilledwater.
• Replace the plunger, tum the apparatus upside down and
push the plunger to the 20cm' mark, making sure that no air You need to be able to state the balanced chemical
is trapped eq uatio n for photosynthesis.
• Arrange the apparatus as shown in Figure 6. 10 and mOYe
thesyringebarreluntilthemeniKusisnearthetopofthe
graduationsontheruler. Thebulbshouldbeafixeddistance 6C02 + 6 H 20 ~ti~:;:: C6H 12D6 + 6 0 2
fromthesyringe,e.g.10cm
• Sv..itch on the lamp and measure the distance the meniscus
moves over 3 minutes. Repeat this several times, then calculate
an average
The process of photosynthesis
• Repeattheprocedureusingthefollov..ingconcentrations of Althoug h the d etails of photosynthesis vary in
sodiumhydrogencarbonatesolution:0.010,0.0125,0.0250,
0.0500 and 0 .1000mol dm- l .
different plants, the hypothesis as stated in this
• Plotagraphoftheconcentrationofsodium chapter has stood u p to many yea rs of experimental
hydrogencarbonatesolution{x-axis)againstthemeandistance testing and is uni ve rsally accepted. The next
travelledby themeni5eus(y-axis). sectio n d escri bes how photosynthesis takes place in
a plant.
Result The process takes place mainly in the cells of
Thehighertheconcentrationofsodiumhydrogencarbonate
5olution,thegreaterthedistancemovedby themeniscus the leaves (Fig ure 6 .11 ) and is summarised in
6 PLANT NUTRITION
Figure 6.12. In land plants water is absorbed The plant's use of photosynthetic
from the soil by the roots and carried in the products
water vessels of the veins, up the srcm to the
leaf. Carbon dioxide is absorbed from the air 111e glucose molecules produced by photosynthesis
through the stomata (pores in the leaf, see 'Leaf arc quickly built up into starch molecules and added to
structure' later in this chapter). In rhc leaf cells, the growing starch granules in the chloroplast. If the
the carbon dioxide and water are combined to glucose concentration was allowed to increase in the
make sugar. The energy for this reaction comes mesophrll cells of the leaf, it could disturb the osmotic
from sunl ight that has been absorbed by the green balance between the cells (sec 'Osmosis' in Chapter 3).
pigmcm chlorop hyll . The chlorophyll is present Starch is a relatively insoluble compound and so docs
in the chloroplasts of the leaf ce lls and it is inside not airer the osmotic potential of the cell contents.
the chlo roplasts that rhc reaction rakes place. The starch, however, is steadil y broken down
Chloroplasts (Figure 6.12 (d )) are small , green to sucrose (Chapter 4) and d1is soluble sugar is
structures present in the cytoplasm of the leaf cells. rransponcd out of the cell into the rood-carrying
Chlorophyll is the subsr.mce that gi\·es lca\·es and cells (sec Chapter 8) of the leaf veins. These \'Cins
srems their green colour. It is able to absorb will distribute the sucrose to all parts of the plant
energy from light and use it to splir water d1at do nor photosynthesise, e.g. the growing buds,
molecules into hydrogen and oxygen (the 'light' the ripening fruits, the roots and the underground
or ·Jight -dcpendent' reaction). The oxygen escapes storage organs.
from the leaf and the hydrogen molecules arc The cells in these regions will use the sucrose in a
added to carbon dioxide molecules to form sugar variety of ways (Figure 6.13).
(the 'dark' or ' light-independent' reactio n ). In
this way the light energy has been transferred into Respiration
the chemical energy of carbohydrates as t hey arc
synthesised. The sugar can be used to provide energy. It is
oxidised by respiration (Chapter 12 ) to carbon
dioxide and water, and d1e energy released is used to
drive od,er chemical reactions such as the building-
up of proteins described below.
Storage
Sugar that is no1 needed for respiration is turned into
starch and stored. Some plants store it as starch grains
in the cells of their stems or roots. Od1cr plants,
such as the potato or parsnip, have special storage
organs (tubers) for holding die reser\'cs ofsrarch
(see 'Asexual reproduction' in Chapter 16). Sugar
may be stored in the fruits of some plants; grapes, for
Rgure6.11 AllthereactiominvONedinprodudngloodtakeplacein
theleaves.NOticellowlitt~theleaveo;overlap example, contain a large amounr of glucose.
There arc four types of chlorophyll that may be

Synthesis of other substances
present in various proportions in different species. As well as sugars for ene rgy and starch for sror:igc, the
There arc also a number of photosynthetic pigments, plam needs cellulose for its cell walls, lipids for its cell
0ther than chlorophyll, which may mask the membranes, proteins for its cytoplasm and pigments
colour of chlorophyll even when iris present, e.g. lor its flower petals, etc. All these subsrances arc built
the brown and red pigments that occur in certain up (synthesised ) from the sugar ITKJlccuks and other
seaweeds. molecules produced in photosynd1c:sis.
Photosynthesis
sunlight
carrying
food made
In leaf
carbon
dioxide
diffuses
through
airspaces
to reach
cells
(d)aslnglepallsadecell (c)detallsofcellslnleafblade
Flgure6.12 Photo-;yntheo;i'iinaleaf
By joining hundreds of glucose molecules Some proteins also need sulfur molecules and
together, the long-chain molecules of cellulose these are absorbed from the soil in the form of
(Chapter 4, Figure 4.4 ) are built up and added to sulfatcs (S04 ). Phosphorus is needed for DNA
the cell walls. (Chapter 4 ) and for reactions involving energy
Amino acids (see Chapter 4 ) are made by release. It is taken up as phosphates (P04).
combining nitrogen with sugar molecules or TI1e chlorophyll molecule needs magnesium (Mg).
smaller carbohydrate molecules. TI1ese amino acids This metallic element is also obtained from salts in
are then joined together to make the proteins that the soil.
form the enzymes and the cytoplasm of the cell. Many other elements, e.g. iron, manganese,
The nitrogen for this synthesis comes from boron, are also needed in very small quantities for
nitrates which are absorbed from the soil by healthy growth. TI1ese are often referred to as
the roots. trace elements.
6 PLANT NUTRITION
t.1rbondfoxlde
and water by photosynthesis. At the same time, all the o>.ygen
:~es.
sulfates
n
V
needc:d by respiration is provided by photosynthesis.
Only when the rate of photosynthesis is fuster than
the rate of respiration will carbon dioxide be taken in
and the cxces-s oxygen given out (Figure 6. 14 ).
~~ DARKNESS BRIGHT LIGHT
···- ·~f·~· i\\

Gcoc= o, o,
~ "'"" "' co, co,
proteins I ~'" I
respiration cellI I;;,,
membrane
nophotosynttltsli r,11esofresptrat1onand
photosynthestsequal;no
exchangeofgaseswtth;ilr
photosynthesis
fisterth;in
respiration
~
walls
stored In
:::is
t~0
Flgu re6. 14 flesplraOon and photos)'!lthesis
tell structures ~a~and

and enzymes Compensation point
Flgurt6.13 Greenpbntscanmakeallthemateflalstheyneedlmm
Qrbondioxide.wateiands.ilts A5 the light intensity increases during the morning
and fades during the e\'<:ning, there will be a time
whe n the r.lte of photosynthesis exactly matches the
T he metallic and non-merallic demc:ms arc: all rakc:n ra te of respiration. Ar this point, the re will be no net
up in the fonn of their ions by the: plant roors. intake or output of carbon dioxide or oxygen. TI1is
All these chemical processes, such as the uptake: is the compensation point. The sugar produced by
of salts and the building-up ofprotc:ins, need energy photosynthesis exactly compensates fur the sugar
from respiration ro make them happen. broken down by respiration.
Gaseous exchange in plants Practical work

Air conrains the gases nitrogen, oxygen, carbon
dioxide and warc:r vapou r. Plams and animals take: in How will the gas exchange of a
or give out rhc:se last three: gases and this proces-s is plant be affected by being kept in
callc:d br:tscous exchange. the dark and in the light?
You can sec: from the equation for phorosynthesis
ThisinYeStigationmakesuseofhydrogencarbooateindicator.
that one of its prcxlucts is oxygen. Therefore, whichisatestforthepresenceofcarbondioxide. Abuild-(Jp
in daylight, when phoro~thesis is going on in of carbon dioxide turns it from pink/red to yellow. A decrease
green plants, they will be taking in carbon dioxide incarbondioxidelevel1causestheindicatortoturnpurple.
and giving our O:l.)'gen. This exchange of gases • Wa5h three boiling tubes first with tap water, then with
is the opposite of that resulting from respiration distilledwaterandfinallywithhydrogencarbonateindicator
{Chapter 12) bur it must not be thought that green (theindicatorwillchangecolooriftheboilingtubeisnot
plants do not respire. The energy they need for all clean).
their living processes - apart from photosynthesis • Then fill the three boiling tubes to abot.Jt two thirds lull with
hydrogencaibonateindicatorsolution.
- comes from respiration, and this is going on all
• Add equal -sized ~ of Canadian pondweed to tubes 1
the time, using up oxygen and producing carbon and2andsealallthetubeswithstopper5.
dioxide. • Expose tubes I and 3 to light using a bench lamp and place
During the daylight houD, plants are tube2inablad:box.orada,kcupboa,d,orwrapitin
photo~thesising as well as respiring, so that all the aluminium foil (Figure 6. 15). After 24 hot.Jrs note the coloor
carbon dioxide produced by respiration is used up of the hydrogencarbonate indicator in each tube
Photosynthesis
00 ';·
~~ ~
i/' ~
carbon dioxide is combined with hydrogen to make
carbohydrate.
limiti ng factors
Key definitio n
A limiting facto r is something present in the en,,;ronment in
~~supplythatitrestrictslifeprocesses.
If you look at Figure 6. I6(a), you will sec that an

hyclrogef'lQrbonate increase in light intensity docs indeed speed up
lndlCator(pln~ed photosynthesis, but only up to a point. Beyond
at start)
Figure 6. 15 Eiq>e!'roent to comp.ire gis exchang,e in p.l(lts kept in the rhat point, any further increase in light intensity
darkancllntllelight has only a sma11 effect. This limit on the rate of
increase could be because all available chloroplasts
Result arc fully occupied in light absorption. So, no manc r
Theindicat0fintube3(thecontron....+iichwasoriginally how much the light intensity increases, no more
pinl::/red5houldnotchangecolour;thatintube2(plantinthe light can be absorbed and used. Alrernarivcly, rhe
dark}shouldturnyellow;andintube 1 (plantinthelight}the limit could be imposed by the f.tct that there is nor
indicator5houlclbepurple enough carbon dioxide in the air to cope with rhe
Inte rpreta ti o n increased supply of hydrogen atoms produced by rhc
Hydrogencarbonateindicatorisamixtul\'ofdilutesoclium light reaction. Or, it may be that low temperature is
hydrogericarbonatesolutionwiththedyescresolredandthymol restricting the rate of the 'dark' reaction.
blue. tt is a pH indicator in equilibrium with the carbon dioxide,
i.e.itsoriginalcolourrepresentstheacidityproducedbythe Figure 6.16{b) shows that, if the tcmperatun:: ofa
carbon dicwde in the air. An increase in carbon diOJCide makes it plant i'i raised, then the effi:ct ofincn::asc:d illumination
more «idic and it changes colour from orange/red to yellow. A is not limited so much. Thus, in Figurc6.16(a), it seems
decreaseincarbondioxidemakesitlessacidandcau5esacolour likely tl1at tl1c increase in the r.ite of photOS)nthcsi'i
change to purple. couki ha,·c been limited by the «:mpcr.irure. Any one
Theresults,therefore,provideevidencethatinthelight
(tube 1) aquatic plants use up more carbon dim:ide in
of the external f.tcwn - n::mpcr.i.rurc, light imcnsit)'
photosynthesis than they produce in respiration. In darkness or carbon dioxide com:entr.u:ion - may limit the
(tube 2) the plant produces carbon diollide (from respiration). cffi:cts of the other two. A tt:mpcrarurc rise: may cause
Tube3isthecontrol,showingthatitisthepresenceofthe photosyntlxsis to speed up, but only ro the point
plant that causes a change in the solution in the boiling tube. where tlx light intensity limits further increase. In such
The ellpfflment can be criticised on the grounds that the conditions, the external fuctor that rcsrricts the effect of
hydrogericarbonateindicatorisnotaspecifictest for carbon
diollidebotwil respondtoanychangeinacidityoralkalinity.ln the others is called the limiting fuctor.
rube 1 therewouldbethesamechangeincolouriftheleaf Since there is only 0.03% of carbon dioxide in
producedanalkalinegassuchasammonia,andintube2any the air, it might seem that a shortage of carbon
acid gas produced by the leaf would turn the indicator yellow dioxide could be an important limiting fucror.
How~r. knowledge of the metabolism of the leaf suggests that Indeed, experime nts do show that an increase in
thesearelesslikelyeventsthanchangesinthecarbondiollide
carbon dioxide concentration docs allow a fusrer rare
concentration.
of photosynthesis. However, recent work in plant
physiology has shown that the extra carbon dioxide
affects reactions other than phorosynrhesis.
Effects of external factors on rate 111c main effect of extra carbon dioxide is ro slow
of photosynthesis down the rate of oxidation of sugar by a process
called photorespiratio n and this produces tl1c same
111c rate of the light reaction will depend on the cffi:ct as an increase in phorosymhcsis.
light intensity. The brighter the light, rhe faster Although carbon dioxide concentration limits
will water molecules be split in the chloroplasts. photosynthesis only indirectly, artificially high levels
111c "dark' reaction will be affi:ctcd by temperature. of carbon dioxide in greenhouses do cffi:ctivdy
A rise in temperature will increase: the rate at which increase yields of crops ( Figure 6. 17).
6 PLANT NUTRITION
Greenhouses also maintain a higher temperature

and so reduce the effect of low temperamre as a
limiting factor, and they clearly optimise the light
reaching the plants.
Parts of the world such as tropical countries often
benefit from optimum temperatures and rainfall for
crop production. H owever, greenhouses are still
often used because they allow the growers to control
how much water and nutrients the plants receive and
they can also reduce crop damage by insect pests and
disease. Sometimes rainfall is too great to benefit the
plants. In an experiment in the Seychelles in the wet
season of 1997, tomato crops in an open field yielded
2.9 kgm-2. ln a greenhouse, they yielded 6.Skgm-2.
Flgure6.17 Carmtplant1gltlYffiininmalillC}rnocentratkmsol
carboodioxidelromlelttoright
Currently tl1ere is debate about whether atl1letic

i performance is limited by the ability of tl1e heart
11~~
and lungs to supply oxygenated blood to muscles,
or by the ability of the muscles to take up and use
the oxygen.
- - - llghtlntenslty
The role of the stomata
(a) lncreaslngllghtlntenslty
The stomata (Figure 6.20) in a leaf may affect the
rate of photosynthesis according to whether they
are open or closed. When photosyntl1esis is taking
place, carbon dioxide in the leaf is being used up
and its concentration falls. At low concentrations
of carbon dioxide, the stomata will open. Thus,
when phorosynthesis is most rapid, the stomata
are likely to be open, allowing carbon dioxide
to diffuse into tl1e leaf. When the light intensity
falls, phorosynthesis will slow down and the build -
up of carbon dioxide from respiration will make
- - - llghtlntenslty the stomata close. In this way, the stomata are
(b)lncreaslngllght lntensltyandtemperature normally regulated by the rate of photosynthesis
Rgure6.16 Limmllgfactorsinphoto5)'Tlthelis rather than photosynthesis being limited by the
stomata. H owever, if the stomata close during the
The concept oflimiting factors does not apply only daytime as a result of excessive water loss from the
to photosynthesis. Adding fertiliser to the soil, for leaf, their closure will restrkt photosynthesis by
example, may increase crop yields, but only up to the preventing the inward diffusion of atmospheric
point where the roots can take up all the nutrients carbon dioxide.
and the plant can build them into proteins, etc. The Normally the stomata are open in the daytime and
uptake of mineral ions is limited by the absorbing closed at night. Their closure at night, when intake
area of the roots, rates of respiration, aeration of carbon dioxide is not necessary, reduces the loss
of the soil and availability of carbohydrates from of water vapour from the leaf (see 'Transpiration' in
photosynthesis. Chapter8).
Leaf structure
\·cins that ddi\'er water and salrs to the leaf cells and
• Leaf structure carry away the food made by them.
1l1e relationship between a le::if and the rest of the As well as carrying food and water, the network of
plant is described in Ch::ipter 8. \·cins forms a kind of skele ton that supports rhe sofi:er
A typical leaf of a bro::id-le::i\·ed plant is shown in tissues of the leaf blade.
Figure 6 . 18(a). (Figure 6.18(b) shows a transverse 1l1e leaf blade (o r lamina) is broad. A vertical
section thro ugh the le::if.) his ::in:::ichcd to the stem section through a small pan of ::i le::if blade is shown
by a leaf stalk , which continues into the leaf as a in Figure 6.18(c ) and Figure 6.19 is ::i photograph of
nl.idrib . Branching from the midrib is a network of a leaf section under the microscope.
(b)tranwer,e..ction
spongy
mHOphytl
epidermis
~ylem
~ssel
guardcell ~In phlo.m
,i...,etube
Flgure6.18 Wfstructure
6 PLANT NUTRITION
Flgure6.19 Transver,;esectionlhrougha~af(x30)
Epidermis Mesophyll
The epidermis is a single layer of cells on the upper The tissue between the upper and lower
and lower surfaces of the leaf. There is a thin waxy epidermis is c.alled mesop h yll (Figure 6.18 (c )) .
layer called the cuticle over the epidermis. It consists of two zones: the upper palisade
mesop h yll and the lower spongy mesop h yll
Stomata ( Figure 6.23 ). The palisade cells are usually long
In the leaf epidermis there are structures called and contain many chloroplasts. Chloroplasts
stomata (singular - stoma). A stoma consists of a are green organelles, due to the presence of the
pair of guard cells (Figure 6.20 ) surrounding an pigment chlorophyll, found in the cytoplasm
opening or stomata] pore. In most dicotyledons of the photosynthesising cells. The spongy
(i.e. the broad-leaved plants; see 'Features of mesophyll cells vary in shape and fit loosely
organisms' in Chapter 1), the stomata occur only in together, leaving many air spaces between them.
the lower epidermis. In monocotyledons (i.e. narrow- They also contain chloroplasts.
leaved plants such as grasses) the stomata are equally
distributed on both sides of the leaf. Veins (vascular bundles)
The main vein of the leaf is called the midrib. Other
veins branch off from this and form a network
throughout the leaf. Vascular bundles consist of two
different types of tissues, called xylem and phloem.
The xylem vessels are long thin tubes with no cell
contents when mature. They have thickened cell
walls, impregnated with a material called lignin,
which can form distinct patterns in the vessel walls,
e.g. spirals (see Chapter 8 ). Xylem carries water and
salts to cells in the leaf. TI1e phloem is in the form
of sieve tubes. The ends of each elongated cell are
perforated to form sieve plates and the cells retain
their contems. Phloem transports food substances
such as sugars away from the leaf to other parts of
the plant.
Flgure6.20 Stomataintheklwerepidermisofa~af (x350)
Leaf structure
"&lbl e6 1 Summ.,ryofpartsof a feaf
M..deofwax,waterproofingtheleaf.1ti1seaetedbycel!softheupperepklermi1
upper The5ecell1areth inalldtransparenttoallowlighttop;mth rou gh . Nochklroplastsarep resentlheyacta1aba.rlil'rtodise;i5e
epidermis orgamsms
palisade The main region for photo1ynthe1il . cen1 a.re columnar {quite long) and packed with chloroplasts to tr;ip light energy Tiley rl'(eive
;.,~"""'"I carbo n dioxideb diffusion ffom air !{)Ml.'I in the 1~ ,=~= hvll
spongy The5ecell1aremore1ophe1kalandloo5elypacked. Theycoota inchloroplast1,butootasmanya1 inpalisadecell1.Air1opac:l.'lbetween
mesophyll cell1allowgaseoo1exchange - carbon cioxidetothecells,oxygenfrom thecell1duringphotosynthe'ii1
va,;c:ular Toil i1 a leaf vein, made up of xylem and phloem . Xylem Vl.'l5elsbfingwater and minerals to the leaf. Phloemve11el1 transport sugars
bundle omd amino adds away (this is u lted translocaticm )
Thilactlasaprotectivelayer. Stomataarepre1enttoregulatethel011olwate1vapour (th i1i1 caHedtrampiratioo). 1tisthe1ileof
e idermis l oaseousexchaooeintoa.ndouto f theleaf
stomata Each stoma is 1Urmunded by a pa ir of guard cells. These tan rnntml whether the stoma i1 op,>n or closed. Water vapour passes oot
duriootra111·ratioo.Carboo dioxidedittllSl'linand-·n-diffusesoutdurin1nhoto1vothesi1
Functions of parts of the leaf

Epidermis
TI1e epidermis helps to keep the leaPs shape .
The closely fitting cells (Figure 6 .1 8(c)) reduce
evaporation from the leaf and preve nt bacte ria and
fim gi fro m getting in. The cuticle is a waxy layer
lying over the epidermis, which hel ps to reduce
ware r loss. It is produced by the epidermal cells.
Stomata
Changes in the turgor (see 'O smosis' in Chapter 3)
and shape of the guard cells can open or d ose the
stomata] pore . ln very general terms, stomata are
open during the hours of daylight but closed during
the evening and most of the night (Figure 6.21 ).
TI1is pattern, howeve r, varies greatly with the plant
species. A satisfactory explanation of stomaral
rhythm has not been worked out, but when the
stomata are open (i.e . mostly during daylight ), they
allow carbon dioxide to diffuse into the leaf where it
is used for photosynthesis.
If the stomata close , the carbon dioxide
supply to the leaf cells is virtually cut off and
photosynthesis stops. H owever, in many species,
Flgure6.21 Stoma
the stomata are closed during the h ours of
darkness, when photosynthesis is not taking place
anyway. TI1e detailed mechanism by which stomata open
It seems, therefore, that stomata allow carbon and close is not fully understood , but it is kn own
dioxide into the leaf when photosymhesis is taking that in the light, the potassium concentration in
place and preve nt excessive loss of water vapour (see the guard cell vacuoles increases . This lowers tl1e
'Transpiration ' in Chapter 8) when photosynthesis water potential (see ' O smosis' in C hapter 3) of the
stops, but the story is likely to be more complicated cell sap and water enters tl1e guard c.ells by osmosis
than this. from their neighbouring epid ermal cells. This
6 PLANT NUTRITION
inflow of water raises the turgor pressure inside the and water molecules to make sugar molecules as
guard cells. described earlier in tl1is chapter.
The cell wall next to the stomatil pore is thicker In daylight, when photosynthesis is rapid, tl1e
than elsewhere in the cell and is less able to stretch mesophyll cells are using up carbon dioxide. As
( Figure 6.22 ). So, although the increased turgor a result, the conc.entration of carbon dioxide in
tends to expand the whole guard cell, the thick iimer tl1e air spaces fulls to a low level and more carbon
wall cannot expand. This causes the guard cdls to dioxide diffuses in ( Chapter 3 ) from the outside
curve in such a way that the stomata! pore between air, through the stomata (Figure 6.23 ). This
them is opened. diffusion continues through the air spaces, up to
tl1e cells which are using carbon dioxide. These
cells are also producing oxygen as a by-product of
photosynthesis. When the concemration of oxygen
in the air spaces rises, it diffuses out through
tl1estomata.
Vascular bundles
The water needed for making sugar by
photosynthesis is brought to the mesophyll cells by
tl1e veins. The mesophyll cells tike in tl1e water by
osmosis (Chapter 3) because the concentration of
free water molecules in a leaf cell, which contiins
sugars, will be less than the concentration of
Rgure6.22 Structu/l'olguardcel/5 water in the water vessels of a vein. The branching
network of leaf veins means that no cell is very fur
When potassium ions leave the guard cell, the from a water supply.
water potential rises, water passes our of the cells by The sugars made in the mesophyll cells are passed
osmosis, the turgor pressure fulls and the guard cells to the phloem cells (Chapter 8) of the veins, and
straighten up and close the stoma. these cells carry the sugars away from the leaf into
Where the potassium ions come from and what the stem.
triggers their movement into or out of the guard The ways in which a leaf is thought to be well
cells is still under active investigation. adapted to its function of photosynthesis are listed in
You will notice from Figures 6.21 and 6.22 the next paragraph.
that the guard cells are the only epidermal cells
containing chloroplasts. At one time it was Adaptation of leaves for
thought that the chloroplasts built up sugar by photosynthesis
photosynthesis during daylight, that the sugars made
the cdl sap more concentrated and so caused the When biologists say that something is adapted, they
increase in turgor. In fuct, little or no photosynthesis mean that its strncture is well suited to its function.
takes place in tl1ese chloroplasts and tl1eir function The detiiled structure of the leaf is described in the
has nor been explained, though it is known that first section of this chapter and although there are
starch accumulates in tl1em during tl1e hours of wide variations in leaf shape, tl1e follo\\ing general
darkness. In some species of plants, the guard cells statements apply to a great many lea\·es, and are
have no chloroplasts. illustrated in Figures 6.lS (b) and (c).
Me.sophyll • Their broad, flat shape offers a large surf.tee area
The function of the palisade cells and - to a lesser for absorption of sunlight and carbon dioxide.
extent - of the spongy mesophyll cells is to make • Most leaves are thin and the carbon dioxide only
food by photosynthesis. Their chloroplasts absorb has to diffuse across short distances to reach the
sunlight and use its energy to join carbon dioxide inner cells.
Mineral requirements
• The large spaces between cells inside t he leaf will reach the chlo ro plasts wit ho ut being absorbed
provide an easy passage t h rough which carbon by too many cell walls.
dioxid e can diffuse. • The branching ne twork of \'c:i ns provid es a good
• There arc many sto mata (pores) in the lower water suppl y to the photosynthesising cells. No
surfucc: of the leaf. 111ese allow the exchange: of cell is very fur fro m a water-conducting vessel in
carbon dioxide and oxyge n with the air outside. one of these veins.
• There a rc mo re chlo ro plasts in the upper
Although photosynthesis takes place mainl y in the
(palisade: ) ce lls than in the lower (spo ngy
ka,·c:s, any part of the plant thar contains chlorophyll
mcsophyll ) cells. The palisade cells, being on the
will photosynthesise. Man y plants have g reen stems
upper surface, will receive most sunlight and this
in which photosynthesis takes place .
of the cell. N itrates arc absorbed from t he soil by the

• Mineral requirements roots.
Plants need a sou rce ofnimne ions (NOr ) for Magnesium ions ( Mg2.. )are needed ro form
making amino acids (Chapter 4 ). Amino acids arc chlorophyll, the phorosynthctic pig ment in chloroplascs.
im portant because they arc jo ined together to make Thls metallic clement ~ also obt.lined in salis fro m dx: soil
proteins., needed to form t he e nzymes and cytoplas m (sec the salts listed under 'Water cultures' o n page 82).
6 PLANT NUTRITION
Sources of mineral elements and nutrien ts. It is someti mes mixed with calci um
effects of their deficiency carbonate to form a compound fertiliser such as
'Nitro-chalk'.
The substances mentioned previously (nitrates,
Superphosphatcs
magnesium ) arc ofi:cn referred to as 'mineral salts'
These fertili sers arc mixtures of miner:i.ls. They
or 'mineral dcmenrs'. If any mineral clement is
all contain calcium and phosphate and some have
lacking, or deficient, in the soil then the plants may
sulfa.tcaswell.
show visible deficiency symptoms.
Many slow-growing wild plants will show no Compound N PK fertiliser
deficiency symptoms even on poor soils. Fast-growing 'N' is the chemical symbol for nitroge n, •p• for
crop plants, o n the other hand, will show disrinct phospho rus and ' K' for potassium. N PK krtiliscrs
deficiency symptoms though these will vary according arc made by mi xing ammonium sulfa.te, ammonium
to the species of plant. If nitrate ions are in short phosphate and pomssium chloride in varying
supply, the plant \\~ll show Stunted growth. The stem proportions. They provide the ions of nitrate,
becomes weak. 111c lower leaves become yellow and phosphate and potassium, which arc the ones
die, while the upper leaves mm pale green. If the plant most likely to be below the optimum level in an
is deficient in magnesium, it will not be able to make agricultural soil.
magnesium. The leaves tum yellow from the bottom
of the stem upwards (a process called chlorosis ). Water cultures
Farmers and gardeners can recognise these symptoms
It is possible to dcmonsrr:i.tc the importance of the
and rake Steps to replace die missing miner.ils.
various mine r;il elements by growing plants in water
The miner:i.l elements needed by plants arc absorbed
c1Llmrcs. A full water culture is a solution containing
from the soil in the fonn of salts. For ex.ample, a
the salts that pr0\1de all the necessary elements for
plant's needs lor porassium (K) and nitrogen (N )
healthy growth, such as
might be met by absorbing the ions of the salt
potassium nitrate ( KN0 3). Salts like this come • potassium nirrare for potassium and nitrogen
originally from rocks, which have been broken down • magnesium sulfa.te for magnesium and sulfur
to form the soil. 1l1ey are continually being taken up
from the soil by plants or washed out of the soil by • potassium phosphate for potassium and
rain. l11ey are replaced partly from the dead remains phosphorus
of plants and animals. When these organisms die and • calcium nitrate for calcium and nitrogen.
d1cir bodies decay, the salts they contain arc released
back into the soil. This process is explained in some From these elements, plus the carbon dioxide, warc r
detail, for nitr:i.tcs, in Chapter 19 'Nutrient cycles'. and sunlight needed for photosynthesis, a green
In arablc: fa.rming, the grorn1d is ploughed and plant can make all the subsrances it needs for a
what.ever is grown is removed. There are no dead healthy existence.
pkmts )c:fi: to decay and replace the mineral salts. Some branches ofhoniculrure, e.g. growi ng of
The furmcr must replace them by spreading animal glasshouse crops, make use of water cultures on a
manure, sewage sludge or artificial fertilisers in large scale . Sage plants may be grown with their
measured quantities over the land. roots in flat polyrhcne tubes. 1l1e appropriate
Three manufucmred fertilisers in common water culture solution is pumped along these tubes
use arc ammo nium nitr.1.tc, superphosphatc and (Figure 6.24 ). This method has the advantage that
compound NPK the yield is increased and the need to sterilise the soil
each year, to desrroy pests, is eliminated. This kind
Ammonium nitrate (NH 4N0 3)
of technique is sometimes described as hydroponics
The formula shows that ammo nium nitrate is
a rich source o f nitrogen but no other plant or soil-less culture.
Mineral requirement5
seedling
culture
solution
aluminium
foll to exclude
light
Practical work
The importance of different
mineral elements
• Place wheat seedlings in test-tubes containing water cultures
asshowninFigure6.25
• Cover the tubes with aluminium foil to keep out light and 50
stopgreenalgaefromgrowinginthesolution.
• Some of the solutions have one of the elements mis.sing. For
example, magnesium chloride is used instead of magnesium
sulfateand50the50lutionwilllacksulfur.lnasimilarway, normal culture
solutions lacking nitrogen, potas.sium and pho~orus can solution nitrates calcium phosphatl!S
be prepared Flgure 6.26 Resultolwaterrultureexper imeot
• LeavetheseedlingstogfO'Ninthese50lutionsforafew
weeks, keeping the tubes topped up with distilled water.
Inte rpre tati o n
Result Thehealthyplantinthefullcultureisthecontrol andshowsthat
The kind of result that might be expected from wheat seedlings this method of raising plants does not affect them. The other,
isshowninFigure6.26.Generally,theplantsinacomplete less healthy plants show that a full range of mineral elements is
necess.ary for normal growth.
culturewillbetallandsturdy,withlarge,darkgreenleaves.
Theplantslackingnitrogenwillusuallybestuntedand Qu a ntitati ve res ul ts
have small, pale leaves. In the absence of magnesium, Althoughtheeffectsofmineraldeficiencyc.anusuallybeseen
chlorophyll cannot be made, and these plants will be small simplybylookingatthewheatseedlings, itisbetterifactual
with yellow leaves. measurements are made
6 PLANT NUTRITION
Theheightofthe~t.orthetotallengthofalltheleaveson solutionareplacedinanothercontainer;andsoonforallthe
oneplant,canbemeasured. Thetotalrootlengthcanalsobe plantsfromthedifferentsolutions.The~tsarethendriedat
measured, though this is difficult if root growth is profuse. 110°Cfor24hoursandweighed.Thesameproc:edurecanbe
Alternatively, the d ry we ight of the shoots and roots can be carriedoutfortheroots.
measured. lnthiscase,itisbesttopooltheresultsofseveral You would expect the roots and !.hoots from the complete
experiments. All the shoots from the oomplete culture are placed culture to weigh more than those from the nutrient-deficient
inalabelledcontainer;allthosefromthe'nonitrate'culture cultures
Q uesti ons
Core
o.o,o j
0.038
1 a Whatsubstancesmustaplanttakein,inordertocarry
on photosynthesis? ,.,0.036
b Where does it get each of these substances from? 8"#.0.034
2 Lookatfigure6.23{a}.ldentifythepalisadecells,the
spongymesophyllcellsandthecellsoftheepidermis.ln 0.032
which of these would you expect photosynthesis to occur:
a mostrapidly 0.030
b leastrapidly
c notatall?
Explain your answers.
3 a Whatprovidesaplantwithenergyforphotosynthesis?
!
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
midnight
b Whatchemicalprocessprovidesaplantwithenergyto Rgure6.27 Dallychangeslnconcentratlonofcarbondloxlde
carryonallotherlivingactivities? lmetreaboveaplantcrop
4 Lookatfigure6.23. Whydoyouthinkthatphotosynthesis
doesnottakeplacein thecellsoftheepidermis? 10 Whatgaseswouldyouexpecta leaf to be (i) taking in and
5 Duringbrightsunlight,whatgasesare: (ii) givingout
a passingoutoftheleafthroughthestomata a inbrightsunlight
b enteringtheleafthroughthestomata? b indarkness?
11 Measurements on a leaf !.how that it is giving out carbon
Extended dioxideandtakinginoxygen.Doesthisprovethat
6 a Whatsubstancesdoesagreenplantneedtotakein, to photosynthesisisnotgoingonintheleaf?Explainyour
make:
i sugar 12 How could you adapt the experiment with
ii proteins? hydrogencarbonateindicatoronpage74tofindthelight
b Whatmustbepresentinthecellstomakereactions intensity that corresponded to the compensation point?
i and ii work? 13 How would you expect the compensation points to differ
7 A molecule of carbon dioxide enters a leaf cell at 4 p.m. between plants growing in a wood and those growing in a
and leaves the same cell at 6 p.m. What is likely to have field?
happenedtothecarbondioxidemoleculeduringthe 14 Whatarethefunctionsof:
2hoursitwasintheleafcell? a theepidermis
8 In a partially controlled environment such as a greenhouse b themesophyllofaleaf?
a howcouldyoualtertheexternalfactorstoobtain
15 In some plants, the stomata dose for a period at
maximum photosynthesis about midday. Suggest some po55ible advantages and
b whichofthe5ealterationsmightnotbecosteffective? disadvantagesofthistotheplant.
g Figure6.27isagraph!.howingtheaveragedailychange
16 What salts would you put in a water culture which is to
in the carbon dioxide concentration, 1 metre above an contain no nitrogen?
agricultural crop in July. From what you have learned about 17 How can a floating pond plant, such as duckweed, survive
photosynthesisandrespiration,trytoexplainthechanges without having its roots in soil?
in the carbon dioxide concentration. 18 In the water culture experiment, why should a lack of
nitrate cause reduced growth?
Mineral requirement5
19 Figure 6.28 shows the increased yield of winter wheat in

responsetoaddingmorenitrogenousfertiliser.
a If the applied nitrogen is doubled from 50 to 100kg
per hectare, how much extra wheat does the farmer
''"'
b If the applied nitrogen is doubled from 100 to 200kg
per hectare, how much extra wheat is obtained?
c What sort of calculations will a farmer need to make
beforedecidingtoincreasetheappliednitrogenfrom
150to200kgperhectare?
appllednltrogen(topdresslng)/kgperhectare
Flgu re6.28
Checklist • lndarkness,aplantwillbetakinginoxygenandgivingout
carbon dioxide.
AfterstudyingChapter6youshouldknowandunderstandthe
• Experimentstotestphotosynthesisaredesignedtoexclude
following :
light, or carbon dioxide, or chlorophyll, toseeiftheplantcan
• Photosynthesis is the way plants make their food still produce starch.
• They combine carbon dioxide and water to make sugar. • Astarchtestcanbecarriedouttotestifphotosynthesishas
• To do this, they need energy from sunlight, which is absorbed occurred in a leaf.
by chlorophyll. • Leaveshaveastructurewhichadaptsthemfor
• Chlorophyll converts light energy to chemical energy. photosynthesis.
• The word equation to represent photosynthesis is • Plantsneedasupplyofnitrateionstomakeproteinand
light energy magnesium ions to make chlorophyll.
carbon dioxide+ water --------.. glucose+ oxygen
chlorophyll • Thebalancedchemicalequationforphotosynthesisis
• Plantleavesareadaptedfortheprcx:essofphotosynthesisby light energy
6C01 + 6Hi0 - -- C6H1106 + 601
beingbroadandthin,withmanychloroplastsintheircells chlorophyll
• From the sugar made by photosynthesis, a plant can make
• Therateofphotosynthesismayberestrictedbylight
alltheothersubstancesitneeds,providedithasa">Upplyof
intensity and temperature. Theseare'limitingfactors'.
mineral salts like nitrates.
• Glasshouses can be used to create optimal conditions for
• In daylight, respirationandphotosynthesi s willbetaking
photosynthesis
placeinaleaf;indarkness,onlyre5pirationwillbetaking
• Nitrate ions are needed to make proteins; magnesium ions
place.
are needed to make chlorophyll.
• lndaylight,aplantwillbetakingincarbondioxideandg iving
out oxygen.
f,\7 Human nutrition
\.!_}------
Diet Mec ha ni ca l di gestion
Balanced diet Teeth
Soun::e5 and importance of food groups Dentaldeci!y
Malnutrition Tooth care
Kwa'i.hiorkor and marasmus Che mi ca l d igestio n
Importance
Alim e nta ry ca na l Sites of enzyme secretion
Definitionsofdigestion,ab'iOrption,assimilation,egestion Functions of enzymes and hydrochloric acid
Regionsofthealimentaryc.analandtheirfunctions Rolesofbileandenzymes
Diarrhoea
Cholera
Absorptio n
How cholera affects osmosis in the gut Role of small intestine
Absorption of water
Significance of villi
Th e need fo r foo d
All living organisms need food. An important
e Diet
difli:rence between plants and animals is that green Ba la nced diet s
plants can make food in their leaves but animals have
A balanced diet must contain enough carbohydrates
ro take it in 'ready-made' by eating plants or the
and futs to meet our energy needs. It must also contain
bodies of other animals. In all plants and animals,
enough protein of the right kind to pro\'ide the essential
food is used as follows:
amino acids to make new cells and tissues for growth or
For g rowth repair. The diet must also contain vitamins and mineral
salts, plant fibre and water. The composition of four
It provides the substances needed for making new
food samples is shown in Figure 7.1.
cells and tissues.
As a so urce of e nergy white meal

fish bread
Energy is required for the chemical reactions
that rake place in living organisms to keep
them alive. When food is broken down during
respiration (see Chapter 12 ), the energy from
the food is used for chemical reactions such as
building complex molecules (Chapter 4 ). In
animals the energy is also used for activities such
as movement, the heart beat and nerve impulses.
Mammals and birds use energy to maintain their
body temperature.
For rep laceme nt of worn a nd da maged

tissues
The substances provided by food are needed to ~ w ater ~ flbre ~ carbohydrate
replace the millions of our red blood cells that ~ fat - protein
break down each day, to replace the skin that is
Flgure7.1 Anarialy.,isoffaurloods.amph>s
worn away and to repair wounds. Note: Thep,>rcmtageofwaterindudesanys.att1,mdvilamins.The1eare
widevariationsinthecompositiooofanygrl'enfoods.i~..c:con!ing
toitssourceandthemethodofpn.>SerV.ition aodcooking. "Whitefilh"
(e.g.cod.haodock,plaice)contains only0.5%fatwhereasherringand
mackerelrnntainupto14%.Whitetxeadcontainsonly2- 3%fbe
Fryingthefoodgreatly addstoit1fatcontent
Diet
En ergy requirements maintains the circulation, breathing, body

temperature, brain function and essential chemical
Energy can be obtained from carbohydrates, futs and
processes in the liver and other organs.
proteins. The cheapest energy-giving food is usuall y
carbohydrate; the greatest amount of energy is If the diet includes more food tl1an is needed to
supply the energy demands of the body, the surplus
available in futs; proteins give about the same energy
food is stored eitl1er as glycogen in tlte liver or as fat
as carbohydrates but are expensive. Whatever mixture
of carbohydrate, fat and protein makes up the diet, below tl1e skin and in tl1e abdomen.
In 2006, the Food Standards Agency in Britain
the total energy must be sufficient:
recommended that, for a balanced diet, 50% of our
• ro keep our internal body processes working energy intake should be made up of carbohydrate,
(e.g. heart beating, breathing action) 35% of fat (with not more titan II % saturated fat )
• to keep up our body temperature, and and the remaining percentage made up of fibre.
• to meet the needs of work and other activities.
11te amount of energy that can be obtained from a
food is measured in calories or joules. One gram ~ 15000
of carbohydrate or protein can provide us with
16 or 17 kJ (kilojoules). A gram of fut can give 1
~ 10000
37kJ. We need to obtain about 12 OOOkJ of energy
each day from our food. Table 7.1 shows how this
figure is obtained. However, the figure will vary
greatly according to our age, occupation and activity
'!
~ 5000
(Figure 7.2). It is fairly obvious that a person who

does hard manual work, such as digging, will use very active
more energy titan someone who sits in an office. Flgure7.2 The{hangingenergyfl'QuirementswithageandactJVity
Similarly, someone who takes part in a lot of sport
will need more energy input than someone who
doesn't do much physical exercise. Prote in requirements
Females tend to ha\·e lower energy requirements Proteins are an essential part of the diet because tltey
than males. Two reasons for this are that females supply the amino acids needed to build up our own
have, on average, a lower body mass titan males, body structures. Estimates ofhow much protein
which has a lower demand on energy intake, and we need have changed over tl1e last few years. A
there are also different physical demands made on recent WH O/FAO/UNU report recommended
boys and girls. H owever, an active female may well that an average person needs 0.57 g protein for e,·ery
have a higher energy requirement titan an inactive kilogram ofbody weight. 11tat is, a 70kg person
male of the same age. would need 70 x 0.57 - 39.9, i.e. about 40g protein
A.5 children grow, the energy requirement increases per day.
because of the energy demands of the growtlt process This could be supplied by about 200g (7 ounces)
and the extra energy associated with maintaining lean meat or 500 g bread but 2 kg potatoes would be
their body temperature. H owever, metabolism, and needed to supply this much protein and even tltis will
therefore energy demands, tends to slow down with not contain all the essential amino acids.
age once we become adults due to a progressive loss
ofmuscletissue. Vegeta rian and vegan diets
"&lble7.1 Enerqyrequ iremoots ink.J
11tere is relatively less protein in food derived from
plants than there is in animal products. Vegetarians
8hoor5asleep
8h(xmaw.ike;relativelyinactivephysially
and semi-vegetarians, who include dairy products,
Bho(mph~iGllfy~e
eggs and possibly fish in their diets, will obtain
sufficient protein to meet tlteir needs (Table 7.2 ).
However, some vegetarian foods now contain
11te 2400kJ used during 8 hours' sleep represents relatively high proportions of protein: QJ1or11
the energy needed for basal metabolism , which products (made from mycoprotein - derived from
7 HUMAN NUTRITION
fimgi) typically contain 14.5g protein per 100 g, themselves are broken down to provide the energy
compared \\'ith 18.0g protein per IOOg for beef to stay alive. TI'lis leads to loss of weigln, muscle
sausage, and they do not connin animal f.us. Vegans, wastage, weakness and ultimately starvatio n .
who ear no animal products, need to ensure that their Extreme slimming diets, such as those that avoid
diets include a good variety of cereals, peas, beans carbohydrate foods, can result in the disease anorexia
and nuts in order to obnin all the essential amino nen'osa.
acids to build their body proteins. Coronary heart disease can occur when the diet
contains too much f.u (see 'Heart' in Chapter 9 ).
Specia l needs Deposits of a &ny subsnnce build up in the arteries,
Pregnancy reducing rhe diameter of these blood vessels,
A pregnant woman who is alread}' receiving an including the coronary artery. Blood dots are then
adequate diet needs no extrn food. Her body's more likely to form. Blood supply to the heart can
metabolism will adapt to the demands of the growing be reduced resulting in :rngina ( chest pains when
baby although the demand for energy and protein exercising or climbing stairs, for example) and
does increase. If, however, her diet is deficient in e\'enrually a coronary heart :1.tt:.tck.
protein, calcium , iron, vitamin D or folic acid, she If food intake is drastically inadequate, it is likely
will nc:ed to increase her intake of these substances to that rhe diet will also be deficient in proteins,
meet the needs of the baby. TI1e baby need s protein minerals and vitamins so rhat deficiency diseases
for making its tissues, calcium and \'itamin Dare such as anaemia, rickets and scurvy also make an
needed for bone development, and iron is used to appearance. Scurvy is caused by a lack of vitamin C
make the haemoglobin in its blood. (ascorbic acid) in the diet. Vitamin C is present in
cirrus fruit such as lemons, blackcurrants, tomatoes,
Lactation fresh green vegetables and pontocs. It is not
'Lactation' means the production ofbreast milk for unusual for people in developed countries who rely
feeding the baby. The production of milk, rich in on processed food such as tinned products, rather
proteins and minerals, makes a large demand on the than eating fresh produce, to suffer from scurvy.
mother's resources. If her diet is already adequate, Symptoms of scurvy include bleeding under the
her metabolism will adjust to these demands. skin, swollen and bleeding gums and poor healing
Otherwise, she may need to increase her intake of of wounds. The victims of malnutrition due to food
proteins, vitamins and calcium to produce milk of deficiencies such as those mentioned above will
adequate quality and quantity. also have reduced resist;ince to infectious diseases
such as malaria or measles. Tims, the symptoms of
Growing chi ldren malnutrition are usuall y the outcome ofa variety of
Most children up to the age of about 12 years causes, bur all resulting from an inadequate diet.
need less food than adults, but they need more in The causes o f malnutritio n can be fumine due to
proportion co their body weight. For example, an drouglu or flood, soil erosion, wars, too little land for
adult may need 0.57g protein per kg body weight, = many people, ignorance of proper dietary needs
bur a 6-11 -month baby needs 1.85 g per kg and a but, above all, poverty. Malnourished populations
10-year-old child needs l.Og per kg for growth. In are often poor and cannot afford to buy enough
addition, children need extra calcium for growing nutritious food.
bones, iron for rhdr red blood ce lls, vitamin D to help
calcify their bones and vitamin A for disease resistance. World food
The world population doubled in the last 30 years
Malnutrition bur food production, globally, rose even fuster. The
Malnutrition is often taken to mean simply not 'Green Rt:volution' of the 1960s greatly increased
gening enough food, but it has a much "1der global food production by introducing high -yielding
meaning than this, including getting too much food varieties of crops. However, these varieties needed a
or the wrong sort of food. high input of ferti liser and the use of pesticides, so
If the total innkc of food is not sufficient to only the wealthy furmers could afford to use them.
meet the body's need for energy, the body tissues Moreover, since 1984, the yields are no longer rising
Diet
fast enough to feed the growing population or keep affected. Where cash crops are grown, it migl1t be
pace with the loss of farmland due to erosion and better to use the land, where suitable, to cultivate
--~·
urbanisation. food crops.
It is estimated that, despite the global increase
in food production, 15% of the world population
is undernourished and 180 million children are
underweight (Figure 7.4).
/~~~f ~r;::1r: ~ _?~~-~~:

l11ere are no obvious, easy or unh•ersal solutions
to this situation. Genetically modified crops (see
'Genetic engineering' in Chapter 20 ) may hold
out some hope but they are some way off There is
resistance to their introduction in some countries
because of concerns about their safety, gene transfer
to wild plants or animals, the creation of allergies, . , - . ·J ·-~:.""r~
the cost of seed and, with some GM seed, the Flgure7 .3 Anewpa lm oil plantatKJO.replacingarainfore'il
necessity to buy particular pesticides to support
them. Redistribution of food from the wealthy to the l11e agricultural practices need to be sustainable
poorer countries is not a practical proposition except and not result in erosion. Nearly one -third of the
in emergencies, and the process can undermine local world's crop-growing land has had to be abandoned
economies. in the last 40 years because erosion has made it
l11e strategies adopted need to be tailored to the unproductive. Over-irrigation can also cause a build -
needs and climate of individual countries. Crops up in soil salinity, making the land effectively sterile
suited to the region should be grown. Millet and due to the osmotic problems the salt creates (see
sorghum grow fur better in dry regions than do 'Osmosis' in Chapter 3). Conservation ofland, water
rice or wheat and need little or no irrigation. Cash and energy is essential for sustainable agriculture. A
crops such as coffee, tea or cotton can earn foreign reduction in the growth of the world's population, if
currency but have no food value and do not feed it could be achieved, would ha\'e a profound effect in
the local population. There has been a surge in the reducing malnutrition.
production of palm oil (Figure 7.3 ) due to world Apart from the measures outlined above, lives
demand for the product as a biofuel as well as for could be saved by such simple and inexpensive
food manufucture. This has resulted in deforestation steps as provision of regular vitamin and mineral
to provide land to grow the crop and is putting supplements. It is estimated that about 30 million
endangered species at risk of extinction. Countries children are deficient in vitamin A. This deficiency
such as Indonesia and Malaysia have been particularly leads to blindness and death if untreated.
c::::::::J low rlsk
c::::J medlumrlsk
- hlghrlsk
c::::::::J datalncomplete
Flgure7 .4 Coontfie1wilh popul.ition 1.it riskofiriadequatenutritioo

7 HUMAN NUTRITION
Western diets of peristalsis ( Figure 7.14) to move food through

In the afllucnr societies, e.g. USA and Europe, there the gur more efficiently and may also protect the
is no general shortage of food and most people can intestines from cancer and o the r disorders. As
affurd a diet with an adequate energy and protein explained later, fibre helps prevent constipation .
content. So, few people are undernourished. Eating Overweig ht a nd obesity
roo much food or food of the 'wrong' sort, howe,·er,
leads t0 malnutritio n ofa difltrenr kind. These are different degrees of the same disorde r.
If you take in more food than your body needs
Refined sugar (sucrose) for energy, growth and replacement, the excess is
This is a ,·cry conccnmucd source of energy. You convened to far and srored in fat deposits under the
can absorb a !or of sugar from biscuits, ice-cream, skin or in the abdomen.
sweets, soft drinks, tinned fruits and sweet tea Obese people are more likely to sufltr from
without ever feeling 'full up'. So you tend to take in high blood pressure, coronary heart disease (sec
more sugar than you r body needs, which may lead the previous section on malnutrition) and diabetes
ro you becoming overweight or obese. The food (Chapter 14 ). Having extrn weig ht to carry also
industry has been urged to reduce the sugar content makes you reluctant to rake exercise. By measuring
ofits products to help curb the increase in obesity in a person's height and body mass, it is possible to use
counrries like Grear Britain and America. a chart ro predict whether or 11 0 1 they have an ideal
Sugar is also a major cause of tooth decay (see body mass (Figure 7.5 ).
'Mechanical digestion'). Why some people: should be prone to obesity
is unclear. 111c:rc: may be a genetic predisposition,
Fats in which the brain centre that responds to food
Fatty dcposirs, called 'plaques', in the arteries can intake may nor signal when sufficient food has been
lead to coronary bean disease: and strokes (see taken in; in some cases it may be the outcome: o f an
'Hean' in Chapter 9 ). These plaques are formed infectious disease. Whau:ver the cause:, the remedy is
to reduce food intake to a level that matches bur docs
from lipids and choleste ro l combined with proteins
(low density lipoprotcins o r LDLs). Altho ugh the not exceed the body's needs. Taking exercise helps,
lh•cr makes LDLs, there is C\'idence to suggest that a bm it rakes a great deal of exercise: to 'burn off' even
high intake off.us, particularly animal futs, helps raise a small amount of surplus fut.
the level of LDLs in the blood and increase the risk
of plaque formation.
Most animal f.us are formed from saturated fatty
acids, so called because of their molecular structure.
Planr oils are formed from unsat urated futty acids
(polyunsaturates ) and arc thought less likely to
cause fatty plaques in the arteries. For this reason,
vegetable fats and certain margarines are considered,
by some nutritionists, to be healthier than butter and
cream. However, there is still much debate about the
evidence for this.
Fib re
Many ofrhc processed foods in Western diets contain
too little: fibre. White bread, for example, has had m~ss1kg
the fibre (bran) removed. A lac!:. of fibre: can result Flgu re7.5 ldealbodymassch¥t
in constipation (sec ·classes of food' ). Unprocessed
foods, such as unskinned potatoes, vegetables and Classes of food
fruit, contain plenty of fibre. Food rich in fibre is T here arc three classcs of food: carbohydr.itc:s,
usually bulky and makes you fed 'fill] up' so that proteins and fats. Tiic chemical structure o f these
you are unlikely t0 overeat. Fibre e nables the process subsrances is described in Chapter 4. In addition
Diet
to proteins, carbohydrates and futs, the diet must

include salts, \itamins, water and vegetable fibre
(roughage ). These substances are presem in a
balanced diet and do not normally have to be taken
in separately. A summary of the three classes of food
and their sources is shown in Table 7.3.
Carbohydrates
not digested by
human enzymes
i;'"X' ·"CAA :i~' "'
~"
Sugar and starch are important carbohydrates in

our diet. Starch is abundant in potatoes, bread,
maize, rice and other cereals. Sugar appears in
our diet mainly as sucrose (table sugar) which is
added to drinks and many prepared foods such as changed to oxidised In
glycogen respi ration
jam, biscuits and cakes. Glucose and fructose are
sugars that occur naturally in many fruits and some
vegetables.
Although all foods prmide us with energy,
carbohydrates are the cheapest and most readily
useful as
roughage
!
stored In
liver
! !
stored In
fat deposits
for
available source of energy. They contain the elements Flgure7.6 Oiges~oo;mduse ofc artxi hydrate
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen (e.g. glucose is
C6H 120 6). When carbohydrates are oxidised to Fats can be stored in the body, so providing a means
prmide energy by respiration they are broken down of long-term storage of energy in fut deposits. l11e
to carbon dioxide and warer (Chapter 12). One futty tissue, adipose tissue, under the skin forms a
gram of carbohydrate can provide, on average, layer that, if its blood supply is restricted, can reduce
16 kilojoules (kJ) of energy (see practical work heat losses from the body.
'Energy from fuo:i ' , p. 95 ).
If we eat more carbohydrates than we need for Proteins
our energy requirements, the excess is converted in Lean meat, fish, eggs, milk and cl1eese are important
the liver to either glycogen or fut. The glycogen is sources of animal protein. All plants contain some
stored in the liver and muscles; the fut is stored in fut protein, but soybeans, seeds such as pumpkin, and
deposits in the abdomen, round rhe kidneys or under nuts are the best sources (see Table 7.2 ).
the skin (Figure 7.6 ). "&!ble7.2 Comparing theproteinrnntentoffoods (,;ource:USOA
l11e cellulose in the cell walls of all plant tissues database)
is a carbohydrate. We probably derive relatively little ProtelncontenUgper100g
nourishment from cellulose but it is important in
,;oybe;im
the diet as fibre , which helps to maintain a healthy
pumpkin seeds
digestive system.
beef.lean
Fats pe;inul5
Animal furs are found in meat, milk, cl1eese, butter lish.e.g. salmon
and egg-yolk. Plant futs occur as oils in fruits (e.g. chee'ie.e.gdledd;ir
palm oil) and seeds (e.g. sunflower seed oil ), and are
used for cooking and making margarine. Fats and oils
are sometimes collectively called lipids.
Lipids are used in the cells of the body to form part
of the cell membrane and other membrane systems.
Lipids can also be oxidised in respiration, to carbon
dioxide and water. When used to provide energy in
this way, lg fut gives 37kJ of energy. This is more
than rnice as much energy as can be obtained from
yoghurt
the same weight of carbohydrate or protein.
7 HUMAN NUTRITION
Proteins, when digested, provide the chemical Tab le7.3 Summaryt.de forfoodclas5e5
substances needed to build cells and tissues, e.g. skin, Good foodso urces Use ln theNVru
muscle, blood and bones. Neither carbohydrates Llrbohydrate rice.potato.yam, 1tor..ge;'i!lurceafenergy
nor futs can do this so it is essential to include some cassava, bread. mille~
sugaryfoods(cake.
proteins in the diet. am.hon )
Protein molecules consist of long chains of fal/oil{oi!sare butter.milk.cheese. sou1ceoleriergy{twic:eas
amino acids (see Chapter 4 ). When proteins are lk!uid atmom egg·ycik,animalfat. mlJC hascarbohydrate);
digested, the molecules are broken up into the temJWrature. groundnuts(peanuts) insu!abonagaimtheat
but fats are loss; ,;omehormories;cell
constituent amino acids. The amino acids are solid) membraries;insu!ation olneive
absorbed into the bloodstream and used to build fibres
up different proteins. These proteins form part of protein meat.fish.eggs. growth;tilsuerepair:
the cytoplasm and enzymes of cells and tissues. soya. gmundnut1. enzymes; 'iOme hormon es: cell
milk, Qu am. rnwpeas membraries; hair; riai!s; un be
Such a rearrangement of amino acids is shown in broken doYm to ro\lide enemv
Figure 7.7.
The amino acids that are not used for making new Vitam in s
tissues cannot be stored, but the liver removes their All proteins are similar to each other in their chemical
amino (- NH 2) groups and changes the residue to structure, as are all carbohydrates. Vitamins, on the
glycogen. l11e glycogen can be stored or oxidised to other hand, are a group of organic substances quite
provide energy (Chapter 12 ). One gram of protein unrelated to each other in their chemical strncture.
can provide 17 kJ of energy. The features shared by all \'itamins are:
Chemically, proteins differ from both
carbohydrates and fats because they contain • They are not digested or broken down for energy.
nitrogen and sometimes sulfur as well as carbon, • Mostly, they are not built into tl1e body structures.
hydrogen and oxygen. • They are essential in small quantities for health.
• They are needed for chemical reactions in tl1e cells,
working in association \\ith enzymes.
Val-Ala - Gly- Gly-Leu-cys-Gly......._
I LIIU
Plants can make these vitamins in their leaves, but
Glu---V..l- l )'i -
s
CYi--Aia./
t animals have to obtain many oftl1em ready-made
either from plants or from other animals.
(a) partofaplantprotelnof14amlnoaclds If any one of the ,itamins is missing or deficient
in tl1e diet, a vitamin -deficiency disease may develop.
..,{, ~ ~9 '.t1 cys -l~' Such a disease can be cured, at least in tl1e early
stages, simply by adding the vitamin to the diet.
C..~ flo:, GlJ ,.,.._v",._~ ~YJ Gly
Fifteen or more vitamins have been identified and
(b)dlgestlonbreaksupprotelnlntoarn lnoaclds they are sometimes grouped into two classes: water-
soluble and fut -soluble. The fut-soluble vitamins are
Glu- Val - cr-G ly found mostly in animal futs or vegetable oils, which is
one reason why our diet should include some of these
furs. The water-soluble vitamins are present in green
,_... Ala.-1.eu- !:ys-Val- Gly
le-aves,fruitsand cereal grains.
Lru See Table 7.4 for details of,itamins C and D.
L)'i'- Ala -Leu - Gly
Sa lts
(c)ourbodybulldsupthesarne14arnlno aclds
butlntoaprotelnltneeds These are sometimes called 'mineral salts' or just
'minerals'. Proteins, carbohydrates and furs provide
key Ala•alanlne,Gly.glyclne,Leu•leuclne the body ,vitl1 carbon, hydrogen, o.\1'gen, nitrogen,
cys.cystelne,Glu.glutamlne,L)'i•lyslne,
Val • vallne,s.su lfur atorn sulfur and phosphorus but there are several more
elements that tl1e body needs and which occur as salts
Flgure7.7 Amodi'lfordige1tionandu1eofaproteinmolecule
in tl1e food we eat.
Diet
Iron TI1e cell walls of plants consist mainly of cellulose,

Red blood cells contain the pigment haemoglobin (see but we do not have enzymes for digesting this
'Blcxxl' in Chapter 9). Part of the haemoglobin molecule substance. The result is that the plant cell walls reach
contains iron and this plays an important role in carrying the large intestine (colon ) without being digested.
oxygen around the body. Millions of red cells break TI1is undigested part of the diet is called fibre or
down each day and their iron is stored by the liver and roughage. The colon contains many bacteria that
used to make more haemoglobin. However, some iron can digest some of the substances in the plant cell
is lost and needs to be replaced through dietary intake. walls to form futty acids (Chapter 4 ). Vegetable fibre,
Red meat, especially liver and kidney, is the richest therefore, may supply some useful food material, but
source of iron in the diet, but eggs, groundnuts, it has other important fimctions.
wholegrains such as brown rice, spinach and other The fibre itself and the bacteria, which multiply
green \·egetables are also important sources. from feeding on it, add bulk to the contents of
If the diet is deficient in iron, a person may suffer the colon and help it to retain water. This softens
from some form of anaemia. Insufficient haemoglobin the fueces and reduces the time needed for the
is made and the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood undigested residues to pass out of the body. Both
is reduced. effects help to prevent constipation and keep the
colon healthy.
Calcium
Most vegetables and whole cereal grains contain
Calcium, in the form of calcium phosphate, is
fibre, but white flour and white bread do not contain
deposited in the bones and the teeth and makes
much. Good sources of dietary fibre are vegetables,
them hard. It is present in blood plasma and plays an
fruit and wholemeal bread.
essential part in normal blood clotting (see 'Blood' in
Chapter 9 ). Calcium is also needed for the chemical Water
changes that make muscles contract and for the
About 70% of most tissue consists of water; it is an
transmission of nen·e impulses.
essential part of cytoplasm. TI1e body fluids, blood,
TI1e richest sources of calcium are milk (liquid,
lymph and tissue fluid (Chapter 9 ) are composed
skimmed or dried ) and d1eese, but calcium is present in
mainly of water.
most foods in small quantities and also in 'hard' water.
Digested food, salts and vitamins are carried
Many calcium salts are not soluble in water and
around the body as a watery solution in the blood
may pass through the alimentary canal without being
(Chapter 9) and excretory products such as excess salt
absorbed. Simply increasing the calcium in the diet
and urea are removed from the body in solution by
may not have mud1 effect unless the calcium is in
the kidneys (Chapter 13 ). Water thus acts as a solvent
the right form, the diet is balanced and the intestine
and as a transport medium for these substances.
is healthy. Vitamin D and bile salts are needed for
Digestion is a process that uses water in a chemical
efficient absorption of calcium.
reaction to break down insoluble substances to
Di etary fi bre (roug hage) soluble ones. These products then pass, in solution,
into the bloodstream. In all cells there are many
When we eat vegetables and other fresh plant
reactions in which water plays an essential part as a
material, we take in a large quantity of plant cells.
reactant and a solvent.
Nameandso urceof Importance Dlseasesandsympto mscausedby lackof

vitam in of vltam ln v lt.i mln
vitaminC{as.corbicac:id); Pfevents Fibre1inconnecti'leti1sueof~in.indbloodvessel1 Pos1blyac:t1asacataly1tincellrespiration.Scur,yi1
water-soluble 1<:ur,y do not form properly. leading to bleeding under only likely to occur when fresh food i1 not available
oranges. lemoris. the skin. partkularty at the joints. IW{)lk>n. bleeding cows· milk and milk powder'; contain little asrn!bk
grapefruit. tom.itoes. fresh gums and poor healing of wounds. These are all ..ad so babies may need add itional 10Urce1. Cannot
reen veoetables. ootatoeo; 1vmptorm of 1<:utw (Rcure 7.8) be 1tored in the bodv: d.iilv intake needed
vitamin D (cakiferol); Pfevents Calcium i1 not deposited prope!ly in the bones. Vil.imin D helps the abso1ption of cakium from
fat-1oluble rickets cau!iingrtc ketsinyoungchildren . Thebones theintestineandthedepo!iitionofcalciumsalts
butter.mil k.cheese. remainsoflandaredeformedbythec:hild~weight inthebone1
egg-yolk.liver,fish-liveroil (Figure7.9) Naturalfat1inthe1kina1econvertedtoafoonol
l){>ficiem:yinadultscausesosteo-m; lac la; vitaminDby1unlight
fractures are likely.
7 HUMAN NUTRITION
Since we lose water by evaporation, swearing,

urinating and breathing, we ha\·e to make good this adequate. Treatment involves provision of an
los.s by taking in water with the diet. energy-rich, balanced diet, but the complications
of the disorder, which may include infections
and dehydration, also need attention to increase
chances of sun•ival and recovery.
Causes and effects of mineral and

vitamin deficiencies
Iron
Iron is present in red meat, eggs, nuu, brown rice,
shellfish, soybean flour, dried fruit such as apriccxs,
spinach and cxher dark-green leafy vegetables.
Lack of iron in the diet can lead to iron-deficiency
anaemia, which is a decrease in the number of red
blood cells. Red blood cells, when marure, ha\'e no
nucleus and this limits their life ro about 3 months,
after which they arc broken down in rhe liver and
Flgure7.8 Symptoouof scur,y replaced. Most of the iron is recycled, but some
is lost as a chemical called bilirubin in the fueces
and needs to be replaced. Adults need to take in
about 15 mg each day. Without sufficient iron, your
Kwashiorkor body is unable to produce enough haemoglobin,
Kwashiorkor (roughly . 'deposed child') is an d1e protein in red blood cells responsible for
example of protein-energy malnutrition ( PEM) transporting oxygen to respiring tissues. Iron is also
in the developing world. When a mother has needed by the muscles and for enzyme sysrerns in all
her second baby, the first baby is weaned o n to a d1e body cells. The symptoms of anaemia are feeling
starchy diet of yam, cassava or sweet potato, a.II weak, tired and irritable.
of which have inadequate protein. The first baby
then develops symptoms of kwashiorkor (dry Vitamin D
skin, pot-belly, changes to hair colour, weakness Vitamin D is the only vitamin that the body can
and irritability). Protein deficiency is nor the only manuf.tcture, when the skin is exposed t0 sunlight.
H owever, for 6 months of the year (October to
cause ofkwashiorkor. Infection, plant toxins,
digestive fuilure or even psychological effects may April ), much ofwesrern Europe does nor receive
be involved. The good news, however, is that it can enough UV rays in sunlight to make vitamin D in
often be cured or prevented by an in rake of protein the skin. So, many people living there are at risk of
in the form of dried skimmed milk. not getting enough vitamin D unless they get it in
d1cir diet. Also, people who have darker skin, such
i\'larasmus as people of African, African-Caribbean and South
The term 'marasmus' is derived from a Greek Asian origin, arc at risk because their skin reduces
word, meaning decay. It is an acute form of UV light absorption.
malnutritio n. The condition is due to a very poor Foods that provide vitamin D include oily fish
diet with inadequate carbohydrate intake as well such as sardines and mackerel, fish liver oil, butter,
as a lack of protein. The incidence ofmarasmus milk, cheese and egg-rolk. In addition, many
increases in babies until they reach the age of 12 manufuctured food products contain vitamin D
months. Sufferers arc extremely emaciated with supplements.
reduced fut and muscle tissue. Their skin is thin Vitamin D helps in the absorption of calcium and
and hangs in folds. Marasmus is distinguished phosphorus through the gut wall . Bone is made of
from kwashiorkor because kwashiorkor is due d1e mineral calcium phosphate. A lack of the vitami n
to lack of protein intake, while energy intake is d1erefore results in poor calcium and phosphorus
Alimentary canal
• Calculate the riw in temperature by subtracting the fir..t from

de position in bones, the second temperature .
leading to softeni ng. The • Work out the quantity of energy transferred to the water from
weight of the body can theburningpeanutasfollc:Mrs:
defor m bones in the legs, 4.2Jraiw1gwaterby1"C
causing the condition 20cmJcoldwater~ghs20g
called rickets in childre n Theenergy (lnjoules)releasedbytheburningnut::
riw in temperature x mass of water x 4 .2
(Figure 7.9). Ad ul ts
deficient in vitamin D can Note: The value 4 .2 in the equation is used to convert the
answerfromcaloriestojoules.asthecalorieisanobsoleteunit.
suffcr fromoSteo- m:ifocia;
they are \"eryvulner;ib[e • To calculate the energy from lg of nut, dwideyouranw.-erby
m fracruri ng bones if themassofnutyouused , Thisgiv,es ava!ueinJg- 1.
• TheexperimentcannCM1berepeatedusingdifferentsizes
they fall.
of nut, or different varieties of nut, or other types of food.
Remember to replace the warm water in the boiling tube with
20cmJcoldwatereachtime.
• The experiment is quite inaccurate: compare the value you
obtainedwithanofficialva1ue(23S5kJper 100g). There
are plenty of Wi:'bsites with this sort of informat ion ii you
Practical work uw different nuts or other food. To make the comparison
youmayneedtoconvertyourenergyvaluelromjoulesto
kilojoules(divide by 1000) and to 100g of the food (multiply
Energy from food by100).
• Trytolist'iOO'leofthefaultsinthedesignoftheexperimentto
• Set up the appafatus as sho'M'l in figure 7. 10. account for the difference you ft'ld. Where do you think 'iOfTle
• Use a measuring cylinder to place 200Til cold water in the of the heat is going? Can you suggest WlrfS of reducing this
boiling tube. loss to make the results more a-ccurate?
• With a thermometer. find the temperature of the water and
make a note of it.
• W@igh a peanut (or other piece of dried food), secure it onto
a mounted needle and heat it wi'th the Bunwn flame until
it begins to burn. Not e: make sure that no students Ii.ave
nut allergies.
• Alimentary canal
• As 5000 as it starts burning, hold the nut under the boiling
tube 50 that the flames heat the water.
Key definitions
Ingestio n is the taking of substances such as food and drink
• If the flame goes out, do not apply the Bun5en burner to
into the body through the mouth.
the food while it is under the boiling tube, but return the
Mechani ca l di gestio n is the bfeakdown of food into smaller
nuttotheBunsenflametostartthenutburningagain
pieces without chemical change to the food molecules.
andreptaceitbeneaththeboilingtubeassoonasthenut
Ch e mica l di gest io n is the breakdown of large insoluble
ca tchesa(ight
molecules into small 50luble molecules.
• When thenuthasfinishedburningandcannotbeignited
Absorption is the movement of small food molecules and ions
again,gentlystirthewaterintheboilingtubewiththe
through the wall of the intestine into the blood.
thermometer and record its new temperature.
Ass imilation is the mOYementof digested food molecules into
the cells of the body where they are used, becoming p;irt
of the cells.
Eges tion isthepassingoutoffoodthat hasnotbeendigested
orabsorbed,asfaeces,throughtheanus.
Feeding involves taking food into the mouth,

chewing it and swallowing it down into the
stomach. This satisfiC's our hunger, but fur food
to be of any use to the whole body it has first to
be digested . This means that the solid food is
dissolved and che molecules reduced in size. The
soluble products the n have to be absorbed imo the
Flgur•7.10 EJperlmenttosho.vtheenergyinfood bloodstream :ind carried by the blood all aro und the
7 HUMAN NUTRITION
body. In this way, the blood delivers dissolved food alimentary canal (Figure 7.12). The salivary glands
to the living cells in all pans of the body such as and the pancreas (sec Figure 7. 13) arc examples of
the muscles, brain, hean and kidneys. This section such digestive glands.
describes how the food is digested and abso rbed. The alimentary can:il has a gre:u many blood
Chapter 9 describes how the blood c.uries it around vessels in its walls, dose to the tining. T hese bring
the body. oxygen needed by the cells and take away the carbon
dioxide they produce. They also absorb the digested
Reg ions of the a li mentary ca na l a nd food from the alimentary canal.
their functions
The alimentary canal is a tube running through longltudlnal
the body. Food is digested in the alimentary muscle
fibres
canal. The soluble products arc absorbed and
the indigestible residues expelled (cgcstcd). A muscle
simplified diagram of an alimentary canal is shown fibres
in Figure 7. 11 .
lining
epithelium
with digestive
glands
Figure 7.12 The ~nl!fal structure of the a~mentary canal
Five main processes associated with digestion occur in

the alimcnury canal. TI1cse arc ingestion, digestion,
The inside of the alimentary canal is lined with absorption, assimilation and egcstion. The main parts
layers of cells forming what is called an epithelium. of the alimentary canal arc shown in Figure 7. 13. An
New cells in the epithelium arc being produced outline of the functions of its main parts is gi\'cn in
all the rime to replace the cells wo rn away by the Table 7.5.
movement of the food. There arc also ce lls in the
lining that produce mucu s. Mucus is a slimy liquid
Perista lsis
that lubricates the lining of the canal and protects The alimentary canal has layers of muscle in its walls
it from wear and rear. Mucus may also protect the (Figure 7.12). The fibres of one laye r of muscles run
lining from arrack by the d igesti ve enzymes which around the canal (circular muscle) and the others
are released into the alimentary canal. run along its length (lo ngitudinal muscle). When
Some of the digestive enzymes are produced by the circ.ular muscles in one region contract, they
cells in the lining of the alimentary canal, as in the make the alimentary canal narrow in that region.
stomach lining. Others are produced by glands A contraction in one region of the alimentary
char arc outside the alimentary canal but pour their canal is fo llowed by another contraction just below
enzymes through tubes (ailed ducts) into the it so that a wave of contraction passes alo ng the
Alimentary canal
canal, pushing food in front of it. The wave of "&lble7.5 Function1ofmainpartsoftheali mentarycanal
contraction, called peristalsis, is illustrated in Region of
Figure 7.14. alimentary canal
lngesUon offood; mechanlcaldlgesUon t,y
teeth;c hernl caldlgestlon of1tarcht,yam)'1ase;
fonnationofabolu1f0fswallowin
salivary glands s.alivarnnt.iirisam)'1aseforc hemlcaldlgesUon
ofstarchinfood; alsol;quid tolubricatefoodand
make1mallpil'Ces1ticltogether
oesophagus (gu llet) transfers food from the mouth to the stom.Kti.
rnln<>fistalsi1
pmducesgastricjukecontainingpep,;in.for
chernlcaldlgesUonofprotein;a!sohydrochloric
.icidtokillbactelia;perista!sischurrisfoodup
intoal;quid
firstpartofthesmallinte'itine;m::eivespancreatk:
juKeforc hemkaldlgesUon ofproteim.lat1
andslatt:haswellasneutralising theaddfrom
the1tomach;rl'Ceive1biletol.'mulsifyfat1 {aform
of physical digestion)
rlght - - ---1- sernlldpartofthe1mallintestine;enzyme1inthe
lung epithelialliningc.arryootc hernlcaldlgesUon of
maltoseandpeptides;verylongandhasvilli{'ie!'
Figures7.22and7.23)toincreasesurfacearea
fora bsorptlon ofdigestedfoodmoll'Cules
sec:retespaocll'alic juiceintothedl!Odenumvia
pancreatx:doct(seeF;gu re7.21)forc hemlcal
dlgesUon of roteim,fat1 and1tarrh
make1bile.containings.alt1toemulsifylat1
{physlcaldlgesUon); asslmllatlonofdigested
foo:lsuctiasglucose; dearnln aUon ofexces1
.iminoacid1{'ie!'Ch~ter 13)
gall bladder storesbile.made intheliver.tobesec:retedinto
theduodenumviathebileducl{'ie!'Figure7.21)
firstpartofthe!argeintestine;abso rptlon of
duodenum waterfromundigestedfood;absor pUon ofbile
:::eJ.--l--\- \ - - + lleum s.altstopassbacltotheliver
(- small sec:ond art of the larae intes~ne; stores faeces
Intestine)
I Mestlonoflaec:es
muscular wall of gullet
Flgure7.13 Thea li ment.1rycanal
Diarrhoea
Diarrhoea is the loss of watery faeces. It is sometimes
caused by bacterial or viral infection, for example
from food or water. Once infected, the lining of
the digestive system is damaged by the pathogens,
resulting in the intestines being unable to absorb
fluid from the contents of the colon or too much
fluid being secreted into the colon. Undigested food
then moves through the large intestine too quickly,
resulting in insufficient time to absorb water from it.
Unless the condition is treated, dehydration can occur. Figure 7.14 Diagram to illustrate perist.ilsis
7 HUMAN NUTRITION
Treatment is known as oral hydration therap y. although we have incisors, canines, premolars and
This involves drinking plenty of fluids - sipping small molars, they do not show such big variations in size
amounts of water at a time to rehydrate the body. and shape as, for example, a wolf's. Figure 7.15
Other possible causes of diarrhoea include anxiety, shows the position of teeth in the upper jaw and
food allergies, lactose intolerance, a side-effect of Figure 7.16 shows how they appear in both jaws
antibiotics and bowel cancer. when seen from the side.
Table 7.6 gives a summary of the types ofhuman
Ch olera teeth and their functions.
This disease is caused by the bacterium Vibrio Our top incisors pass in front of our bottom
cholera which causes acute diarrhoea. Treatment incisors and cut pieces off the food, such as when
involves rehydration and restoration of the salts lost biting imo an apple or taking a bite out of a piece
(administered by injecting a carefully controlled of toast.
solution into the bloodstream ) and use of an
antibiotic such as tetracycline to kill the bacteria.
The bacteria thrive in dirty water (often that
contaminated by sewage) and are transmitted when
the water is drunk or used to wash food. Long-
term methods of control are to dispose of human
sewage safely, ensuring that drinking water is free
from bacteria and preventing food from being
contaminated.
How cholera causes diarrhoea 'Wisdom'

tooth
(molar)
When the Vibrio cholera bacteria are ingested,
they multiply in the small intestine and invade its Flgure7.15 Teethiohumonupperjow
epithelial cells. As the bacteria become embedded,
they release toxins (poisons) which irritate the
intestinal lining and lead to the secretion of large
amounts of water and salts, including chloride ions.
The salts decrease the osmotic potential of the gut
coments, drawing more water from surrounding
tissues and blood by osmosis (see 'Osmosis' in
Chapter 3). This makes the undigested food much
more watery, leading to acute diarrhoea, and the
loss ofbody fluids and salt leads to dehydration and
kidney failure.
premolar
Flgure7.16 Humanjawsandteeth
• Mechanical digestion
The process of mechanical digestion mainly occurs in Our canines are more pointed than the incisors
the mouth by means of the teeth, through a process but are not much larger. They function like extra
called masticatio n. incisors.
Humans are omnivores (organisms that eat Our premolars and molars are similar in shape
animal and plant material ). Broadly, we have the and function. Their knobbly surfaces, called cusps,
same types of teeth as carnivores, but human teeth meet when the jaws are closed, and crush the food
are not used for catching, holding, killing or tearing into small pieces. Small particles of food are easier to
up prey, and we cannot cope with bones. Thus, digest than large chunks.
Mechanical digestion
"&Ible 7.6 Summ.,ry of l!,Pl'S of human teeth and their functkms
'"'
Diagram
~miptim1 chisel-shaped(s.h;upedge) 1lightlymo1Epointedthan hovefourorlivecusps;have

twoorth ree rool:5
bit-;;;;;-o~esoffood §jmilar functKl!ltoiodsorl tearin and"rindin food d1ewi™"'and riridi""food
Tooth structu re patches, exposing the dentine to the acids. Dentine

is softer than enamel and dissolves more quickly so
l11e part of a tooth that is visible above the gum line
cavities are formed. The cavities reduce the distance
is called the crown. The gum is tissue that overlays
between the outside of the tooth and the nerve
the jaws. TI1e rest, embedded in the jaw bone, is
endings. TI1e acids produced by the bacteria irritate
called the root (Figure 7.17). The surface of the
the nerve endings and cause toothache. If the cavity
crown is covered by a very hard layer of enamel.
is not deaned and filled by a dentist, the bacteria will
l11is layer is replaced by cem ent in the f (X)t, which
get into the pulp cavity and cause a painful abscess at
enables the tooth to grip to its bony socket in the
the root. Often, the only way to treat this is to have
jaw. Below the enamel is a layer of dentine. Dentine
the tooth pulled out.
is softer than enamel. Inside the dentine is a pulp
Although some people's teeth are more resistant to
cavity, containing nerves and blood vessels. These
decay than others, it seems that it is the presence of
enter the tooth through a small hole at the base of
refined sugar (sucrose ) in the diet that contributes to
the root.
decay.
Western diets contain a good deal of refined
sugar and children suck sweets between one meal
and the next. The high level of dental decay in
Western society is thought to be caused mainly by
keeping sugar in the mouth for long periods of
time.
l11e graph in Figure 7.lS(a) shows how the pH
in the mouth falls (i.e. becomes more acid) when
a single sweet is sucked. The p H below which the
enamel is attacked is called the critical pH (between
5.5 and 6). In this case, the enamel is under acid
attack for about 10 minutes.
l11e graph in Figure 7.lS(b) shows the effect of
sucking sweets at the rate of four an hour. In this
Flgure7.17 SectKlnthroughamolartooth
case the teeth are exposed ro acid attack almost
continually.
Dental decay (de ntal caries) TI1e best way to prevent tooth decay, therefore, is
Decay begins when small holes (cavities) appear to avoid eating sugar at frequent intervals either in
in the enamel. The cavities are caused by bacteria the form of sweets or in sweet drinks such as orange
on the rooth surface. The bacteria feed on the squash or soft (fizzy) drinks.
sugars deposited on the teeth, respiring them and It is advisable also to visit the dentist every
producing acid, which dissolves the calcium salts in 6 months or so for a 'check-up' so that any caries or
the tooth enamel. TI1e enamel is dissolved away in gum disease can be treated at an early stage.
7 HUMAN NUTRITION
N 6.s.,--,
, --,--,--.1--,1---,----,----,-,,----,c,-,
,. d1an any other, but the cleaning should attempt
~ 60
· trltlQ l pH .,. to remove all d1c plaque from the narrow crevice
j ,.,..J:=::j:l=l~ ==t:=t1;>l::'.:::j::::j:::::j::=i between the gums and the teeth. Rinsing rhc
mo uth regularly with mouthwashes helps reduce d1c
~ :.5 ~~:i,- ~=~ number of bacteria residing in the mouth .
Drawing a waxed thread ('dental floss') berween
the teeth, o r using intcrdcntal brushes, helps to
{a)slngleftYl!et remove plaque in these regions.
• Chemical digestion
11111
Digestion is mainly a chemic:il process and consists
ofbrcaking down large molecules to small molecules.
The large molecules arc usu:illy not soluble in water,
while the smaller ones arc. TI1e small molecules can
be absorbed through the epithelium of the alimcnrary
canal, through the walls of the blood vessels and inro
O 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100110120
the blood.
Some food can be absorbed wirhour digestion.
(b)successlon of sweets
The glucose in fruit juice, for example , could pass
Flgure7.18 pHinthemouthwt.eii SWli!'@ts<nesu,:;ked
through the walls of the alimentary canal and enrer
Brushing the teeth is ve ry important in the prevention the blood \'Csscls without further change. Most
of gum disease. It may not be so effective in preventing food, howeve r, is solid and cannot get imo blocxi
caries, although the use of fluoride tOO(hpastc docs \'Csscls. Digestion is the process by which solid food is
help to reduce the bacterial population on the teeth dissolved to make a solution .
and to increase their resistance to decay (sec below). 111c chemicals th.1t dissolve the food are enzymes,
described in Chapter 5. A protein might take 50 years to
d.issoh.-c if just placed in water but is completely digested.
• Extension work by cnZ}1nc:s in a lew hours. All the solid sr.:i.rch in foods
such as bread and potatoes is digested to glucose, which
Gum disease (periodonta l disease) is soluble in water. The solid proteins in meat, eggs and
There is usually a layer o f saliva and mucus over the beans arc digested to soluble substances called amino
teeth . This laye r contains bacteria that li\"c on the acids. Fats arc digested to two soluble products called
food residues in the mouth, building up a coating glycerol and fatty acids (sec Chapter 4).
on the teeth called plaque. If the plaque is ncx
removed , mineral salts of calcium and magnesium The chemical breakdown usually rakes place in
arc deposited on it, for ming a h:ird layer of'rarrar' or stages. For example, the starch molecule is made
calculus. If the bacterial plaque that forms on rceth up of hundred s of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
is not removed regularly, it spreads down rhe tooth atoms. The first stage of digestion breaks it down
into the narrow gap between rhe gum and enamel . to a 12 -carbon sugar molecule called maltose. The
H ere it causes inflammarion, called gingivitis, which last stage of digestion breaks the maltose molecule
leads to redness and bleeding ofrhe gums and to bad inro two 6-carbon sugar mo lecules called glucose
breath . It also causes the g ums ro recede and expose (Figure 7.19). Protein molecules are digested first
the cement. If gingivitis is nor rreared , it progresses to smaller molecules called peptides and finally into
to periodontitis; the fibres holding the tooth in rhe completely soluble molecules called amino acids.
jaw arc destroyed, so the tooth becomes loose and
srarch - maltose - glucose
f.i.lls out or has to be pulled our.
protein - peptide - amino acid
TI1crc is evidence that cleaning the teeth docs
help to prevent gum disease. It is best to d ean rhc TI1csc stages take place in different parts of the
rccd1 about twice a day using a toothbrush . No one alimentary canal. The progress d food through the
method of cleaning has proved to be any bcncr canal and d1c Stages of digestion \\ill now be described.
Chemical digestion
i:..;1yi":'se~
- enzyme A
<•mOa>0J ~ enzymee
(maltase)
A large ... andbrokenlnto

8 - 1K11Yme8
(malus.)
... andbrokenlnto
molvc:ukl ... Is att~ked sm.;lllermolecules ... whlchareatt~ked even1mallermotecules
(e.g.starch).. by enzymes .. (e.g.thesugarmattose) .. bydlfferenten:eymes .. (e.g.thesugarglucose)
Flguni7.19 EnzymesilCllllQonstarch
The mouth band of muscle :i.t the lower end of the stomach that
11H: act of raking food into the mouth is called stops solid pieces of food from passing through.
ingestion. In the mouth, the food is chewed and 111e m:i.in function of the stomach is to store the
mixed with s,11iva. ·n,e chewing breaks the food into food from a meal, rurn ir into a liquid :and release
pieces that can be swallowed and it also increases the it in small quanrities at a time to the rest of the
surface area for the enzymes to work on later. Saliva alimentary canal. An example of physic;i,J digestion
is a digestive juice produced by three pairs of glands is the peristaltic action of muscles in the wall of
whose duns lead into the mouth. It helps to lubricate the stomach. These muscles alternately contract
the food and make the small pieces stick together. and relax, churning and squeezing the food in the
Saliva contains one enzyme, saliva ry am ylase smm:ach and mixing it wi1h g:astric juice, turning
(sometimes called ptyal.in), which acts on cooked the mixture: into a creamy liquid called chyme. This
srarch and begins to break it down into maltose. action gi\'C:S the food a greater surface area so that it
Strictly speaking, the 'mouth' is the aperture can be digested more c:fficiendy.
bc:rn·een the li ps. The sp.'k'.c inside, containing the Glands in the lining of the stomach (Figure 7.20)
tongue and teeth, is called the buccal cavity. Beyond produce: gastric juice containing the p rotease
the buccal cavity is the '1hrom' or pharynx. enzyme. It helps in the process of breaking down
large protein molecules into small, soluble: amino
Swallowing acids. 111c: stomach lining also produces hydrochloric
For food ro c:nrc:r the gullet (oesophagus), it has ro acid, which makes a weak solution in the gastric
pass over the windpipe. To ensure that food does juice. This acid provides the best degree of acidity
nor c:nrc:r the windpipe and cause choking during forsromach protease to work in (Chaptc:r4) and kills
swallowing, the epiglottis ( a flap of cartilage) guides many of the bacteria taken in \vith the food.
the food inro the gullet. 111c: regular, peristaltic movements of the stomach,
111e beginning of tl1e swallowing action is voluntary, about once every 20 seconds, mix up the food and
gastric juice inro a creamy liquid. How long food
1
::1~:~n:~:=,;::~,~~!~,~~~ko~~~~:~ :~~:~. Tl1e remains in the stomach depends 011 its nature.
food is forced imo and down the gullet by peristalsis.
Water may pass through in a few minutes; a meal of
carbohydrate: such as porridge may be held in the
This rake~ about 6 seconds with relatively solid fixxl;
the food 1s then admitted to the stomach. Liquid stomach for less than an hour, but a mixed meal
travels more rapidly down the gullet. containing protein and fat may be in the stomach for
1 or 2hours.
Th e stomach The pyloric sphincter lets the liquid products of
The stomach h:as cl:astic walls, which stretch as the digestion pass, a link at a time, into the fint part of
food collects in i1 . The pyloric s phi.ncter is a circular the small intestine: called the duoden um .
7 HUMAN NUTRITION
eplthellum
gall-bladder
glands secrete
gastric Juice
longitudinal
muscle
Flgure7.21 Re!atKl nshipbetweeo1tamach,lrl'erandp;mcrea1
Pancreatic juice contains sodium hydrogencarbonate,

Flgure7.20 Diagram ol'il'dkmthrou gh1tomachw.ill
whid1 partly neutralises the acidic liquid from the
stomach. This is necessary because the enzymes of
the pancreas do not work well in acid conditions.
The small intestine All the digestible material is thus changed to
A digestive juice from the pancreas ( pancreatic juice ) soluble compounds, which can pass through the
and bile from the liver are poured into the duodenum lining of the intestine and into the bloodstream. The
to act on food there. TI1e pancreas is a digestive gland final products of digestion are:
lying below the stomach (Figure 7.21 ). It makes a
number of enzymes, whid1 act on all classes of food. Food Final products
Protease breaks down proteins into amino acids. starch glucose (a simple sugar)
Pancreatic amylase attacks starch and converts it to proteins amino acids
maltose. Lipase digests futs (lipids) to fatty acids and fats (lipids) -----> fatty acids and glycerol
glycerol.
Bile Digestion of protein

Bile is a green, watery fluid made in the lh·er, stored There are actually several proteases (or proteinases)
in the gall-bladder and delivered to the duodenum which break down proteins. One protease is
by the bile duct (Figure 7.21 ). It contains no pepsin and is secreted in the stomach. Pepsin acts
enzymes, but its green colour is caused by bile on proteins and breaks tl1em down into soluble
pigments, which are formed from the breakdown of compounds called peptides. These are shorter chains
haemoglobin in the liver. Bile also contains bile salts, of amino acids than proteins. Another protease is
which act on fats rather like a detergent. The bile called trypsin. Trypsin is secreted by the pancreas
salts emulsify the fats. TI1at is, they break them up in an inactive form, which is changed to an active
into small droplets with a large surface area, which enzyme in the duodenum. It has a similar role to
are more efficiently digested by lipase. pepsin, breaking down proteins to peptides.
Bile is slightly alkaline as it contains sodium The small intestine itself does not appear to
hydrogencarbonate and, along with pancreatic juice, produce digestive enzymes. The srrucmre labelled
has the fi.mction of neutralising the acidic mixture 'crypt' in Figure 7.23 is not a digestive gland,
of food and g.i.stric juices as it enters the duodenum. though some of its cells do produce mucus and
This is important because enzymes secreted into the other secretions. The main function of the crypts is
duodenum need alkaline conditions to work at tl1eir to produce new epitl1elial cells (see 'Absorption' ) to
optimum rate. replace those lost from the tips of the villi.
Absorption
TI1e epithelial cells of the villi contain enzymes in their and is still too big to be absorbed through the wall
cell membranes that complete the breakdown of sugars of the intestine. Maltose is broken down to glucose
and peptides, before they pass through the cells on their by the enzyme maltase, whid1 is present in the
way to the bkxxistream. For example, peptidase breaks membranes of tl1e epithelial cells of the villi.
down polypeptides and peptides into amino acids.
Functions of hydrochloric acid in
Digestion of starch gastric juice
Starch is digested in two places in the alimentary TI1e hydrochloric acid, secreted by cells in the wall
canal: by salivary amylase in the mouth and by of the stomach, creates a very acid pH of2. This pH
pancreatic amylase in the duodenum. Amylase works is important because it denatures enzymes in harmful
best in a neutral or slightly alkaline pH and converts organisms in food, sud1 as bacteria (whid1 may otherwise
large, insoluble starch molecules into smaller, soluble cause food poisoning) and it provides the optimum
maltose molecules. Maltose is a disaccharide sugar pH for the protein-digesting enzyme pepsin to work.
Tilble7 .7Prindp.-ilmb'itancesprodocedbydigestion
Reglon o f ; llmentary Digestive g land Digestive Juice Enzymes lnthe Ju ke/ Subst;ncesproduced
-·
c; nal
salivary glands
gland'i instomac:h
linin
produced
gastrkjuke
panaeatk juke
cells
salivary amylase
proteins
protl'ases.sudlastryp1in pmtl'imandpepticies
peptkles
peptklesandamino.Kids
am;,,, maltose
lipase '"'"' fattyacidsandgl-jcerol
epithelial cells (none) maltase malt= glucose
peplklase oeotide1 amino.Kids
(Note.detailsofpl'!ltid""'aodl"'p!ldesarenota sylabus,equlremenl)
glucose and amino acids pass into the bloodstream,

• Extension work while fatty acids and glycerol pass into tl1e lacteals
(Figure 7.23 ) connected to tl1e lymphatic system.
Preve nt io n of self-d igesti o n
TI1e gland cells of tl1e stomach and pancreas make Th e large i ntestine (colo n and rectum)
protein-digesting enzymes (proteases) and yet the TI1e material passing into tl1e large intestine consists
proteins of the cells tl1at make these enzymes are not of water with undigested matter, largely cellulose and
digested. One reason for this is tl1at tl1e proteases are ,·egetable fibres ( roughage ), mucus and dead cells
secreted in an inactive form. Pepsin is produced as from the lining of the alimentary canal. TI1e large
pepsinogen and does not become the active enzyme intestine secretes no enzymes but the bacteria in
until it encounters tl1e hydrochloric acid in the the colon digest part of tl1e fibre ro form fa try acids,
stomach. TI1e lining oftl1e stomach is protected from which the colon can absorb. Bile salts are absorbed
the action of pepsin probably by tl1e layer of mucus. and returned to the liver by the blood circulation.
Similarly, trypsin, one of the proteases from the TI1e colon also absorbs much of tl1e water from the
pancreas, is secreted as the inactive trypsinoge n and undigested residues. About 7 litres of digestive juices
is activated by enterokinase, an enzyme secreted by are poured into tl1e alimentary canal each day. If the
the lining of the duodenum. water from tl1ese was nor absorbed by the ileum and
colon, the body would soon become dehydrated.
TI1e semi-solid waste, the faeces or 'stool', is
• Absorption passed into tl1e rectum by peristalsis and is expelled
TI1e small intestine consists of the duodenum and at intervals tl1rougl1 the anus. The residues may
the ileum. Nearly all the absorption of digested spend from 12 ro 24 hours in the intestine. The
food takes place in the ileum, along with most of the act of expelling the faeces is called egestion or
water. Small molecules of the digested food such as defecation.
7 HUMAN NUTRITION
The ileum is efficient in the absorption of digested

food for the following reasons:
• It is fairly long and presents a large absorbing
surfuc.e to the digested food.
• Its internal surface is greatly increased by
circular folds (Figure 7.22 ) bearing thousands
of tiny projections called villi (singular - villus)
(Figures 7.23 and 7.24). These villi are about
0.5 mm long and may be finger-like or flattened
in shape.
• The lining epithelium is very thin and the
fluids can pass rapidly through it. The outer
membrane of each epithelial cell has microvilli,
which increase by 20 times the exposed surface
of the cell.
• There is a dense network of blood capillaries ( tiny
blood vessels, see 'Blood and lymphatic vessels' in
Chapter 9 ) in each villus (Figure 7.22 ).
The small molecules of digested food, for example
glucose and amino acids, pass into cl1e epithelial
cells and then througl1 the wall of the capillaries in
cl1e villus and into the bloodstream. They are then
carried away in the capillaries, which join up to
form veins. These veins unite to form one large
vein, cl1e hepatic portal vein (see Chapter 9 ).
This vein carries all cl1e blood from the intestines
to the li\·er, which may store or alter any of the
digestion products. When these pnxlucts are
released from the liver, they enter the general
blood circulation.
Flgure7.22 Theatmirbing'>llrfaceofthe ileum
Some of the fatty acids and glycerol from the
digestion of fats enter the blood capillaries of
the ,·illi. H owever, a large proportion of the fatty
acids and glycerol may be combined to form
fats again in the intestinal epithelium. These
fats then pass into the lacteals (Figure 7.23 ).
The fluid in the lacteals flows into the lymphatic
system, which forms a network all over the body
and eventually empties its contents into the
bloodstream (see 'Blood and lymphatic vessels'
in Chapter 9 ).
Water-soluble vitamins may diffuse into the
epitl1elium but fut -soluble vitamins are carried in
cl1e microscopic fat droplets that enter the cells. The
ions of mineral salts are probably absorbed by active
rransport. Calcium ions need vitamin D for their
effective absorption. Flgure7.23 Structureofa1inglev;llu1
Absorption
epithelium of the crypts (Figure 7.23) replaces these

lost cells. In effect there is a steady procession of
epithelial cells moving up from the crypts to the villi.
Use of digested food

TI1e products of digestion are carried around the
body in tl1e blood. From the blood, cells absorb and
use glucose, futs and amino acids. This uptake and
use of food is called assimilation.
Glucose
During respiration in the cells, glucose is oxidised to
carbon dioxide and water (see 'Aerobic respiration'
in Chapter 12). This reaction provides energy to
drive the many chemical processes in the cells, which
result in, for example, tl1e building-up of proteins,
contraction of muscles or electrical d1anges in nerves.
Flgure7.24 >G11mingelectmnmicf09'"aphofthehumaninteo;tinal Fats

lining(~60).Thevilli.11eabout 0.5mmlong.lntheduodenumthey TI1ese are built into cell membranes and other cell
are mmtlyleaf-like{C).butfurthertowardstheileumtheybec:ome
na1mwl.'l" (B). .iridintheileumtheyaremmtlyfinger-like(A).This
structures. Fats also form an importtnt sourc.e of
mic rographisolarl'C}ionintheduodenum energy for cell mettbolism. Fatty acids produced
from stored futs or taken in with tl1e food , are
Absorption of the products of digestion and other oxidised in the cells to carbon dioxide and water.
diet.try items is not just a matter of simple diffusion, TI1is releases energy for processes such as muscle
except perhaps for alcohol and, sometimes, water. contraction. Fats can provide nvice as much energy
Although the mechanisms for rransport across the as sugars.
intestinal epithelium have not been fully worked Amino acids
out, it seems likely that various forms of active These are absorbed by tl1e cells and built up, ,vith
transport are involved. Even water can cross the the aid of enzymes, into proteins. Some of the
epithelium against an osmotic gradient (Chapter 3). proteins will become plasma proteins in the blood
Amino acids, sugars and salts are, almost certtinly, (see 'Blood' in Chapter 9). Otl1ers may form
taken up by active transport. Glucose, for example, structures such as cell membranes or they may
crosses the epithelium fuster than fruc.tose (another become enzymes that control tl1e d1emical activity
monosaccharide sugar) although their rates of ,vithin the cell. Amino acids not needed for making
diffusion would be about the same. cell proteins are converted by tl1e liver imo glycogen,
The epithelial cells of the villi are constantly being which can then be used for energy.
shed into the intestine. Rapid cell division in tl1e
Practical work • Heat the saliva in tube B over a small flame, °' in a water bath
of boiling water, until it boils'°' about 30 5e<:onds and then
coolthetubeunderthetap
Experiments on digestion • Add about 2cml of a 2% starch 50lution to each tube; shake
eachtubeandleavethemforSminutes.
• Share the contents of tube A between two clean test-tubes.
1 The act ion of sa livary amylase on starch • To one of the5e add some iodine solution. To the other add
• Rin5e the mouth with water to remove traces of food . 50meBenedict's50lutionandheatinawaterbathasdescribed
• Collect saliva• in two test-tubes, labelled A and B, to a depth in Chapter 4.
of about 15mm (see Figure 7.25}. • Testthecontenl5oftubeBinexactlythesameway.
7 HUMAN NUTRITION
• Add 2 cml of 5% amylase solution (or saliva if it is permissible).

• Pinch the top of the Visking tubing to l:eep it dosed, before
carefullymixingitscontentsbysqueeziogthetubing.
• RinsetheoutsideoftheViskingtubingthoroughlywithtap
water;thenplaa>itinaboilingtube,trappingthetopofthe
tubingwithanelasticband(seeFigure7.26).
• Add enough distilled water to cover the Visking tubing.
• Testa'llT!allsampleofthedistilledwaterandthecontentsol
theViskingtii>in9 for starch and reducing sugar, using iodine
solutionandBenedict'ssolution(seepage58formethods).
• Place the boiling tube in a beaker of water or a water bath
at37"C
• After 20 minutes. use dean teat pipettes t o ~ a wmple
of the wa ter surrounding the Visking tu~ng and from inside
theViskingtii>ing .
• Test some of each sample for starch, using iodine solution, and
forreducingsugar,using8enedict'ssolution(see(hapter4
formethods) . ..oJsotestsomeoftheoriginalstarchsolution
forreducingsugar,tomal:esureitisnotcontaminatedwith
glucose
''"'"""'
~myl~se ..
surchsolutlon
Vlsklngtublng
Flgunt 7.25 EJ;periment toshoNtheKtlon ofS,)liYaryMTIYLiseon stirch
w~ter
Results
TheCD11tentsoftubeAfailtogiveabluecolourwithiodine, -
5howing that the starch has gone. The other half of the contents,
however, 9ives a red or orange precipitate with Benedict's Flgure7.26 Experimenttomodelthedigestionofstarch
solution,showin9thatsugatisp<eSent.
The contents of tube 8 still gi~ a blue colour with iodine but Result
do not form a red precipitate on heating with Benedict's solution. AtthestartoftheinvestigationthedistilledwatertestsnegatiYe
In terpretation for starch (stays brown) and reducing sugar {stays turquoise). The
The results with tube A suggest that something in :xiliva has contentsoftheVisli:ingtubingarepositiveforstarch(blue-bCacl:),
converted starch into sugar. Thefactthattheboiledw!ivaintube butnegativeforredudngsugars(staysturquoise).
8 fails to do this suggests that it was ao enzyme in :xiliva that Aher20minutes,thecontentsoftheVisl:ingtubingare
broughtaboutthechange(seeChapterS),becauseenzymes yellow/brown with iodine solution, but turn orange or bricl: red
areproteinsandaredestroyedbyboiling.lltheboiledsalivahad with Benedict's solution. The water sample stays yellow/brown
changed starch to sugar, it would ha~ ruled out the possibility of withiodinesolution,butturnsorangeorbrickredwithBenedict's
an enzyme being responsible solution.
This interpretation assumes that it is something in saliva that Interpretation
changes starch into sugar. However, the results could equally TheamylasedigeststhestarchintheViskingtubing,producing
wellsupportthedaimthatstarchcanturnunboiledsalivainto reducingsugar.Thecompletedigestionof starchresultsina
sugar.Ourknowledgeof(1)thechemic.alcompo,5itionofstarch negativecolourchangewithiodinesolution.Thepresenceof
and wliva and (2) the effect of heat on enzymes, mal:es the first reducingsugar(maltoseor9lucose)c.ausestheBenedict'ssolution
interpretation more plausible toturnorangeorbfick:red . ThereducingsugarmoleculescM1
diffuse through the V,sl:ing tubing into the surrounding water, so
2 Modelling the action of amylase on !it.arch t he water gives a positive reitilt with Benedict's solution. Starch
• Collect a 15cm length of Visking tubing which has bttn isalargemolecule,soitcannotdiffusethroughthetubing: the
softened in water. watergivesanegativereitiltwithiodinesolution.
• rie one end tightly. Use a syringe to introduce 2% starch This model c.an be used to represent 6gestion in the gut. The
solution into the Vrsking tubing, to about two thirds full. starchsolutionandamylasearethecontentsofthemouthor
Absorption
duodenum. The Visking tubing represents the duodenum wall • Addsixdropsofphenolphthaleintoeachtotumthecontents

andthedistilledwaterrepresen15thebloodstream,intowhich pink.
the producl5ofdigestionareabsorbed. • Add 1 cml of 3% bile salts solution to tubes 2 and 3.
• Add 1cmlof5%lip.-ise50lutioototubes 1 and3,andan
3 The actio n of pepsin o n egg-white prot e in equalvolumeofboiledlip.-isetotube2
A cloudy suspension of egg-white is prepared by stirring the
white of one egg into SOOcml tap water, heating it to boil ing
point and filtering it through glass wool to remove the larger add equal
particles. quantities of
phenolphthalein
• Label four test-tubes A, B,CandDandplace2cmlegg- to each tube
whitesuspensionineachofthem. Then addpepsin50lution
and/ordilutehydrochloricacid{HCl)tothetubesasfollows
{Figure7.27)· 1cm 1 bilesalts
3drops 3drops Jdrops lcmllipase 1cm1 1cm1
solution boiled lipase
"" "" "" lipase solution
~~~~
7cm 1 sod lum
carbonate
0 0 Scml solution
0 0 milk
Flgure 7.28 E,:perimentto11lowtheac tion of lip ase
1cm 1 1cml 1cm1
pepsl pepsin boiled
pepsin Result
In 10minutesorless,thecolouroftheliquidsintubes1 and3
2,mi 2cml 2cm 1 2,mi willchangetowh ite,withtube3changingfirst. The liquid in
egg-white egg-white egg-white egg-white tube2willremainpink.
Inte rpre tati o n
Figure 7. 27 Exper iment to show the action of peps in on egg-wMe Lip.-iseisanenzymethatdigestsfatstofattyacidsandglycerol
Whenlip.-iseac:15onmilkfats,thefattyacidsthathavebeen
A egg-white suspension + 1 cml pepsin 50lutioo {1 %) produced react with the alkal ine sodium carbonate and make
B egg-whitesuspension+3dropsd iluteHCI the5olutionmoreacid.lnacidconditioosthepHindicator,
C egg-white suspension+ 1cmlpepsin+3dropsHCI phenolphthalein, changes from pink to colourless. The presence
ofbilesaltsintube3seemstospeedupthereaction,although
D
,c,
egg-white suspension+ 1cmlboiledpepsin+3drops
bilesal15withthedenaturedenzymeintube2cannotbring
about the change on their own.
• Place all four tubes in a beaker of warm water at 35 °C for
10~15minutes For experiments investigating the effect of temperature and pH
ooenzymeactionseeChapterS.
Result
The contents of tube C go dear. The rest remain cloudy. Qu estions
Inte rpre tation 1 In Experiment 2, why does some reducing sugar remain
The change from a cloudy suspension to a dear solution shows inside the Visking tubing?
thatthe50lidpartidesofeggproteinhavebeendigestedto 2 In Experiment 3, why does the change from cloudy to dear
5olubleproducts. Thefailureoftheotherthreetubestogivedear suggest that digestion has occurred?
5olutionsshowsthat: 3 How would you modify Experiment 3 if you wanted to find
the optimum temperature for the action of pepsin on egg-
• pepsin will only work in acid solutions white7
• itisthepepsinandnotthehydrochloricacidthatdoesthe 4 Experiment 3 is really two experiments combined because
digestion there are two variables
• pepsin is an enzyme, because itsactivityisdestroyedby a ldentifythe variables.
boiling . b Whichofthetubescouldbethecontrol7
5 ltwassuggestedthatanaltemativeinterpretationofthe
4 The actio n of li pase resultinExperimentl mightbethatstarchhastumedsaliva
into sugar. From what you know about starch, saliva and the
• Place Scml milk and 7 cml dilute {0.05 moldm- l) sodium designoftheexperiment,explainwhythisisaless
carbooatesolution intoeachofthreetest-tubeslabelled 1 to3 acceptable interpretation
{Figure7.28)
7 HUMAN NUTRITION
Questions 11 A zoologist is trying to find out whether rabbits need

vitaminCintheirdiet.Assumingthatasufficientlylarge
Core numberofrabbitsisusedandadequatecontrolsare
1 What sources of protein-rich foods are available to a applied, the best design of experiment would be to give
vegetarian who: the rabbits:
a willeatanimalproductsbutnotmeatitself a anartificialdietofpureprotein,carbohydrate,fats,
b willeatonlyplantsandtheirproducts? mineralsandvitaminsbutlac:kingvitaminC
2 Why must all diets contain some protein? b anartificialdietasabovebutwithextravitaminC
3 Couldyousurviveonadietthatcontainedno c anaturaldietofgrass,carrots,etc.butwithadded
carbohydrate?Justifyyouranswer. vitamin(
4 1nv,k,atsensecanthelatsinyourdietbe'>i1idto d natural food but of one kind only, e.g. exclusively grass
contribute to 'keeping you warm'? OJ exclusively carrots?
5 Hov,,, do proteins differ from fats Oipids) in: Justifyyourchoiceand'>ilywhyyouexdudedtheother
a their chemical composition {Chapter 4) alternatives
b theirenergyvalue 12 Name three functions of the alimentary canal shown in
c theirroleinthebody? Figure7.11.
6 Constructafl=hartforthedigestionanduseof 13 Into what parts of the alimentary canal do the follov,,,ing
proteins,similartotheoneforrnrbohydratesinFigure7.6 pour their digestive juices?
7 Whichtis.suesofthebodyneed· a thepancreas
b thesalivaryglands
b glucose 14 Starting from the inside, namethelayersoftissuethat
c calcium makeupthealimentarycanal.
d protein? 15 a Why is it necessary'°' our food to be digested?
8 Some examples of the food that would give a balanced b Whydoplantsnotneedadigestivesystem?(See
dietareshowninFigure7.29.Considerthepictureand 'Photosynthesis'inChapter6.}
'>ilY what class of food°' item of diet is mainly pre5ent. 16 lnwhichpartsofthealimentarycanalarethefollowing
F°'example,themeatismainlyproteinbutwillalso digested?
contain some iron. a starch
b protein
17 StudythecharacteristicsofenzymesinChapter5.lnwhat
ways does pepsin show the characteristics of an enzyme?
18 In experiments with enzymes, the control often involves the
boiledenzyme.Suggestwhythistypeofcontrolisused
19 a What process in the body enables the majority of the
reducingsugarintheileumtobeabsorbedbythe
bloodstream?
b What is needed to achieve this process?
20 Write down the menu !Of your breakfast and lunch {or
supper). State the main food substances present in each
item of the meal. Statethefinaldigestionproductofeac:h
Extended
21 What are the products of digestion of the following, which
areab'iorbedbytheileum?
a starch
b protein
C fats
22 Whatcharacteristicsofthesmallintestineenableitto
ab50fbdigestedfoodefficiently?
23 State briefly what happens to a protein molecule in food,
Rgure7.29 Example'iolt~olfoodinabalaocedciet from the time it is swallowed, to the time its products are
(seeqlll'Stion8) builtupintothecytoplasmofamusdecell.
24 Listthechemicalchangesthatastarchmolecule
9 Whatisthevalueofleafyvegetable'i, such as cabbage undergoes from the time it reaches the duodenum
andlettuce,inthediet7 to the time its carbon atoms become part of carbon
10 Why is a diet consisting mainly of one type of food, dioxide molecules. Say where in the body these
e.g. rice or potatoes, likely to be unsatisfactory even changes occur.
ifitissufficienttomeetourenergyneeds?
Absorption
Checklist • Shortage of vitamin C causes scurvy; inadequate vitamin D

causes rickets.
After studying Chapter 7 you !.hould know and understand the
• Mechanical digestion breah down food into smaller pieces,
following:
without any chemical change of the food molecules. This
• A balanced diet must contain proteins, carbohydrates, fats, process involves teeth, which can become decayed if not
minerals,vitamins,fibreandwater,inthecorrectproportions cared for properly.
Dietaryneedsareaffectedbytheage,genderandactivityof • Chemicaldigestionistheprocessthatchangeslarge,
humans insoluble food molecules into small, soluble molecules.
• Growing children and pregnant women have special dietary • Digestiontakesplaceinthealimentarycanal
needs • Thechangesarebroughtaboutbychemicalscalleddigestive
• Malnutritiooistheresultoftakinginfoodthatdoesnot enzymes.
matchtheenergyneedsofthebody,orislackinginproteins, • The stomach produces gastric juice, which contain5
vitamins Of minerals hydrochlOficacidaswellaspepsin.
• Theeffectsofmalnutritionincludestarvation,cOfooaryheart • Theileumabsorbsaminoacids,glucoseandfats.
disease,constipationandscurvy. • These are carried in the bloodstream first to the liver and
• West em diets often contain too much sugar and fat and too thentoallpartsofthebody.
little fibre. • The small intestine and the colon both absorb water.
• Obesity results from taking in more food than the body needs • Undigested food is egested through the anus as faeces.
forenergy,growthorreplacement • Diarrhoeaisthelossofwateryfaeces.
• Examples of good food sources fOf the components of a • Choleraisadiseasecausedbyabacterium.
balanced diet.
• Fats,carbohydratesandproteinsprovideenergy. • Malnutrition includes kwashiorkor and marasmus
• Proteinsprovideaminoacidsforthegrowthandreplacement • Cholerabacteriaprod1Keatoxinthataffectsosmosisin
of the tissues. the gut.
• Mineralsaltslikecalciumandironareneededintissuessuch • lntemalfolds,villiandmicrovilligreatlyincreasethe
as bone and blood. absorbingsurfaceofthesmallintestine.
• Vegetablefibrehelpstomaintainahealthyintestine. • ThevillihaveaspecialstrlKturetoenableefficient
• Vitamin5 are essential in small quantities fOf chemical absorption of digested food.
reactions in cells.
@ Transport in plants
Tra ns port in plants Explarl<ltion of the mechani'ifTl of water uptake and !TIO'o'ement
Structure ar.d function of xylem and phloem Wilting
Water uptake
Tra nsloca ti o n
Pathwaytakenbywaterinto andthroughtheplant {nodetailsneededfortheCoresyllabus)
Roothairsandsurface area ,linkedtoosmosisandactive Structureandfunctionofphloem
transport Pathway taken by sucrose and amino acids from S01Jrce s to
Trans piratio n sinh
Transportofwall:'fthroughtheplant
Lossbytvaporationthroughplantleaves
Cau56ofchangesintrar6pirationrate
T he region of stem from which leaves and buds arise

• Extension work is called a node. The region of stem between rwo
Before looking in detail at leaf, ste m and root nodes is the imer node.
structure, it is useful to consider th e relationship TI1e leaves make food by photosynthesis
betwee n these parts and the whole plant. (Chapte r 6) and pass it back to the stem .
A yo ung sycamore plant is shown in Figure 8. 1. It TI1e stem carries this food to all parts of the plant
is typical of ma ny flowering plants in having a root that need it and also a rries water and dissolved salrs
system below the ground and a shoot system above from the roots to the leaves and flowers.
grou nd. The shoot consiscs of an upright stem, with In addition, the stem su pports and spaces o ut the
leaves and buds. The buds o n the side of the seem leaves so that they can receive sunlight and absorb
arc called late ral buds. Whe n they grow, they wiU carbon d ioxide, which they need for phorosymhcsis.
prod uce branches. The bud at the tip of the shcxn is An upright stem also holds the flowers above the
the terminal bud and whe n it grows, it will continue ground, helping the pollination by insccts or the ,,ind
the upward growth o frh e stcm . 1l1e lateral buds and (sec ·Sexual reprod uction in planrs' in Chapter 16). A
the te rminal buds may also prod uce fl owers. tall stem may help in seed dispersal later on .
TI1e roots anchor the plant in the soil and prevent
it from fu lling over or being blown o,'er by the
wind. They also abso rb the water and salts that the
plant needs for making food in the lc:a,·es. A third
function is sometimes the storage of food made by
d1e leaves.
shoot
• Transport in plants
Plant stru ct ure and fun cti o n
Leaf
The structure of a leaf has already been described in
Chapter 6 . Xylem and phloem appear in the midrib of
,oo, die leaf, as well as in rhc leaf ,·cins. TI1esc features arc
system identified in C hapter 6 , Figures 6. 18 and 6 .19 .
Stem
Figure 8.2 shows a srem cur across ( transversely) and
down its lcngrh (longitudinally) to show its inrcrnal
Rgur1 8.1 Structureofa typlcalflowerlngplant
Transport in plant5
epidermis these cells are digested away to form a continuous,

fine tube ( Figure 8.4(c)) . At the same time, the
cell walls are thickened and impregnated with a
substance called lignin, which makes the cell wall
very strong and impermeable. Since these lignified
cell walls prevent the free passage of water and
nutrients, the cytoplasm dies. This does not affect
the passage of water in the ,·essels. Xylem also
contains many elongated, lignified supporting cells
,cyt,m called fibre s.
phloem
longltudlnaltangentlal longitudinal
section radial section
Flgure8.2 Structureofaplantstl'm
Epidermis
Like the leaf epidermis, this is a single layer of cells
that helps to keep the shape of the stem and cuts
down the loss ofwarervapour. Stomata in the
epidermis allow the tissues inside to take up m.J 'gen
and get rid of carbon dioxide. ln woody stems, the
epidermis is replaced by bark, which consists of many
layers of dead cells.
Vascular bundles
1l1ese are made up of groups of specialised cells that
conduct water, dissolved salts and food up or down
the stem. The \'asc1dar bundles in the roots, stem, leaf
stalks and leaf veins all connect up to form a rransport
system throughout the entire plant (Figure 8.3 ). The Flgure8.l Oi1tributKJOofveimfmmroottoleaf
two main tissues in the vascular bundles are called
xylem and phloem (Figure 8.4 ). Food substances Sieve tubes
travel in the phloem; water and salts travel mainly in 1l1e conducting cells in the phloem remain alive and
the xylem. The cells in each tissue form elongated form sieve tubes. Like vessels, they are formed by
tubes called vessels (in the xylem) or sieve tubes (in vertical columns of cells (Figure 8.S(b)). Perforations
the phloem ) and they are surrounded and supported appear in the end walls, allowing substances to pass
by other cells. from cell to cell, but the cell walls are not lignified
Vessels and the cell contents do not die, although they do
lose their nuclei. The perforated end walls are called
The cells in the xylem that carry water become
sieve plates.
vessels. A vessel is made up of a series oflong cells
Phloem contains supporting cells as well as sieve
joined end to end (Figure 8.S (a)) . Once a region
tubes.
of rhe plant has ceased growing, the end walls of
8 TRANSPORT IN PLANTS
Flgure8.4 Structure ofplant 1tem
Functions of vascular bundles to resist the sideways bending forces caused by the
In general, water tra\·els up the stem in the xylem wind. In a root, the vascular bundles are in the centre
from the roots to the leaves. Food may travel either (Figure 8.6) where they resist the pulling forces that
up or down the stem in the phloem, from the lea,·es the root is likely to experience when the shoot is
where it is made (the 'source' ), to any part of the being blown about by the wind.
plant that is using or storing it (the 'sink') . The network of veins in many leaves supports the
Vascular bundles have a supporting function as soft mesophyll tissues and resists srresses that could
well as a transport function , because they contain lead to tearing.
vessels, fibres and other thick-walled, lignified, The methods by which water, salts and food
elongated cells. In many stems, the vascular bundles are moved through the vessels and sieve tubes are
are arranged in a cylinder, a little way in from the discussed in 'Transpiration' and 'Translocation' later
epidermis. This pattern of distribution helps the stem in thisd1apter.
Transport in plant5
cytoplasm
thickened
bands
sieve
plate
(a)cellsformlnga (b)cellsformlngaphloem Figure 8.6 Transver'ie section through a root(~40). Notice that the
xylem vessel sieve tube va,rnla1ti11\ll'i1 iotheceotfe. Some roothairscanbe">et>nintheouter
layer of ce lls
Flgure8.5 Cooductiogstructuresinaplant
Cortex and pith

The tissue between the vascular bundles and
the epidermis is called the cortex. Its cells often
store starch. In green stems, the outer cortex
cells c.omain chloroplasts and make food by
-'--- 11'=-""-- -,phloem
photosynthesis. The central tissue of the stem is
called pith. The cells of the pith and cortex act as +--~----l!= - - -xylem
packing tissues and help to support the stem in the
same way that a lot of blown -up balloons packed
tightly into a plastic bag would form quite a rigid
~ c - - - - -,reglonof
elongation
Root
l11e internal structure of a typical root is shown in
Figure 8.7. The vascular bundle is in the centre of the
root (Figure 8.6), unlike the stem where the bundles
form a cylinder in the cortex.
l11e xylem carries water and salts from the root to
the stem. The phloem brings food from the stem to , \l rr'---- - - - - -,rootcap
the root, to provide the root cells with substances for Figure 8.7 Root structure
their energy and growth.
Outer layer and root hairs In a region above the root tip, where the root has
l11ere is no distinct epidermis in a root. At the root just stopped growing, the cells of the outer layer
tip are several layers of cells forming the root cap. produce tiny, tube-like outgrowths called root h airs
l11ese cells are continually replaced as fast as they (Figure 8.11, page 115). l11ese can just be seen as a
are worn away when the root tip is pushed through white furry layer on the roots of seedlings grown in
the soil. moist air (Figure 8.8 ). In the soil, the root hairs grow
betv,een the soil particles and stick closely to them. may arise. Where a main root is recognisable the
The root hairs take up water from the soil by osmosis arrangement is called a tap-root system (Figure
and absorb mineral salts (as ions) by active transport 8.lO(a)) .
(Chapter3 ).
Root hairs remain alive for only a short time. (a) tap-roots~em (b) fibrous root system
The region of root just below a root hair zone is e.g.dandellon e.g.couchgrau
producing new root hairs while the root hairs at the FlgureB.10 T)?l'lofmots)">lem
top of the zone are shrivelling (Figure 8.9). Above
the root hair zone , the cell walls of the outer layer Fibrous root
become less permeable. This means that water cannot When a seed of the grass and cereal group
get in so easily. germinates, several roots grow out at the same
time and laterals grow from them. There is no
distinguishable main root and it is called a fibrous
root system (Figure 8.lO(b )) .
Adventitious root
Where roots grow not from a main root, but
directly from the stem as tl1cy do in bulbs, corms,
rhizomes or ivy, tl1ey are called adventitious roots,
but such a system may also be described as a fibrous
rooting system.
I I roothalrsgrO'N
elongation
• Water uptake
FlgureB.9 The roothairzonechallql'1a1the rootgrows
Pathway taken by water
• Extension work The water tension developed in tl1e vessels by a
rapidly transpiring plant (see next section) is tlmught
Tap root to be sufficient to draw water tluough tl1e root from
When a seed germinates, a single root gro\\'S the soil. The water enters tl1e root hair cells and is
vertically down into the soil. Later, lateral roots then passed on to cells in the root cortex. It enters
grow from this at an acute angle outwards and the xylem vessels to be transported up the stem and
downwards, and from these laterals other branches into tl1e leaves, arriving at the leaf mesophyll cells.
Water uptake
Practical work When water loss thro ugh transpiration is slow,

e.g. ar night-rime or just before bud burst in a
Transport in the vascular bundles d eciduous rree, rhen osmosis may play a more
imporranr pan in rhe uptake of wate r than water
• Placetheshootsof severalleafyplants ina~utionofl'll,
methylene blue. 'Busylizzie'(Jmpariens)or celeiystalbwith
tension develo ped in the vessels. In Figure 8. 11 ,
leavesareusuallyeffective. sl10wing a root hair in the soil , the cytoplas m of the
• L.eavetheshootsinthelightfor upto24 hours. root hair is partially permeable to water. The soil
water is more dilute than the cell sap and so water
Result passes by osmosis from the soil into the cell sap of
tfsomeofthestems are cutacross,the dye willbe5eefl inthe
the root hair cell. 11lis flow of water into the root
va5eular bundles (Set' Figure 2.2). In some cases the blue dye wm
aj'iOappearintheleafvens. hair cell raises rhe cell's turgo r pressure. So water is
forced our through rhe cell wall into the next cell
Interpretation
Thesere!.U ltsshow th at the dye and, therefore, proba bly also the
and so on, right throug h the cortex of the root to
water, lravelupthe stemin theva scula rbundles. Closerstudy the xylem vessels ( Figure 8. 12).
would show that they travel in the xylem vessels.
mostw~tertr ;ivels
lnor between
thecellw~II~
Transport of water in the xylem
• Cut t hree leafy shoots from a deciduous t ree or sh rub. Each
5hoot shouldhaveabootthesamenumberofleaves.
• On one twig remove a ring of bark about 5mm wide, about
100rrvnupfromthecut base
• With the second shoot smear a ~er of Vaseline over the w t
baSf! so that it blocks the - Is. The t hird twig is a control
• Place all t hree twigs in a jar with a little water. The wa ter level
must be below the region from which you removed the ring
of bark
• U!.we the twigs where they ca n receiYe direct sunlight.
Result
After an hour or two, you will probably find that the twig with
bkrled-ls shows signs of wilting. The other two twigs
'ihouldstil haveturgidleaves.
Interpretation
RemOYal of the barii: (including the phloem) has not prevented
wa ter Imm reaching the leaves, but bkx:king the xylem ve~ls
has. Thevesselsof thexy!em, therefore ,offerthemostlikely Flgure8.11
rou te forwa terpassingupthe stem .
One problem for this explanation is that it has

nor been possible to demo nstrate that there is
As Figures 8.7 and 8.8 illustrate , the large number an osmotic gradient across the root cortex that
of tiny root hairs greatly increases the absorbing could prcxluce this flow ofwarer from cell to cell.
surf.ice ofa root system. The surf.ice area of the root Neverrhdess, root pressure developed probably by
system ofa marurc rye plant has been estimated osmosis docs force warer up the root system and
ar about 200m2. The additional surf.tee provided inrothesrem.
by rhe root hairs was calculated to be 4D0m2. The
water in rhe surrounding soil is absorbed by osmosis Uptake of salts
(sec Chapter 3). TI1e precise pathway taken by rhe
water is rhe subject of some debate, but the path of The methods by which roots take up salts fro m the
least resistance seems to be in or between the cell soil arc nor Ii.illy undcrstoo::I. Some salts ma y be
walls rather than th rough the cells. carried in with rhc warer drawn up by transpiration
and pass mainly along the cell walls in the root • Transpiration
cortex and into the xylem. TI1e main force that draws water from the soil and
through the plant is caused by a process called
transpiration. Water evaix,rates from the leaves and
causes a kind of'suction', which pulls water up the stem
(Figure 8. 13). The water travels up the xylem vessels in
the vascular bundles (sec Figure 8.3, page 111 ) and this
flow of water is called the transpiration stream.
evaporation Into
atmosphere
from leaf surface
Rgure 8.12 Diagrammatic section of root to '>how passage of water

lromthesoil
It may be that diffusion from a relatively high

concentration in the soil to a lower concentration
in the root cells accounts for uptake of some Flgure 8.13 Toetranspiratio111tream
individual salts, but it has been shown: (a) that
salts can be taken from the soil even when their
Key defi n it io n
concentration is below that in the roots, and Trans piration is the loss of water vapour from plant leaves by
( b) that anything which interferes with respiration evaporatio11 ofwateratthesurfacesofthernesophyllcells
impairs the uptake of salts. This suggests that active followed by the diffusion of water vapour through the
transport (Chapter 3) plays an importam part in the
uptake of salts.
The growing regions of the root and the root hair
zone (Figure 8.9) seem to be most active in taking Practical work
up salts. Most of the salts appear to be carried at
first in the xylem vessels, though they soon appear To demonstrate water loss by a plant
in the phloem as well. Theapparatusshowni11Figure8. 14iscalledaweightpotomete r
The salts are used by the plam's cells to build Awell-wateredpottedplantispreparedbysurroundingthepot
up essential molecules. Nitrates, for example, are withaplasticbag,sealedaroundthestemoftheplantwith
combined with carbohydrates to make amino acids anelasticbandorstring.Theplantisthenplacedonatop-p.-m
balance and its mass is recorded. After a measured time period
in the roots. These amino acids are used later to
e .g. 24hours,theplantisre-weighedandthedifferenceinmass
make proteins. calculated. Knowing the time which has elapsed, the rate of mass
lrn;sperhourc.anbecakulated. Theprocesscanberepeated,
exposingtheplanttodifferentenvironmentalconditions,suchas
higherternperature,wi11dspeed,humidityorlightintensity.
Transpira t ion
Results
The plant lo5es mass over the measured time period. lncrea5es in
temperature,windspeedandlightintensityresultinlargerrates
of loss of mass. An increa5e in humidity would be expected to
reducetherateoflossofmass
Inte rpretation
A5therootsandsoilsurroundingtheplanthavebeensealed
inaplastic:bag,itcanbeassumedthatanymasslostmu51be syringe
duetotheevaporationofwatervapourfromthe51emorleaves
;~::~:;a~:~~:c;:s:t~n~:;:r;~~:~~w::d~h:~~!ght )-way tap - ~ = ; : : J:r:::'.::::::Jr::::IJ

the rate of loss of mass from the plant increa5es. An increa5e
in humidity reduces transpiration, so the rate of loss of mass
slows down.
-1_:r ~
top of
scale
plant
capillary
tube
(l)closed Oll)closed
plasllcbag
3-waytap
plant pot
top-pan
,urtofKal,
M
balance
meniscus
FlgureS.14 Aweightpotometer !:';\;omof
8
watercolumnlsJust
below start of scale
Rates of water uptake in different
conditions
The apparatus shown in Figure 8.15 is called a potometer. It is
designedtomeasuretherateofuptakeofwaterinacutshoot.
• Fillthesyringe'Nithwaterandattachittothesidearmofthe
FlgureS.15 Apotometer
3-waytap.
• Turn the tap downwards (i) and press the syringe until water • Theconditiooscann,,:mbechangedinoneofthefollowingways:
comesoutoftherubbertubingatthetop 1 Move the apparatus into sunlight or under a fluorescent lamp.
• Collect a leafy shoot and push its stem into the rubber tubing 2 Blow air past the shoot 'Nlth an electric fan or merely fan it
asfaraspossible.Setuptheapparatusinapartofthe withanexercisebool::
laboratorythatisf\Otreceivingdirectsunlight. 3 Covertheshoot'Nltha plastic bag.
• Turn the tap up {ii) and press the syringe until water comes out • After each change of conditions, take three more readings
ofthebottorn ofthecapillary tube. Turn thetaphorizontally(1ii). of the rate of uptake and notice whether they represent an
• As the shoot transpires, it will draw water from the capillary increa5eoradecrea5eintherateoftranspiration.
tubeandthelevelcanbeseentori5e. Record the distance
moved by the water column in 30 5econds or a minute. Results
• Turnthetapupandsendthewatercolumnbacktothe
bottom of the capillary. Tum the tap horizontally and make 1 An increa5e in light intensity should make the stomata open
another measurement of the rate of uptake. In this way obtain and allow more rapid transpiration.
theaverageofthreereadings 2 Movingairshouldincrea5etherateofevaporationand,
therefore,therateofuptake.
3 Theplasticbagwillcau5eari5einhumidityroundtheleaves
and suppress transpiration.
Inte rpretation Resu lt

Ideally, you should change only one condition ata time . If you All the leaves will have shfrvelled and curled up to some extent
took the experiment outside. you would be changing the light but the ones that lost most water will be the most shrivelled
inten5ity, the temperawre and the air mcwement. When the rate (FigureS .16).
of uptake increased, you would not know which of the;e three
~
changes was mainly responsible.
' t t
Toobtainreliableresults.youshouldreallykeeptaking
readings until three of them are nearly the s.ame. A change in
conditions may take 10 or 15 minutes before it produces a new,
steady rate of uptake . Jn practice. you may not have time to do
this, but even your first dvee readings should indicate a tmld
!CP,11ardsincreasedordecreaseduptake.
(a) lowu (b) upper (<l both (d) nelther
Note: a 5impler version of potometer can be u:1ed effectively. surface surl;ic:11 surfaces surface
This does not include the syringe or scaled capillary tubing shown
Figure 8. 16 The results of ev~;itlorl from ll!aws suti;ected to
inFigure8.15 different treatments
• Theplantstemcanbeattacheddirectlytoalengthofcapillary
tubingwithashortsectionofrubbertubing. Thisisbe~ Interpretation
carriedoutinabowlofwater. TheVaselinepreventsevaporation.Theuntreatedleafandthe
• Whilestillinthewater.squeezetherubbertubingtofon:eout leafwithitsuppersurfacesealedshCP,11\hegreate stdegreeof
any air bubbles. shrivelling, soitisfromthelov,,,ersurfacethatleaveslosemost
• Remove t he potometer from the water and rub a piece of filter water by evaporation
paper against theendofthecapillarytubingtointroducean More accurate re,sults may be obtained by v,,,eighing the leaves
air bubble. Thecapillarytubingdoesootneedtohaveascale: atthestartandtheendoftheexperiment. ltisbesttogroup
arulercanbedampednexttothetubing. the leaves from the whole dass into their respective batches and
• Recordthedista1"1Cemovedbythebubbleoveramea1,Ured weigh each batch.Ideally. theweightlossshouldbeexpre55edas
period of time. Thenplo,ce theendofthecapillarytubingina apercentageoftheinitialv,,,eight.
beaker of wa ter and squeeze out the air bubble. More rapid results can be obtained by sticking sman squares of
• Introduce a new air bubble as previously described and take blue cob.altchloridepapertotheupperandlowersurf.Keofthe
further readings. s.ame leaf using transparent adhesive tape (Figure 8 .17). Cobalt
chloride paper changes from bluetopinkasittakesupmoi!>ture.
By comparing the time taken for each square to go pink. the
limitations of the potometer relative rates of evaporation from each surface can be compared.
Although we u:1e the potometer to compare rates al
transpiration.itisreallytheratesofuptakethatweare
observing. Notallthewatertak:enupwil betranspired;50!Tle
will be used in photosynthesis; some may be a ~ by cells
to ir1Crea:1e their turgor. However, these quantities are very small
compared with the volume of water transpired and they can be
disregMded
Therateofuptakeofacutshootmaynotreflecttheratein
theintactplant.lftherootsystemwerepresent,itmightoffer
re5i~ancetotheflCP,11ofwateroritcooldbehelpin9theflowby ·sellotape•
meansofitsrootpressure. cobalt chloride
paper
To find which surface of a leaf loses

more water vapour
• Cut four leaves of about the s.ame 5ize from a plant {do not
useanevergreenplant). Protectthebenchwithnewspaper
andthentreateachleafasfollows: FlgureB.17 To find which surface of ;i leaf loses more water vapour
a Smear a thin layer of Va:1eline (petroleum jelly) on the lower
l,l)rfo,ce. Theresultsofeilherexperimentcanbecorrelatedwithlhe
b Smear Va:1eline on the upper surface. numbers of stomata on the upper and lov,,,er epidermis. This can
c Smear Vaseline on both surfaces. be done by painting dear nail varnish or 'Germoline New-skin'
d Leavetxithsurfacesfreeofvaseline. OYer each surfaCP and allc:Miing it to dry. The varnish is then
• PlacealittleVaselineonthecutendoftheleafstalkand peeled off and examined under the microscope. The outlines of
then suspend the four leaves from a retort stand with cotton theguardcellscanbeseenandcounted
threadsfOt"severaldays.
Transpira t ion
The cells in part of a leaf blade are shown in movement lt)'lem

betweencells ve1sel evaporation
Figure 8.18. As explained in 'Osmosis' in Chapter 3,
the cell sap in each cell is exerting a mrgor pressure
outwards on the cell wall. This pressure forces some
water out of the cell wall, evaporating into the air
space between the cells. The water vapour passes by
diffusion through the air spaces in the mesophyll
and out of the stomata. It is this loss of water
vapour from the leaves that is called 'transpiration'.
Each leaf contains many air spaces in the spongy
mesophyll and the air becomes saturated with water
vapour. There are hundreds ofsromata, particularly
on the lower epidermis of the leaf, enabling water
vapour to diffiise from a high concentration in the
air spaces into the atmosphere (representing a lower
concentration of water vapour, unless the humidity
is high).
The cell walls that are losing water in this
way replace it by drawing water from the
nearest vein. Most of this water travels along
the cell walls without acmally going inside the sectio n through
leaf blade vapour
cells (Figure 8. 19 ). l110usands ofleafcells are
evaporating water like this: their surf.tees represent FlgureS.18 Movementofwall'llhrou ghak>af
a very large surf.tee area. More water is drawn up

to replace the evaporated water, from the xylem
vessels in the veins. As a result, water is pulled
through the xylem vessels and up the stem from
mostwater travelsalongcellwalls
the roots. This transpiration pull is strong enough
to draw up water 50 metres or more in trees
(Figure 8.20). xyle m
In addition to the water passing along the cell vessel
walls, a small amount will pass right through the
cells. When leaf cell A in Figure 8. 19 loses water,
its turgor pressure will full. This full in pressure
allows the water in the cell wall to enter the vacuole
and so restore the turgor pressure. In conditions
of water shortage, cell A may be able to get water
by osmosis from cell B more easily than B can
get it from the xylem vessels. In this case, all the
mesophyll cells will be losing water fuster than they
can absorb it from the vessels, and the leaf will wilt
(see 'Osmosis' in Chapter 3). Water loss from the
cell vacuoles results in the cells losing their turgor
and becoming flaccid. A leaf with flaccid cells
will be limp and the stem will droop. A plant that FlgureS.19 Probabk>pathwayof waterthmughleafcells
loses water to this extent is said to be 'wilting' (see
Figure 3. 11 ).
Importance of transpiration
A tree, on a hot day, may draw up hundreds oflitres
of water from the soil (Figure 8.20). Most of this
water evaporates from the leaves; only a tiny fraction
is retained for photosynthesis and to maintain the
turgor of the cells. The advantage to the plant of
this excessive evaporation is not clear. A rapid water
flow may be needed to obtain sufficient mineral
salts, which are in very dilute solution in the soil.
Evaporation may also help to cool the leafwhen it is
exposed to intense sunlight.
Against the first possibility, it has to be pointed
out that, in some cases, an increased transpiration
rate does not increase the uptake of minerals.
The second possibility, the cooling effect, might
be very important. A leaf exposed to direct sunlight
will absorb heat and its temperature may rise to a
level that could kill the cytoplasm. Water evaporating
from a leaf absorbs its latent heat and cools the leaf
down. l11is is probably one value of transpiration.
However, there are plants whose stomata close at
around midday, greatly reducing transpiration. H ow
do these plants avoid overheating?
Many biologists regard transpiration as an
inevitable consequence of photosyntl1esis. In order to
photosynthesise, a leaf has to take in carbon dioxide
from tl1e air. The pathway tl1at allows carbon dioxide in
will also let water vapour out whether tl1e plant needs
to lose water or not. In all probability, plants have to
FlgureB.20 Califomianredwood1.Someofthes@tfeesareover
maintain a careful balance betv,,een the optimum intake lOOmetrestall.Trampiraboofromtheirleavespull'ihun dredsoflitres ol
of carbon dioxide and a damaging loss of water. Plants water up the trunk
achieve tl1is balance in different ways, some of which
are described in 'Adaptive features' in 01aprer 18.
The role of stomata Rate of transpiration
The opening and closing of stomata can be triggered
Transpiration is tl1e evaporation of water from
by a variety of fuctors, principally light imensity,
the leaves, so any change that increases or
carbon dioxide concentration and humidity. These
reduces evaporation will have the same effect on
fuctors interact with each otl1er. For example,
transpiration.
a rise in light imensity will increase the rare of
photosynthesis and so lower the carbon dioxide Light inten sity
concentration in tl1e leaf. These are tl1e conditions Light itself does not affect evaporation, but in
you would expect to influence stomata! aperture if daylight the stomata of the leaves are open (see
tl1e stomata are to control the balance between loss 'Leaf structure' in Chapter 6). This allows tl1e
of water ,·apour and uptake of carbon dioxide. water vapour in tl1e leaves to diffuse out into tl1e
The stomata also react to water stress, i.e. if the leaf atmosphere. At night, when the stomata close,
is losing water by transpiration fuster than it is being transpiration is greatly reduced.
taken up by tl1e roots. Before wilting sets in, the Generally speaking, then, transpiration speeds up
stomata start to close. Altlmugh tl1ey do not prevent when light intensity increases because the stomata
wilting, the stomata do seem to delay its onset. respond to changes in light intensity.
Trans/cxation
Sunlight may also warm up the leaves and increase the water, tra\'cls in the vascular bundles. Closer
evaporation (sec below). examination with a microscope would show that it
travels in the xylem vessels.
Humidity
Removal ofa ring o f bark (which includes the
Ifthc air is very humid, i.e. contains a great deal of
phloem) docs no r affect the passage o f water
water vapou r, it can accept ve ry little mo re from the
along a branch. Killing pans of a branch by heat
plants and so transpiration slows down. ln dry air,
or poisons d ocs nor interrupt the fl ow of water,
the diffusion o f water vapou r from the leaf to the
bur anyt hi ng thar blocks the vessels d ocs stop
atmosphere will be rapid .
the flow.
Air movemen u TI1c evidence all points to the non-living xylem
In still air, the region round a transpiring k:afwill vessels as rhc main route by which water passes from
become s:uurated with water vapour so that no the soil ro the leaves.
more can esape from the l~f. In these conditions,
transpiration would slow down. In moving air, the
water vapour will be swept away from the leaf as fust • Translocation
as it diffuses out. This will speed up transpiration.
Key d e fi n iti o n
Temperature Trans location is themovementofsucroseandaminoacids
Warm air can hold more water vapour than cold air. in the phloem, from regions of production {the 'source')
toregionsofstorageortoregionsv.tieretheyareusedin
Tims evaporation or transpiration will take place
respirationOfgn::r.vth(the'sink').
more rapidly inro warm air.
Furthermore, when the Sun shines o n the leaves,
The xylem sap is always a very dilute soluti on, but
they will absorb heat as well as light. This warms
the phloem sap may contain up to 2 5% of dissolved
them up and increases the rate of evaporation of
solids, the bulk of which consists of sucrose: and
water.
amino acids. There is a good deal of evidence to
Invescigatio ns into the effi:ct of some of these
support the view that sucrose, amino acids and many
conditions o n 1he rate of transpiration arc described
other substances arc transported in the phloem. This
earlier in this chapter.
is called transloc.uion .
Water movement in the xylem TI1c mo\·cmcnr o f watcr and salts in the xylem
is always up\vards, from soil ro leaf, but in the
You may have learned that you cannot draw water
phloem the solutes may be travelling up or down
up by 'suction' to a height of more than about
l O metres. Many trees arc taller than this yet they the stem. The carbohydrates made in the leaf during
photosynthesis arc converted to sucrose and carried
can draw up water effccti\'Cly. The explanation
our of the laf (thc source) to the stem. From here,
offered is that, in long \'ertical columns of water in
\·cry thin tubes, the attractive forces between the the sucrose may pass upwards to growing buds
and fruits or downwards to the roots and storage
water molecules result in cohesion (the molecules
stick together). TI1e attractive forces are greater than organs (sink). All parts ofa plant that cannot
phorosymhesisc will need a supply of nutrients
rhe forces trying to separate them. So, in dlect, the
brought by rhe phloem. Iris quire possible for
transpiration stream is pulling up thin threads of
water, which resist the tendency to break. substances robe rravclling upwards and downwards
at the same rime in the phloem.
There are still problems, however. Itis likely that
Some insects feed using syringe-like mouthparts,
rhe water columns in some of the vessels do have air
breaks in them and yet the total water fl ow is not piercing rhe stems of plants to cxtr-Jct liquid from the
phloem vessels. Figure 8.21 shows aphids feeding
affected.
on a rose plant. TI1e pressure of sucrose solution in
Evidence for rhe pathway of water the phloem can be so great that it is forced through
The experiment on page 115 uses a dye to show that the gm of the aphid and droplets of the sticky liquid
in a cur srcm, the dye and, the refore, presumably exude fro m its anus.
sugars and amino acid s to other parts of the plant.

Similarly, the new tuber of a potato plant would
act as a sink while it was growing, storing sugars as
starch. (Starch is a good storage molecule because
it is insoluble and quite compact. ) H owever, once
the buds o n the tubers start to grow, the stored
starch is conve rted to sucrose, a solu ble nutrient,
which will be passed to these buds from the tuber.
So the tu ber becomes the source . The shoots
will eventually become sources, once they break
through the soil and produce new leaves that
can photosynthesise . Bulbs, such as those of the
daffodil and snowdro p (see 'Asexual reproduction '
Rgure8.21 Aphimfeed ingonaroseplant in Chapter 16), act in the same way, although they
tend to store sugars as well as starch.
Some parts of a plant can act as a source and a There is no doubt that substances travel in the
sink at different times during the life of a plant. sieve tubes of the phloem, but the mechanism by
Fo r example, while a bud containing new leaves is whid1 they are moved is not fully understood. We do
fo rming it would require nutrients and the refore know that translocation depends on living processes
act as a sink. H owever, once the bud has burst because anything that inhibits cell metabolism ,
and the leaves are photosynthesising, the region e.g . poisons or high temperatures, also arrests
would ac t as a source, sending newly synthesised rranslocation.
Questions 10 A plant's roots may take up water and salts less efficiently
from a waterlogged soil than from a fa irly dry soil. Revise
Core 'Activetran~rt'(Chapter3)andsuggestreasons f(J( t his.
1 Make a list of the types of cells or tissue5 you would expect 11 Why do you t hink that, in a deciduous tree in spring,
tofindinavascularbundle. transpirationis negligiblebef(J(ebudburst?
2 What st ructu reshelptokeep t hestem'sshapeandupright 12 Describe the pat hway followed by a water molecule from
position? the time it enters a pla nt root to the time it escapes into
3 What are the difference-; between xylem and phloem: the atmosphere from aleaf .
a instructure 13 What kind of climate and weather conditions do you thin k
b infunction? willcauseahighrate oftranspi ration?
4 Statebrieflythefunctionsof t he following: xylem, root 14 What would ha ppen to the leaves of a plant that was
hair,root cap,epidermis. losingwaterbytranspirationfasterth anitwas takingit up
5 If you were given a cylindrical struct ure cu t from part of a from the roots?
plant, how could you tell whet her it was a piece of stem 0( 15 In what two wa~ does sunlight increase the rate of
apiece of root: transpiration?
a withthenakedeye 16 Apart from drawing water through the plant, what else
b withthe aidofamicroscopeorha ndlens? may be drawn up by the transpiration stream?
6 Describe the path taken by a water molecule from the soil 17 Transpirationhasbeendescribedin t hischapterasifit
until it reaches a mesophyll cell of a leaf to be made into takesplace only inleaves. lnwhat otherpartsof a plant
sugar. might transpiration occur?
7 Why do you think that root ha irs a re produced only on the 18 Howdosievetubesandvesselsdiffer:
partsoftheroots~ternthathavestoppedgrowing? a in thesubstancestheytran~rt
8 Discuss whether you would expect to find a vascular b inthedirectionsthesesubsta ncesare carried?
bundleinaflowerpetal. 19 A complete ring of bark cut from around the
Extended circ.umferenceof a tree-trunkcausesthetree todie . The
9 If root hairs take up water from the soil by osmosis, what xylem continues to carry water a nd salts to the leaves,
would you expect to happen if so much nit rate fertiliser whichcanmakeallthesubstancesneededby thetree. So
was put on the soil that the soil water became a stronger whydoesthe treedie?
solutiontha nthecellsapoftheroothairs? 20 Makealistofallthenon-photosyntheticpartsofapl ant
thatneedasupplyofsucroseand aminoacids
Trans/oca t ion
Checklist • The water travelling in the tran~ration stream will contain

dissolved salts
After studying Chapter 8 you !.hould know and understand the
• CI05Ure of stomata and !.hedding of leaves may help to
following:
regulate the transpiration rate.
• The !.hoot of a plant consists of the stem, leaves, buds and • Therateoftranspirationisincreasedbysunlight,high
flowers. temperature and low humidity.
• Therootsholdtheplantinthesoil,absorbthewaterand • Saltsaretakenupfromthesoilbyroots,andarecarriedin
mineralsaltsneededbytheplantformakingsugarsand the xylem vessels.
proteins and, in some cases, store food for the plant.
• Theroothairsmakeveryclosecontactwithsoilparticlesand • Transpiration produces the force that draws water up the
are the main route by which water and mineral salts enter
the plant. • Root pressure forces water up the stem as a result of
• The stem supports the leaves and flowers. osmosis in the roots
• Thestemcontainsvasc:ularbundles{veins}. • Thelargesurfac:eareaprovidedbyroothairsincreasesthe
• Theleavescarryoutphotosynthesisandallowgaseous rateofabsorptionofwater(osmosis)andmineralions
exchangeofcarbondioxide,oxygenandwatervapour. {active transport)
• CI05Ure of the stomata stops the entry of carbon dioxide into • Thelargesurfac:eareaprovidedbycellsurfaces,
aleafbutalsoreduceswaterloss interconnectingairspacesandstomataintheleaf
• Thexylemvesselsintheveinscarrywaterupthestemtothe encourages water loss
leaves • Wilting occurs when the volume of water vapour lost by
• The phloem in the veins carries food up or down the stem to leavesisgreaterthanthatabsorbedbyroots.
wherever it is needed • Translocation is the movement of sucrose and amino acids
• The position of vascular bundles helps the stem to withstand in phloem
sideways bending and the root to resist pulling fon::es. • The point where food is made is called a 50Urce.
• Transpiration is the evaporation of water vapour from the • The place where food is taken to and used is called a sink
leaves of a plant.
@ Transport in animals
Tra n spo rt in a nim a ls Blood a nd ly mp ha ti c vesse ls
Arteries,veins,capillaries
Single circulation in fish
Mainblood vesselsoftheheartandlungs
Double circulation and its advantages
Adaptations of blood vessels
Lymphatic system
Structures of the heart
Monitoring heart activity Bl ood
Coronary heart disease Components of blood~ appearance and functions
Heart valves Lymphocyes
Explanation of heart features Phagocytes
Functioning of the heart Blood dotting
Explanation oftheeffectofexercise Transferofmaterialsbetweencapillariesandtissuefluid
Treatmentandpreventionofcoronary heartdisease
• Transport in animals Single circulation of fish

The blood, pumped by the heart, travels all around
the body in blood vessels. It leaves the heart in Fisl1 have the simplest circulatory system of all
arteries and returns in veins. Valves, present in the vertebrates. A heart, consisting of one blood -
the heart and veins, ensure a one -way flow for the collecting chamber (the atrium) and one blood -
blood. AI; blood enters an organ , the arteries divide ejection chamber ( the ventricle), sends blood to the
inro smaller arterioles, which supply capillaries. In gills where it is oxygenated. The blood then flows to
these vessels the blood moves much more slowly, all the parts of the body before returning to the heart
allowing the exchange of materials such as oxygen (Figure 9.1 ).This is known as a single circulation
and glucose, carbon dioxide and other wastes. because the blood goes througl1 the heart once for
Blood leaving an organ is collected in venuks, which each complete circulation of the body. However, as
transfer it on to larger veins. the blood passes through capillaries in the gills, blood
pressure is lost, but the blood still needs to circulate
through other organs of the body before returning
to the heart to increase blood pressure. This makes
the fish circulatory system inefficient.
Rgure9 .1 Singledrc:ul.itkloof.ifish
Heart
Double circulation of mammals • Heart

TI1e heart pumps blood through the circulatory
TI1e route of the circulation ofblood in a mammal system to all the major organs of the body. The
is shown in Figure 9.2. appearance of the heart from the outside is shown in
Figure 9.3. Figure 9.4 shows the left side cut open,
while Figure 9.5 is a diagram ofa vertical section to
show its internal structure. Since the heart is seen as
ifin a dissection of a person facing you, the left side is
drawn on the right.
~ - - -aorta
O ~ & "~ - pulmonary
artery
;,r----c- - .
coronary
artery
Flgure9.3 htem.ilviewoftheheart
key
c::::::::J~~ oxrienated
00
~ oxygenated
L___J blood
Figure 9.2 Double circulation of a mammal
The blood passes twice through the heart during

one complete circuit: once on its way to the body columns
of muscle
and again on its way to the lungs. The circulation supporting
through the lungs is called the pulmonary valve tendons
circulation; the circulation around the rest of
the body is called the systemic circulation. Flgure9.4 OiagramoftheheartrutopM(leftskle)
On average, a red blood cell would go around
the whole circulation in 45 seconds. A more If you study Figure 9.5 you will see that there are
detailed diagram of the circulation is shown in four chambers. TI1e upper, tllin-walled d1ambers are
Figure 9 .20. the atria (singular - atrium) and each of these opens
A double circulation has the advantage of into a thick-walled chamber, the ve ntricle, below.
maintaining a high blood pressure to all the Blood enters the atria from large veins. The
major organs of the body. The right side of the pulmonary vein brings oxygenated blood from
heart collects blood from rhe body, builds up the lungs into the left atrium. The ve na cava brings
the blood pressure and sends it to the lungs to deoxygenared blood from the body tissues into the
be oxygenated, but the pressure drops during right atrium. TI1e blood passes from each atrium to
the process. The left side of the heart receives its corresponding ventricle, and the ventricle pumps it
oxygenated blood from the lungs, builds up the out into the arteries. The left chambers are separated
blood pressure again and pumps the oxygenated from the right chambers by a wall of muscle called a
blood to the body. septum .
9 TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS
The artery carrying m.1'genated blood to the body (Figure 9.7). ltis important that the thumb is 11ot
from the left ventricle is the aorta. The pulmonary used because it has its own pulse. There is also a
artery carries dem.1'genated blood from the right detectable pulse in the carotid artery in the neck.
ventricle to the lungs. Digital pulse rate monitors are also available. These
In pumping the blood, the muscle in the walls of the can be applied to a finger, wrist or earlobe depending
atria and ventricles contracts and relaxes (Figure 9.6). on the rype and provide a very accurate reading.
TI1e walls of the atria contract first and force blood
~
,
imo the two vemricles. Then the ventricles contract
and send blood into the arteries. Valves prevent blood
flowing backwards during or after heart contractions.
The heart muscle is supplied with food and oxygen "''~"~' \ I ,J
by the coronary arteries (Figure 9.3 ). '"m'·'""~
2blcuspld
· .j '
..·
pulmonary
artery
':::.:,::··
relaxes . }
'''""""'''"""' , valvesopen
..m,.,,.., I ~~;;.
.~ /
2blcuspld '
valve closes
1 ventricle .1~
contracts ·'
(b)ventrlcleernptylng
Flgure9. 6 Diagramofheartbeat (onlythe~ftsideisshovvn)
key
c:::::::J
deoxygenated
c:::::::J
oxygen ated
blood blood
Flgure9.5 Diagramoftheheart.verticalsectklo
There are a number of ways by which the activity of

the heart can be monitored. These include measuring
pulse rate, listening to heart sounds and the use of
electrocardiograms (ECGs).
Flgure9.7 Takingthepulse
Pulse rate
The ripple of pressure that passes down an artery
as a result of the heart beat can be felt as a 'pulse' Heart sounds
when the artery is near the surface of the body. You These can be heard using a stethoscope. This
can feel the pulse in your radial artery by pressing instrument amplifies the sounds of the heart valves
the fingertips of one hand on the wrist of the other opening and closing. A healthy heart produces a
Heart
regular 'lub-dub' sound. TI1e first ('lub') sound is 70 times a minute, but this varies according to a
caused by the closure of the valves separating the person's age, gender and fitness: higher if you are
atria from the ventricles. The second ('dub') sound younger, higher if you are female and lower if you are
represents the closure of the valves at the entrance fit. An increase in physical activity increases the pulse
of the pulmonary artery and aorta. Observation of rare, whicl1 can rise to 200 beats per minute. After
irregular sounds may indicate an irregular heartbeat. exercise has stopped, the pulse rate gradually drops to
lfthe 'lub' or 'dub' sounds are not clear then this its resting state. H ow quickly this happens depends
may point to a problem with fuulty valves. on the fitness of the individual ( an unfit person's
pulse rate will take longer ro return to normal ).
ECGs
An ECG is an electrocardiogram. To obtain an ECG , Coronary heart disease
electrodes, attached to an ECG recording machine, are In the lining of the large and medium arteries, deposits
stuck onto the surface of the skin on the arms, legs and of a futty substance, called atheroma, are laid down in
cl1est (Figure 9.8 ). Electrical activity associated with patches. This happens to everyone and the patches get
heartbeat is then monitored and viewed on a computer more numerous and extensive with age, but until one of
screen or printed out (Figure 9 .9). Any irregularity in them actually blocks an important artery rhe effects are
the trace can be used to diagnose heart problems. not noticed. It is not known how or why the deposits
form. Some doctors think that fatty substances in the
blood pass into the lining. Others bdie"\'e that small
blood clots form on damaged areas of the lining and are
covered over by the atheroma patches. The patches may
join up to form a continuous layer, which reduces rhe
internal diameter of the vessel (Figure 9 .I 0).
~"f~A~~
(a)normal artery smooth
lining
Flgure9.8 Apatfl'ntvndergo4nganECG
~
(~
artery blocked fatty and fibrous
by thrombus deposlts(atheroma)
Flgure9.9
pulse rate
ECGtrac:e
The effect of physical activity on the ~

(c)thrombusformlng
Figure 9.10 Atheroma and thrombus forma~oo

A heartbeat is a contraction. Each contraction
squeezes blood to the lungs and body. The pulse is a The surface of a patch of atheroma sometimes
pressure wave passing through the arteries as a result becomes rough and causes fibrinogen in the plasma to
of the heartbeat. At rest, the heart bears about deposit fibrin on it, causing a blood clot (a thrombus )
to form. If the blood clot blocks the coronary Blood cholesterol can be influenced, to some
artery (Figure 9 .3 ), whicl1 supplies the muscles of extent, by the amount and type of fut in the diet.
the ventricles with blood, it starves the muscles of Many doctors and dieticians believe that animal futs
oxygenated blood and the heart may stop beating. This (milk, cream, butter, cheese, egg-yolk, futty meat) are
is a severe heart attack from coronar y thro mbosis. A more likely to raise the blood cholesterol than are the
thrombus might form anywhere in the arterial system, vegetable oils, which contain a high proportion of
but its effects in the coronary artery and in parts of the unsaturated futtyacids (see 'Diet' in Chapter 7).
brain (strokes) are the most drastic. An unbalanced diet with too many calories can lead
In the early stages of coronary heart disease , the to obesity. Being overweight puts extra srrain on the
atheroma may partially block the coronary artery and heart and makes it more difficult for the person to
reduce the blood supply to the he arr (Figure 9 .11 ). exercise.
This can lead to angina, i.e. a pain in the chest that
Stress
occurs during exercise or exertion. This is a warning
Emotional stress often leads to raised blood pressure.
to the person that he or she is at risk and should take
High blood pressure may increase the rate at which
precautions to a\'oid a heart attack.
atheroma are formed in the arteries.
Sm o kin g
Statistical studies suggest that smokers are two to
three times more likely to die from a heart attack
than are non-smokers ofa similar age (Figure 9.12).
The carbon monoxide and other chemicals in
cigarette smoke may damage the lining of the
arteries, allowing atheroma to form, but there is very
little direct evidence for this.
Flgure 9.11 Atheromapartia lly~ockingthecoronaryartery ;~~64

Possible causes of coronary heart disease
Atheroma and thrombus formation are the
immediate causes of a heart attack but the long-term
causes that give rise to these conditions are not well
understood.
There is an inherited tendency towards the disease
but incidences of the disease have increased very
significantly in affiuent countries in recent years. l11is
:~~54
makes us think that some features of'Western' diets
or lifestyles might be causing it. The main risk fuctors
are thought to be an unbalanced diet with too much
ag,
fut, srress, smoking, genetic disposition, age, gender
nnl n~
under45
and lack of exercise.
Diet
l11e atheroma deposits contain cholesterol, which
is present, combined with lipids and proteins, in
the blood. Cholesterol plays an essential part in our
o1 ~o ~o
cigarettes smoked dally
physiology, but it is known that people with high levels
Figure 9.12 Smddng and he..rt m!'a-.e. otYrously. as )'OU get older )'OU
of blood cholesterol are more likely to suffer from aremorelKe!ytodiefromaheartattack,butf\OOCettlat,inanyagegfOl4}.
heart attacks than people with low cholesterol k,·els. themore)OOsmoketheh'C]her)O.lrchancesofcty;ngfromheartdiseas.e
Heart
Genetic predisposition heart attack than females: it may be that males tend
Coronary heart disease appears to be passed from one to have less healthy lifestyles than females.
generation to the next in some fumilies. This is nor
Lack of exercise
something we have any control over, but we can be
Heart muscle loses its tone and becomes less
aware of this risk and reduce some of the other risk
efficient at pumping blood when exercise is not
factors to compensate.
untaken. A sluggish blood flow, resulting from lack
Age and gender of exercise, may allow atheroma to form in the
As we get older our risk of suffering from coronary arterial lining but, once again, the direct evidence
heart disease increases. Males are more at risk of a for this is slim.
Control of blood flow through From the description above, it may seem that
the heart the ventricles are filled with blood as a result of the
contraction of the atria. However, the atria have
The blood is stopped from flowing backwards much thinner muscle walls than the ventricles.
by four sets of valves. Valves that separate each In fuct, when the ventricles relax, their internal
atrium from the ventricle below it are known volume increases and they draw in blood from the
as atrioventricular valves. Benveen the right pulmonary vein or vena cava through the relaxed
atrium and the right ventricle is the tricuspid (- atria. Atrial contraction then forces the final amount
three flaps ) vah•e. Between the left atrium and of blood into the ventricles just before ventricular
left ventricle is the bicuspid (- two flaps ) valve. contraction.
TI1e flaps of these valves are shaped rather like The left ventricle (sometimes referred to as the
parachutes, with 'strings' called tendons or cords to 'large left ventricle') has a wall made of cardiac
prevent them from being turned inside out. muscle that is about three times thicker than the
In the pulmonary artery and aorta are the semi- wall of the right ventricle. TI1is is because the right
lunar (- half-moon) valves. These each consist of ventricle only needs to create enough pressure to
three 'pockets', which are pushed flat against the pump blood to one organ, the lungs, which are
artery walls when blood flows one way. Ifblood next to the heart. H owever, the left ventricle has to
tries to flow the other way, the pockets fill up pump blood to all the major organs of the body, as
and meet in the middle to stop the flow ofblood shown in Figure 9 .20. It should be noted that the
(Figure 9.13 ). left and right ventricles pump the same volume of
blood: the left ventricle does not have a thicker wall
to pump more blood!
-m r=t•;~~: =,.
_WM.
0~"
direction of blood flow

Flgure9.1 3 Actionofthesemi-lunarvalves
• Extension work
Bl oo d circul ati o n in th e f etu s
TI1e sepmm separating the left and right heart
chambers prevents the oxygenated blood in the left
chambers from mixing with the deoxygenated blood
in the right chambers. When a fetus is developing,
there is a hole ( the foram en ova le) benveen the
right atrium and the left atrium, allowing blood to
bypass the lungs. TI1is is because the feta] blood is
When the ventricles contract, blood pressure doses oxygenated by the placenta rather than the lungs.
the bicuspid and tricuspid valves and these prevent During the birth sequence, the foramen ovale closes,
blood remrning to the atria. When the ventricles so all blood in the right atrium passes into the
relax, the blood pressure in the arteries doses the right ventricle and on to the !wigs for oxygenation.
semi-lunar valves, preventing the return of blood to Occasionally, the foramen ovale does not seal
thevemricles. completely and the baby suffers from a 'hole in the
heart'. Babies suffering from this condition tend to cramp. An ·oxygen debt' is created , which needs to
look blue because their bloo:I is not being adequately be repaid afi:er exercise by continued rapid breathing
oxygenated: some of it bypasses the lungs. and higher than norm:1.I heart rate (see 'Anaerobic
respiratio n' in Chapter 12 ).
Control of the heartbeat
H eare muscle has a natural rhythmic contraction Correlation and cause
of its own, about 40 contractions per minute.
H owever, it is supplied by nerves, whkh maintain a It is11()( possible or desirable to conduct experiments
faste r rate that can be adjusted to meet the body's on humans ro find our, more precise[}', the causes of
needs for oxygen. At rest, the normal heart rate ma y heart attacks. TI1e evidence has to be collected from
lie between 50 and 100 beats per minute, according long-term studies on populations ofindivKfuals,
to age, gender and other fuetors. During exercise, e.g. smokers and non-smokers. Statistical analysis
the race may increase to 200 beats per minute . of these srudies will ofi:cn show a correlatio n, e.g.
TI1e heart bear is initiated by the 'pacemaker', a more smokers, within a given age band, suffer hean
small gro up of specialised muscle cells at the top of anacks than do non-smo kers of the same age. This
rhe right atrium. The pace maker receives two sets of correlation does nor prove that smoking causes
nerves from the brain. One group ofncrves speeds hean attacks. It could be argued that people who
up the heart rare and rhe other group slows it down. arc already prone to heart attacks for other reasons
These nerves originate from a ce ntre in the brain (e.g. high blood pressure) are more likely to rake up
that receives an input from receptors (See 'Nervous smoking. This may srrike you as implausible, but until
conrrol in humans' in Chapter 14 ) in the circulatory it can be shown that substances in tobacco smoke do
system that arc sensitive to blood pressure and levels cause an increase in atheroma, the correlation cannot
of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood. be used on its own ro claim a cause and effect.
Ifbloo:I pressure rises, nervous impulses reduce Nevertheless, there arc so many other correl:-.tions
che heart rare. A fall in blood pressure causes a between smoking and ill-health (e.g. bronchitis,
rise in the rare. Reduced oxygen concentration emphysema, lung cancer) 1hat the circumstan tial
o r increased carbon dioxide in the blood also evidence against smoking is \'Cry strong.
contributes to a fuster rare. By this means, the heart Another example of a positive correlation is
race is adjusced to meet the needs of the body at between the possession of a tele\'isio n set and
times of rest , exertio n and excitement. heart disease. Nobody would seriously claim that
TI1e hormone :-.drenal.ine (see ' Hormones in television sets cause heart attacks. The correlatio n
humans' in Chapter 14 ) also affects the heart rate. probably reflects an affiuent way o f life, associated
ln conditions of excitement, activity or stress, with over-eating, f.ttty diets, lack of exercise and
adrenaline is released into the blood circulation from other factors that may contribute to coronary hean
the adrenal glands. On reaching the heart it causes disease .
an increase in the rate and strength of the heartbeat.
Prevention of coronary heart
disease
Physical activity and heart rate
Maintaining a healthy, balanced diet will result in
During periods of physical activity, active parts of less chance of a person becoming obese. l11ere will
the body (mainly skektal muscle ) respire faster, also be a low intake of saturated fats, so the chances
demanding more oxygen and glucose. Increased of atheroma and thrombus formation are reduced.
respiration also produces more carbon dioxide, There is some evidence that regular, \'igorous
which needs to be removed. Blood carries the exercise reduces the chances of a heart attack. This
m.-ygen and glucose, so the heart rate needs to may be because it increases muscle tone - not o nl y
increase rosatisfydcmand . If the muscle does of skeletal muscle, but also of cardiac muscle. Goo:I
nor gee enough oxygen, it will s~rt to re5Pi re heart muscle tone leads to an improved coronary
anaerobically, producing lactic :-.cid (lactate). Lactic blood Row and the heart requires less effort to
acid build-up causes muscle futigue, leading co keep pumping.
Heart
Treatment of coronary heart Practical work

disease
TI1e simplest treatment for a patient who suffers Heart dissection
from coronary heart disease is to be given a regular
• Obtain an intact heart (!.heep or goat for example} from a
dose of aspirin (salicylic acid). Aspirin prevents the butcher's shop or abattoir.
formation ofblood clots in the arteries, which can • Rinse it under a tap to remove excess blood
lead to a heart attack. It has been found that long- • Observethesurfaceoftheheart,identifyingthemainvisible
term use oflow·dose aspirin also reduces the risk of features {!.hewn in Figure 9.3). The blood vessels may have
coronary heart disease. been cut off, but it is possible to identify where these would
havebeenattachedlaterinthedissection.
Methods of removing or treating atheroma and
• Gently squeeze the ventricles. They can be distinguished
thrombus formations include the use of angioplasty, becausethewalloftherightventrideismuchthinnerthan
a sten t and, in the most severe cases, by-pass surgery. thatoftheleftventride.
• Usingapairof!.harpscissorsoraKalpel, make an incision
Angioplasty and stent fromthebaseoftheleftventride,upthroughtheleft
atrium.
Angioplasty involves the insertion ofa long, thin • Usingapairofforceps, remOYeanybloocldotslyinginthe
tube called a catheter into the blocked or narrowed exposed chambers.
blood vessel. A wire attached to a deflated balloon is • Identify the main features as shown in Figure 9.4.
then fed through the catheter to the damaged arrery. • If you have not cut open the aorta, gently pu!.h the handle of
Once in place, the balloon is inflated to widen the abluntseekeroranoldpencil,behindthebicuspidvalve.11
5hould find its way into the aorta. Note how thick the wall of
artery wall, effectively freeing the blockage. In some
this blood vessel is.
cases a stem is also applied. This is a "ire-mesh tube • Comparethesemi-lunarvalvesinthebaseoftheaortawith
that can be expanded and left in place (Figure 9 .14 ). the bicuspid valve between the atrium and ventricle. Note
It then acts as scaffolding, keeping the blood vessel that the latter has tendons to prevent it turning inside-out
open and maintaining the free flow of blood. Some • Now repeat the procedure on the right side of the heart to
stents are designed to give a slow release of chemicals exposetherightatriumandventride.
• Pushingthehandleoftheseekerbehindthetricuspidvalve
to prevent forth er blockage of the artery.
5hould allow it to enter the pulmonary artery. Cut open the
arterytoexposesemi-lunarvalves.Notetherelativethinness
ofthewall,comparedtothatoftheaorta.
• Al50 compare the thickness of the left ventricle wall to that of
therightventride.
Investigating the effect of exercise

on pulse rate
• Find your pulse in your wrist or neck- see Figure 9.7.
• Countthenumberofbeatsin 1Sseconds, then multiply the
resultbyfourtoprOYideapulserateinbeatsperminute. This
is your resting pulse rate.
• Repeat the process two more times and then calculate an
Flgure9.1 4 Applicalionolastenttooven:omeablcx:kageinanartery average resting pulse rate.
• Carryout2minutesofexercise,e.g. running on the spot,
then sit down and immediately start a stopwatch and
By-pass surgery measureyourpulserateover 1Ssecondsasbefore.
The surgeon removes a section of blood vessel from • Allow the stopwatch to keep timing. Measure your pulse rate
a different part of the body, such as the leg. The everyminutefor10minutes
• Convertallthereadingstobeatsperminute.Plotagraphof
blood vessel is then attached around the blocked pulserateafterexerciseagainsttime,withthefirstreading
region of artery to by-pass it, allowing blood to pass beingOminutes.
freely. This is a major, invasive operation because it • Finally,drawalineacrossthegraphrepresentingyouraverage
involves open-heart surgery. resting pulse rate.
elastic fibrous relative

Res ult fibres
;:i::/J"
The pulse rate immediately after exercise should be much
higherthantheaveragerestingpulserate.Withtimethepulse
rategradually fallsbacktotheaveragerestingpulserate .
Interpretation
During exercise the muscles need more oxygen and glucose
foraerobicrespirationtoprovidetheenergyneededforthe
increasedmovement.Theheartrateincreasestoprovide
thesematerials. Afterexercise,demandforoxygenand
gl ucosedecreases,sothepulserategraduallyreturnsto red cells
normal. (a) artery (b)veln (c)caplllary
Flgure9.15 Bkxxl vesse!s,transv!.'fsesec:lion
The arterioles divide repeatedly to form a branching

• Blood and lymphatic network of microscopic vessels passing between the
cells of every living tissue. These final branches are
vessels called capillaries.
Arteries Capillaries
These are fairly wide vessels (Figure 9 .15 ) which These are tiny vessels, often as little as 0.001mm
carry blood from the heart to the limbs and in diameter and with walls only one cdl thick
organs of the body (Figure 9.20 ). The blood in (Figures 9 .15( c) and 9 .17). Although the blood as
the arteries, except for the pulmonary arteries, is a whole cannot escape from the capillary, the thin
m,1'genated. capillary walls allow some liquid to pass through,
Arteries have dastic tissue and muscle fibres in i.e. they are permeable. Blood pressure in the
their thick walls. The arteries divide into smaller capillaries forces part ofcl1e plasma out through
vessels called ar terioles. the walls.
The capillary network is so dense that no living
cell is fur from a supply of oxygen and food. The
capillaries join up into larger vessels, called venules,
which cl1en combine to form veins.
Figure 9.16 Re!atklnship between capi llar;e1, {ells and lymphatics. The slow flow rate in the c~Uaries all ow; plenty of time fOf the exchange of
oxygen,food,carbondioxide andwa1teproduct1
Blood and lymphatic vessels
TI1e blood in most veins is deoxygenated and

contains less food but more carbon dioxide than
the blood in most arteries. This is because respiring
cells have used the oxygen and food and produced
carbon dioxide ( Figure 9.19). The pulmonary veins,
which return blood from the lungs to the heart, are
an exception. They contain oxygenated blood and a
reduced level of carbon dioxide.
TI1e main blood vessels associated with the heart,
lungs and kidneys are shown in Figure 9.20. The
Flg u re9.1 7 DiagramofbkxxJGipilJary right side of rhe heart is supplied by the vena cava
(the main vein of the body) and sends blood to the
Ve in s lungs along the pulmonary artery. The left side of the
Veins return blood from the tissues to the heart heart receives blood from the lungs in the pulmonary
(Figure 9.20 ). TI1e blood pressure in them is steady vein and sends it to the body in the aorta, the main
and is Jess than that in the arteries. They are wider artery (see Chapter 11 ). In reality there are two
and their walls are thinner, less elastic and less pulmonary arteries and two pulmonary veins, because
muscular than those of the arteries (Figures 9. l 5(b ) there are two lungs. There are also two vena cavae:
and 9.18 ). They also have valves in them similar to one returns blood from the lower body; the other
the semi-lunar valves (Figure 9.13, page 129 ). from the upper body. Each kidney receives blood
from a renal artery. Once the blood has been filtered
it is returned to the vena cava through a renal vein
(see Chapter 13 ).
Bl oo d pressure
TI1e pumping action of the heart produces a
pressure that drives blood around the circulatory
system (Figure 9.20 ). In the arteries, the pressure
fluctuates with the heartbeat, and the pressure wave
can be felt as a pulse. The millions of tiny capillaries
offer resistance to the blood flow and, by the time
Flg ure9 .1 8 Traosversell'ctionth!Olqlaveinandarte!y.Theveinil on
the riglt.theartery on thelefl.Noticettlatthewalolthearteryilmudl
the blood enters the veins, the surges due to the
thi::kerthanthatofthevl.'io. Themateliallil lrigthearu.>ryisfom\edfrom heartbeat are lost and the blood pressure is greatly
coagulatedred blood cels.Thesea,,,eal10 vilble intwo1Egiomofthevein reduced.
capillary
fluldflltered DIFFUSION tluuefluld

out of capillary (a nd active transport) enters capillary
Flg u re9.19B klod,b11uefluidandfy~
Table 9.1 compares the structure of arteries,

veins and capillaries and provides an explanation
of how their structures are related to their
functions.
ComparillCJarleries,veiflSandGlpillalie5
Ex.pla na tlo n o fhowstr ucture ls
re lated t o fu ncti on
artery thick.toughw.ill cameo;bloodathighpres1ure -
withmusc:le1. prevent1burstingandmaintaim
pre11urewille. Thelarge.irteries,
neartheheart.haYeagreater
proportionofela1tktis1ue.which
allow1the1eve1sel1tostandupto
hepatic thewrge1olhighpres1u1ecaused
artery bytheheartbe.it
lumen quite Thishe~tomaintainblood
narrow.but
il)(l"ease1a1apulse
ofbloodpa11e1
throogh
High pres,;urepreventsblood
renal flowingbadwards
artery thinw.ill - mainly cameo;bloodatlowpreswre
fibrous tissue.with
lumen large
valves present TopreYentbackflowofblood
key Contfactk>oolbodymuK!es.
deoxygenated r--------i oxygenated particu!arlyinthelimbs.c~ esses
D
Flgure9.20
blood
Oi.igramofhum.incirrnlaboo
L__J blood thethin-wailedveins. Theva~esin
theveinspreventthebloodflowing
b.Jdw.lllswhentheYeSll'lsare
compressedinthi1WJf. Thisassim
thereturnofvenousbloodtothe
Although blood pressure varies with age and heart
activity, it is normally kept within specific limits
capj llary permeable wall. This allow; diffusion of materials
by negative feedback (see 'Homeostasis' in onecellthkk, between the capillary and
Chapter 14). The filtration process in the kidneys withnomuscle or su1mundingb11ues
{Chapter 13 ) needs a fuirly consistent blood
pressure. lfblood pressure falls significantly lumen WMe blood tei!s c.1n squeeze
because, for example, of loss of blood or shock, appmximatelyooe betweencellsofthewail.flbod
red blood cell wide teils p.111 thmugh WNly to aibw
then the kidneys may fuil. Blood pressure diffulOfl ofmate!iaisandtissueflOO
consistently higher than normal increases tl1e risk
61ood is1til luf10!.'lpres1ure
of heart disease or stroke.
Arterioles, shunt vessels and venules

Ar terio les and shunt vessels
The small arteries and tl1e arterioles have
proportionately less elastic tissue and more
muscle fibres than tl1e great arteries. \Vhen the
muscle fibres of tl1e arterioles contr.tct, they make
tl1e vessels narrower and restrict the blood flow
Blood and lymphatic vessels
(a process called vasoconstriction). In this way, the Ar certain points in the lymphatic vessels there
distribution of blood to different parts of the body are swellings called lymph nodes (Figure 9.22 ).
can be regulated. One example is in the skin. lfthe Lymphocytes are stored in the lymph nodes and
body temperamre drops below normal, arterioles released into the lymph to eventually reach the
in the skin constrict to reduce the amount ofblood blood system. There are also phagocytes in the
flowing through capillaries near the skin surf.tee. lymph nodes. If bacteria enter a wound and are not
Shunt vessels, linking the arterioles with venules, ingested by the white cells of the blood or lymph,
dilate to allow the blood to bypass the capillaries they will be carried in the lymph to a lymph node
(Figure 9.21 ). This helps to reduce further heat loss. and white cells there will ingest them. The lymph
(See also 'Homeostasis' in Chapter 14. ) nodes thus form part of the body's defence system
against infection.
right lymphatic duct malnlymphatlc

opens Into right duct opens Into
subcl avlanvelo leftsubclavlan
Flgure9.21 Shunlve5selsintheskininrnldrnoditiom
The lymphatic system

Not all the tissue fluid returns to the capillaries.
Some ofit enters blind-ended, thin-walled vessels
called lymphatics (Figure 9. 16 ). TI1e lymphatics
from all parts of the body join up to make two large
vessels, which empty their contents into the blood
system as shown in Figure 9 .22.
The lacteals from the villi in the small intestine
(Figure 7.24 ) join up with the lymphatic system, so
most of the futs absorbed in the intestine reach the
circulation by this route. TI1e fluid in the lymphatic
vessels is called lymph and is similar in composition
to tissue fluid.
Some of the larger lymphatics can contract, but
most of the lymph flow results from the vessels
Flgure9.22 Themaiodrain..geroute5oflhelymphatk1y;tem
being compressed from time to time when the
body muscles contract in movements such as
direction of valve
walking or breathing. There are valves in the
~
lymphatics (Figure 9.23 ) like those in the veins and
the pulmonary artery (Figure 9.13 ), so that when
the lymphatics are squashed, the fluid in them is
forced in one direction only: towards the heart. Figure 9.23 Lymphatk Vl.'5sel rut open to show valves
bile. The iron from the haemoglobin is stored in the

• Blood liver. About 200 OOO million red cells wear out and
Blood consists of red cells, white cells and platelets are replaced each day. This is about l % of the total.
floating in a liquid called plasma. There are between Red cells are made by the red bone marrow of certain
5 and 6 litres of blood in the lxxiy of an adult, and each bones in tl1e skeleton - in the ribs, vertebrae and
cubic centimetre contains about 5 billion red cells. breastbone for example.
Red ce ll s
These are tiny, disc-like cells (Figures 9.24(a) and
u ~
9.26) which do not have nuclei. They are made
of spongy cytoplasm enclosed in an elastic cell
membrane. In their cytoplasm is the red pigment
haemoglobin, a protein combined with iron.
c,o (a)redcells
~ red cell
H aemoglobin combines with oxygen in places

where there is a high concentration of oxygen, to
form oxyhaemoglobin. Oxyhaemoglobin is an
unstable compound. It breaks down and releases its
oxygen in places where the oxygen concentration
© "'""'@
is low (Figure 9.25 ). This makes haemoglobin very phagocyte lymphocyte
useful in carrying oxygen from the lungs to the
(b) two types of (cl whltecell
tissues. white cells engulflngb.acterlum
Blood that contains mainly oxyhaemoglobin is said
to be oxygenated. Blood with little oxyhaemoglobin
is deoxygenated.
Each red cell lives for about 4 months, after which
(d) blood platelets
it breaks down. The red haemoglobin changes to a
Flgure9.24 Bkxxl cell1
yellow pigment, bilirubin, which is excreted in the
LOWER OXYGEN
CONCENTRATION
CJ
oxygenated
blood
deoxygenated
blood
Flgure9.25 Thefunctkl n oftherl'dcells
Blood
White ce ll s Plasma
There are several different kinds of white cell 1l1e liquid part of the blood is called plasma. It is
(Figures 9.24(b) and 9.26). Most are larger than the water with a large number of substances dissolved in
red cells and they all have a nucleus. 1l1ere is one white it. TI1e ions of sodium, potassium, calcium, chloride
cell to every 600 red cells and they are made in the and hydrogen carbonate, for example, are present.
same bone marrow that makes red cells. Many of them Proteins such as fibrinogen, albumin and globulins
undergo a process of maturation and development in the make up an imporrant part of the plasma. Fibrinogen
thymus gland, lymph nodes or spleen. White blood cells is needed for dotting (see below), and the globulin
are involved with phagocytosis and antilxxly production. proteins include antibodies, which combat bacteria
and other foreign matter (page 149 ). The plasma will
also contain varying amounts of food substances such
as amino acids, glucose and lipids (futs ). There may
also be hormones ( Chapter 14 ) present, depending
on the activities taking place in the body. l11e
excretory product, urea, is dissolved in the plasma,
along with carbon dioxide.
The liver and kidneys keep the composition of
the plasma more or less constant, but the amount
of digested food , salts and water will vary within
narrow limits according to food intake and body
activities.
Table 9.2 summarises the role of transport by the
blood system
"&lble92 Tran ~ rtby theblood system
lunn1
kidney;
Flgure9.26 Red andw!litecellslromhuman biood(~ 2500). Thelarge glands targetargam
nocleus can be l!.'l'n cJearly io the white cells ,c'~" "='"'
~ """' -----+""=""
= - + c'°='"=lin~e = """'
~ ----1
abda meo;md m~ w!lolehorlv
Plate lets Note that the blood is not directed to a particular

l11ese are pieces of special blood cells budded offin organ. A molecule of urea may go round the
the red bone marrow. They help to clot the blood at circulation many times before it enters the renal
wounds and so stop the bleeding. artery, by chance, and is removed by the kidneys.
White blood cells Clotting

l11e two most numerous types ofwhite cells are When tissues are damaged and blood vessels rut, platelets
phagocytes and lymphocytes. dump together and block the smaller capillaries. l11e
l11e phagocytes can move about by a flowing action platelets and damaged cells at the wound also produce
of their cytoplasm and can escape from the blood a substance that acts, through a series of enzymes, on
capillaries into the tissues by squeezing between the the soluble plasma protein called fibrinogen. As a result
cells of the capillary walls. l11ey collect at the site of an of this action, the fibrinogen is changed into insoluble
infection, engulfing (in gesting) and digesting harmful fibrin , which forms a network of fibres across the
bacteria and cell debris - a process called phagocytosis wound. Red cells become trapped in this network and
(Figure 9.24(c)) . In this way they prevent the spread so form a blood dot. l11e clot not only stops further
of infection through the body. One of the fimctions of loss of blood, but also prevents the entry ofharmfitl
lymphocytes is to produce antibodies. bacteria into the wound (Figures 9.27 and 9.28 ).
networkofflbrlnwhlch some bacterlahave ... buttheyarebelng

~~aror~a~~~! elntered the wound .. engulfed by white cells
red cell
'i
bacterl acoatedbyantlbodlesandabouttobe white cells escaping

lngestedbyawhltecell fromcaplll ary
Rgure9 .27 Thedefenceagainstinfl'Chonbyp.ithogem. Anaiea of skinha'ibeendamagedandtwo~ll.iriesbfokenopen
The transfer of materials between

capillaries and tissue fluid
The fluid that escapes from capillaries is not blood,
nor plasma, but tissue fluid. Tissue fluid is similar
to plasma but contains less protein, because protein
molecules are too large to pass through the walls of
the capillaries. This fluid bathes all the living cells of
the body and, since it contains dissolved food and
oxygen from the blood, it supplies the cells with
their needs (Figures 9.16 and 9.19 ). Some of the
tissue fluid eventually seeps back into the capillaries,
having given up its oxygen and dissolved food to
the cells, but it has now received the waste products
of the cells, such as carbon dioxide, which are
carried away by the bloodstream. The tissue fluid
that doesn't return to the capillaries joins the
lymphatic system.
'"·
Rgu re 9.28 Red celi'i trapped in a fibrin ne twor k (~6 500)
• Extension work in Ancient Egypt. However, there seems to have

been little or no systematic study of human anatomy
Ideas about the ci rcu latory system in the sense that the parts were named, described or
There must have been knowledge of human internal illustrated.
anatomy thousands of years ago. TI1is might have Some of the earliest records of anatomical study
come , for example, from the practice of removing come from the Greek physician, Galen.
internal organs before the process of mummification
Blood
Ga len (AD130-200)
Galen dissected goats, monke ys and other animals
and produced derailed and accurate records. He
was not allowed to dissect human bodies, so his
descriptions were often not applicable to human
anatomy.
The anatomical knowledge was important but the
fimctions of the various parts could only be guessed
at. It was known that the veins contained blood
but arteries at death are usually empty and it was
assumed that they carried air or, more obscurely, Flgure9.29 Harvey'sdemonstratlonofvalvesandone-way
'animal spirit'. Galen observed the pulse , but flowlnaveln.Thevelnlscompressedandthebloodexpelledby
thought that it was caused by surges ofblood into runnlngaflngerupthearm. Thevelnrefllls,butonlyasfarasthe
the veins. valve.(ComparewlthFlgure9.13,page129.)
W illi am Harvey (1578- 1657) Harvey published his results in 1628. They were
In the 15th and 16th centuries, vague ideas about at first rejected and ridiculed, not because anyone
tried his experiments or rested his observations,
the movement of blood began to emerge, but it was
William Harvey, an English physician, who produced but simply because his conclusions contradicted the
evidence to support the circulation theory. writings of Galen 1500 years previously.
By 1654, Harvey's theory of circulation was ,videly
Harvey's predecessors had made informed
guesses, but Harvey conducted experiments to accepted but it was still not known how bloc:xl passed
support his ideas. He noted that the valves in the from the arteries to the veins. Harvey observed that
arteries and veins branched and re-branched until the
heart would permit blood to pass in one direction
only. So the notion that blood shunted back and vessels were too small to be seen and suggested that the
forth was fulse. When he restricted the blood flow connection was made through these tiny vessels. This
was confirmed after the microscope had been invented
in an artery he observed that it bulged on the side
nearest the heart, whereas a vein bulged on the side in 1660 and the vessels were called 'capillaries'.
The significance of this history is that, although
away from the heart.
it is reasonable to make an informed guess at
Figure 9 .29 shows a simple experiment that reveals
the presence of valves in the veins and supports the the function of a structure or organ, it is only by
testing these guesses by experiment that they can be
idea of a one -way flow.
supported or disproved.
Qu estions 7 In what ways are white cells different from red cells in:
a theirstructure
Core b theirfunction?
1 Startingfromtheleftatrium,putthefollowinginthe 8 Where, in the body, would you expect haemoglobin to be
correct order for cirt:ulation of the blood· combining with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin?
leftatrium,venacava,aorta,lungs,pulmonaryartery,right 9 In what parts of the body would you expect
atrium, pulmonary vein, right ventricle, left ventricle oxyhaemoglobin to be breaking down to oxygen and
2 Whyisitincorrecttosay'allarteriescarryoxygenated haemoglobin?
bloodandallveinscarrydeoxygenated blood'? 10 a Whyisitimportantforoxyhaemoglobintobean
3 Howdoveinsdifferfromarteriesin: unstable compound, i.e.easilychangedtooxygenand
a theirfunction haemoglobin?
b theirstructure? b What might be the effect on a person whose diet
4 How do capillaries differ from other blood ves5els in: contained too little iron?
a theirstructure
b theirfunction? Extended
5 Why i5 it misleading to say that a person 'wffer.; from 11 Whichpartsoftheheart:
blood pressure'? a pumpbloodintothearteries
6 WhichimportantveinsarenotlabelledinFigure9.3? b stop blood flowing the wrong way?
12 Putthefollowinginthecorrectorder: 17 Figureg.3Qshowstherelativeincreaseintheratesoffour
a bloodentersarteries bodyprocesse,sinresponsetovigorousexercise.
b ventridesrontract a Howarethechangesrelatedphysiologicallytoone
c atriacontract another?
d ventriclesrelax b What other physiological changes are likely to occur
e bloodentersventrides during exercise?
f semi-lunarvalvesclose c Whydoyouthinkthattheincreaseinblcxxlflowin
g tri-andbicuspidvalvesclose. muscleislessthanthetotalinc:reaseintheblcxxlflow7
13 Whydoyouthinkthat·
a the walls of the ventricles are more muscular than the
walls of the atria energy release In muscle
b themuscleoftheleftventrideisthickerthanthatof
therightventricle7
{Hint: look back at Figure9.20.}
14 Why is a person whose heart valves are damaged by
diseaseunabletotakepartinactivesport7
15 a Whatpositivestepscouldyoutake,and
b what things should you avoid, to reduce your risk of
coronaryheartdiseaseinlaterlife7
16 About 95% of patients with disease of the leg arteries are
cigarettesmokers.Arterialdiseaseofthelegisthemost
frequentcauseoflegamputation.
a Is there a correlation between smoking and leg
amputation?
b Doessmokingcauselegamputation7
Rgure9.30
c lnwhatwaycouldsmokingbeapossiblecauseofleg
amputation? 18 Listthethingsyouwouldexpecttofindifyouanalyseda
sample of lymph.
Checklist • Thelungsaresuppliedbythepulmonaryarteriesandveins.
• The kidneys are supplied by the renal arteries and veins.
• Heart activity can be monitored by ECG, pulse rate and
following:
stethoscope, which transmits the sound of valves dosing.
• The circulatory system is made up of blood vessels with a • 8lockageofthecoronaryarteriesintheheartleadstoaheart
heart and valves to ensure one-way flow of blood attad::
• The heart is a muscular pump with valves, which sends blood • Smoking,fattydiets, stress, lack of exercise, genetic
around the circulatory system. dispositionandagemaycontributetoheartdisease.
• Theleftsideoftheheartpumpsoxygenatedbloodaround • Slood consists of red cells, white cells and platelets
the body. suspended in plasma.
• The right side of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the • Plasma transports blood cells, ions, soluble nutrients,
lungs. e.g. glucose, hormones and carbon dioxide.
• Theatriaarethinwalledandreceiveblcxxlfromveins. • Theredcellscarryoxygen.Thewhitecellsattackbacteria
• Theventric:leshavethickmuscularwallstopumpbloocl byphagocytosisand production of antibodies. Platelets are
through arteries needed to clot blood.
• Slood pressure is essential in order to pump blood around
the body. • Fish have a single circulation; mammals have a double
• Arteries carry blood from the heart to the !is.sues. circulation,withadvantagesoverasinglecirculation.
• Veinsreturnbloocltotheheartfromthetissues. • Theheartcontainsatrioventricularandsemi-lunarvalves,
• Capillariesformanetworkoftinyvesselsinalltissues.Their preventing backflow of blood.
thin walls allow dissolved food and oxygen to pass from the • Theleftandrightsidesoftheheartaredividedbyaseptum,
blood into the tissues, and carlxm dioxide and other waste keepingoxygenatedanddeoxygenatedbloodseparate.
substances to pass back into the blood.
• The main blood ves.sels to and from the heart are: vena
cavae,pulmonaryveins,pulmonaryarteriesandaorta.
Blood
• Theriskofcoronaryheartdiseasecanbereducedbyan • Blood dotting prevents loss of blood and entry of

appropriatedietandexerciseregime. pathogens into the body.
• Coronaryheartdiseasecanbetreatedbytheuseofdrugs • Materialsaretransferredbetweencapillariesand
{aspirin), stents, angioplasty and by-pass tissue fluid.
• Lymphocytesandphagocyteshavedistinctiveshapes • All cells in the body are bathed in tissue fluid, which is
and features derived from plasma.
• Antibodies are chemicals made by white rells in the blood. • Lymph vessels return tis!.Ue fluid to the lymphatic system
Theyattad::anymic:ro-organismsorforeignproteinsthat andfinallyintotheblex>dsystem
get into the body. • Lymph nodes are important immunological organs.
• Blooddottinginvolvestheconvel5ionofthesolubleblood
protein fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin, which traps blood cells.
@ Diseases and immunity
Pathoge ns and tran s miss ion How antibodies work
Definitions Activeimmunity,indudingdefinit ion
Transmissible&;eases Vaccination
De fences against diseases Passive immunity
Defence5ofthebodyagainstpathogens Typeldiabetes
Vaccination
Controllingthe~readof&;ease
sp her1 calbacterla(coccl)
• Pathogens and
transmission
Staphyloc.occus Streptococcus Streptococcus
Key definitions (bolls) (sore throat) (pneumonia)
A pathoge n isadisease-causingorganism
A tran smi ss ible di seaseisadisease inwhichthep.1thogen
rod "S hapedbacterla(badlll)
canbepas.sedfromooehosttoaoother.
Pathogens
Pathogens include many bacteria, viruses and some
fimgi, as well as a number of protoctista and other Bac/1/usanthracls ~~if
/,
(anthrax) (typhoid fever)
organisms. Pathogenic bacteria may cause diseases
because of the damage they do to the host's cells,
but most bacteria also produce poisonous waste comma-shaped
sp lralbacter1um(splrlllum) bacter1um(vlbr1o)
products called toxins. Toxins damage the cells in
which the bacteria are growing. TI1ey also upset some
of the systems in the lxxiy. This gives rise to a raised
temperamre, headache, tiredness and weakness, and
Jl"eponema
sometimes diarrhoea and vomiting. The toxin produced (syphilis)
by the Clostridium bacteria (whid1 causes tetanus ) is so
poisonous that as little as 0.00023g is futal. 0.002mm
Many viruses cause diseases in plants and animals. Flgure10.1 Somepathogenk:bactefia
Human virus diseases include the common cold,

poliomyelitis, measles, mumps, chickenpox, Fungus diseases such as blight, mildews or rusts (see
herpes, rubella, influenza and AIDS (See 'Sexually Chapter 1, Figure 1.2 8 ) are responsible for causing
transmitted infections' in Chapter 16 ). Tobacco considerable losses to arable farmers, and there is a
mosaic virus aflects tomato plants as well as tobacco. constant search for new varieties of crop plants tl1at
It causes mottling and discolouration of the leaves, are resistant to fungus disease, and for new d1emicals
evenmally stunting the growth of tl1e plant. (fungicides ) to kill parasitic fimgi witlmut harming
While most fungi are saprophytic (feeding on the host.
dead org.mic matter) some are parasitic, obtaining A few parasitic fungi cause diseases in animals,
tl1eir nutrients from living organisms. l11e hyphae including humans. One group of these fungi
of parasitic fungi penerrate the tissues of tl1eir host cause tinea or ringworm. The ftmgus grows in
plant and digest the cells and their contents. If the the epidermis of tl1e skin and causes irritation and
mycelium spreads extensively tluough tl1e host, it inflammation. One form oftinea is athlete's foot, in
usually causes the death of the plant. The bracket which tl1e skin between tl1e toes becomes infected.
fungus shown in Chapter 1, Figure 1.2 7, is the Tinea is very easily spread by contact with infected
fruiting body of a mycelium that is spreading through towels or clothing, but can usually be cured quickly
the tree and will evenmally kill it. with a fungicidal ointment.
Pathogens and transmission
Tra nsmissio n 'bites' a human, it inserts its sharp, pointed

Pathogens responsible for transmissible diseases can mouthparts through the skin till they reach a
be spread either through direct contact or indirectly. capillary (Figure 10.3 ). The mosquito then injects
saliva, which stops the blood from clotting. If the
Di rect contact mosquito is infected, it will also inject hundreds of
This may involve transfer through blood or other malarial parasites.
body fluids. HIV is commonly passed on by drug
addicts who inject the drug into their bloodstream,
sharing needles with other drug users. If one user
injects himself, the pathogens in his blood will
contaminate the syringe needle. If this is then used
by a second drug user, the pathogens are passed on.
Anyone cleaning up dirty needles is at risk of infection
if they accidently stab themselves. Surgeons carrying
(a)mosqultoabouttoteed
out operations have to be especially careful not to be
in direct contact with the patient's blood, for example
by cutting themsel\'es while conducting an operation.
A person with HIV or another sexually transmitted
disease (see Chapters 15 and 16 ) who has unprotected
sex, can pass on the pathogen to their partner through
body fluids. It used to be s..1..id that HIV could be
transferred from one person to another through saliva,
but this is now considered to be a very low risk.
• Extension work
Ma lari a
About 219 million people suffer from malaria in
over 100 countries (Figure 10.2 ). In 2010 there
were an estimated 660 OOO malaria deaths according
to the World Health Organization.
(b)mosqu ltoheadandmouthparts
Flgure 10.3 Mosqultofeedlngonblood
TI1e parasites reach the liver via the circulation and

burrow into the liver cells where they reproduce. A
week or two later, the daughter cells break out of
the liver cells and invade the red blood cells. Here
they reproduce rapidly and then escape from the
Flgure 10.2 Theworldwldedlstrlbutlonofm.llarla
original red cells to im'ade others (Figure 10.4 ).
The cycle of reproduction in the red cells
TI1e disease is caused by a protozoan parasite called takes 2 or 3 days ( depending on the species of
Plasmodillm which is transmitted from person Plasmodillm ). Each time the daughter plasmodia are
to person by the bites of infected mosquitoes released simultaneously from thousands of red cells
of the genus Anopheles. TI1e mosquito is said to the patient experiences the symptoms of malaria.
be the vector of the disease. When a mosquito TI1cse are chills accompanied by violent shivering,
10 DISEASES AND IMMUNITY
followed by a fever and profuse sweating. With so car tyres. By draining swamps and turning sluggish
many red cells being destroyed, the patient will also rivers into swifter streams, the breeding grounds of
become anaemic (see 'Diet' in Chapter 7). the mosquito are destroyed.
Infected mosquito Injects Spraying the walls of dwellings with chemicals like
A P/asmod/umparasltes DDT was once very effective because the insecticide
remained active for several months and the
entersnew . ~ ~ ~~;:~:te
mosquito picked up a lethal dose merely by settling
-- ,.•onsetottever l~
I -- on the wall. See page 324 for further details about
;,,--- ~ the use of DDT and its effects on rhe emironmem.
H owe\·er, in at least 60 countries, many species
ii· ~ of Anopheles have developed resistance to these
insecticides and this metl10d of control is now fur
J / reproduces
less effective. The emphasis has changed back to tl1e
removal of tl1e mosquito's breeding grounds or the
fa • -~
.. -·~...
destruction of the larvae and pupae .
reproduces' - - -
enters red blood cell Indirect contact

Rgure10.4 Pla5tnodlum,themalarlalparaslte This may involve infec.tion from patlmgens on
!fa mosquito sucks blood from an infected person, it contaminated surf.aces, for example during food
will take up the parasites in the red cells. The parasites preparation. Raw meat carries bacteria, which are
reproduce in the mosquito and finally invade the killed iftl1e meat is adequately cooked. H owever,
!ralivary glands, ready to infect the next human. if the raw meat is prepared on a surfuce that is tl1en
used for other food preparation, such as cutting
Contro l up fruit or \·egetables that are later eaten raw, tl1en
There are drugs which kill the parasites in the the pathogens from meat can be transferred to the
bloodstream but they do not reacl1 those in the liver. fresh food. The person handling rhe food is also a
The parasites in the liver may emerge at any time and potential vector of disease if he or she does not wash
start the cycle ag.i.in. If these drugs are taken by a their hands after using the toilet, moving rubbish or
healthy person before entering a malarious cowury, handling raw produce. In Britain there have been
they kill any parasites as soon as they are injected. serious cases where customers in butchers' shops
This is a protective or prophylactic use ofrhe drug. have been infected witl1 the bacterium F.scherichia
Unfortunately there are now many mutant forms co/i ( E. co/i), because germs from raw meat were
of P/asmodium that have de,·eloped resistance to transferred to cooked meat um,ittingly by shop
these drugs. assistants using poor hygiene practices. For example,
A great deal of work has been devoted to finding in 1996, 21 people died after eating contaminated
an effective vaccine, without much success. Trials meat supplied by a butcher's shop in Scotland.
are currently taking place of a vaccine that may offer Sn/111011c//n food poisoning
at least partial protection against the disease. One of the commonest causes of food poisoning
TI1e most fur-reaching form of malarial control is the toxin produced by the bacteria Salmonella
is based on the elimination of the mosquito. It is typhimurium and S. enteritidis. These bacteria live in
known that mosquitoes lay their eggs in stagnant rhe intestines of cattle, cl1ickens and ducks without
water and that the larvae hatch, feed and grow in the causing disease symptoms. Humans, however, may
water, bur have to come to the surf.ace to breathe air. develop food poisoning if tl1ey drink milk or eat meat
Spraying stagnant water with oil and insecticides or eggs that are contaminated \\ith Sn/mone/Ja bacteria
suffocates or poisons the larvae and pupae. Spraying from the alimentary canal of an infected animal.
must include not only lakes and ponds but any Imensive metl10ds of animal rearing may
accumulation of fresh water that mosquitoes can contribute to a spread of infection unless care is taken
reach, e.g. drains, gutters, tanks, tin cans and old to reduce the exposure of animals to infected fueces.
TI1e symptoms of food poisoning are diarrhoea, Uncooked meat or poultry should not be kept
vomiting and abdominal pain. They occur from alongside any food that is likely to be eaten without
12 to 24 hours after eating the contaminated food. cooking. Previously cooked meat should never be
Although these symptoms are unpleasant, the disease warmed up; the raised temperature accelerates the
is not usually serious and does nor need treatment reproduction of any bacteria present. The meat
with drugs. Elderly people and very young children, should be eaten cold or cooked at a high temperature.
however, may be made very ill by food poisoning. In the past few years there has been an increase in
TI1e Salmonella bacteria are killed when meat outbreaks of Salmonella food poisoning in which the
is cooked or milk is pasteurised. Infec.tion is most bacteria are resistant to antibiotics. Some scientists
likely if untreated milk is drunk, meat is not properly suspect that this results from the practice of feeding
cooked, or cooked meat is contaminated with antibiotics to furm animals to increase their growth
bacteria transferred from raw meat (Figure 10.5 ). rate. This could allow populations of drug·resistant
Frozen poultry must be thoroughly defrosted before salmonellae to develop.
cooking, otherwise the inside of the bird may nor get Salmonella bacteria, and also bacteria that cause
hor enough during cooking to kill the Salmonella. typhoid, are present in the fueces of infected people
It follows that, to avoid the disease, all milk should and may reach food from the unwashed hands of the
be pasteurised and meat should be thoroughly cooked. sufferer.
People such as shop assistants and cooks should not People recovering from one of these diseases may
handle cooked food at the same time as they handle feel quite well, but bacteria may still be present in their
raw meat. If they must do so, they should wash their faeces. If they don't wash their hands thoroughly after
hands thoroughly betv,een the two acth•ities. going to the lavatory, they may have small numbers
TI1e liquid that escapes when a frozen chicken is of bacteria on their fingers. If they then handle food,
defrosted may contain Salmonella bacteria. TI1e dishes the bacteria may be transferred to the food. When
and utensils used while the bird is defrosting must not this food is eaten by healthy people, the bacteria will
be allowed to come into contact with any other food. multiply in their bodies and give them the disease.
butcher cleans Infected

chicken and contaminates
/ilf:::::/ '
( ~ '""""old.,o,ag,
I _,..,..,..,.."'"'
V ,..· /
~ / ,
~;11:: i~>-~~:---~--- ,,. / ____,.t --------->/;)</

- - .._ carrlercontamlna ~
patient develops symptoms after chickenfeed
eatlnglnfectedchlckenoreggs
Flgure10.5 Trammi'i'iionofSalmonel/afoodpoisoning
People working in food shops, kitchens and food-

processing factories could infect thousands of other
people in this way if they were careless about their
personal cleanliness.
Some forms of food poisoning result from poisons
{toxins) that arc prod uced by bacrcria that get into
food . Cooking kills the bacteria in the food but docs
not destroy the toxins dut cause the illness. Only one
fom1 o f this kind of food poisoni ng, called botuJism,
is dangero us. It is also ve ry rare.
In the 1970s another genus of bacteria,
Campylobaaer, was identified as a cause of food
poisoning. Thi s bacterium causes acu te abdominal
pains and diarrhoea for about 24 hours. The sources
of infection arc thought to be undercooked meat,
particularly 'burgers'. Flgure10.7 ProtectKlnoffoo<londlsplay.Thegl.is,;b.)rrier1topo;
rn1tommfromtouchingttleproduct1,kl'eplmesoffttlefoodandhelps
In summary, people who handle and prepare food 1topdropk!tsfromcough1and111eezesfalllngonttlefood
need to be extremely careful about their personal
hygiene . It is essential char they wash their hands
before touching food, particularly afi:er they have Contamination of wate r
visited the lavato ry (Figure I 0.6). Hand-washing is If disease bacteria gc.t into water supplies used for
also important afi:er handling raw meat, particularly drinking, hundreds of people. can become. infccrc.d.
poultry (sec Figure I 0.5 ). Food on displa y in shops Diseases of the alimentary canal, like typhoid and
needs to be protected (Figure 10. 7). cholera (sec 'Alimentary canal' in Chapter 7), arc
Some people carry intestinal pathoge ns without especially dan gerous. Millions of bacreria infest the
showi ng any symptoms of disease. These people arc intestinal lining of a sick person.
called ·carriers'. Once identified, they should not Some of these bacteria will pass out with the
be allowed to work in canteens or food-processing faeces. If the faeces get into streams or rivers, the
factories. bacte ria may be carried into reservoirs of water used
for drinking. Even if faeces arc left o n the soil or
buried, rai nwater may wash the bacteria into a nearby
sue.am.
To prevent this method of infection, drinking
water needs to be purified and fucccs must be made
harmless, a process ilwolving sewage rrcarmc.m (see
'Conservation' in Chapter 21 ).
Water treatment
On a small scale, simply boiling the water used for
drinking will destroy any pathogens. On a large scale,
water supplies arc. protected by (a) ensuring that
untreated human sewage cannor reach them and (b)
ucating the water to make ic safe.
The treatment needed ro make water safe fo r
drinking depends on the source of the water. Some
sources, e.g. mountain streams, may be almost pure;
others, e.g. sluggish rivers, may be contaminated.
The object of the treatment is to remove all
flgur• 10.6 Hygienic handling of food. Shop~Ssi$t~ntsavoi:I handling micro-organisms that might cause disease. This
ITl!.it.rnlshelfiYlwiththeio'lingersbyW!lg~legbtes is done by filtration and chlorination. The water
is p355Cd through beds of sand in which harmless flycleansttsbody

bacteria and protozoa arc growing. These produce a wtlllefeedlng.sheddlng
b~rlaontofood
gelatinous film which acts as a fine filter and removes
pathogens.
Finally, chlorine gas is added to the filtered water
and remains in contact with it for long enough to kill
any bacteria that ha\·e passed through the filter. How
much chlorine is added and the length of the contact
time both depend on how contaminated the water sallvaand
r('9urg1Uted
source is likely to be. Most of the chlorine disappears food<k!postted
before the water reaches the consumers. bypt"oboscls
TI1c purified water is pumped to a high-level
reservoir or water tower. l11cse arc enclosed to FlguN10.8 Trilllsmlsslon ofbacll;riabyhousefties
ensure that no pathogens can get into the water. The
height of the reservoir provides the pressure needed TI1e different species of tin ea fungi may live on the
ro ddi\·er the water to the consumer. skin of humans or domestic animals, or in the soi l.
TI1e region of the body affected will depend on the
Waste di sposa l species of fungus.
Waste from domestic or commercial premises should One kind affects the scalp and causes circular
be stored in dustbins or garbage cans made of bald parches. The hair usually grows again when the
galvaniscd steel or srrong plastic, with a closely fitted patient recovers from the disease.
lid to exclude: flies and keep out scavenging animals. The species of fu ngus that affects the feet usually
If this is not done, pathogens will breed in the waste causes cracks in the skin between the roes. This is
and become a source of disease organisms. The waste known as 'athlete's foot'.
is taken away and disposed ofby buming, or burying Tinea of the crutch is a fungus infection, occurring
deep enough to prevent rats using it as food, or (less usually in males, which affects rhc inner part of
effectively) tightly packed to keep our flies and \·crmin. the thighs on each side of the scrotum. It causes a
spreading, inflamed area of skin witl1 an itching or
Contamination by housefli es burning sens.1tion.
Flies walk about on food. Thq' place their All forms of the disease arc very contagious. That
mouthparts on it and pump saliva omo the food. means, they arc spread by contact with an infected
TI1cn they suck up the digested food as a liquid. person or their pc non al property. Tine a of the scalp
This would not matter much if flies fed only o n is spread by using infected hairbrushes, combs o r
clean food, but they also \'isit decaying food or pillows. Tine a of the crutch can be caught by using
human faeces. H ere they may pick up bacteria on towels or bedclothes contaminated by the fungus or
their feet or their mo uthpans. They then alight its spores, and 'athlete's foot' by wearing infected
on our food and the bacteria on their bodies arc socks or shoes, or from the floors of showers and
transferred to the food. Figure 10.8 shows the many swimming pools.
ways in which this can happen. When an infection is diagnosed, the clorhing,
Food poisoning, amoebic dyscnrery and polio can bed linen, infected hairbrushes, combs or towels
be spread by houseflies. must be. boiled to destroy the fungus. Iris best,
an}'Way, ro avoid sharing these items as their owners
nnea ('ringworm') - a fungal parasite may be carrying the infection without knowing or
Several species of fungus gi,'e rise to the va rious admitting it.
forms of this disease. The fungus attacks the In young people, ti nea infections often clear up
epidermis (sec ' H omeostasis' in Chapter 14 ) without treatment. \Vherc ueam1em is needed, a
and produces a patch of inflamed tissue. On the fungicide cream or dusting powder is applied to the
skin the infected patch spread s outwards and affected areas of skin. Infected fee t may be dipped
heals in the centre, gi\'ing a ring-like appearance in a solution of potassium permanganate (potassium
('ringworm'). manganare(vn)).
10 D15EA5E5 AND IMMUNITY
A moebic dysentery
Emfl111oeba /Jisto/ytica is a species of small amoebae
that normally live harmlessly in the human intestine,
feeding on food particles or bacteria. In certain
conditions, howe\·er, Entamoeba invades the lining
ofrhc intestine causing ulceration and bleeding,
wirh pain , vomiting and diarrhoea: the symptoms of
amoebic dysentery.
The diarrhoea and vomiting lead to a loss of water
and salts from the body and if d1cy persist for very long
can cause de hydration . Dehydration, if untreated, can
lead to kidney fuilurc and death. The treatment for
dehydration is to give the patient a carefully prepared
mixture of water, salts and sugar. The intestine absorbs
this solution more rcadilv than water and it restores
Flgure 10.9 Oropletlnfection. T~visible~ expelled bythlssneeu
the volume and C011Ccm~tion ofrhc body fluids. This willsoonsinktothefloor,butsmallerdropletswillremalnsuspendedln
simple, effi:ctivc and inexpensh·e treatment is called the air.
or.ii rehydration therap y and has probably saved
thousands ofli,•cs since it was first discovered. TI1crc
arc also drugs that attack Emamoeba.
The fucccsofinfecrcd people contain Ei1tamoeba • Defences against
amoebae whic h, if they reach food or drinking water,
can infect other people. T he dise3SC is prevalent in
diseases
tropical, sub-tropical and, to some cxrcnc, te mperate T he body has three main lines of defence ag:a,inst
countries and is associated with low standards of disease. These involve mechanical barriers, chemical
barriers and cells.
hygiene and sanitation.
A irborn e, ' droplet' or aeroso l infect ion Mechani ca l barri ers

When we sneeze, cough, laugh, speak or just breathe Although many bacteria live on the surface of
our, we send a fine spray of liquid drops into the the skin, the outer laye r of the epidermi s (sec
air. These droplets arc so tiny that they remain ' H omcosrasis' in Chapter 14 ) seems to act as a
floating in the ai r for a long time. They may be barrier that stops them gcning into the body. But if
breathed in by other people o r fu ll o n to cxpo:,cd the skin is cut or damaged, the bacteria may get into
food {Figure I 0.9). If rhc drople ts contain viruses or the deeper tissues and cause infection.
bacteria, they may cause disease: when they arc eaten H airs in the nose help to filter out bacteria that arc
with food o r inhaled. breathed in. H owever, if air is breathed in through
Virus diseases such as colds, 'flu, measles and the mouth, this defence is by-passed.
chickenpox arc spread in this way. So arc the bacteria
(Srreprococei) that cause sore throars. When the water Chemica l barri e rs
in the droplets evaporates, the bacteria often die as The acid conditions in the stomach desrroy most
they dry out. The viruses remain infecti ous, however, of the bacteria that may be taken in with food.
floating in the air for a long time. The moist lining of the nasal passages traps many
In buses, trains, cinemas and night clubs the air is bacteria, as does the mucus produced by the lining
warm and moist, and hill of floating droplets. These of the trachea and bronchi. The ciliated cells of
arc places where you arc likely to pick up o ne of these these or&1ns carry the trapped bacteria away from
infections. d ie lungs.
Defences against diseases
Tears contain an enzyme called lysozyme. TI1is Vaccinati o n

dissoh·cs the cell w:,lls of some bacteria and so
TI1c body's defences can be enhanced by
protects the eyes from infection. vaccinatio n . This involves a harmless form of rhc
pathogen {bacteria o r virus) being introduced into
Ce ll s
the body by injection or swallowing. The presence
When bacteria get through the mechanical and of the pathogen triggers white blood cells ro make
chemical barriers, the body has two more lines of specific antibodies to combat possible infection. If the
defence - white blood cells and :mtibodies, produced person is exposed to the disease later, defences arc
by white blood cells. One type o f white blood cells already in place to prevent it de\'cloping (the person
fights infection by engulfing bacteria (a process called is inun un e to that disease ). Without vaccination,
phagocytosis) and digesting them. Further details white blood cells need to be exposed to the disease
of the way these work is also described in 'Blood' organism before they make the appropriate :intibody.
in Chapter 9. Another type produce antibodies that If the disease is potentially lethal, the patient could
attach themselves to bacreria, making it easier for die before the white blood cells have time to act.
other white blood cells to engulfrhem.
Antibodies and immunity affect a pneumonia bacterium. This is ill ustrated in

the fo rm ofa diagram in Figure 10. 10.
Key defi n iti o n Some of the lymphocytes that produced the
Act ive immunityis thedefenceagainstapathogenby specific antibodies remain in the lymph nodes
antibody production in the body. fur some time and divide rapidly and make more
antibodies if the same antigen gets imorhe body
On the surf.ice of all cells there arc chemical again. This means that the body has become
substances called antigens. Lymphocyr.cs produce im mu ne to the disease caused by the ancigcn and
proteins called antibodies which att:x:k. the amigcns explains why, once rou h:ive recovered from measles
of bacteria or any alien cells or pro!ci.ns that invade or chickenpox, for example, you arc very unlikely
the body. The antibodies may atr3Ch to the surface to catch the same disease again . This is called active
of the bacteria to mark them, making it easier for immunity. Active immunity can also be gained by
the phagocytes to find and ingest them, they may \'accination. You may also inherit some forms of
dump the bacteria togt:thcr or they may neutralise the immunity or acquire antibodies from your mother's
poisonous proteins {toxi ns) th:it the bacteria produce. milk (sec 'Sexual reproduction in humans' in
Ea.eh antibody is very specific. This means char an Chapter 16). This is in nate immu nity.
:inribody that atr-acks a typhoid bacterium will nor
lh=
O '"' ""'' '

intlbodles
i ...
... itt~ck Cinnotatuck

these foreign foreign
particles A ... pirtlcleB ...
0. 0. 0
... indanUbodyb
anddestroythem. aodde<roy<h,m, l'lflQteffectlve
ormi•kthemfor ormirkthemfor igalnstforelgn
actlonbyphag0<ytes action by phagocytes. partlcleA.
F1gun1 10.10 Mtibodlesa.respeciflc

Vaccination 'Killer' T cells (from the Thymus gland ) have

receptor molecules on tl1eir surf.ice, which attach
When you are inoculated (vaccinated ) against a them to these surf.ice antibodies. The T cells then
disease, a harmless form of the bacteria or virnses is kill the cell by damaging its cell membrane.
introduced into your body (Figure 10.11 ). The white 'Helper' T cells stimulate the B cells to divide
cells make the correct antibodies, so that if the real and produce antibodies. They also stimulate the
micro·organisms get imo the blood , the antibody is phagocytes to ingest any cells carrying antibodies on
already presem or very quickly made by the blood. theirsurfuce.
Some of the B cells remain in the lymph nodes
as memory cells. These can reproduce swiftly and
produce antibodies in response to any subsequent
invasion oftl1e body by the same foreign organism.
When mass vaccination fails, the population is at
risk of infection with potential epidemics resulting.
An example of this was witl1 the MMR vaccine
in Britain. MMR is a combination of vaccines
protecting against measles, mumps and rubella
(German measles ). A researcher and surgeon called
Andrew Wakefield claimed (incorrectly) to have
found a link between the MMR vaccine and the
incidence of autism and bowel disease in children.
Rgu re 10. 11 Va((inatkm . Thegirlisbeingv..c:dnateda,gainstrubella The story gor into tl1e national press and many
(German meas~s) parems reacted by refiising to allow tl1eir children
to have the MMR vaccination, leaving them
The material that is injected or swallowed is called a vulnerable to the three potentially life-threatening
vaccine and is one of the following: diseases. The drop in MMR vaccination rates left
• a harmless form of the micro·organism, e.g. the whole populations more susceptible to the spread
BCG inoculation against tuberculosis and the of measles, mumps and rubella. There needs to be a
Sabin oral vaccine against polio ( oral, in this significant proportion of a population immunised to
context, means 'taken by mouth' ) prevent an epidemic of a disease, ideally over 90%.
The percentage of people protected against measles,
• the killed micro-organisms, e.g. the Salk ami -polio
mumps and rubella dropped well below tl1is figure in
vaccine and the whooping cough vaccine
some areas after the MMR vaccine scare. It has taken
• a toxoid, i.e. the inactivated toxin from the bacteria, years for doctors to restore parents' fuith in tl1e safety
e.g. the diphtheria and tetanus vaccines. (A toxin oftheMMRvaccine.
is the poisonous substance produced by certain There is a small risk of serious side -effi:cts from
bacteria, which causes the symptoms of the disease. ) vaccines, just as tl1ere is with all medicines. These
risks are always fur lower than the risk of catching
Band T lymphocytes the disease itself. For example, the measles vaccine
carries a risk of 1 in 87000 of causing encephalitis
There are two main types oflymphocyte. Both (inflammation of the brain). This is much less
types undergo rapid cell division in response to the than the risk of getting encephalitis as a result of
presence of specific antigens but their fimctions catching measles. Also, the vaccines themselves are
are diffi:rent (though interdependent). The B cells becoming much safer, and the risk of side -effects is
(from Bone marrow) become short-lived plasma now almost nil.
cells and produce antibodies that are released into Routine vaccination not only protects tl1e
the blood. These antibodies may attack antigens individual but also prevents tl1e spread ofinfectious
directly or stick to tl1e surf.tee membrane ofinfected disease. Diseases like diphtl1eria and whooping
or alien cells, e.g. cells carrying a virus, bacteria, cough were once common, and are now quite rare.
cancer cells or transplanted cells. This is the result of improved social conditions
and routine vaccination. Smallpox was completely

wiped our throughom the world by a World Health
Organization programme o f vaccination between
1959 and 1980.
Global travel
In the 18th and 19th centuries, explorers, traders
and missionaries carried European diseases to
countries where rhc population had no natural
immunity. It is thought that de\•astating epidemics
of smallpox and measles in, for example, No rth
American Indians and Austrnlian aborigines res ulted
from contact with infected Eu ropeans.
Today, the case with which we c;i,n trnvel around
the world raises the possibility that travellers may
catch a disease in a region where it is endem ic and Fig u re 10. 12 lntem~~on;lcertmc.iteofvacclnation
subsequently introduce it into a region where the
incidence of disease is low or non-existe nt. the fibrin ogcn removed. A scrum is prepan.-d from
An 'endemic' disease is one that is constantly the plasma given by blood donors. People who
present in a population. Figure 10.2 shows areas in ha,·e recently received an ami-ten nus inoculation
which malaria is endemic. Small numbers of travellers will have made anti-tetanus antibodies in their
returning ro Britain from such a region may have blood. Some of these people volunteer to donate
become infected during their stay. Fortunately, their blocxl, but their plasma is separated at once
British mosquitoes do not transmit malaria, but and the red cells returned to their circulation . The
global warming might change this. anti-tetanus anti bodies arc then extracted from the
lf you pbn to visit a country whe re an inlectious plasma and used to trc:it patients who arc at risk of
disease is endemic, you arc likely to be offered advice contracting tetanus, as a result of an accident, for
on vaccinatio n. There is no vaccine agai nst malaria example. Antibodies against chickenpox and rabies
but, if you arc travelling to a malarious country, can be produced in a similar way.
you will probably be advised to take a drug (e.g. l11c temporary immunity confe rred by these
chloroquine) rhat kills malarial parasites, starting a me thods is called p:1ssive immunity because the
week or more before your departure, throughout an tibodies have nor been produced by the patient.
yo ur sray and for a few weeks after you r return. It is only temporary because it docs not result in the
Drugs such as this, which help to prevent you getting formation of memory cells.
a disease arc called pro J>hylactks. When a mother brc:istfceds her baby, the milk
Also, you may find yo ur aircraft cabin being contains some ofrhc mother's white blood cells,
sprnyed with insecticide to kill any malaria-carrying which produce antibodies. l11ese antibodies provide
mosquitoes thar might have e ntered. the baby with protection :1gainst infection at a
If yo u visit a country where a disease, e.g. yellow vulnerable time: rhe b:iby's immune responses arc
lever, is endemic, }'OU may be required to produce a not yet full y developed. H owever, this is another
c.crrificate ofvaccinarion (Figure 10. 12 ) before being case of passive immunity as it is only short-term
allowed into a country where the disease docs not protection: memory celJs arc not producr..-d.
Type 1 diabetes
Passive immunity
This type of diabetes, also known as juvenile-
Some diseases can be prevented or cured by injecting o nse t diabetes, mainly affects young people . It is
the patient wit h scrum from a person who has due to the inability of islet cells in the pancreas
recovered from the disease. Scrum is plasma with to produce sufficie nt insu lin. There is a slight
10 D15EA5E5 AND IMMUNITY
inherited te ndency towards the disease, but is deficient in insulin and he or she needs regular
it ma y be triggered by some event, possibly a injections of the hormone in order to control
virus infection, which causes the body's immune blood suga r levels and so lead a normal life . This
system to attack the islet cells that produce form of the disease is, therefore, sometimes called
insulin. his therefore classed as an autoimmune 'insu lin -dependent' diabetes (sec 'Homeostasis'
disease. The outcome is that the patient's blood in Chaprer 14 ).
is Latin for 'cow' and 'vaccinia' is the medical name

• Extension work for cowpox. We now know that viruses and bacteria
ofi:cn lose much of their virulence if they are alto wed
Ideas about disease transmission and to pass through different animals o r arc cultured in
micro~org anisms a particular way. Such non-virulent microbes arc said
to be attenu:aed . Jenner and his contemporaries, of
Edward Jenner (1749-1 823) course, knew nothing about \iruses or attenuation
The history of immunisation cenrres on the disease but their shrewd observations, logical deductions
smallpox, which is caused by a virus. Only a few and bold experiments led to a massive reduction in
years ago ii was a serious, worldwide disease causing suffering.
hundreds of thousands of deaths. In 1967 , the World Health Organization
It had lo ng been noticed that pcopk who had embarked on a programme to eradicate smallpox
recovered from smallpox never caught the disease from the whole world. The strategy was to rrace
again. In the late 1600s this o bservation was all cases of smallpox and isolate the patients so that
exploited in Colmtrics such as Greece, Turkey, they could nor pass on die disease. Everyone at risk.
China and India. Fluid from the blisters, which was then vaccinated. By 1987 the disease had been
characterised the disease, was introduced into eradicated.
healthy people through cuts in rhe skin . The patient
suffered a mild form of smallpox but was, thereafter, Louis Pasteur (1822-9 5)
immune to the disease. It was a risky practice, Pasteur made o utstanding contributions to
however, and some people developed smallpox and chemistry, biology and medicine. In 1854, as
died as a result of the vaccination. professor of chemistry at the University of LUie,
In the 1750s, a Suffolk surgeon, Robert he was called in by the French wine industry to
Sutton , refined the technique with considerable investigate the problem of wines going sour.
success. Edward Jenner is usually given the credit Under the microscope he observed the yeast cells
for smallpox vaccination . While using Sutton's that were present and proposed that these were
technique he noticed that milkmaids who had caught responsible for the fermentation. Thus, he claimed,
'cowpox' from infected cows did not de\-clop the fcrmcnrarion was the outcome of a living process in
mild symptoms of illness after vaccinatio n. yeast and not caused solely by a chemical change in
In 1796, Jenner conducted a crucial , if somewhat the grape juice. In time, Pasteur observed that the
risky, experiment. He took fluid from a cowpox yeast cells were supplanted by microbes (which we
blister on a milkmaid's hand and injected it into a now call 'bacteria'), which appeared to change the
young boy. Two months later, he in oculated the boy alcohol into acetic and lactic acids.
with smallpox and demonstrated tha t the boy was Pasreur showed that souring was prevented by
immune. After publication of the results, the practkc heating the wine to l 20 °F (49 °C ). H e reasoned
spread widely throughout Europe, reducing deaths that this was because the microbes responsible for
from smallpox by about rn·o-d1irds. souring had been killed by the heat and, if the wine
Jenner called his technique '\•accination' to w.J.s promptly bottled, d1cy could not rerurn . This
distinguish it from inoculation with smallpox. 'Vacca' process is now called 'pasteurisation'.
Spont:'lneous generation
The micro-organisms in decaying products could be
seen under the microscope, but where did they come
from? Many scientists claimed that they were the
rrmlt of decay rather than the cauu; they had arisen
'spontaneously' in the decaying fluid s.
In the 17th century, it was belic\·ed that organisms
cou ld be generated from decaying matter. The Fig uni 10.13 1wo of ?;1steur~ M~1\: s/'i~pe1. The thin tubes mitted ~ir
butmiuooeswefetr;ippedlntheU-bend
organisms were usually 'vem1in' such as insects,
worms and mice. To contest this notion, an
lllis series of experiments, and many others,
experiment was conducted in 1668, comparing meat
supported the theory that micro·organisms caused
freely exposed to the air with meat protected from
decay and did not arise spontaneously in the liquids.
blowflies by a gauze lid on the container. Maggots
appeared only in the meat to which blowflies had The germ theory of disease
access. In 1865 , Pasteur was asked to investigate the cause
This, and orher experiments, laid to rest theories ofa disease of silkworms (silk-moth caterpillars) that
about spont:meous generation, as fur as visible was devastating the commercial production of silk.
organisms were concerned, but the controversy about He observed that particular micro-organisms were
the origin of microbes continued into the 1870s. present in the diseased caterpillars but not in the
It was already known that prolonged boiling, healthy ones. He demonstrated that, by removing
followed by enclosure, prevented liquids from all of the diseased caterpillars and moths, the dise::ise
putrefying. Exponents of spontaneous generatio n could be controlled. l11is evidence supported
claimed that this was because the heal had affected the idea th:u the microbes passed from diseased
some property of the air in the vessel. P::isteur caterpillars to healthy ones, thus causing the disease
designed experiments to pm this to the test. to spread.
He made a v:uieryofflasks, two of which are He extended this observation to include many
sh own in Figure 10.13, and boiled meat broth in forms of transmissible disease, including anthrax. He
each of them. Fresh air was not excluded from the also persuaded doctors to sterilise their instruments
flask but could emer only through a mbe, which by boiling, and ro steam-heat their bandages. In this
was designed to prevent 'dust' {and microbes) from way, the number of infections that followed surgery
reaching the liquid. l11e broths remained sterile was much reduced.
until either the flask was opened or until ir was tilted Pastcur's disco\·eries led to the introduction of
to allow some broth to reach the U-bend and the n antiseptic surgery and also to d1e production of a
tipped b.1ck ::igain. rabies vaccine.
Questions 4 How might a medical officer try to control an outbreak of

amoebic dysentery?
5 Why should people who sell, handle and cook food be
1 a Wh.it are the two main lines of atldck on mal.iria ? p;irticul.irlycareful.ibouttheirper50nalhygiene?
b Wh.it is the connection between stagn.int w.iter and 6 Coughing°' sneezing without covering the mouth .ind
m.il.iria? nose with a h.indkerchiefis thoughttobeinconsiderate
c Whataretheprincip;il'set-backs'inthebattleag.iinst behaviour. Why is this?
m.il.iria? 7 Inhaling cig.irette smoke can stop the oction of cilia in the
2 Study the cartoon shown in Figure 10.14. Identify the lri!Che.i and bronchi for .ibout 20 minutes. Why should
potentialhygienerisksinSid'sStore. thisincrease.ismoker'schanceofcatchingarespir.itory
3 In what w.iys might improved sanitation and hygiene help infection?
toreducethespre.idofamoebicdysentery?
Flgure10.14 Anunhygk>nicsllop
Extended 9 How might a harmful bacterium be destroyed or removed

8 Figure 10.15 shows the changes in the levels of antibody by the body if it arrived:
inresponseto.ininoculationof.ivaccine,followedbya a onthehand
booster injection 3weeksl.iter. Useyourknowledgeofthe b in.ibronchus
..,
immunereactiontoexplainthesech.inges.
- --- antlbodylevelwlthnobooster
c inthestomoch?
10 Afler.idisastersuchasanearthquake,thesurvivors.ire
urged to boil .ill drinking water. Why do you think this is 50?
11 Explainwhyvi!Ccinationagainstdiphtheri.idoesnot
- - antlbodylevelaflerbooster
protectyou.igainstpolioaswell
12 Even if there have been no cases of diphtheria in a country
form.inyyears,childrenmaystillbevaccinatedagainstit.
Wh.it do you think is the point of this?
Injection Injection
Flgure10.15
Checklist • Antibodies, produced by lymphocytes, work by locking on

After studying Chapter 10 yoo shooldknowandunderstand to antigens.
the following : • Antigenshavespecificsh.ipes, soe.ichtypeof.intigen
needsadifferent.intibody.
• TranIDiissiblediseasesareinfectionscausedbyviruses, • Activeimmunityis.idefenceagainst.ipathogenby
bacteria,fungiorprotoctista. .intibodyproduction in the body.
• Infectious diseases may be tram,mitted by air, water, food
• Vaccin.itioninvolvestheadministrationof.ide.idor
°' contact.
inactive form of the pathogen to a patient to stimul.ite
• The body has defences against pathogens, including
.intibodyproduction
mechanical and chemical barriers and white blood cells. • Memory cells provide long-term immunity.
• A vaccine stimulates the blood system to produce antibodies • Systematic immunisation c.in protect whole popul.itions
againstadisease,withootcausingthediseaseitself. • P.issive immunity only provides short-term protection
• The presence of antibodies in the blood, or the abi lity to bec.iuse memory cells .ire not produced.
producethemrapidly,givesimmunitytoadisease.
• Type1 diabetesiscausedbytheimmunesystemtargeting
• Water-borne diseases are control led by sewage treatment
.inddestroyingcellsinthep.increas
andwaterpurific.ation
• Food-borne dise.ises can be controlled by hygienic food
prep.ir.ition, hygienic handling and good personal hygiene
• Thespreadofdise.isecanbecontrolledby wastedispos.il
.indsewagetreatment.
@ Gas exchange in humans
Gas exchange in humans ldentificationofmusclesas50Ciatedwithbreathing
Featuresofhumangasexchange!.UrfilCes Rolesofpartsofthebreathingsysteminventilation
Partsofthebreathingsystem Explaining differences between ins~red and expired air
Compositionofinspiredandexpiredair Roleofbraininmonitoringcarbondioxide
Testforc.arbondioxide Protectionofthegasexchangesystemagainstpathogens
Thin epithelium
• Gas exchange in There is only a two-cell layer, at the most, separating
humans the air in the alveoli from the blood in the capillaries
All the processes carried out by the body, such as (Figure l l .4 ). One layer is the alveolus wall; the
movement, growth and reproduction, require energy. other is the capillary wall. Thus, the distance for
In animals, this energy can be obrained only from diffusion is very short.
the food they eat. Before the energy can be used by Good blood supply
the cells of the body, it must be set free from the
chemicals of the food by a process called 'respiration' The alveoli are surrounded by networks ofblood
(see Chapter 12 ). Aerobic respiration needs a supply capillaries. l11e continual removal of m1'gen by the
of oxygen and produces carbon dioxide as a waste blood in the capillaries lining the alveoli keeps its
product. All cells, therefore, must be supplied concentration low. In this way, a steep diffusion
with oxygen and must be able to get rid of carbon gradient is maintained, which favours the rapid
dioxide. diffusion of oxygen from the air passages to the
In humans and other mammals, the oxygen is alveolar lining.
obtained from the air by means of the lungs. In The continual delivery of carbon dioxide from
the lungs, the oxygen dissolves in the blood and the blood into the alveoli, and its removal from
is carried to the tissues by the circulatory system the air passages by ventilation, similarly maintains
(Chapter9 ). a diffusion gradient that promotes the diffusion
of carbon dioxide from the alveolar lining into the
Characteristics of respiratory surfaces bronchioles.
The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide across Vent ilati on
a respiratory surfuce, as in the lungs, depends on the
diffusion of these rwo gases. Diffusion occurs more Ventilation of the lungs helps to maintain a steep
rapidly if: diffusion gradient (see 'Diffi1sion' in Chapter 3 )
between the air at the end of the air passages and the
• there is a large surface area exposed to the gas alveolar air. The concentration of the oxygen in the
• the distance across which diffusion has to rake place air at the end of the air passages is high, because the
is small air is constantly replaced by the breathing actions.
• rhere is a good blood supply, and The respiratory surfaces of land -dwelling mammals
• there is a big difference in the concentrations of the are invariably moist. Oxygen has to dissolve in
gas at two points brought about by ventilation. the thin film of moisture before passing across tl1e
epithelium.
Large surface area
Lung structure
The presence of millions of alveoli in the lungs
provides a very large surface for gaseous exchange. l11e lungs are enclosed in the tlmrax (chest region )
The many branching filaments in a fish's gills have (see Figure 7.13 ). They have a spongy texmre and
thesameeflect. can be expanded and compressed by movements
of tl1e thorax in such a way that air is sucked in and
Gas exchange in humans
blown out. The lungs are joined to the back of the Figure 11.2 shows a section through the thorax. llie
mouth by the windpipe or trachea (Figure 11.1 ). ribs, shown in cross section, form a cage, which has
llie trachea divides into lli'O smaller tubes, called two main func.tions:
bronchi (singular - bronchus), which enter the lungs
• to protect the lungs and heart
and divide imo even smaller branches. When these
• to move to ventilate the lungs.
brandies are only about 0.2 mm in diameter, they
are called bronchioles (Figure 11. 3(a)). These fine
brandies end in a mass oflittle, thin-walled, pouch-like
air sacs called alveoli (Figures ll.3(b ), (c) and 11.4 ).
llie epiglottis and other structures at the top of
the rrachea stop food and drink from entering the air
passages when we swallow.
Flgure11.2 Sectklnthroughthethorax
The alveoli have thin elastic walls, formed from a

single-cell layer or epithelium. Beneath the epithelium
\ - - - , - <- - right is a dense network of capillaries (Figure ll.3(c))
ventricle supplied with deo.xygenared blood (see 'Blood' in
Chapter 9 ). lbis blood, from which the lxxly has taken
oxygen, is pumped from the right ventricle, through the
Flgure11.1 Oiagram of lung1, 1howirig positioo of lleort pulmonary artery (see Figure 9.20). In humans, there
are about 350 million al\·eoli, with a total absorbing
surf.ice of aOOut 90ml. lbis large absorbing surf.ice
makes it possible to take in oxygen and gi\·e out carbon
dioxide at a rate to meet the bc:xly's needs.
(a) alrpassagesln thelungs (b)thealrpns agesend (c)bloodsupplyofthealveoll

lntlny pockets(alveoll)
Flgure11.3 Lungstructure
11 GAS EXCHANGE IN HUMANS
The: capillaries carrying oxygenated blood from

the: akc:oli join up to fo rm the: pulmonary vei n (sec:
Figure 9.20), which returns blood to the: lc:fi: atrium
of the: hc:an. From here it enters the: lc:fr ve ntricle:
and is pumped all around the body, so supplying the:
tissuc:swith oxygc:n.
Table: I I .I shows changes in the composition of air
as it is breathed in and out.
Table 11 .1 ChMq!S In the composition ofbreathed ~ir
Flgure11.4 Sma ll pH!ceoflungt~sue(,c40). Theapillariesh.avebeen

,,,_
injectedwithredafldblueaje. ThenetwOfkssurroundingthealveolic:.an Sometimes the word respiratio n or respiratory
is used in connection with breathing. The: lungs,
trachea and bronchi arc called the rcspir:ttory
system; a person's r.1tc ofbrcathing may be called
Gaseous exc hange his or her respiration rntc . This use ofrhc: word
Ventilation refers to the movement of air into and should not be confused with the bio logical meaning
out of the lungs. Gaseous exchange refers to the of respiration, namely the release of energy in cells
exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide, which takes (Chapter 12 ). l11is chemical process is sometimes
place between the air and the blood vessels in the called tissue respiration o r Internal respiration to
lungs ( Figure 11 .5 ). distinguish it fro m breathing.
The 1.5 litres of residual air in the ah·eoli is
not exchanged during ve ntilation and oxygen has Lung capacit y and breathing rate
to reac h the capillaries by the slower process of
The: total volume: of the: lungs whe n fully inflated
diffusio n. Figure 11 .5 shows how oxygen reaches die: is about 5 litres in an adult. H owe\·er, in quiet
rc:d blood cells and how carbon dioxide escapes from breathing, whe n asleep o r a1 rc:s1, you no rmally
the: blood. exchange: o nly about 500 cm3. During c:xc:rcisc
The: O).l'gc:n combines with the haemoglobin in you can take: in and c:xpc:I an cxtrn 3 litres. There:
the: rc:d blood cc:lls, forming oxyhaemoglobin (sc:c is a resid ual volume of 1.5 litres, which cannot be:
'Blood' in Chapter 9 ). The carbon dioxide: in the: c:xpc:llc:d no matter how hard you breathe: out.
plasma is rc:lc:ascd when the hydrogc:ncarbonatc: ions At rest, you normally inhale: and exhale about
(- H C0 3) break down to C02 and H 20 . 12 times per minute. During exercise, rhe breathing
rate may rise: to over 20 breaths per minute and the
depth alsoincrc:ascs.
Breathing rate and exercise

The increased rate and depth of breathing during
~~~n exercise: allows more oxygen to dissolve in the: blood
"'
cells
and supply the: active: muscles. l11e eXtrn carbon
dioxide that the musclc:s put into the blood is
dc:tc:ctc:d by the: brain, which instructs the: imc:rcosral
muscles and diaphragm muscles to conrracr and
relu more rapidly, increasing the: breathing rare:.
Carbon dioxide: will be: removed by the fusrc:r,
'topulmonaryveln
dc:cpc:rbreathing.
Flgur• II.SGaseouSl'lCchilllgl' ln the~lus
Practical work Carbon dioxide in exhaled air

• Prepare two large test-tubes, A and B, as shown in
Oxygen in exhaled air Figure 11 .7,eachcontaininga littleclearlimewater.
• Put the mouthpiece in your mouth and breathe in and out
• Place a large 5erew-top jar on its !.ide in a bowl of water
gently through it for about 15 seconds. Notice which tube is
{Figure11 .6(a))
bubbling when you breathe out and which one bubbles when
• Putarubbertubeinthemouthofthejarandthenturnthejar
you breathe in.
upside-dcmn, still full of water and with the rubber tube still in it
• Start breathing out and when you feel your lungs must be
about half empty, breathe the last part of the a ir down the here
rubbertubingsothattheair collectsintheupturnedjarand
fillsit(Figure11 .6(b)}. I
·~n~·
• Put the 5Crew top back on the jar under water, remove the jar
from the bowl and place it upright on the bench.
• Llghtthecandleonthespecialwireholder(Figure 11 .6(c}),
remove the lid of the jar, lower the burning candle into the jar
andcountthenumberofsecondsthecandlestaysalight.
• Now take a fresh jar, with ordinary air, and see how long the
candlestaysalightinthis.
~um,wa<"~
Flgure11.7 E:,;perimentto rn~retheG1rbondioxkiecootentof

inha!edaridexh.ik>dair
If after 15secondsthereisnodifferenceintheappearanceofthe
limewater in the two tubes, continue breathing through them for
another 15 seconds
Results
The limewater in tube B goes milky. The lirnewater in tube A
stays dear.
Inte rpretation
Carbon dioxide turns limewater milky. Exhaled air fMSses through
tubeB . lnhaledairpassesthroughtubeA. Exhaledairmust,
(b)Breatheoutthrough therefore, contain more carbon dioxide than inhaled air.
the rubber tube and
Note 1: ifthebreathingprocessiscarriedoutfortoo
traptheairinthejar.
long, the limewater that had turned milky will revert to being
colourless. This is because the calcium carbonate formed (milky
precipitate)reactsinwaterwithc.arbondioxidetoformcalcium
hydrogencarbonate, which is soluble and colourless
Note 2: Hydrogenc.arbonate indicator is an alternative to
limewater. It changes from red to yellow when carbon dioxide is
(c) Lowerthebuming bubbled through it.
candl e into the jar
until the lid is
resting on the rim. Volume of air in the lungs
Figure 11.6 E:,;perimenttotestexhaledJirfDfoxygen
• Calibratealarge{Slitre}plasticbottlebyfillingitwithwater,
halfalitreatatime,andmarkingthewaterlevelsonthe
Results
The candle will bum for about 15- 20 seconds in a large jar of out!.ide.
• Fillthebottlewithwaterandputonthestopper.
ordinary air. In exhaled air it will go out in about 5 seconds
• Put about 50mm depth of water in a large plastic bowl.
Interpretat ion • Hold the bottle up!.ide-down with its ned:: under water and
Burning needs oxygen. When the oxygen is used up, the flame remove the 5erew top. Some of the water will run out but this
goesout.ltlooksasifexhaledaircontainsmuchlessoxygen does not matter.
than atmospheric air.
• Pu5'1 a rubber tube into the mouth of the bottle to po5ition A. Investigating the effect of exercise
~onthediagram (Figurell .8).
• Takeadeepbreathandthened'laleasmuchairaspos.5ible on rate and depth of breathing
down the tubing into the bottle. The final water level in'iide This investigation makes use of an instrument called a spirometer.
the bottle will tell you how much air you can exchange in one ltmaybeoneasiHustratedinFigure 11 .9,oradigitalver5ion,
deep breath. connected to a computer. A traditional spirometer has a hinged
• Nowpushtherubbertubingfurtherintothebottle,to chamber, which rises and falls as a person breathes through the
po5itionB(Figure1\ .8),andblowoutanywaterleftinthetube. mouthpiece. The chamber is filled with medic.al oxygen from a
• Support thebottlewithyoorhandandbreathegentlyinand cylinder.Thereisafiltercontainingsodalime,whichrernoYe5
outthroughthetube,keepingthewaterlevelin'iideand any carbon diaode in the usen breath, so that it is not re-
outside the bottle the same. This will give you an idea of how breathed. The hinged chamber has a pen attached (sho>Ml in red
much air you e~hange when breathing normally. in Figure 11.9), which rests against the paper-cOYered drum of a
kymograph . Thiscanbesettorevolveatafixedratesothatthe
traceproducedbythe userprogressesacrossthepaper.
Ag...-. 11.8 Experiment to mGsurethevolumeof air exhak!d from

thelungs. (A)YIOWStheposltlonofthetubewhenmGsuringthe
m~mum u!.ilble lung volume. (8) is the position for measuring the
-.olumee.11ChilngedingentlebrNthlng
d2!l
figure 11.9 A~irometl!r. This Instrument me~sures thevolumeol ai r
breathed inandoutofthekKlgsande¥1beusedtome;isureaxygen
amulTl)lion.
Investigating the effect of exercise • AvolunteerisaskedtobrNtheinandoutthroughthe

mouthpiece and the kymograph is set to revolve siov,,ly. This
on carbon dioxide production will generate a tr.Jee, which wil l)fOYide information about the
volunteer'stidalvolumeandbreathingra te(eachpeal:onthe
• Half fill two dean boiling tubes with limewa ter.
trace represents one breath and the depth between a peak
• Place a drinking straw in one of the boiling tubes and gently
andtroughcanbeusedtocalculatethetidalvolume)
blow into it. with normal, relaxed breaths
• Next,thevolunteerisaskedtotakeadeepbreathwith
• Count how many breaths are needed to turn the limewater
themouthpiecerernoved,thenbreatheoutthroughthe
milky.
mouthpieceforonelongcontinuousbreath.Thedepth
• Now exercise for 1 to 2 minutes, e.g. running on the spot
between the peak and troughproduredcan be used to
• Placeadrinkingstrawinthesecondboilingtube,blowing into
calculatethe vitalcapacity.
it as before.
• Finally,thevolunteerisaskedinsert themouthpiece,then
• Count the number of breaths needed to turn the limewater milky.
runonthespotorpedalanexercisebicycle.whilebreathing
throughthespirometer. Thetraceproduced(Figurell.10)
Res ults
canbeusedtocomparethebreathingrateanddepthduring
The number of breaths needed after exercise will be less than
exercise with that at rest. A study of the trace would also show
before exercise.
adropinthe tracewithtime. Thiscanbeusedtocalculatethe
In terpretation volume of OKYg,en consumed <Her time .
Cells in the body are constantly respiring, even 'Mien we are
not doing physical work. They produce carbon dioxide, which is Res ults
expired by the lungs. Thecarbondioi(ideturnslimewatermilky Tidal volume is about SOOcml, but tends to appear higher if the
Dlx"ingexen:ise,cells(particularlyintheskeletalmu5Cles)respire per!;Ollisnervousorinlluencedbythetracebeflgcreated.
more rapidl-j producing more carbon dioxide. This turns the VJtal capacity can be between 2.S and 5.0 litres, depending on
limewatermilkymo<erapidl-j. the~. ~alsizeandfitnessoftheperson .
I I ',, ,
nn, JI I
'""
If/ /1/1
1/f
60 80
tlme/s
Figure 11 .10 Splrometl!f tr.Ke lilkendur!ng exercise spinal
column
Thebreathingrateatrestisaround12breathsperminute.
Duringexercisethisincreasesandmayreach20ormorebreaths Figure 11 .11 Ribage seen from left s.lde. s.ho'Mn9 extern;I interco1t;I
per minute. muscles
Note: this experiment makes use of medical oxygen. This has a
high purity and is toxic if inhaled for a prolonged period of time.
If the volunteer starts to feel dizzy while using the spimmeter, he
or5he5hooldremovethemouthpieceimmediatelyandrest.
Ventilation of the lungs

11,e movement of air into and out of the lungs,
called ven tilation , renews the oxygen supply in
the lungs and removes the surplus carbon dioxide.
tpln.ol
Horseshoe-shaped hoops of carribge are present in column
the trachea and bronchi to prevent them collapsing
flgure 11 .12 MOdeltDshowxtionoflntercosulmu~de~
when we breathe in. The lungs contain no muscle
fibres and arc made to expand and conrracr by
These two movements make the volume in the thorax
movements of the ribs and diaphragm.
bigger, so forcing the lungs to expand. The reduction
The diaphragm is a sheet of tissue that separates
in air pressure in the lungs results in air being drawn
the thorax from the abdomen (sec Figure 7.13).
in through the nose and trnchea. This movement of
When relaxed , it is domed slightly upwards. The ribs
air into the lungs is known as ventilation.
arc moved by the intcrcostal muscles. 111c external
intercostals (Figure 11.11 ) contract to pull the ribs Exha ling
upwards and outwards. 11,e imern:tl imercosuls 1 The diaphragm muscles relax, allowing the
contract to pull them downwards and inwards. diaphragm to return to its domed shape
Figure 11.12 shows the contraction of the external (Figure 11.13(b)).
intercostals making the ribs move upwards.
2 The exte rnal intercostal muscles relax, while the
Inhaling internal intercostal muscles contract, pulling the
l The diaphragm muscles contract and pull it down ribs downwards to bring about a forced expiration
(Figure i l.13(a)). (Figure 11.14(b)).
2 The internal imercostal muscles relax, while the 11,e lungs are elastic and shrink back to their relued
external intercostal muscles contract and pull the volume, increasing the ai r pressure inside them. This
ribcage upwards and o utwards (Figure l l .l 4 (a)). results in air being forced out again .
The outside of the lungs and the inside of the

thorax are lined with a smooth membrane called the
pleural m embrane. This produces a thin layer of
liquid called pleural fluid , which reduces the friction
between the lungs and the inside of the thorax.
pleural membranes
pleural
fluid 21ungsreturnto
original volume spinal
column
'---...
contracted
muscle of relaxed
diaphragm muscle of
(euggerated) (b)exhallng diaphragm
Rgure 11.13 Diagrams of thorax to show mechanism of breathing
(,
I
rlbsswlngupand
Increase volume of thorax
(a)lnhallng (b) exhallng
Rgure11.14 Movementofribcageduringbreathing
rubber bung
Y-piece
A piece of apparatus known as the 'bell-jar model'
(Figure 11.15 ) can be used to show the way in
which movement of the diaphragm results in
balloon
inspiration and expiration. The balloons srart off
deflated. When the handle attached to the rubber
sheer is pulled down, the balloons inflate. If the
handle is released, the balloons deflate again.
rubber sheet _ _.____~-~
knotorh.Jndie
Figure11.15 Bell-j.irmodel
When the rubber sheet is pulled down, the volume product of aerobic respiration. As a result, C0 2
inside the bell jar increases. This reduces the air builds up in the muscle cells and diffuses into the
pressure inside, making it lower than outside. The air plasma in the bloodstream more rapidly. The brain
rushes in, through the glass tubing, to equalise the detects increases in carbon dioxide concentration in
air pressure, causing the balloons to inflate. the blood and stimulates the breathing mechanism
to speed up, increasing the rate of expiration of the
Differences in composition of inspired and
gas. An increase in the breathing rate also has the
expired air
advantage of making more oxygen available to the
Air in the atmosphere (which is breathed in) conrains more rapidly respiring muscle cells.
about 21% m.1'gen (see Table 11.1 ). Some of this is
Protection of the gas exchange system from
absorbed into the bloodstream when it enters the
pathogens and particles
alveoli, resulting in a reduction of oxygen in exhaled
air to 16% ( the process of gaseous exchange in the Pathogens are disease-causing organisms (see
alveoli does not remove all the oxygen from the Chapter 10). Pathogens, such as bacteria, and dust
air ). Gas exchange relies on diffusion to transfer the particles are present in the air we breathe in and are
oxygen into red blood cells and the air breathed potentially dangerous if not actively removed. There
in mixes with air that has not all been breathed are two types of cells that provide mechanisms to
out from the previous breath , so the process of gas help achieve this.
exchange is not very efficient. Goblet cells are found in the epithelial lining of
The remaining 79% of the air consists mainly of the trachea, broncl1i and some bronchioles of the
nitrogen, the percentage composition of which does respiratory tract (Figure 11.16). l11eir role is to secrete
not change significantly during breathing. mucus. The mucus forms a thin film over the internal
Inspired air contains 0.04% carbon dioxide. Cells lining. This sticky liquid rraps pathogens and small
of the body produce carbon dioxide as a waste parricle:s, preventing them from entering the alveoli
product during aerobic respiration (see 'Aerobic where they could cause infection or physical damage.
respiration' in Chapter 12 ). The bloodstream carries Ciliated cells are also present in the epithelial
carbon dioxide to rhe lungs for excretion. It diffuses lining of the respiratory tract (Figure 11.16; see
across the walls of the alveoli to be expired. The also 'Levels of organisation' in Chapter 2 ). They are
percentage breathed out is 4%, 100 rimes greater in a continually flicking motion to move the mucus,
than the percentage breathed in. secreted by the goblet cells, upwards and away from
The lining of the alveoli is coated with a film of the lungs. When the mucus reaches the top of the
moisture in which the oxygen dissolves. Some of this tracl1ea, it passes down the gullet during normal
moisture evaporates into rhe al,·eoli and saturates swallowing.
the air with water vapour. The air you breathe out,
therefore, always contains a great deal more water
vapour than the air you breathe in. The presence of
water vapour in expired air is easily demonstrated by
breathing onto a cold mirror: condensation quickly
builds up on the glass surface. l11e exhaled air is
warmer as well, so in cold and temperate climates
you lose hear to the atmosphere by breathing.
The relationship between physical activity and the
rate and depth of breathing
It has already been stated that the rate and depth
of breathing increase during exercise. In order for
the limbs to move fuster, aerobic respiration in the
skeletal muscles increases. Carbon dioxide is a waste Flgure11.16 Gobletcl.'ll'iamlciliatedcell1inthetrachea
Questions Check list

After studying Chapter 11 youshouldknowandunderstand
Core the following·
1 Placethefollowingstructuresintheorderinwhichairwill
reachthemwhenbreathingin: bronchus, trachea,nas.al • Alveoli in the lungs are very numerous, provide a large
surfacearea,haveathin, rnoistsurfaceandarewell-
cavity.alveolus.
2 Onefunctionofthesmallintestineistoabsorbfood{see ventilatedforefficientgasexchange.
'Absorption' in Chapter 7). One function of the lungs is • Alveoli have a good blood supply.
• Exchangeofoxygenandcarbondioxideinthealveolitakes
to absorb oxygen. Pointoutthebasicsimilaritiesinthese
two structures, which help to ~ed up the process of place by diffusion
absorption. • The blood in the capillaries picks up oxygen from the air
inthealveoliandgivesoutc.arbondioxide.Thisiscalled
Extended gaseous exchange
3 a Comparethebell-jarmodelinFigure11 .1Swith • The oxygen is carried around the body by the blood and
thediagramofthelungs(Figure 11 .1). What do the used bythecellsfortheirres.piration.
following parts represent on the model? • Theribs,ribmu5elesanddiaphragmmakethelungsexpand
i glasstubing andcontract.Thiscausesinhalingandexhaling.
ii Y-piece • Air is drawn into the lungs through the trachea, bronchi and
ii i balloons bronchioles.
iv belljar • Inhaled air contains a higher percentage of oxygen and
v rubbersheet a lower percentage of carbon dioxide and (usually) water
b Explain why this model does not give a complete vapour than exhaled air.
simulationoftheprcx:essofbreathing. • Limewaterisusedasatestforthepresenceofcarbon
4 Whatarethetwoprincipalmu5eularcontractionsthat dioxide. It turns milky.
causeairtobeinhaled? • Ouringexercise,therateanddepthofbreathingincrease.
S Placethefollowinginthecorrectorder-
lungsexpand,ribsrise,airenterslungs,externalintercostal • Cartilage, present in the trachea, keeps the airway open
mu5elescontract,thoraxexpands and unrestricted.
6 During inhalation, which parts of the lung structure would • Thediaphragm,internalandextemalintercostalmusdes
youexpecttoexpandthernost? play a partinventilationofthe lungs.
• Ouringexercise,therateanddepthofbreathingincrease
Thissuppliesextraoxygentothemu5elesandremoves
their excess carbon dioxide.
• Movementoftheribcageanddiaphragmresultsin
volume andpressurechangesinthethorax,leadingto
ventilation of the lungs.
• During physical activity, increasesinlevelsofcarbon
dioxide in the bloodaredetectedinthe brain, causing an
increased rate of breathing.
• Goblet cells make mucus to trap pathogens and particles
toprotectthegMexchangesystem
• Ciliatedcellsmovemucusawayfromthealveoli.
@ Respiration
Res piration Anaerob ic res piration
Useofenergyinhumans Defineanaerobicres.piration
Roleofenzyme5 Word equations
Energyoutputcomparedwithaerobicrespiration
Aerobic res piration
Defineaerobicrespiration Balanced chemical equation
Word equation Effectsoflacticacid
lnvestigatinguptakeofoxygeninres.piringorganisms Oxygen debt
Balancedchemic.alequation
lnvestigatingtheeffectoftemperatureonrespfration
respiration or tissue respiratio n. The use of the

• Respiration word 'respiration' for breathing is best avoided
Most of the processes ttking place in cells need altogether.
energy to make them happen. Examples of energy-
consuming processes in living organisms are: • Aerobic respiration
• the contraction of muscle cells - to create
movement of the organism, or peristalsis to move Key definit ion
food along the alimentary canal, or contraction of Aerob icresp iratio n isthetermforthechemicalreactionsin
cellsthatuseoxygentobreakda,vnnutrientmoleculesto
the uterus wall during childbirth release energy.
• building up proteins from amino acids
• the process of cell division ( Chapter 17) to create The word aerobic means that oxygen is needed
more cells, or replace damaged or worn out cells, for this chemical reaction. The food molecules
or to make reproductive cells are combined with oxygen. TI1c process is called
• the process of active transport (Chapter 3 ), oxidation and the food is said to be oxidised. All
involving the movement of molecules across a cell food molecules contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
membrane against a concentration gradient atoms. The process of oxidation converts the carbon
• growth of an organism through the formation of to carbon dioxide (C02) and the hydrogen to water
new cells or a permanent increase in cell size (H20 ) and , at the same time , sets free energy, which
• the conduction of electrical impulses by nerve cells the cell can use to drive other reactions.
(Chapter 14) Aerobic respiration can be summed up by the
• maintaining a constant body temperature equation
in homoiothcrmic (warm-blooded ) animals
(' H omcostasis' in Chapter 14 ) to ensure that glucose + oxygen enzymes carlx:m + water + 2830 kJ
vital d1cmical rcac.tions continue at a predictable dioxide energy
rate and do not slow down or speed up as the
The amount of energy you would get by completely
surrounding temperature \'arics.
oxidising 180 grams (g ) of glucose to carbon dioxide
This energy comes from the food that cells take in. and water is 2830 kilojoules (kJ). In the cells, the energy
The food mainly used for energy in cells is glucose. is not released all at once. The oxidation rakes place in a
The process by which energy is produced from series of small steps and not in one jump as the equation
food is called respiration. suggests. Each small step needs its own enzyme and
Respiration is a chemical process that takes place at each stage a little energy is released (Figure 12.1 ).
in cells and involves the action of enzymes. It must Although the energy is used for the processes
not be confused with the process ofbreathing, which mentioned above, some ofit always appears as heat.
is also sometimes called 'respiration'. To make the In 'warm-blooded' animals (birds and mammals)
difference quite clear, the chemical process in cells is some of this heat is retained to maintain their body
sometimes called cellular respiration, internal temperature.
12 RESPIRATION
carbon atom- C
1
c-- o,
C C/
Vlo' C C
F
I -..\1/...-
- - , n..-gy - -
.,, I I '
o
\
C
'-c-c·- 1 ~ \1/..-
c- c 1
? c- c ,,\ .....
- ,nergy -
....
(a)moleculeofglucCMe (b)theenzymeattxksandbreaksthe (c) thtsbreakdownsetsfreeenergy
(HandOatoimnotallshown) glucCMemoleculelntotwo3-carbon
molKules
-..\ f~l~ C01 J
-..,1, . .
~ +Ol -.. er:e
. 1~Y::: - energy -
.... ,,, .....
c enzyme
coi ........_
/
C c~ ~niyma
(d) eachl<arbonmoleculelsbfolten (e) moreenergyl1 relea!edandC0 2 11 (0 the glucose h~sbeencompletaly
down to carbon dioxide produced oxldlsedtoc~rbondloxlde(andwater).
andalltheenergyrelused
Flgure12.1 Afm:Cic~pit.ition
In 'cold-blooded' animals (e.g. reptiles and fish ) SeedsareoftenusedasthelJ\lingorganismsbecausewhen

they start to grow (germinate) there is a high 1-1 of chemical
the heat may build up for a time in the body and
activity in the cells. Seedsareeasytoobtain and to handle
allow the animal to move about more quickly. and they fit into small-scale apparatus. In some cases blowfly
In plants the heat is lost to the surroundings (by maggots or woodlice can be used as animal material. Yeast is
conduction, convection and evaporation) as fast as it usefulwhen1tudyinganaerobicrespiration.
is produced.
1 Using up oxygen during respiration
Theapparatusinfigure12.2isarespiromete r (a'respire
Practical work meter'), which can meaStXe the rate of respiration bot seeing how
quiddyc»!)'geni1takenup. Germinatingseeds,orblowflylarvae
orv«>Odliceareplaced in the test-tube and. as they use up the
Experiments on respiration and oxygen for n!5piration, the level of liquid in the delivery tubing
energy wilgoup.
There are tv.o drawbacks to this. One i!; that the organisms
tf you look below at the chemical ~tion that repre5ents u~lty give out as much carbon dioxide as they take in oxygen.
aerobicrespirationyouwillse-ethatatissueoranorganismthat So there may be no change in the total amount of air in the
r.; re.piring should be (a) using up food. (b) using up oxygen, test-tube and the liquid level will not mo,e. This drawback i!;
(c) giving off carbon dioxide. (d) QWing out water and (e) overcome by placing soda-lime in the test-tube . Soda-lime
releasingenergy,wtiichcanbeusedforotherprocesses. w~1 ab5orb carbon dioxide as fast as the organisms give it out
1/ jt !~~~~ =e~p out

So only the uptake of oxygen w~I affect the amount of air in
the tube. The 5eeood drawbad r.; that quite small changes in
t emperature will make the air in the test-tube expand or contract
S +G-8+8 +8 andwcauselheliquidto riseorfall 'Mletherornotrespiration is

taking place. Too.-ercome this,thetest-tubeiskeptinabeaker
,Y (a) food
using up (<) gtvlng out
carbon dioxide
t (e) releasing
energy
t of water {a water b.lth). The temperature of water changes far
more !.lowly than that of air, so there will not be much change
duringalO-minutee~periment
lfwewis.htotestwhetheraerobicrespirationistakingplace Control
Toshowthatitisalivingprocessthatusesupoxygen, asimilar
• '(d) giving out water' is not a gooo test because non-living re:;.pirometerispreparedbutcootaininganequalquantityof
material will give off water vapour if it is wet to start with. germinatingseedsthathavebeenkilledl)'lboiling.(tfblowfly
• '(a) using up food' can be tested by seeing if an organism loses larvae or woodlice are used, the control can consist of an
weigit. This is not as easy as it se-ems because most organi= equivalent volume of glass beads. This is not a very good control
lose weight as a result of evaporation of watef and this may but is probably more acceptable than killing an equivalent
have nothing todowithrespiration. ltisthedecreasein 'dry number of animals.)
weigit' that must be measured. The apparatus is finally set up as shown in Figure 12.2 and left
We will locus on the uptake of OKY9ffl and the production of for30minutes(10minutesifblowflylarvaeorv«>Odliceareused)
carbon dioxide as indications that respiration is taking place. Thecapillarytubeandreservoirdliquidareca!leda manomete r.
Aerobic respiration
Result
Thelevelofliquidintheexperimentgoesupmorethan inthe
amtrol. The level in the control may not move at all.
Interpre tat ion
# ==";=="'·~=' ~,.==
~~
Theriseofliqu idinthedeliverytubingshowsthattheliving
seedlingshavetakenuppartoftheair.ltdoesnotprovethatit
isoxygenthathasbeentakenup.Oxygenseemsthemostlikely
drop of water
gas, however, because(!) there is only 0.03% carbon dioxide in or coloured dye
the air to start with and (2) the other gas, nitrogen, is known to boiling
orwlregauze tube
belessactivethanoxygen.
Flgure1 2.3 As implerespirometer
• A drop of water or coloured dye is introduced to the capillary
tubebytouchingit againsttheliquid
• The capillary tube is rested against a ruler and the position of
thewaterdropisnoted.
• After 1 minute (or longer if the drop moves very slowly) the
new position of the water drop is recorded.
No te: Care must be taken when handling living organisms. Wash
hands thoroughly with water if they come into contact with
caustic soda.
Results
The water drop moves towards the organism. If the diameter
l§ll!aH---llf-- germlnaUng of the bore of the capillary tube is measured, the volume of air
seedlings takeninbytheorganismcanbecalculated:
volume=nrl/
wherer=radiusofthecapillarytubebore
/:distancetravelledbythewaterdrop
coloured
liquid Thisvaluecanbeconvertedintoarateifthevolumeisdividedby
the time taken
Inte rpre tat ion
capillary The movement of the water drop towards the organism
"'' showsthatitistakinginair. Byus.inga range of organisms
(locust, woodlice, blowfly larvae, germinating seeds} the rates
Flgure1 2.2 E:,;perimentto'il'l'ifoxygenistokenup inre1op iration of uptake can be compared to see which is respiring most
actively.
If the experiment is allowed to run for a long time, the uptake of A control could be set up using the same apparatus, but with
oxygen could be checked at the end by placing a lighted splint in glass beads instead of the organism(s}. The bubble may still move
eachtest-tubeinturn.lfsomeoftheoxygenhasbeenrema.ed because the soda-lime will absorb any carbon dioxide in the air in
by the living seedlings, the flame should go out more quickly the boiling tube, but the movement should be less than that for
thanitdoesinthetubewithdeadseedlings. living organisms.
2 Using up oxygen during res pirati o n (a lte rnati ve

method)
A respirometer such as the one illustrated in Figure 12.2 is not
aneasypieceofapparatustosetupandcollectdatafrom.An
alternativewayofsh\'.l\oYlngthatoxygenisusedupduringrespiration If you are following the extended curriculum you
canbeachievedus.ingasimplerespirometer(Figure12.3). need to be a ble to stare the balanced chemical
e quation for aero bic respiration:
• A larger invertebrate such as a locust, or a group of woodlice
orblowflymaggots,isplacedintheboilingtube(an
altemativeisalargeplasticsyringe,linkedtothecapillary
tube with a short section of rubber or s.il iconetubing}. The g lucose oxygen carbon water energy
organisms are protected from the soda-lime by means of dioxide
cottonwoolorawiregauze(soda-limeiscaustic).
12 RESPIRATION
Mitochondria caplllaiytube
It is in che mitochondria that the chemistry of

aerobic respiration t:1.kcs p lace (Chapter 2). T he
mi tochondria generate a compound called ATP,
which is used by the cell as the source of energy for
driving other chemical reactions in the cytoplasm bolllngtube
and nucleus.
beakerofwate,
.....
germlnitlng
cotton wool or
Practical work (acting as a
waterb.lth)
wire gauze
More experiments on respiration

Flgu re 12.4 Simpk!respifometeifOflnvestigatjngtheeffectol
and energy temperature on germinating seeds
3 Investigating the effect of temperature on the rate

of respiration of germinating seeds
• Use the same apparatus as shown in Experiment 2, but set up
Controlled experiments
theboilingtubesoitisverticalandsupportedinawaterbath
In most biological experiments, a second experiment
suchasabeaker(Figure 12.4)
• Uwl'Jheatgrainsorpeaseedsthathavebeensoakedfor called a co n tro l is scr up. This is to make sure that
24 hours and rinsed in 1% formaldehyde (or dome5tic bleach the results of the first experiment arc due to the
diluted 1:4)for5minutes. These solutions will kill any bacteria conditions being studied and not to some other
orfungionthesurfaceofthe seeds. cause that has been overlooked.
• Kilt an equal quantity of soaked seeds by boiling them for
In the experiment in Figure 12.2, the liquid rising
Sminutes.
• Cool the boiled seeds in cold tap Willer; rinse them in bleach
up the capillary cube could have been the result of
orformaldehydeforSminutesasbefOfe.Thesecanbeused the cesr-rube cooling down, so making the air inside
asthecontrol(or,alternativety,useanequivalentvollnleof it contract. The identical experiment with dead seeds
glass beads). - die control - showed that the result was not due to
• Start with a water bath at about 20°C and allow the seeds a cemperacure change, because the level of liquid in
to acclimatise to that temperature !Of a few minutes before
taking any readings. Theinitia1andfinalpositionsofthe
the control did nor move.
water drop cook! be recorded on the capiUaiy tube with a The rcrm ·controlled experiment' refers to the
permanent marker or chinagraph pencil, or by !itickin9 a fuct char the experimenter ( I ) sees up a control and
smatllabelontotheglass.Thedistarice travelledcanthenbe (2) controls the conditions in the experiment. In
measured with a ruler. the experiment shown in Figure 12 .2 the seeds arc
• Repeattheprocedure(,ntroducinganewbubbleeachtime)
enclosed in a rest-tube and soda-lime is added. This
at a range of different temperatures, remembering to allow
time for the seeds to acclimatise to the new conditions before makes sure that any uptake or output of oxygen
takin9furtherreadin9s. will make the liquid go up or down, and that the
output of carbon dioxide will nor affect the results.
Res ults T he experimenter had comrolled both the amount
As the temperature is increased the rate of movement of the and the composition of the air available to the
water bubble towards the seeds iricreases. The movement may
stop at higher temperatures. germinating seeds.
Ifyou did an experiment to compare the growth
In terpretatio n
of plants in the house and in a greenhouse, you
Asthetemperatureincreases,therateof~irationinthe
gem,inatingseedsincreases. This is because theenzyme5 could not be sure whether it was the extra light or
controlling re,spiration are more actrtt at higher temperatures. the high temperature of the greenhouse that caused
However, re,spiration may stop above around 40°C because the better growth. This would no1, therefore, be a
enzymes become denatured if they get too hoL prope rly controlled experimem. You must alter o n ly
Anaerobic respiration is much less efficient than
one condition (called a va riable) at a rime, either aerobic respiration because it releases much less
the light or the temperature, and then you can energy per glucose molecule broken down (respired ).
compare the results with the control experiment.
A properly controlled experiment, therefore,
alters only one variable at a rime and includes a Practical work
control, which shows that it is this condition and
nothing else that gave the result.
and energy
• Anaerobic respiration 4 Re leas ing e n ergy in respiration
Key defi nition • Fill a small vacuum flask with wheat grains or pea seeds that
Anaero bi cresp ira ti o n isthetermforthechemicalreactions havebeen50akedfor24hoursandrinsedin 1%formaldehyde
in cells that break down nutrient molecules to release (or domestic bleach diluted 1:4) for S minutes. These solutions
energy without using oxygen. willkillanybacteriaorfungionthesurfaceoftheseeds
• Killanequalquantityofsoakedseedsbyboilingthemfor
111e word an aerobic means 'in the absence of Sminutes
• Cooltheboiledseedsincoldtapwater,rinsetheminbleach
oxygen'. In this process, energy is still released
or formaldehyde for S minutes as before and then put them
from food by breaking it down chemically but the inavacuumflaskofthesamesizeasthefirstone.Thisflaskis
reactions do not use oxygen though they do often the control.
produce carbon dioxide. A common example is the • Place a thermometer in each flask ru that its bulb is in the
action of yeast on sugar solution to produce alcohol. middleoftheseeds(Figure12.S}
111e sugar is not completely oxidised to carbon • Plug the mouth of each flask with cotton wool and leave both
flasks for 2 days, noting the thermometer readings whenever
dioxide and water but convened to carbon dioxide possible
and alcohol. This process is called fer mentation and
is shown by the following equation: Result
ThetemperatureintheflaskwiththelivingseedswillbeS-10°C
glucose enzymes alcohol + carbon dioxide+ l 18kJ higherthanthatofthedeadseeds
energy Inte rpretati o n
Provided there are no signs of the living seeds going mouldy,
111e processes of brewing and bread -making rely
the heat produced must have come from living processes in the
on anaerobic respiration by yeast. As with aerobic seeds, becausethedeadseedsinthecontroldidnotgiveoutany
respiration, the reaction rakes place in small steps and heat.Thereisnoevidencethatthisprocessisrespirationrather
needs several different enzymes. 111e yeast uses the than any other chemical change but the result is what you would
energy for its growth and living acri,·ities, but you can expectifrespirationdoesproduceenergy.
see from the equation that less energy is produced by
anaerobic respiration than in aerobic respiration. This
is because the alcohol still contains a great deal of
energy that the yeast is unable to use.
Anaerobic respiration also occurs in muscles
during vigorous exercise, because oxygen cannot
be delivered fust enough to satisfy the needs of the
respiring muscle cells. The products are different to
those produced by anaerobic respiration in yeast. The
process is shown by the following equation:
glucose ----+ lacticacid germln;tlng
seeds
111e lactic acid builds up in the muscles and causes
muscle fatigue (cramp).
Flgure 12.5 fxperimentto11lowern>rgyrek>a1eingerminating1eeds

12 RESPIRATION
5 Anaerobic respirat ion in yeast

The balanced chemical equatio n for anaerobic
• Boil some water to expel all the dissolved oxygen. respiration in organisms such as yeast is shown below:
• When cool, use the boiled water to make up a 5% 50lution of
glucose and a 10%suspension ofdriedyeast. C6H 120 6 enzymes 2C2H sOH + 2C0 2 + ll S kJ
• Pli!CeScmloftheglucose50lutionand lcmloftheyeast
suspension inatest-tubeandc011erthemixturewithathin glucose alcoho l car bon energy
layer ofliquidp;iraffintoexcludeatmosphericoxygen . dioxide
• Fit a delive ry tube as shown in Fig ure 12.6 and allow it to dip
intoclearlimewater. This amo unt of energy released per mole of g lucose
respired is much less than that released in aero bic
screwcllp respiratio n (2830 kJ per mole ).
(closed when During vigoro us exercise, lactic acid may build
experiment up in a muscle. In this case it is removed in the
ls started)
bloodstream. The blood needs to move mo re
q uickly during and after exercise to maintain this
lactic acid removal process, so the heart rate is
rapid. On reaching the live r, some of the lactic acid
is oxidised to carb on dioxide and water, using up
oxygen in the process. After exercise has stopped,
a hig h level of oxygen consumption may persist
until the excess ofl actic acid has been oxidised.
This is characterised by dee per breathing (an athlete
pants fo r breath ). The build -up ofl ac.tic acid that is
oxidised later is said to create an o xygen deb t .
Accumulatio n oflactic acid in rhe muscles results
yeast and
glucose in muscular fatigue, leading to cramp.
solution Athletes and climbers who arc used to workin g
Rgure 12.6 E:,qwrimentto show an..ernbic respir~tion in yeast at low altitude (normal air pressure ) have problems
if they then perform at high altitude (low air
Res ult pressure ). High -altitude air has a lower percentage
After10-1Sminutes,withgentlewarming ifnecessary,there of 0.\1'gen , so an oxygen d ebt can be experienced
should be signs of fermentation in the yeast--glucose mixture and much more easily than at low altitude. TI1e prob lem
thebubblesofgasescapingthroughthel imewatershouldtum can be resolved if the person spends time at high
it milky.
altitude before performing ro allow the body to
Inte rp re ta tion acclimatise ( making more red blood cells and
The fact that the limewater goes milky shows that the yeast- increasing blood volume ).
glucose mixture is producing carbon dioxide. If we assume
thattheproduction ofcarbon dioxideisevidenceofrespiration,
then it looksasiftheyeastisrespiring. In setting up the
experiment, you took care to see that oxygen was removed • Extension work
fromtheglumsesolutionandtheyeastsuspension , andthe
liquidparaffinexcludedair(includingoxygen)fromthemixture. Metabolism
Anyrespirationtakingplac:emust,therefore, be anaerobic
{i.e. withoutoxygen). All the chemical changes taking place inside a cell
or a living organism are called its m etabolism . The
Co ntrol
ltmightbesuggestedthatthecarbondioxidecamefroma
minimum mrnover of energy need ed simply to keep
chemical reaction between yeast and glucose (as between chalk an organism alive, witho ut movement o r growth, is
andacid}, whichhadnoth ingtodowithrespiration oranyother called the basal m etabolism . Our basal metabolism
livingprocess. Acontrolshould, therefore, besetupusingthe maintains vital processes such as breathing,
sameprocedureasbeforebutwith yeastthathasbeenkilledby heartbeat, di gestio n and excretion.
boiling. The failure, inthis case,toproducecarbondioxide
TI1e processes that break substances d own are
supportstheclaim that it wasalivingprocessintheyeastinthe
firstexperimentthatproduc:edthecarbondioxide. sometimes called catabolism. Respiratio n is an
example of catabolism in which carboh ydrates
are broken down to carbon dioxide and water.
Chemical reactions that build up substances are
• Extension work
called anabolism. Building up a protein from Hypothesis testing
amino acids is an example of anabolism. TI1e energy
released by the catabolic process of respiration is You will have noticed that none of the experiments
used to drive the anabolic reactions that build up described above claim to have proved that
proteins. respiration is taking place. The most we can claim
You may have heard of anabolic steroids in is that they have nor dispro\·ed the proposal that
connection with drng taking by athletes. TI1ese energy is produced from respiration. There are
chemicals reduce the rate of protein breakdown many reactions taking place in living organisms
and may enhance the build -up of certain proteins. and, for all we know at this stage, some of them
H owever, their effects are complicated and not fully may be using oxygen or giving out carbon dioxide
understood, they have undesirable side-effects and without releasing energy, i.e. they would nor fit our
their use contravenes athletics codes (see 'Misused definition of respiration.
drugs' in Chapter 15). TI1is inability to 'prove' that a particular proposal is
'rrne' is not restricted to experiments on respiration. It
is a feature of many scientific experiments. One way in
Practical work which science makes progress is by putting fonvard a
hypothesis, making predictions from rhe hypothesis,
and then testing these predictions by experiments.
A hypothesis is an attempt to explain some event
and energy or obsen•ation using the information currently
available. !fan experiment's results do not confirm
6 The effect of temperature on yeast respiration
the predictions, the hypothesis must be abandoned
• Make 50me bread dough using flour, water and activated or altered.
yeast(yeastinawarmsugarsolution}. For example, biologists observing that living
• Rubtheinsideofaboilingtubewithoil{thismakesiteasier
to remove the dough after the experiment}
organisms take up oxygen might put fonvard the
• Useaglassrodortheendofanoldpenciltopushapieceof hypothesis that 'oxygen is used to convert food to
dough into the bottom of the boiling tube, so that the tube carbon dioxide, so producing energy for movement,
is about a quarter full of dough . growth, reproduction, etc.' This hypothesis can be
• Mark the height of the top of the dough on the boiling tube, tested by predicting that, 'if the oxygen is used to
usingachinagraphpencilorpermanentmarkerpen. oxidise food then an organism that rakes up oxygen
• Placetheboilingtubeintoabeakerofwatersettoa
pre5electedtemperature,e.g.20°C. will also produce carbon dioxide'. Experiment 1 on
• Leave the dough for 20 minutes, checking to make sure the page 166 tests this and fulfils this prediction and,
temperature of the water bath remains constant (adding therefore, supports the hypothesis. Looking at the
warm or cold water to maintain this}. equation for respiration, we might also predict that
• Record the new height of the dough . an organism that is respiring will produce carbon
• Repeattheprocedureatdifferenttemperaturesandcompare
dioxide and take up O:..)'gen. Experiment 5 with
the rate of rising of the bread dough.
yeast, however, does not fulfil this prediction and so
Results does not support the hypothesis as it stands, because
Thedoughrisesfasterasthetemperatureisincreasedto here is an organism producing carbon dioxide
35 or 40°C. Higher temperatures slow down the rate. Low without taking up m.)'gen. The hypothesis will have
temperaturesmayresultinnochangeinheightofthedough. to be modified, e.g. 'energy is released from food by
Explanation breaking it down to carbon dioxide; some organisms
Yeast respires anaerobically, producing carbon dioxide. This use oxygen for this process, others do not'.
causesthedoughtorise. Theprocessiscontrolledbyenzymes, There are still plenty of tests that we have not
which work faster as the temperature is increased to the
optimum {around 35-40°(). Higher temperatures cause the done. For example, we have nor attempted to see
enzymestodenature{ChapterS}. whether it is food that is the source of energy and
carbon dioxide. One way of doing this is ro provide
the organism with food, e.g. glucose, in which the
12 RESPIRATION
carbon atoms are radioactive. Carbon-14 (l4C) is a Criteria for a good hypothesis
radioactive form of carbon and can be detected by
A good hypothesis must:
using a Geiger counter. If the organism produces
radioactive carbon dioxide , it is reasonable to suppose • explain al/ aspects of the observation
that the carbon dioxide comes from the glucose.
• be the simplest possible explanation
C6H1206 + 602---+ 6 C02 + 6H20 + energy • be expressed in such a way that predictions can be
made from it
This is direct evidence in support of the hypothesis.
All the previous experiments ha\·e provided only • be testable by experiment.
indirect evidence.
Question s 8 Why do you think your breathing rate and heart rate stay
high for some time after completing a spell of vigorous
Core exercise?
1 a If, in one word, you had to s.ay what respiration was 9 In an experiment like the one shown in Figure 12.2, the
about, \l!mich word would you choose from this list· growing seeds took in Scml oxygen and gave out 7 cml
breathing, energy, oxygen, cells, food? carbon dioxide. How does the volume change:
b In \l!mich parts of a living organism does respiration take a ifnosoda-limeispresent
place? b ifsoda-limeispresent?
2 What are the main differences between aerobic and 10 Thegerminatingseedsinfigure12.5willreleasethes.ame
anaerobic respiration? amount of heat whether they are in a beaker or a vacuum
3 Whatchemicalsubstancesmustbeprovidedforaerobic flask. Whythenisitnecessarytouseavacuumflaskfor
respiration to take place· this experiment?
a fromoutsidethecell 11 ExperimentSwithyeastsupportedthedaimthat
b frominsidethecell? anaerobicrespirationwastakingplace.Theexperiment
c What are the products of aerobic respiration? wasrepeatedusingunboiledwaterandwithouttheliquid
4 Which of the following statements are true? If an organism paraffin.Fermentationstilltookplaceandcarbondioxide
isrespiringyouwouldexpectittobe: wasproduced.Doesthismeanthatthedesignorthe
a givingoutcarlxmdioxide interpretation of the first experiment was wrong? Explain
b losing heat youranY-Ner.
c breaking down food 12 Twentyseedsareplacedon50akedcottonv,,oolinadosed
d usingupoxygen glas.sdish.AfterSdaysinthelight 15oftheseedshad
e gainingweight germinated.lftheexperimentisintendedtoseeiflightis
f ma.ingabout. needed for germination, \l!mich of the following would be
5 Whatwasthepurposeof: a suitable control:
a thesoda-limeintherespirometerinFigure12.2 a exactlythes.ameset-upbutwithdeadseeds
b thelimewaterinFigure 12.6? b thes.ameset-upbutwith SO seeds
Exte nded c anidenticalexperimentbutwith20seedsofadifferent
6 Whatisthedifferencebetweenaerobicandanaerobic species
respiration in the amount of energy released from one d anidenticalexperimentbutleftindarknessforSdays?
molecule of glucose? 13 Certainbacteriathatliveinsulfurousspringsinareas
? Victims of drowning who have stopped breathing are ofvolcanicactivitytakeuphydrogensulfide(H1S}and
sometimes revived by a process called 'artificial respiration' produce sulfates (-S0 4}. Put forward a hypothesis to
Why would a biologist object to the use of this expression? accountforthischemicalactivity.Suggestonewayof
('Resuscitation' is a better word to use.} testing your hypothesis.
14 Thetablebelowshow.;theenergyusedupeachdayeither a According to the table, what is the total amount of
askilojoulesperkilogramofbodymassoraskilojoulesper energyusedeachdayby
squaremetreofbody!.Urface. i aman
Mass/kg kJ per day ii a mouse?
b Which of these two shows a greater rate of f61)iration
per kg perm>body
in its body cells?
body mass surhce
c Why,doyouthink,istheresolittledifferenceinthe
energy expenditure per 5quare metre of body surface?
!leprlntedlromT&dx:d:ofl'tl}""'logy,Em<lle-Sm:!h,Pate1SOO,Scratme<d
and!lead,bype,m!sliooofthep<t,Wsl>erCh<JrnillUYlngstor.,,1988
Checklist • Experimentstoinvestigaterespirationtrytodetectuptakeof
oxygen, production of carbon dioxide, release of energy as
After studying Chapter 12youshouldknowandunderstandthe
heatorareductionindryweight
following :
• The word equation for aerobic respiration is • Thebalancedchemicalequationforaerobicrespirationis
glucose+ oxygen enzymes carbon dioxide+ water+ energy C6H11 0 6 + 601 ----,.. 6C01 + 6H 20 + 2830kJ
• Aerobic respiration is the term for the chemical reactions in • Experimentstoinvestigatetheeffectoftemperatureon

cellsthatconvertenergyinnutrientmoleculesusingoxygen therateofrespirationofgerminatingseeds.
sothatcellscanusethisenergy. • Thebalancedchemicalequationforanaerobicrespiration
• Thewordequationforanaerobicrespirationinmusclesis in yeast is
C6H11 0 6 ----,.. 2C 1H50H + 2C01 + 118kJ
glucose enzymes lacticacid+energy
• Lacticacidbuildsupinmusclesduetoanaerobic
• Thewordequationforanaerobicrespirationinyeastis
respiration, causing an oxygen debt.
glucose enzymes, alcohol+carbondioxide+energy • An outline of how oxygen is removed during recovery.
• lnacontrolledexperiment,thescientisttriestoalteronly
• Anaerobic respiration is the term for the chemical reactions oneconditionatatime,andsetsupacontroltoched::
incellsthatconvertenergyinnutrientmoleculeswithoutthe this.
useofoxygensothatcellscanusethisenergy. • A control is a second experiment, identical to the
• Respiration is the process in cells that releases energy from food. first experiment except for the one condition being
-=·
• Aerobic respiration needs oxygen; anaerobic respiration
• Aerobic respiration releases much more energy per glucose

molecule than anaerobic respiration.
• The oxidation of food produces carbon dioxide as well as
investigated
• The control is designed to show that only the condition
underinvestigationisresponsiblefortheresults.
• Experiments are designed to test predictions made from
hypotheses;theycannot'prove'ahypothesis
releasing energy.
@ Excretion in humans
Excretion RoleofliverinOOfML'rsionof amino acids to proteins
Excretorypn:)OO(tS; urea.carbondioxide Definedeamin.ation
Contents of urine Explaintheneedfo,excretion
UrineoutpUt Structureandfunctionofkidneytubule
Parts of urinary system Dialysis
Comparedialysiswithkidneytransplant
• Excretion Excretory organs

Liver
Excretion is the remo val from organisms of toxic
materials and substances in excess ofrcquircments. The li\·er breaks down excess amino acids and
These include: produces urea. l11e yellow/g reen bile pigment,
bilirubin, is a breakdown product of haemoglobin
• rhc w:me products of its chemical reactions (Chapter 9 ). Bilirubin is excreted with the bile into
• rhc excess water and salts taken in with the diet the small intestine and expelled with the faeces. l11e
• spent hormones. pigment undergoes changes in the intestine and is
Excretion also includes the rcmo\'a] of drugs or other largely responsible for the brown colour of the fueces.
foreign substances taken into the alimentary canal
and absorbed by the blood. Lungs
Many chemical r eactions u.kc place inside the The lungs supply the body with oxygen, but they are
cells of an org:mism in order to keep it alive. Some also excretory organs because they get rid of carbon
produns ofrhcsc reactions are poisonous and dioxide . They also lose a great deal of water vapour
must be removed from the body. For example, but this loss is un:i\'Oidable and is no t a method of
the breakdown of glucose during respiration (see controlling the water content of the body (Table 13.1 ).
'Aerobic respir:ition' in Chapte r 12 ) produces
Kidneys
carbon dioxide. This is carried away by the blood
and removed in the lungs. Excess ami no acids are The kidneys remO\'e urea :ind other nitrogenous wasce
deaminated in the liver to form glycoge n and urea. from the blood. They also expel excess water, salts,
The urea is removed from the tissues by the blood hormones (Ch:ipter 14) and drugs (C hapter 15).
and expelled by rhe kidneys.
Urea and similar waste products, like uric acid, Skin
from the breakdown of proteins, contain the element Swear consists of war er, with sodium chloride and
nitrogen. For this reason they ate often called traces of urea dissolved in it. \Vhen yo u sweat, you
nitrogenous w:1sre products . will expel these substances from yo ur body so, in one
During feeding, more water and salts arc taken in sense, they are being excreted. Howeve r, sweating is a
with rhc food than :1rc needed by the body. So these response to a rise in rempet:1turc and not to a change
excess substances need to be remO\·ed as fust as they in the blood composition. In this sense, therefore,
build up. skin is nor an excrerory organ like the lungs and
The hormones produced by the endocrine glands kidneys. Sec 'Homcosrasis' in C hapter 14 for more
( Chapter 14 ) affect rhe rate at which various body details of skin srrucrure and its functions.
systems work. Adrenaline, for example, speeds up Table 13 1 Exrnitoryproducts ~nd lnciciel1till losses
the heartbeat. When hormones have done their job, Excretory organ
they :ire modified in the liver and excreted by the
kidneys.
The nirrogenous waste products, excess salts and
spent ho rmo nes :ire excreted by the kidneys as a bile pigments
w.ueiy solution called urine.
Excretion
Th e kid neys Wate r ba lance and os moreg ul atio n

111e two kidneys are fuirly solid, oval structures. They Your body gains water from food and drink. It loses
are red-brown, enclosed in a transparent membrane water by evaporation, urination and defecation
and attached to the back of the abdominal cavity (Chapter 7). Evaporation from the skin takes
(Figure 13.1 ). 111e renal artery branches off from place all the time but is particularly rapid when we
the aorta and brings oxygenated blood to them. sweat. Air from the lungs is saturated with water
111e renal vein takes deoxygenated blood away from vapour, which is lost to the atmosphere every time
the kidneys to the vena cava (see Figure 9.20). A we exhale. Despite these gains and losses of water,
tube, called the ureter, runs from eacl1 kidney to the the concentration of body fluids is kept within
bladder in the lower part of the abdomen. very narrow limits by the kidneys, which adjust
diaphragm
the concentration of the blood flowing through
them. If it is too dilute (i.e. has too much water),
adrenal gland less water is reabsorbed, leaving more to enter the
right kidney 1,li~~ r=:J::::c;,.:~~,·:~:~ bladder. After drinking a lot of fluid , a large \'oiume
of dilute urine is produced. On a cold day, sweating
decreases so more water is removed from the blood
by the kidneys, again increasing the volume of
dilute urine.
lfthe blood is too concentrated, more water
is absorbed back into the blood from the kidney
tubules. So, if the body is short of water, e.g. after
sweating profusely on a hot day, or through doing
a lot of physical activity, or not having enough to
drink, onlr a small quantity of concentrated urine
Flgure13 .1 Pmmon ofthebdrieysinthe body is produced.
Key defi nition concentrations build up. Carbon dioxide dissolves

Dea min ation is the removal of the nitrogen-containing part in fluids such as tissue fluid and blood plasma to
ofaminoacidstoformurea. form carbonic acid. This increase in acidity can affect
the actions of enzymes and can be futal. Ammonia
is made in the liver when excess amino acids are
The liver and its role in producing
broken down. H owever, ammonia is very alkaline
proteins and toxic. It is converted to urea which is much less
As well as being an excretory organ, the liver plays poisonous, making it a safe way of excreting excess
a very important role in assimilating amino acids. nitrogen.
Assimilation means the absorption of substances,
which are then built into other compounds in the Microscopic structure of the
organism. The liver removes amino acids from the kidneys
plasma of the bloodstream and builds them up into
proteins. Proteins are long chains of amino acids, The kidney tissue consists of many capillaries and
joined together by peptide bonds (see Chapter 4 for tiny tubes, called r enal tub ules, held together
details of protein strncture). 111ese include plasma with connective tissue. If the kidney is cut down
proteins such as fibrinogen (Chapter 9 ), which have its length (sectioned ), it is seen to have a dark,
a role in blood clotting. outer region called the cortex and a lighter,
inner zone, the m edulla. Where the ureter joins
the kidney there is a space called the pelvis
The need for excretion
(Figure 13.2 ).
Some of the compounds made in reactions in the
body are potentially toxic (poisonous) if their
13 EXCRETION IN HUMANS
A nephron is a single glomerulus with its renal

capsule, renal tubule and blood capillaries (see
Figure 13.6).
-+7'------peMs
renal vein
renal artery
Rgure13.2 SectionthmughthekidneytoshowrPgKlns
Flgure13.4 Glomeruli inthekidneyrn, tex{~300). Thethreeglomeruli

are1u1TOUndedbykidneytubuk>s'ieetionedatdifferentarKJ~1. The light
1pa,c:earoundeach gl OO\l'!Ulu11ePfesentstherenalcap-;u~
Rgure13.3 Sectionthroughkidneytoshow distlibu tionofgl()ffieru li
The renal artery divides up into a great many

arterioles and capillaries, mostly in the cortex
(Figure 13.3 ). Each arteriole leads to a glo merulu s.
This is a capillary repeatedly dh,ided and coiled,
makingaknorofvessels (Figure 13.4 ). Each
glomernlus is almost entirely surrounded by a cup-
shaped organ called a renal capsule, which leads Flgure13.5 Thereareupto4milli oonephronsinakidney.Onlyafew
to a coiled renal tubule. This tubule, after a series canbe,epre'il'rltedhere.andnolto'iCa~
of coils and loops, joins a collectin g duct, which
passes througl1 the medulla ro open into the pelvis Function of the kidneys
(Figure 13.5 ). There are thousands ofglomernli in
the kidney cortex and the total surf.tee area of their The blood pressure in a glomerulus causes part of
capillaries is very great. the blood plasma to leak througl1 the capillary walls.
Excretion
TI1e red blood cells and the plasma proteins are the composition of the urine varies a great deal
too big to pass out of the capillary, so the fluid that according to the diet, activity, temperature and
does filter through is plasma without the protein, intake ofliquid.
i.e. similar to tissue fluid (Chapter 9). The fluid thus "&lble13 .2 CompositKJl\ofbloodplasmaandurine
consists mainly of water with dissolved salts, glucose,
urea and uric acid. The process by which the fluid is
filtered out of the blood by the glomerulus is called
ultrafil tration.
The filtrate from the glomerulus collects in the
renal capsule and trickles down the renal tubule
(Figure 13.6 ). As it does so, the capillaries that l octaslium
surround the tubule absorb back into the blood
those substances which the body needs. First, all the pho'>l)hate
glucose is reabsorbed, with much of the water. Then
TI1e bladder can expand to hold about 400 cm3 of
some of the salts are taken back to keep the correct
urine. The urine cannot escape from the bladder
concentration in the blood. The process of absorbing
because a band of circular muscle , called a sphincter,
back the substances needed by the body is called
is contracted, so shutting off the exit. When this
selective reabsorption.
sphincter muscle relaxes, the muscular walls of the
bladder expel the urine through the uret hra. Adults
can control this sphincter muscle and relax it only
when they want to urinate. In babies, the sphincter
relaxes by a reflex action (Chapter 14), set off by
pressure in the bladder. By 3 years old, most children
can control the sphincter voluntarily.
The dialysis machine (' artificial

kidney')
t ~~~ir~s
Kidney fuilun: may result from an accident i.twolving
to renal a drop in blood pressure, or from a disease of the
vein
kidneys. In the former case, recovery is usually
spontaneous, but if it takes longer than 2 weeks, the
patient may die as a result of a potassium imbalance
in the blood, which causes heart failure. In the case of
kidney disease, the patient can survive with only one
kidney, but if both fuil, the patient's blood composition
has to be regulated by a dialysis machine. Similarly,
Figure 13.6 Partofane,phron(gklmerulus. rl'llalcapsuk>andrenal the accident victim can be kept alive on a dialysis
tubule)
machi.t1e LU1til his or her blood pressure is restored.
In principle, a dialysis machine consists of a
Salts not needed by the body are left to pass on long cellulose tube coiled up in a water bath. The
down the kidney tubule together with the urea and patient's blood is led from a vein in the arm and
uric acid. So, these nitrogenous waste products, pumped through the cellulose (dialysis) tubing
excess salts and water continue down the renal mbe (Figures 13.7 and 13.8 ). TI1e tiny pores in the
into the pelvis of the kidney. From here the fluid, dialysis tubing allow small molecules, sucl1 as those
now called urine, passes down the ureter to the of salts, glucose and urea, to leak out into the water
bladder. bath. Blood cells and protein molecules are too
Table 13.2 shows some of the differences in large to get througl1 the pores (see Experiment 5,
composition between the blood plasma and the Chapter4). This stage is similar to the filtration
urine. TI1e figures represent a,·erage values because process in the glomerulus.
13 EXCRETION IN HUMANS
tank of
water,salts
and glucose
dialysis
tubing
Rgure13.7 Thepri nc:ipk>oftl\ekklneydialy1i1m.l(:hine
To prevent a loss of glucose and essential salts from TI1e problem with rejection is that the body reacts to
the blood, the liquid in the water bath consists of a any transplanted cells or tissues as it docs to all foreign
solution of salts and sugar of the correct composition, proteins and produces lymphocytes, which attack and
so that only the substances above this concentration destroy tl1em. This rejection can be overcome by:
can diffuse out of the blood into the bathing solution.
• choosing a donor whose tissues are as similar as
Thus, urea, uric acid and excess salts are removed.
possible to tlmse of the patient, e.g. a close relative
The bathing solution is also kept at body
temperamre and is constantly changed as the • using immunosuppressive drugs, which suppress
unwanted blood solutes accumulate in it. TI1e blood tl1e production of lymphocytes and tl1eir
is then remrned to the patient's arm vein. antibodies against the transplanted organ.
A patient with total kidney fuilure has to spend
2 or 3 nights each week connected to the machine
(Figure 13.8 ). With this treatment and a cardi1lly
controlled diet, the patient can lead a fuirly normal
life. A kidney transplant, however, is a better solution
because tl1e patient is not obliged to rernrn to the
dialysis machine.
: 11
\-fl·.;.--1
The problem with kidney transplants is to find
enough suitable donors of healthy kidneys and to
prevent the transplanted kidney from being rejected.
The donor may be a close relative who is prepared
to donate one ofhis or her kidneys (you can survive
adequately with one kidney). Alternatively, the
donated kidney may be taken from a healthy person
who dies, for example, as a result of a road accident.
People willing for their kidneys to be used after their
. \
<.J.
death can carry a kidney donor card but the relatives Flgure13.8 Kklneydialy.;ism..chine . Tllepatient~bloodispumpedto
must give their permission for tl1e kidneys to be used. the dialyll'f. which removes urea and excess 1.i ts
Excretion
The ad va ntages a nd disadva ntages of kidn ey Disad va ntages

tra nspla nts, compa re d with dia lysis • Transplants require a sui table d o no r - ,\i th a
good tissue match. The d o nor may be from a
Ad vantages dead person, or from a dose living relative who
• The patient can return to a normal lifestyle -
is prepared to do nate a healthy kidney (we can
dialysis may require a length y session in hospital, survive v.ith one kidney) .
three ti mes a week, leaving the patient very tired
after each session. • TI1e operatio n is ver y expensive .
• The dialysis machine will be availa ble fo r other • There is a risk of rejectio n of the d onated kidney -
patients to use . immunosuppressh•e drugs have to be used.
• Dialysis machines arc expensive to buy and mainti.in. • Transplants are no t accepted by some religions.
Questions
Core Extended
1 Writealistofthesubstancesthatarelikelytobeexcreted 3 How does the dialysis machine:
fromthebodyduringtheday. a resembleand
2 Why do you think that urine analysis is an important part of b differfrom
medicaldiagn05is? thenephronofakidneyintheway itfunctions?
Checklist • The volume and concentration of urine produced is affected

bywaterintake,temperatureandexercise.
After studying Chapter 13youshouldknowandunderstandthe
• The ureters, bladderandurethraondiagrams.
following :
• Excretionisgettingridoftoxic, surplus or unwanted • The liver produces urea, formed from excess amino acids.
substancesproducedbychemicalreactionsinthebodyor • Deamination is the remov;il of the nitrogen-containing
takeninwiththediet partofaminoacidstoformurea
• The lungs excrete carbon dioxide. • The liver h;is a role in the assimilation of ;imino ;icids by
• Thekidneysexcreteurea,unwantedsaltsandexcesswater. converting them to proteins, induding pl;isma proteins.
• Partofthebloodplasmaenteringthekidneysisfilteredout • Outlineofthestructureandfunctionof a kidneytubule
by the capillaries. Substanceswhichthebodyneeds, like • Expla intheprocessofdialysis.
glucose, are absorbed back into the blood. The unwanted • Treatment, in respome to damage to kidneys, may involve
substancesarelefttopassdowntheuretersintothebladder. dialysisortr;insplant.
• Thebladderstoresurine,whichisdischargedatintervals • Theadvantagesanddisadv;intagesofkidneytr;inspl;ints
• The kidneys help to keep the blood;itasteadyconcentration and dialysis.
byexcretingexces.ssaltsandbyadjustingtheamountsof
water (osmoregul;ition)
@ Co-ordination and response
Nervou s contro l in human s Adrenaline
Human nervous system Functions of hormones
Structure of neurones Role of adrenaline
Nerve impulse Comp;ire nervous and hormonal control systems
Reflex arc, s~nalcordandreflexes
Define synapse
Structure of synapse
Homeostasi s
Definehomeostils.is
Voluntary and involuntary actions Skin structure
Transferofimpulseacrosssynapse Control of body temperature
Effectsofdrugsonsynapses Homeostasis
Negative feedback
Sense organs Regulation of blood wgar
Define sense organ Typeldiabetes
Structure of eye Va'i0dilationandva50Constriction
Pupil reflex
Explanation of pupil reflex Tropic respo nses
Accommodation Definephototropi=andgravitropism
Functionofrodsandcones Investigate tropic responses
Roleofauxinsintropisms
Hormones in humans Use of plant hormones in weed killers
Define hormone
Endocrine glands
Co·ordination is the way all the organs and systems

of the body are made to work efficiently together
(Figure 14.1 ). If, for example, the leg muscles are
being used for rmming, tl1ey will need extra supplies
of glucose and m.1'gen. To meet this demand, the
lungs breathe fusrer and deeper to obtain the extra
oxygen and the heart pumps more rapidly to get the
oxygen and glucose to the muscles more quickly.
The brain detects changes in the oxygen and carbon
dioxide content of the blood and sends nervous
impulses to the diaphragm, intercostal muscles and
heart. ln this example, the co-ordination of the
systems is brought about by the nervous system.
The extra supplies of glucose needed for running
come from the liver. Glycogen in the liver is changed
to glucose, which is released into the bloodstream
(see ' H omeostasis' on page 192 ). TI1e conversion of
glycogen to glucose is stimulated by, among other
things, a chemical called adrenaline (see 'Hormones
in humans' on page 190). Co-ordination by
chemicals is brougln about by the endocrine system.
The nervous system works by sending electrical
impulses along nerves. The endocrine system depends
on the release of chemicals, called hormo nes, from Flgure14.1 Co-ooJ ination. Thebadm intooplayer~braini'irec:l'ivif\9
endocrine glands. H ormones are carried by the sensoryimpulsesfrnmhi1eye1.ear1{souridandbalance)andmusde
1tretchrec:1.>ptor1. U1ingthi1informa!KJn. thebrainrn-oRlinatesthe
bloodstream. For example, insulin is carried from the musdesofhi'il imb51o thateve11whilerun11ill9orfe.ipinghecanrn11trnl
pancreas to the liver by the circulatory system. hi11troke
Nervous control in humans
1l1e nerves that connect the body to the ccnrral

• Nervous control in nervous system make up the periphera l nervous
humans system.
111c human nervous system is shown in Figure 14.2. Nerve ce lls (neurones)
111c brain and spinal cord together form the central T he central nervous system and the peripheral
nervous system . Nerves carry electrical impulses from nerves arc made up of nerve cells, called ne uro nes.
the ccntr.11 nervous system to :ill pans of the body, T hree types of neurone arc shown in Figure 14.3.
making muscles contract or gl:mds produce enzymes
Motor neurones carry impulses from rhc ce ntral
or hormones. Electrical impulses a.re electrical sign:ils ne rvous system to muscles and glands. Sensory
that pass along nerve cells (neurones). neuro nes carry impu lses from the sense organs
Glands and muscles arc called effectors because
to the central nervous system. Relay n eurones
they go into action when they receive nerve impulses (also called multi-polar or connector neurones) are
or hormones. The biceps muscle is an effector that neither sensory nor motor but make connections
flexes the arm; the salivary gland (see 'Alimentary
to other neurones inside the central nervous
canal' in Chapter 7) is an effector that produces saliva
system.
when it receives a nen·e impulse from the brain. Each neurone has a cell body consisting of a
1l1e nerves also carry impulses back to the central nucleus surrounded by a little cytoplasm. Branching
nervous syste m from receptors in rhc sense organs of fibres, called dendrites, from the cell body make
the body. These impulses from the eyes, cars, skin, ere. contact with other neurones. A long filament of
make us aware of changes in our surroundings or in cytoplasm, surrounded by an insulating sheath, runs
oursekes. Nerve impulses from rhe sense organs to the from the cell body of the neurone. This filament is
central nervous system arc called sen sory impulses;
called a nerve fibre (Figure 14.3(a) and (b)). The
those from the cenrr.il nervous system to the cffi:ctors, cell bodies of the neurones arc mostly located in
resulting in action, arc c:illed motor impulses. the brain or in the spinal cord and it is the nerve
fibres that run in the nerves. A nerve is easily visible,
white, tough and stringy and consists of hundreds of
microscopic nerve fibres bundled together (Figure
14.4). Most nerves '"ill contain a mixture of sensory
and motor fibres. So a nerve can carry many different
impulses. These impulses will travd in one direction
in sensory fibres and in the opposite direction in
motor fibres.
Some of the nerve fibres arc very long. The
nerve fibres to the foot have their cell bodies in the
spinal cord and the fibres run inside rhe nerves,
without a break, to the skin of the roes or rhc
muscles of the foot. A single nerve cd l may have a
fibre lm long.
Th e nerve impul se
1l1e nerve fibres do not carry sensations like pain
or cold. These sensations arc felt only when a nerve
impulse reaches the br.iin. The impulse irsdfis a
series of electrical pulses that tr:1xd down the fibre.
Each pulse lasts about 0.00 I s and travels at speeds of
up to lOOm s-1. All nerve impulses arc similar; there
is no diffi:rcncc between nerve impulses from the
f lguni\4.2 Thehummnervoussystem cycs,carsor hands.
14 CO-ORDINATION AND RESPONSE
concerned with sight. So when impulses are received

in this area, the brain recognises that they have come
from the eyes and we 'see' something.
Th e refl ex arc
One of the simplest situations where impulses
cross synapses to produce action is in the reflex
arc. A refl ex action is an automatic response to a
stim u lus. (A stimulus is a change in the external or
imernal environment of an organism.) It provides
a means of rapidly integrating and co-ordinating
a stimulus with the response ofan effector (a
muscle or a gland) without the need for thouglu
or a decision. \Vhen a particle of dust touches
the cornea of the eye, you will blink; you cannot
prevent yo urself from blinking. A particle of food
touching the lining of the windpipe will set off a
coughing reflex that cannot be suppressed. When
a briglu liglu shines in the eye, the pupil contracts
(<)r e lay (see 'Sense organs' later in this chapter). You cannot
(in brain or stop this reflex and yo u are not even aware that it is
spinalco,d) happening.
The nervous pathway for such reflexes is called a
reflex arc. In Figure 14.5 the nervous pathway for
41- of,mpul,e ~ a well-known reflex called the 'knee-jerk' reflex
is shown.
I
motornerve
• , • "'
- sen,ory One leg is crossed over the other and the muscles
receptor are totally relaxed. If the tendon just below the
e ndings in in,kin
muscl e kneecap of the upper leg is tapped sharply, a reflex arc
(a) motorneu,one (b) sensoryne u,one makes the thigh muscle contract and the lower part
Flgure 14.3 Nmoecells{neurnnes) of the leg swings forward.
The pathway of this reflex arc is traced in
Figure 14.6. H itting the tendon stretches the
muscle and stimulates a stretch receptor. The
receptor sends off impulses in a sensory fibre.
These sensory impulses travel in the nerve to the
spinal cord.
In the central region of the spinal cord, the
sensory fibre passes the impulse across a synapse
to a motor neurone, which conducts the impulse
down the fibre , back to the thigh muscle (the
Flgure 14.4 NervefitJresgroupedintoanerve effector). The arrival of the impulses at the muscle
makes it contract and jerk the lower part of the
We are able to tell where the sensory impulses have limb forward. You are aware that this is happening
come from and what caused them only because the (which means that sensory impulses must be
impulses are sent to different parts of the brain. reaching the brain ), but there is nothing you can do
The nerves from the eye go to the part of the brain to stop it.
leg extensor TI1e sequence of events in a simple reflex arc is shown

muscle fibre
below.
stlmulus(tapplngthe
tendon below the kneecap)
receptor(stretchreceptor)
co--ord lnator(splnalcord)
't
motor neurone
't
effector(legextensormuscle)
response(legextensormusclecontracts,
Flgure14.5 Thereflexkneejert maklngthelegklckforwards)
• Extension work
The spinal cord
Like all other parts of the nervo us system , the
spinal cord consists of thousands of nerve cells.
white grey
TI1e structure of the spinal cord is shown in Figures
14. 6, 14 .7 and 14.8 .
: .: :~ ~ ' "'"'
~it =-··-~
" moo ~
e f,bre
fibres)
fibres
Flgure14.7 Sectbn through spinalcoo:l{~7). The l~tari>ailthewtiitl'
matter.consilting la,gelyofnerw fitm.>srunningtoandfromthebraill.The
darkera>ntral ari>ailthegfl'jmatter.rnmistinglaigelyofneivecell bodies
All the cell bodies, apart from those in the dorsal

root ganglia, are concentrated in the central region
called the grey matter. The white matter consists
Flgure14.6 Thereflexorc Thi1reflexarcneed1oolyone1yn;v;efor of nerve fibres. Some of these will be passing fro m
making the response. Most renex .KIK)()s need many more synapses (i) to
adju1tothermu1Clesinthe body ;md(ii) to1endimpulll'Stothebrain the grey matter to the spinal nerves and others
will be running along the spinal cord connecting the fibres are situated in the dorsal root and they make a
spinal neive fibres to the brain. The spinal cord is bulge called a ganglio n (Figure 14.9 ).
thus concerned with: In even the simplest reflex action, many more
• reflex actions involving lxxiy st11.1ctures below the neck nerve fibres, synapses and muscles are inrnlved than are
• conducting sensory impulses from the skin and described here. Figure 14.8 illustrates the reflex arc that
muscles to the brain, and would result in the hand being removed from a painful
• carrying motor impulses from the brain to the stimulus. On the left side of the spinal cord, an incoming
muscles of the trunk and limbs. sensory fibre makes its first synapse with a relay
neurone. This can pass the impulse on to many orher
In Figure 14.6 the spinal cord is drawn in transverse motor neurones, although only one is shown in the
section. The spinal nerve divides into two 'roots' diagram. On the right side of the spinal cord, some of
at the point where it joins the spinal cord. All the the incoming sensory fibres are shown making synapses
sensory fibres enter through the dorsal root and the with neurones that send nerve fibres to the brain, thus
motor fibres all leave through the ventral root, but keeping the brain informed aOOut events in the body.
both kinds of fibre are contained in the same spinal Also, nerve fibres from the brain make synapses with
nerve. This is like a group of insulated wires in the motor neurones in the spinal cord so that 'commands'
same electric cable. l11e cell bodies of all the sensory from the brain can be sent to muscles of the body.
Rgure14.8 Rellexarc(wilhdrawalreftex)
Reflexes
l11e reflex just described is a spinal reflex. The brain,
theoretically, is nor needed for it to happen. Responses
that take place in the head, such as blinking, coughing
and iris contraction, have their reflex arcs in the brain,
but may still not be consciously controlled.
Bright light stimulates the light-sensitive cells of
the retina. The nerve impulses in the sensory fibres
Rgure14.9 Celltxxlie51omiiogaganglioo from these receptors travel through the optic nerve
to the brain. In the mid-br.iin the fibres synapse with Although nerve fibres arc insulated, iris necessary
relay and motor fibres, which carry impulses back for impulses to pass from one neurone to another.
through the optic nerve to the circular muscle of the An impulse from the fingertips has to pass through
iris and stimulate it to contract. at least th ree neurones before reac hing the brain and
so produce a conscious sens.1tio n. The regions where
Synapses impulses arc able to cross from o ne neuro ne to the
I
Key defi nition
A 5ynapse is a junction between two neurones.
next arc called synapses.
Voluntary and involuntary actions When an impulse arrives at the synapse., vesicles
in the cytoplasm release a tiny amount of the
Voluntary actions neurotransmitter substance. It r.ipidly diffuses across
A voluntary ;lction starts in the brain. It may be rhe the gap (also known as the synaptic cleft) and binds
result of external events, such as seeing a book on "~tl1 neurotransmitter receptor mo lecules in the
the floor, but any resulting action, such as picking up membrane ofthc neurone 011 the other side oftl1e
the book, is entirely volumary. Unlike a reflex action synapse. 1l1is tl1en sets off an impulse in the neurone.
it does not happen auromatically; you can decide Sometimes several impulses have ro arrive at tl1e
whether o r not you carry o ur the action. synapse before enough trnnsmitter subsrance is released
1l1e brain sends motor impulses down the spinal cord to cause an impulse to be fired off in the next neurone.
in the nerve fibres. 1l1csc make synapses with moror Synapses control the direction of impulses
fibres, which enter spinal nerves and make connections because neurotransmitter substances arc only
to the sets of muscles needed to produce cfli:crivc synthesised on one side of the synapse, while
action. Many sets of muscles in the arms, legs and rrwik receptor molecules arc o nly present on the orhcr
would be brought into pL,y in order to scoop and pick side. 1l1cy slow down the speed o f nerve impulses
up the book, and impulses pas.sing between the C)'CS, sJightly because of the time taken for the chemical
brain and arm would direct the h..·u1d to the right place to diffuse across t he syna ptic gap.
and 'teU' the fingers when to close on the book. Many drugs produce their effects by imcr.icting
One of the main fun ctions of the brain is to co- with receptor molecules a1 synapses. H eroin ,
ordinate these actions so that they happen in the for example, stimulates receptor molecules in
right sequence and at the right time and place. synapses in the brain , triggering the release of
dopamine (a neurotransmitter), which gives a
Involuntary actions
short-lived ' high'.
The reflex closure of the iris (sec ·Sense organs' later in
Spider toxin, and also the toxin released by tetanus
this chapter) protects the retina from bright light; the
(an infection caused by Clostridium bacteria),
withdrawal reflex removes the hand from a dangerously
breaks down vesicles, releasing massive amounts of
hot object; the coughing reflex dislodges a foreign
transmitter substance and disrupting normal synaptic
particle from the windpipe. Tiws, these reflexes have a
fimcrion. Symptoms caused by the tetanus toxin
protective function and all arc involuntary actions.
include muscle spasms, lock-jaw and hc.lft failure.
There arc man y other reflexe s going on inside
our bodies. We arc usually unaware of these, but
they maintain our blood pressure, breathing rare,
heartbeat, etc. and so maimain the body processes.
How a synapse transmits an

electrical impulse
At a synapse, a br.tnch at the end of one fibre is
in dose contact with the cell body or dendrite of
another neurone (Figure 14 .10).
sclera and is continuous ,,ith the epithelium of

• Sense organs the cornea.
The eye contains a clear liquid whose ourward
Key definition pressure on the sclera keeps the spherical shape of the
Senseorgansare groupsofsensorycell:srespond ingto
specificstimuli,suchaslighl,50Und,touch,temperature eyeball. The liquid behind the lens is jelly-like and
and chemicals called vitreous humour. The aq ueou s humour in
front of the lens is watery.
Our senses make us aware of changes in our The lens is a transparent structure, held in place
surroundings and in our own bodies. We have sense by a ring of fibres called the suspensory ligament.
cells that respond to stimuli (singular - stimulus). A Unlike the lens of a camera or a telescope, the eye
stimulus is a change in light, temperature, pressure, lens is flexible and can change its shape. In from of
etc., which produces a reaction in a living organism. the lens is a disc of tissue called the iris. It is the iris
Structures that detect stimuli are called receptors. we refer to when we describe the colour of the eye
Some of these receptors are scattered through the as brown or blue. TI1e iris controls how much light
skin: this organ has a number of diffi:renr types of enters the pupil, which is a hole in the centre of the
receptor, as shown in Figure 14.21. Other receptors iris. The pupil lets in light to rhe rest of the eye.
are concentrated into special sen se organs such as The pupil looks black because all the light entering
the eye and the ear. Table 14.1 gives examples of the eye is absorbed by the black pigment in the
these and their stimuli. choroid. The choroid layer, which contains many
blood vessels, lies between the retina and the sclera.
Table141 Sensemgansandtheirstimuli
In the front of the eyeball, it forms the iris and
Senseorg;n the ciliary body. TI1e ciliary body produces
!iOUnd.tJodymovement(balan(e}
aqueous humour.
light The internal lining at the back of the eye is the
dlemi::.ats{1mell1)
retina and it consists of many thousands of cells that
tongue dlemicats{taste)
tern erature. re11ure.touch.0,1in
respond to light. \Vhen light fulls on these cells, they
send off nervous impulses, which travel in nerve fibres,
The special prq,erty of sensory cells and sense organs through the optic ner ve, to the brain and so give rise
is that they are able to convert one form of energy to to the sensation of sight. The part of the retina l}ing
another. TI1e eyes can convert light energy into the directly in front of the optic nerve contains no light-
electrical energy of a nerve impulse. The ears convert sensitive cells. TI1is region is called the blind spot.
the energy in sow1d vibrations into nerve impulses. TI1e Tear glands under tl1e top eyelid produce tear
fonns of energy that make up the stimuli may be very fluid. This is a dilute solution of sodium chloride and
different, e.g. mechanical, chemical, light, but they are all sodium hydrogencarbonate. The fluid is spread over
transduced into pulses of electrical energy in the nerves. the eye surfuce by the blinking of tl1e eyelids, keeping
When a receptor responds to a stimulus, it sends a the surf.ace moist and washing away any dust particles
nerve impulse to the brain, which makes us aware of or foreign bodies . Tear fluid also contains an enzyme,
the sensation. lysozyme, which attacks bacteria.
Table 14.2 gives the fimctions oftl1e parts of the
The eye eye required for the Core section of tl1e syllabus.
Note: details of conjunctiva, humours, choroid and
Funcliomofpar~oftheeye
tear glands are not a syllabus requirement, but are
included here to put parts seen in a diagram of the
atramparent.curvedlayeratthefrontoftheeyeth.it
eye in context. reff..ct1thel'htenterinoandhelvstofocu1 it
The structure of the eye is shown in Figures 14.11 arnlouredringofdrru!arandradi.ilmusclethatrnntml1
and 14.12. The scler.i. is the tough, white outer the~eofthepupil
coating. TI1e front part of the sclera is clear and atramparent.rnnvex.llexible.jelly-like1tructurettlat
refrac:t1lighttofocu1itontotheretina
allows light to enter the eye. This part is called the
a light-1emitive!ayermadeupol rod1.whichdetectligh t
cornea. The conjunctiva is a thin epithelium, which oflowintemity. and rnnes.whktidetectdifferentcoloof\
lines the inside of the eyelids and the front of the Ofllk:nerve transmitselec:tlic:alimpulsesfmmtheretinatothebrajn
Sense organs
vitreous humour muscle that moves eyeball
conjunctiva
aqueous humour
pupil
suspensory
ligament
clllarymuscle
Flgure 14.11 Horizontalsectkmthrough~f!Je
l11e cornea and the aqueous and vitreous humours

are mainly responsible for the refraction oflight.
l11e lens makes the final adjustments to the focus
(Figure 14.13(b)) .
position of
tear gland
The pattern of sensory cells stimulated by the
(under image will produce a pattern of nerve impulses
toplld) pupil sent to the brain. The brain imerprets this pattern,
using past experience and learning, and forms an
impression of the size, distance and upright nature of
the object.
The pupil refl ex

l11e change in size of the pupil is caused by
Flgure 14.1 2 Appe..raoceofrighteyefmmthelron t exposure of the eye to different light intensities.
It is an automatic reaction: you cannot control it.
When bright light falls on the eye, the iris responds
Vision by making the diameter of the pupil smaller. This
Light from an object produces a focused im age restricts the amount of light reaching the retina,
on the retina (like a 'picture' on a cinema screen ) which contains the light-sensitive cells. If dim light
(Figures 14.13 and 14.17 ). The curved surfaces fulls on the eye, the iris responds by making the
of the cornea and lens both refract ('bend' ) the diameter of the pupil larger, so that as much light
light rays that enter the eye, in such a way that as is available can reach the retina to stimulate
each 'point of light' from the object forms a 'point the light-sensitive cells. Figure 14.12 shows an
of light' on the retina. These points of light will eye exposed to bright light: the pupil is small.
form an image , upside-down and smaller than It would become much larger if the light intensity
the object. was reduced.
(1) Llghtfromthlspolnt (3)Thesellghtrays (4) ... andbroughttoafocusonthe

oftheobJectlsreflected are bent at the retlnasothateachpolntofllghton
In all directions ... cornea and lens ... theobJectformsapolntofllghton
theretlna,somaklnganlmage(I).
(a) LlghtfromanobJectproduces (b) Mostrefractlontakesplace

afocusedlmageontheretlna. betweenthealrandthecornea.
Flgure14.1 3 lmageformatiooantheretina
Control of light intensity Accommodation (focusing)

This section gives more detail about the roles of the TI1e eye can produce a focused image of either a near
iris and pupil in controlling light intensity fulling on object or a distant object. To do this the lens changes
the retina, needed if you are following the extended its shape, becoming thinner for distant objects and
syllabus. futter for near objects. This change in shape is caused
The amount of light entering the eye is controlled by contracting or relaxing the ciliary muscle, which
by altering the size of the pupil (Figure 14.14). If the forms a circular band of muscle in the ciliary body
light intensity is high, it causes a contraction in a ring of (Figure 14.15 ). When the ciliary muscle is relaxed,
muscle fibres (circular muscle) in the iris. This reduces the outward pressure of the humours on the sclera
the size of the pupil and cuts do,,n rhe intensity of pulls on the suspensory ligament and stretches the
light entering the eye. High-intensity light can damage lens to its thin shape. The eye is now accommodated
the retina, so this reaction has a protective fimction. (i.e. focused) for distant objects (Figures 14.IS(a) and
In low light intensities, rhe circular muscle of 14.1 6(a)). To focus a near object, rhe ciliary muscle
the iris relaxes and radial muscle fibres (which are contracts to a smaller circle and this takes the tension
arranged like the spokes of a bicycle wheel) contract. out of the suspensory ligament (Figures 14.1 S(b) and
This makes the pupil enlarge and allows more 14.1 6(b)). The lens is elastic and flexible and so is
light to enter. TI1e circular and radial muscles act able to change to its futter shape. TI1is shape is better
antagonistically. This means that they oppose each at bending the light rays from a close object.
other in their actions - when the circular muscles
Retina
contract they constrict the pupil and when the radial
muscles contract the pupil dilates. l11e millions of light-sensitive cells in the retina are
The change in size of the pupil is caused by of two kinds, the rods and the cones (according to
an automatic reflex action; you cannot control shape). TI1e cones enable us to distinguish colours, but
it consciously. rhe rods an: more sensith•e to low intensities oflight
and therefore play an important part in night vision
circular muscles
(contracted)
when rhe light intensity is nor sufficient to stimulate
rhe cone cells. Images formed at night appear as
shades of grey, with no bright colours detected. There
are thought to be three types of cone cell. One type
responds best to red light, one to green and one to
blue. If all three types are equally stimulated we get
rhe sensation ofwhire. TI1e cone cells an: concentrated
pupil
in a central part of the retina, called the fovea
radial muscles
(relaxed) (constricted) (Figure 14.11 ); when you study an object closelryou
Rgure14.14 Theiri1reflex are making its image full on the fovea.
Sense organs
1 ciliarymuKle
relaxed
2ouspensory
ligament taut
Figure 14.15 How ac:rnmmodation i1 brought about
humourspre1slngoutonKlera clllarymuKlecontracts
llghtfrom tension In suspensory

nearobject ligament relaxed
(a) accommodatedfordlstantobJect (b) accommodated for near object

Flgure14.16 Ac:rnmmoda!Kl!l
Fovea build up an accurate 'picture' of a scene. The cenrre

It is in the fovea that the image on the retina is of the fovea contains only cones: it is here that
analysed in detail. Only objects within a 2° cone colour discrimination occurs.
from the eye form an image on the fovea. TI1is
Blind spot
means that only about two letters in any word on
this page can be seen in det3il. It is the constant At the point where the optic nerve leaves the retina,
scanning movemems of the eye that enable you to there are no sensory cells and so no information
reaches the brain about that part of the image which
fulls on this blind spot (Figure 14.18 ).
lmageofflyfallsonfovea
andlstheonlypartof
theobJectseenlndetall
optic nerve carrying

Impulses to the brain
partAofwlndowforms
lmageonbllndspot and
so cannot be seen
Flgure14.17 lm..geform.itionintheeye
+
Rg ureH.11 TheblindSl)OI.Holdthebook.100\llSOanNtzt.Cbse•
yourlefteye,1rl(lconcentr.lleontheaosswlthyourrighteye.SbNly
for the cells to change their chemical activities.
Many hormones affect long-term changes such as
growth rate, puberty and pregnancy. Nerve impulses
often cause a response in a ve ry limited area of the
OOrgthebookdosertoyov,lice.Whenthtim~ofthedotf~bon body, such as an eye-blink or a finger movement.
the~MspotitwilseemtodGippN.
H ormones often afTea many org:m systems at once.
Serious deficiencies or excesses o f hormone
production give rise to illnesses. Small differences
• Hormones in humans in hormone activity between individuals probably
conuibme to diffe rences of personality and
Key definition
A hormone isachemicalsubstaoce,produce dbyaglaridand
temperament.
earned by the blood. which alters the activity of one or
more specific target organs
Co-ordination by the nervous system is usuall y

rapid and precise. Nerve impulses, travelling at up
to 100 merres per second , are delivered to specific
pans ofrhc body and produce an almost immediate
response . A different kind of co-ordination is brought
about by the endocri ne system . This system depends
on chemicals, called hormones, which are released
from special glands, called endocrine glands, imo
the bloodstream. The hormones circulate around
the body in the blood and eventually reach certain
organs, called t:1rget organs. H ormones speed up,
slow down or :ilter the activity of those organs.
After being secreted, hormones do not remai n
pcrm:incmly in the blood but arc changed by the
liver into inactive compounds and excreted by
the kidneys. Insulin, for example, may stay in the
bloodstream for just 4-8 hours before being broken
down. Table 14.3 compares control by the endocri ne
and nervous systems. :~ry
Tab kl 14.1 Endoolne;widneivouscontrolcomp,1red testls - - - - + - -----ffl, , ,
tr.immluiooofchemlGls tr.insmlssiooofelectric;ilimpulses Flgu re 14.19 Positionofendocrlneglilllclslntl\ebo<tf

tr.immissiooviablood No!e:l<n<,,wdgeoftheplt\Jltary.indthyroo:1g!and:r~notil)tab<drequirement
raoidtr.insmlssioo
l =nesdispersedthroughout l~lsesentdiroctlytot.irget The position of the endocrine glands in the body is
oroan sh own in Figure 14. 19. Notice that the pancreas and
k)nn.termeffects short-livfdeffects the reproductive organs have a dual fun ction.
Unlike rhe digcsti\"e glands, endocrine glands do
nor deliver their secretions through ducts (tubes). • Extension work
For this reason, the endocrine glands are sometimes
called 'ductless glands'. The hormones are picked up Thyroid gland
directly fro m rhc glands by the blood circulation . The thyroid gl:ind is siruatcd in the front part of the
Responses of the body 10 hormones are much neck. and lies in from o f the windpipe. It produces
slower than responses to nerve impulses. They a hormo ne called t hyroxine. This ho rmo ne has a
depend, in the fi rs, instance, on the speed of the stimulatory effect on the metabolic rate o f nearly
circulatory system and then on the time it takes all the body cells., such as 1he speed o r ra te of
Hormones in humans
cell respiration (Chapter 12) and other chemical Th e pancreas

reactions. It controls our level of activity, promotes The pancreas is a digcsti\·c gland that secretes
skeletal growth and is csscmfo.l for the normal enzymes into the duodenum through the
development of the brain. pancreatic duct (Chapter 7). It is also an endocrine
(ductless) gland . Most of the pancreas cells
Pituitary g land produce digesti\'e enzymes but some of them
This gland is amich«I to the base of the brain. produce hormones. The hormone-producing cel ls
Ir produces m::my hormones. For example, are arranged in small isolated groups callc:d islets
the pituitary releases imo the blood fo llicle- (Fi gure I4.20 ) and secrete their hormones di rectly
stim ulati ng hormone (FS H ) which, when it into the bloodstream. One of the hormones is
reaches the ovaries, makes one of the follicles srart called insulin .
to mature and to produce oesrrogen. Lu teinising
ho rmo ne (LH ), also known as lurropin, is also
produced from the pituitary and, together with
FSH, induces ovulation (sec 'Sex hormones in
humans' in Chapter 16).
Adrena l g lands
1l1ese glands arc attached to the back of the
abdominal cavity, one above each kidney (see also
Figure 13. 1 ). One part of the adrenal gland is a zone
called the ;1drenal meduUa. The medulla receives
ncn'CS from the br.1in and produces the hormone
adrenaline.
Adrenaline has obvious effects on the body:
f igure 14.20 Section of ~nae~ tissue showing~ islet (•250)
• In response to a stressful situation, nerve impulses
arc sent from the br.i.in to the adrenal medulla, Insulin controls the levels of glucose in the blood by
which releases adrenaline into the blood. instructing the liver to remove the sug:irs and store
• Its presence causes breathing to become faster and them. This happens when levels get too high , such as
deeper. This may be particularly apparent as we aher a meal ric h in carbohydr.i.te. (Sec page 196 lor
pant for breath . further details of the action of insulin.)
• The heart beats fustc r, resulting in an increase in
pulse rate. This increase in heart rare can be quite Reprod uctive organs
alarming, making us feel as if our heart is going to The ovaries and testes produce hormones as well
burst our of our chest. as gametes (sperms and ova) and their effects arc
• The pupils of our eyes dilare, making them look described in Chapter 16.
much blacker. One of the hormones from the ovary, oestrogen,
1l1ese effects all make us more able to react quickly prepares the uterus for the implantation of the
and vigorously in dangerous sinrn.tions (known as embryo, by making its lining thicker and increasing
•fight or flight situations') that might require us to its blood supply.
run away or put up a struggle. However, in many 111c hormones testosterone (from the testes)
stressful situations, such as raking examinations or and oestrogen (from the ovaries) play a part in the
gi\'ing a public performance, vigorous activity is not development of the secondary sexual characteristics.
called for. So the extra adrenaline in our bodies just
makes us feel tense and anxious.
The role of adrenaline You will recognise the sensations described in

colunm four ofTable 14.4 as characteristic of fear
As adrenaline circulates around the body it affects and anxiety.
a number of organs, as shown in Table 14.4.
Table144 Respome1toadrenaline
Target organ Blologlcaladvantage
send1m0fe lucoseandoxvQentothemu,;,::le1
breathingcentfeolthebrain falter and deeper breathing inueasedoxygenatioo of the blood; rapid removal of panting
urbondioxide
rnmtric:15thern(see lels blood going to the skin means more i1 av.:ii!able person goes paler
..
,.,,
arteriole1ofthedigeltive
musdesofalimentaryc:anal
"Homemtasi1") tothemu,;,::les
lelsbloodforthedigelti'le1y1temallowsmoreto
reachthemOOes
~rista!sis and digestion slow down; more energy
dry mouth
'hollow" feeling in stomadl

availablefor.iction
musdesofbody readyforimml'C!iateaction temefeeling;shivering
conversionofglyc:ogento moreglocoseavai!ableinbloodlorenergy
glucose production. toalklwmetabolkactivitytoinaease
fat deposits conversionoflatstofattvacids fat .Kid1availableinbloodformu,;,::lecontr.Klion
Adrenaline is quickly converted by the liver to a Thus their dlects are not long-lasting. l11e long-
less active compound, which is excreted by the term hormones, such as thyroxine, are secreted
kidneys. All hormones are similarly altered and continuously to maintain a steady level.
excreted, some within minutes, others within days.
melanin, which gives the skin its colour. The more

• Homeostasis melanin, the darker is the skin.
The thickness of the epidermis and the abLU1dance
IKey def in it ion
Hom,o"as;, ;, '"'. maintenance of a constant internal
of hairs vary in different parts of the body
environment
(Figure 14.22 ).
The dermis contains connective tissue with hair
H omeostasis literally means 'staying similar'. It follicles, sebaceous glands, sweat glands, blood vessels
refers to the fucr that the composition of the tissue and nerve endings. There is usually a layer of adipose
fluid (see 'Blood ' in Chapter 9) in the body is kept tissue (a fut deposit) beneath the dermis.
within narrow limits. The concenrration, acidity and
Skin function
temperature of this fluid are being adjusted all the
time to prevent any big changes. Protection
The outermost layer of dead cells of the epidermis
The skin and temperature control helps to reduce water loss and provides a barrier
Skin structure against bacteria. The pigment cells protect the skin
from damage by the ultra,·iolet rays in sunliglu. In
Figure 14.21 shows a section through skin. In the white-skinned people, more melanin is produced in
basal layer some of the cells are continually dividing response to exposure to sunlight, giving rise to a tan.
and pushing the older cells nearer the surfuce.
Here they die and are shed at the same rate as the y Sensitivity
are replaced. l11e basal layer and the cells above Scattered throughout the skin are large numbers of
it constitute the epidermis. The basal layer also tiny sense receptors, which give rise to sensations of
contributes to the hair follicles. The dividing cells touch, pressure, heat, cold and pain. These make us
give rise to the hair. aware of changes in our surroundings and enable us
There are specialised pigment cells in the basal to take action to avoid damage, to recognise objects
layer and epidermis. l11ese produce a black pigment, by touch and to manipulate objects ,vith our hands.
Homeostasis
c;- ,, - .- - \ ~~ s- weat
d,ct
nerve r1t~e ~~p~~~r1;1~1~fely ~~~:he~rd~~?n) arteriole f1~!~e ::~~i\f1~~les

Flgure14.21 Generalisedsectiollthrooghthe'ikill
sebaceous
epidermis dermis gland Temperature control
Normal human body temperature varies between
35.8 °C and 37.7°C. Temperatures below 34 °C or
above 40 °C, if maintained for long, are considered
dangerous. Different body regions, e.g. the hands,
feet, head or internal organs, will be at different
temperatures, but the core temperature, as measured
with a thermometer under the tongue, will vary by
only 1 or 2 degrees.
Heat is lost from the body surface by
conduction, convection, radiation and evaporation.
The amount of heat lost is reduced to an extent
due to the insulating properties of adipose ( futty )
tissue in the dermis. Some mammals living in
extreme conditions, such as whales and seals, make
much greater use of this: they have thick layers of
blubber to reduce heat loss more effectively. Just
Figure 14.22 Section throogh ha iry skill (~20) how much insulation the blubber gives depends
on the amount of water in the tissue: a smaller
Temperature regulation proportion of water and more fut provide better
111e skin helps to keep the body temperature more insulating properties.
or less constant. This is done by adjusting the flow of Heat is gained, internally, from the process of
blood near the skin surf.tee and by sweating. 111ese respiration (Chapter 12 ) in the tissues and, externally,
processes are described more fitlly below. from the surroundings or from the Sun.
The two processes of hear g:iin and hc:ir loss to heat loss o r gain. You cannot consciously detect
arc no rm:illy in bal:ince but any imb:il:incc is changes in you r core temperatu re . The brain
corrected by a number of methods, including plays a direct ro le in de tecting any changes fro m
those: descri bed below. normal by moni roring the te mperature o frhc
blood . A regio n called the h)1>0th:1lamus contai ns
O verheatin g a thc rmo rcgulatory centre in which te mperature
• More blood flows near the surf.tee of the skin,
receptors detect tempera ture changes in the blood
allowing mo re heat 10 be exch:ingcd with the
and co·ordinatc a response 10 1hem. Temperam rc
surroundings.
receptors arc also present in 1he skin . T hey send
• Sweatin g - the swe:11 glands secrete swear o n informatio n to the brain abom te mperatu re
to the skin surface . When this laye r of liquid
changes.
evaporates, it takes heat (larenr heat) from the bcxly
and cools it down (Figure 14.23).
Ovcrcooling
• Less blood fl ows near the surfuce of the
skin, reducing the amount of heat lost to the
surroundings.
• Sweat productio n stops - thus the heat lost by
evaporatio n is reduced .
• Shivering - uncontrollable bursrs of rapid
muscular contractio n in the limbs release heat as a
result of respiration in rhe muscles.
In these ways, the body temperature remains at abo ut
3 7 °C. We also control our tc mper:uurc by adding or
Figure 14.23 Sweating. Duringvtgorous~ty the-t evaporates
removing clothing or dcliber.ircly raking exercise. fromtheskin and helps tocool thebody. 'Nhe,nthe~ivitystops,
Whether we fed ho 1 o r co ld depe nds o n the cartinuH!w.ipaationols>.veat m;iyovercoolthebodyunle!.Sttis
sensory nerve end ings in the skin , which respond bNelled off.
Homeostasis much water from it by osmosis and the tissues wo uld

become waterlogged and swollen .
It is vital that there arc ho mcosraric mechanisms in the Many ~stems in the bcxly conuiburc to
body ro com rol imemal conditions \\~thin set limits. homeostasis (Figure 14.24). The ob\ious example
In Chapter 5 it was explained that, in livi ng cells, is the kidneys, which remove substances that might
all the chemical reactions arc controlled by enzymes. poison the enzymes. The kidneys also control the
The enzymes arc ver y sensitive to the c.onditions in b •el of salts, water and acids in the blood . The
which they work. A sligln fall in temperature or a rise composition of the blood affects the tissue fluid
in acidity may slow down or stop an enzyme from which, in turn, affi:cts the cells.
working and thus pre\·c nr an important reaction Another example ofa homeosraric organ is
from taking place in the cell. the liver, which regulates the level of glucose in
The cell membrane controls the substances that the blood . TI1e lh·er stores any excess glucose as
enter and leave the cell, but iris the tissue fluid glycogen, or turns glycogen back into glucose if the
that supplies or removes these substances, and it is concentration in the blood gets too low. TI1c brain
therefore important to keep the composition ofthc cells arc \·cry sensitive to the glucose concentratio n
tissue fluid as steady as possible. lfrhe tissue fluid in the blood and if the level drops roo fur, they
were to become roo concentrated , it would withdraw stop wo rking prope rly, and the person beco mes
water from the cells by osmosis (Chapter 3) and the unconscio us and will die unless glucose is injected
body would be dehyd rated . If the tissue fluid were into the blood system. This shows how important
to become too dilute, the cells would take up too homcost.1sis is ro the body.
Homeostasis
BRAIN controls
alltheseproce~es
'""''
~Cf-C,
~
-c~)'-- blor _:f 'T ,
skin regulates
temperature iw
..~~,
;i
~
'""''"'''"'
:-::~;,:~de ~ thlsllssuefluld,wlthltscarefullycontrolled
~:fe~'~1~;~:~:11tw:rt~~condlUonsfor
Figure 14.24 The homeostatkmec:hanismsolthet>ody
TI1e lungs (Chapter 11 ) play a part in homeostasis temperature or poikilothermic ('cold -blocxied' )
by keeping the concentrations of oxygen and carbon animals. Poikilorherms such as reptiles and insects
dioxide in the blood at the best level for the cdls' can regulate their body temperature to some extent
chemical reactions, especially respiration. by, for example, basking in the sun or seeking
The skin regulates the temperature of the blood. shade. Nevertheless, if their body temperature
If the cells were to get too cold, the chemical falls , their vital chemistry slows down and their
reactions would become too slow to maintain life. reactions become more sluggish. They are then more
If they became roo hot, the enzymes would be \'lilnerable to predators.
destroyed. TI1e 'price' that homoiotherms have to pay
The brain has overall control of the homeostatic is the intake of enough food to maintain their
processes in the body. It checks the composition of body temperature, usually above that of their
the blood flowing through it and ifit is too warm, surroundings.
too cold, too concentrated or has too little glucose, In the hypothalamus of a homoiotherm's
nerve impulses or hormones are sent to the organs brain there is a thermoregulatory centre. This
concerned, causing them to make the necessary centre monitors the temperature of the blood
adjustments. passing througl1 it and also receives sensory
nerve impulses from temperature receptors in the
Homeostasis and negative skin. A rise in body temperature is detected by
the thermoreg1ilatory centre and it sends nerve
feedback impulses to the skin, which result in vasodilation and
Temperature regulation is an example ofhomeostasis. sweating. Similarly, a full in body temperature will
Maintenance of a constant body temperature be detected and will promote impulses that produce
ensures that viral chemical reactions continue at ,·asoconstriction and shivering.
a predictable rate and do not speed up or slow This system of control is called negative
down when the surrounding temperature changes. feedback. The outgoing impulses counteract the
TI1e constant-temperature or homoiothermic effects that produced the incoming impulses. For
('warm-blooded ') animals, the birds and mammals, example, a rise in temperature triggers responses
therefore have an advantage over the variable- that counteract the rise.
Regulation of blood sugar the liver prevents these undesirable effects and so
If the level of sugar in the blood fulls, the islets contributes to the homeostasis of the body.
release: a hormone called gluc.1gon into the If anything goes wrong with the production
bloodstream. Glucagon acts o n the ccUs in the liver or li.mction of insulin, the person will show the
and causes them to conven some of their stored symptoms of dfabetes.
glycogen into glucose and so restore the blood
Type 1 diabetes
sugar level.
Insulin has the opposite effect to glucagon. lfd1e There arc two rypcs of diabetes and 1-ypc I is the Ins
common form, the cause ofwhich has been oudined
concentration ofblood sugar increases (e.g. after a
meal rich in carbohydrate), insulin is released from in Chapter 10. It results from a fui[urc of the islet
the islet cells. When the insulin reaches the li,·er it cells to produce sufficient insulin. ll1e outcome is
that the patient's blood is deficient in insulin and
stimulates the liver cells to rake up glucose from the
blood and store it as glycogen. he or she needs regular injections of the hom,one
Insulin has many other effects; it increases the in order to conrrol blood sug.,r level and so lead a
normal life. This form of the disease is, therefore,
uptake of glucose in 3.IJ cells for use in respiration;
ir promores rhe conversion of carbohydrates to sometimes called 'insulin-dependent' diabetes. ll1e
patient is unable to regulare the level of glucose in
furs and slows down the conversion of protein
tl1e blood. Ir may rise ro such a high level that it is
to carbohydrate.
All these changes have the effi:ct of regulating excreted in the urine, or fall so low that the brain
cells c3.nnor work properly and the person goes into
the level of glucose in the blood to within narrow
a coma.
limits - a very important example of homeostasis.
The symptoms of type I diabetes include fi:eling
blood glucose tired, fi:eling very thirsty, frequent urination 3.1xl
levektoohlgh
,,- ;::===:::!: glycogen
weight loss. Weight loss is experienced because the
body starrs to break down muscle and fut.
gluagon Diabetics need a carefully regubted diet to keep
bloodglucCKe the blood sugar wit hin reasonable limits. They
levektoolow
should have regular blood tests to monitor their
1l1e concentration of glucose in the blood of a blood sugar le\·cls and take regular exercise.
person who has nor eaten for 8 hours is usually
Temperature control
between 90 and 100mg IOOcm-3 blood. After a
meal containing carbohydrate, the blood sugar In addition to the methods already described, the
level may rise ro 140mg IOOcm-3 but 2 hours later, skin has another very important mechanism for
the level returns to about 95 mg as the lh·er has maintaining a constant body temperature. This
convened the excess glucose to glycogen. im·olves arterioles in the dermis of the skin, which
About 100 g glycogen is stored in the liver of can widen or narrow to allow more or less blood
to flow near the sk.in surf.tee through the blood
a healthy man. Ifrhe concentration of glucose
in the blood fulls below about 80 mg IOO cm-3 capillaries. Furtl1er details of this process, involving
blood, some oftl1e glycogen stored in the liver is the use ofshunr \'essels, are given in Chapte r 9.
convened by enzyme action into glucose, which Vasodilation - the widening of the arterioles in
enters the circularion. If the blood sugar level rises the dermis allows more warm blood to flow through
above 160mg IOO cm-3, glucose is excreted by blood capillaries near the skin surf.tee and so lose
the kidneys. more heat (Figure 14.2 5(a)).
A blood glucose level bclow40mg100cm-3 V3.soconstriction - narrowing (constriction) of
affects the brain cellsadverscly,lcading to the arterioles in the skin reduces the amount of
convulsions and coma. By helping to keep the warm blood flmving through blood C3.pill:uies near
glucose concentration between 80 and 150 mg, the surfu.ce (Figure 14.25(b )).
Tropic responses
to be 'negative'. For example, if a plant is placed

horizontally, its stem will change its direction and
\\\t //; grow upwards, away from gravity ( Figure 14.26 ).
,n.,,o,,. ~~
' - ~· j
dilated,
more blood
flows In I !
"'"'"'" L . . ·"
(a)vasodllatlon
.J
llttleheatradlated
!
~ epidermis
,n.. ,o,.. m'::~ f \'~\_l(

constrlctez - - r \
0'1 ! Flgure14.26 NPgativegravitropi1m. Thetomatoplantha1beenlefl on
\f~1~od ( I i15 'iidefor l4hour1
caplllarles .. -· . _ . /
~- - !bY vasoc~nst~ctlon ·· l11e shoot is negati vely gravitropic. The roots,
however, will change their direction of growth to
Flgure14.25 Va'>Odilation~ridvasornmtlictk>n
grow vertically downwards towards the pull of gravity
(Experiment 1). Roots, therefore, are positively
gravitropic.
• Tropic responses Phototropism and gravirropism are best illustrated
Sensitivity is the ability of living organisms to respond by some simple controlled experiments. Seedlings are
to stimuli. Although plants do not respond by good material for experiments on sensitivity because
moving their whole bodies, parts of them do respond their growing roots (radicles) and shoots respond
to stimuli. Some of these responses are described as readily to the stimuli oflight and gravity.
tropic responses or tropisms.
Tropisms Practical work

Tropisms are growth movements related to
directional stimuli, e.g. a shoot ,vill grow towards
a source oflight but away from the direction of Experiments on tropisms
gravity. Growth movemems of this kind are usually in
1 Gravitropism in pea radicles
response to the direction of light or gravity. Responses
to light are called phototropism s; responses to • Soak about 10 peas in water f(J( a day and then let them
gravity are gravitropism s (or geotropism s). germ inateinaverticalroll ofmoistblotting-paper.
• After3days,choose llseedlingswithstraightradidesandpin
Key def init ions six of these to the turntable of a dinostat so that the rad ides
Gravitro pism is a response in which a plant grows towards ()( are hori zontal.
away from gravity. • Pinanothersixseedlingstoacorkthatwillfit inawide-
Phototropis m isaresponseinwhichaplantgrowstowardsor mouthedjar. Leavethejar on itsside.
away from the direction from which light is com ing. • A clinos tat is a clockwork or electric turntable, which rotates
the seedlings slowly about four times an hour. Although
gravityispull ingsidewaysontheirroots, itwillpullequallyon
If the plam organ responds by growing towards the allsidesastheyrotate
stimulus, the response is said to be 'positive'. If the • Place the jar and the dinostat in the same conditions of
response is growth away from the stimulus it is said lighting(J(leavethemindarknessf0( 2days
Res ult
The radides in the dinostat will continue to grow horizont ally but
thoseinthe jarwillhavechangedtheirdirectionof growth,to
grow vertically downwards (Figure 14.27).
Flgu r• 14.27 ResultsofanexperiffiEonttoshowgr.lVitropisminroots

Inte rpretation
The sta tionary radic~ have responded to the stimulus of one-
sided gravity by gl'CMling towards it . The radicles are positively
gravitmpic
Theradiclesintheclinostat are the controls. Rotation of the
clinostat has allowed gravity to act on all sides equally and Flgure 14.29 Posiliwphototroplsm.Thes.unflovverseedlir.gshave
thereisnoone-s.idedstimulus,eventhoughtheradicleswere rl.'CeivedonMkled lighUn9for.1dcly.
horizontal.
Interp retation
2 Phototropism in shoots The results suggest that theyoungY!OOthas!'MpO(ldedtoone-
• Select two potted seedlings. e.g. sunflower or runner bean, of sided lighting bygrowingtowardsthe light. Theshootiss.aidto
similar si:ze and water them both be positively phototropic because it gro.vs towards the direction
• Place one of them under a cardboard boic with a window cut of t he stimulus.
in one side so that light reaches the shoot from one direction However, the re-suits of an experiment with a single plant
on!y(Figul\' 14.28). cannot be uwd to draw conclusions that apply to green plants as
• Placetheotherplantinanidenticalsituationbutona a whole. The experiment described here is more of an illustration
dinostat. This will rotate the plant about four times per hour than a critical investigation. To investigate phototropisms
ande~eachsideoftheshootequallytothesourceof thoroughly, a large number of plants from a wide variety of
light.Thisisthecontrol. speciesv.ouldhavetobeused.
Adva ntages of tropic responses

Positive phototropism of s hoots
By growing tow:irds the source oflight, :i shoot brings
its lc:ives imo the best siru:ition for phorosynthcsis.
Simil:irly, the flowers :ire brought into :in exposed
position where they :ire most likely to be seen :ind
pollinated by flying insects.
Negative gravitropism in shoots
Shoots that arc nega.rivcl y gra\~tropic grow vertic:illy.
This lifts the leaves and fl owers above the ground
:ind helps the pl:im to compete for light :ind
carlxm dioxide. The fl owers are brought into an
Flgur•1at.28 Experimenttosllowphototropismin~ 11loot
:idv:inragcous position for insect or wind pollin:ition.
Seed dispers:il may be more effective from fruits on
Res ult :i long, ver tical srem. H owever, these advantages
After 1 or 2 days, the two planlS are removed from the boxes
:ire a product of :i rail shoot r-a ther than nega.ti ve
and compared. It will be found that the stem of the plant with
one-sided illumination has changed its direction of gro.vth and is gravirropism.
growing towards the light (Figure 14.29). The control Y!OOt has
continuedtogl'CMlvertically.
Tropic responses
Stems that form rhizomes (stems that grow

underground) are not negatively gravitropic; they grow
horizontally below the ground, though the shoots that
grow up from them are negatively gravitropic.
Brand1es from upright srems are not negatively
gravitropic; they grow at 90 degrees or, usually, at a
more acute angle to the directional pull of gravity.
TI1e lower branches of a potato plant must be
partially positively grav:itropic when they grow down
into the soil and produce potato tubers (sec 'Asexual
reproduction' in Chapter 16 ).
Positive grnvitropism in roots
By growing towards gravity, roots penetrate the Flgure14.30 Markingaroot. Apieceofrnttonisheklbythehairpin
soil, which is their means of andmrage and their aoddippedintoblackink
source of water and mineral salts. Lateral roots
are not positively gravitropic; they grow at right mark the uppermost
edge of the dish
angles or slightly downwards from the main root.
TI1is response enables a large volume of soil to be
exploited and helps to anchor the plants securely.
Practical work
More experiments on tropisms
3 Region of response
• Gro.vpeaseedlingsinaverticalrollofblottingpaperand
selectfourwithstraightradiclesabout25mmlong. Figure 14.31 Regionofrl'lponseinrad ides. ResultofExperiment3 on
• Markalltheradicleswithlinesaboutlmmapart theBseedli rigs
{Figures14.30and14.31(a)}
• Use four strips of moist cotton wool to wedge t\lllO seedlings in dishes,itcanbeseenthattheregionofcurvatureintheBseedlings
eachoft\lllOPetridishes(Figure 14.31) mrrespondstotheregionofextensionintheAseedlings.
• Leavethedishesontheirsidesfor2days, one(A}withthe
Inte rpretation
radidesverticalandtheother{B)withtheradicleshorizontal.
The response to the stimulus of one-sided gravity takes place in
Result theregionofextension. ltdoesnotnecessarily meanthatthisis
The ink marks will be more widely spaced in the region of greatest al50theregionwhichdetectsthestimulus.
extension (Figure 14.31(b}}. By comparing the seedlings in the two
Plant growth substances and in specific regions of the plant and rransporred
tropisms to 'target' organs such as roots, shoots and buds.
However, the sites of production are not specialised
Control of g rowth organs, as in animals, but regions of actively dividing
In animals and plants, the growth rare and extent of cells such as tl1e tips of shoots and roots. Also, plant
growth are controlled by chemicals: hormones in growth substances are not transported in vessels.
animals and growth substances in plants. Additionally, One of the growth substances is auxin.
growth may be limited in animals by the availability of Chemically it is indoleac.etic acid (IAA). It is
food, and in plants by light, water and minerals. produced in the tips of actively grm\ing roots and
There are many different growth substances ('plant shoots and carried by active transport (Chapter 3)
hormones') in plants. TI1ey are similar in some ways to tl1e regions of extension where it promotes cell
to animal hormones because they are produced enlargement (Figure 14.32).
repe.-.tedmltotlc
celldtvlslon(Chapter17)
but no cell enlargement
,,.-- - ~ " " vacuolesformln

cell cytoplasm;
enlargement begins
vacuolesJolnupto
form central vacuole
whlch absorbswater
and expands cell
lengthwise by Increase
lnturgor(Chapter3)
Rgure14.32 htensiongrnwthatshoo ttip
The responses made by shoots and roots to light and

gravity are influenced by growth substances.
Growth substances also control seed germination,
bud burst, leaf full, initiation oflateral roots and
many other processes.
It has already been explained that growth
substances, e.g. auxin, are produced by the tips of
roots and shoots and can stimulate or, in some cases,
inhibit extension growth. Tropic responses could
be explained if the one·sided stimuli produced a 2 more growthsubrtance
1 tipproduce< reacheslcwerSde ...
corresponding one-sided distribution of growth a growth
substance.
In the case of positive gravitropism in roots
substance
jjjjj ,o~•Th•'o•=<h'
substance inhibits growth.
there is evidence that, in a horizontal root, more root tip detects

growth substance accumulates on the lower side. pull of gravity
In this case the growth substance is presumed to Flgure14.33 Po11ibleexplanatKJ!lofpmrtivegravitropisminroot1
inhibit extension growth, so that the root tip curves

downwards (Figure 14.33 ). Summary of control of shoot g rowth by auxin
In the case of phototropism, it is generally accepted When a shoot is exposed to light from one side,
that the distribution of growth substance causes auxins that have been produced by the tip move
reduced extension on the illuminated side and/or towards the shaded side of the shoot ( or the auxins
increased extension on the non-illuminated side. are destroyed on the light side, causing an unequal
Tropic responses
distribution). Cells on the: shaded side: arc stimulated Results

to absorb more water than those on d1c: light side:, so A No growth of the colcoptile occurs and there is
the: unequal growth causes the: stem to bend towards no bending.
the: light. Growth of a shoot towards light is called B 111c coleoptilc grows taller and bends towards
positive phototropism . the light.
If a shoot is placed horizontally in the: absence:
of light, auxi ns accumulate: on the lower side of the C The coleoptilc grows talle r, bm there is no bending.
shoot, due to gr:wity. This makes the cells o n the D The coleoptile grows ta ller and bends towards
lower side grow juster th;in those on the upper side, the light.
so the shoot bends upwards. TI1is is called negative
gravitropis m . Inte rpretation
The opposite applies to roors because root cell In A, the source of auxin has been removed. Auxin
elongation appears to be slowed down by exposure is needed to stimulate growth and stimulates a
to auxin. response: to light. It could also be argued rhat die rip
Classic e1eperiments to test how a u1eins wo rk provides cells for growth and this source of cells has
been removed.
Wheat a nd other grass species belong to the
In B, auxin is produced by the tip of the coleoprile. It
monocotyledon group of flowering plants
diffuses d0\\11 the coleopcilc and collcctS on d1c sh:i.ded
(Chapter I ). When wheat seeds germinate (start side of the coleoptile (or is destroyed by the light on
to grow) they produce a shoot covered by a
d ie light side). Cells on the shaded side respond to the
protective sheath called a coleoptile. This helps :i.llxin by gr<Y>\ing ~ter than on the: light side causing
to prevent damage to the new leaves as they push d1c cokoptilc to grow towards the light.
through the soil. The colcoptilc shows responses
In C, 3ll'tin is produced by the tip and diffuses
to light 2nd gravity in a similar way to other plant down, c.i.using all cells on both sides of the coleoptilc
parts. Wheat colcoptilcs only rake 2 or 3 days to to grow at an equal rate, causing an increase in
grow and they show responses very quickly, so
length. H owever, the black paper prcvcnrs the light
t hey arc ideal for tropism experiments. The tip inRucncing the auxin, so there is no response ro the
of the coleoptile, where it is expected that auxins
d irection of light.
would be produced, can be cur off wit hout killing
In D , auxin is produced by the tip of the coleoptile.
the plant, but effectively removing the source of It diffuses into d1c agar block. When the ag:i r block
the auxin. Figu re 14.34 shows an investigation,
is replaced on the cut colcoptik, the auxin diffuses
treating coleoptiles in different ways. down from the agar and collects on the shaded side
of d1e coleoptile ( or is destroyed by the light on the
tlprtmovedfromcoleoptlle ~
al'ldleftlnd.irkonag.irblock light side). Cells on the shaded side respond to the
for611ours auxin by growing faster than on the light side causing
the coleoptile to grow towards the light.
agarblocktransftrredto
coleoptlle,tllttlpofwlllcll : 61\oursl;ter Use of plan t growt h substances
llasbttnremovtd
Chemicals can be manufuctured which closely
llglltfrom rese mble natural growth substances and may be
used to contro l various aspects of growth 2nd
~
development of crop plants.
l11c wcedkiller, 2,4-D, is very similar ro one of
the auxins. When sprarcd on a lawn, it affcctS rhe
broad-leaved weeds (e.g. daisies and dandelions) but
itip untrt.ited
I tlpcoverKlby
not die grasses. (It is called a ·selective wccdk.illcr' .)
Among other effects, it distorts the weeds' growth
and speeds up d1cir rate of respiration to rhc cncm
remcwKI bl.ickp.iper
that d1cy exhaust thei r food reserves and die.
f lgun1 14.3" ll'M!Stgation lotollowauxinworks
Questions from pain receptors and 'Mlich from temperature receptors?

Explain your answer.
Core 18 Wouldyouell.pectsynapsestooccuringreymanerorin
1 Whatisthedifferencebetweenilnt'fVtilndaneNefibre?
whitematter?Explainyouranswer.
2 a lnwhatwaysaresensoryne\lronesandmotorneurones
19 StOO'jfigure14.2. llthe:spinalcordweredarnagedatapoint
similar: about one-third of the way up the vertebral COUTYI, what
i instruaure effectwould)OUexpectthistohaYeonthebodilyfunctions?
ii infunction ? 20 Study Table 14.3 and give one example for each point of
b How do they differ?
comparison.
3 Ci1nanervefibreandanerveuirrybothsen50ryand
2 1 Thepancreash.asadualfunctioni~~di~
motor impulses? Explain your answers.
enzymes as well as hormones . v,,.tvch other endocri~e glands
ii anervefibre
haveadualfunctionaodwhatare\he.-otherfunctioru;?
b anerve (See also 'Sex hormones in humans' in Chapter 16.)
4 Putthe followinginthecorrectorderforasimplereflexarc 22 What are the effects on OOO)' functions of:
a impulse travels in motor fibre
a toomuchinsulin
b impulse travelsinsensoryfibre
b too little insulin?
c effectororganstimulated
23 Whydoyouthinkurinetestsarecarriedouttoseeifa
d receptororganstimulated
woman is pregnant?
e impulsecrossessynapse.
24 What conKious actions do we take to reduce the heat lost
5 WhichreceptorsandeffectorsareinllOlvedinthereflex
from the body?
actions of: 25 a What sort of chemical reaction in active muscle will
a sneezing
produce heat?
b blinking b Howdoesthishe atgettootherpartsoftheboO)'?
c contractionoftheiris? 26 Draw up a balance sheet to show all the possible ways the
6 Explain why the toogue may be coosidered to be both a
human body can gain or lose heat. Make two cciumns,
receptorandaneffectororgan. .....;th'Gains' oothe !eftand'Losses'ontheright
? DiKuSS whether coughing is a voluntary or reflex action 27 a Which structures in the skiri of a furry mammat help to
8 What sensation would you ell.peel to feel if a warm pin-
reduce heat loss?
head was pressed on to a touch receptor in your skin?
b What changes take ptace in the skin of humans to
Explaiinyouranswet.
reduce heat loss?
9 If apiece of iceisp<eSsedontotheslcin, which receptors
28 Sweating cools you down only if the sweat can evaporate
are likely to send impulses to the brain?
a In what conditions might the sweat be unable to
10 Apart from the cells that detect chemicals, what other
evaporatelrom'fOU(skin?
typeS of receptor must be present in the tongue? b Whatconditionsmightspeeduptheevaporationof
11 a To what directional stimuli do:
sweatandsomakeyoufeelveryccid?
i rootsrespond 29 lri Figure 14.35 the two sets of pea seedlir,gsweresown
ii shootsrespood? at the same time, but the pot on the left was kept under a
b Name the plant organs which are
lightproof box. Fromtheevidenceirithepicture;
i positrmy phototropic
a whateflectsdoeslightappeartohaveon9rowing
ii positivelygmitropic
seedlings
iii r.egativelygravitropic. b how might this explain positive phototropism?
12 W'rytisitincorrecttosay:
a 'Plantsgrowtowardsthelight.'
b 'lfarootisplacedhorizontally,it....,;nbendtowards
gravity'?
13 Explainwhyaclinostiltisusedforthecontrolsintropism
experiments.
14 LookatFigure14.26. What.....;Utheshoot!ooklikein
24 hours after the pot has been stood upright again?
Uustdrawtheoudineofthestem.)
15 What do you think might happen if a potted plant were
placedooitssideandtheshootilluminatedfr°"'!below
{i.e. lightandgravityareact,ngfromthesamed1rect100)?
Extended
16 L.ooli: at figures 14.6and Hgure 14.8. f or each diagram, Slilte Rgure 14.35 EffKtofllghtooshootl
a how many cell bodies are drawn 30 It is suggested that it is theverytipoftheradiclethat
b how many synapses are shc,,m , detects the one-sided pull of gravity even though it is the
17 tfyoucouldinterceptand 'listento' thenerve_impulses region of extension that responds. How could you modify
travel ing in the spinal cord, could you tel which ones came Experiment3totestthishypothesis?
Tropic responses
Checklist • The endocrine glands release hormones into the blood

system.
• When the hormones reach certain organs they change the
following:
rateorkindofactivityoftheorgan.
Th e nervo us syste m • Too much or too little of a hormone can cause a metabolic
• Thecentralnervoussystemconsistsofthebrainandthe disorder.
spinal cord • Adrenalin is secreted in 'fightorflight'situations.
• Theperipheralnervoussystemcornistsofthenerves • llcausesanincreasedbreathingandpulserateandwidened
• Thenervesconsistofbundlesofnervefibres pupils
• Eachnervefibreisathinfilamentthatgrowsoutofanerve
cell body. • Adrenaline has a role in the chemical control of
• Thenervecellbodiesaremostlyinthebrainandspinalcord. metabolic activity, including increasing the blood gluoose
• Nervefibrescarryelectricalimpulsesfromsenseorganstothe concentration and pulse rate.
brainorfromthebraintomu'iClesandglands. • Thenervoussystemismuchfasteranditsactiontendsto
• A reflex is an automatic nervous reaction that cannot be be over a shorter time span than hormonal oontrol systems
consciou~ycontrolled.
• A reflex arc is the nervous pathway that carries the impulses Ho meos tas is
causing a reflex action. • Horneostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal
• Thesimplestreflexinvolvesasensorynervecellandamotor environment.
nervecell,connectedbysynapsesinthespinalcord • Skin consists of an outer layer of epidermis and an inner
• Thebrainandspinalcordcontainmillionsofnervecells dem1is
• The millions of possible connections between the nerve cells • Theepidermisisgrowingallthetimeandhasanouterlayer
in the brain allow complicated actions, learning, memory and of dead cells.
intelligence. • Thedermiscontainsthesweatglands, hair follicles, sense
organs and capillaries.
• Voluntaryactionsstartinthebrain,whileinvoluntary • Skin{l) protects the bodyfrombacteriaanddryingout,
actions are automatic {2)containssenseorganswhichgiveusthesenseof
• Reflexeshaveaprotectivefunction. touch,warmth,coldandpain,and(3}controlsthebody
• A synapse is a junction between two neurones consisting temperature.
of a minute gap across which impulses pass by diffusion • Chemicalactivityinthebodyandmu5c:ularcontractions
of a neurotransmitter. produce heat.
• ldentifypartsofasynapseandde5c:ribehowittransmits • Heat is lost to the surroundings by conduction, convection,
animpulsefromoneneuronetoanother. radiation and evaporation.
• Drugssuchasmorphineandheroincanaffectsynapses • lfthebodytemperaturerisestoomuch, the skin cools it
• lnreflexara,synapsesensurethemOYementofimpulses down by sweating and vasodilation.
in one direction. • lfthebodylosestoomuchheat,vasoconstrictionand
shiveringhelptokeepitwarm.
Sense o rga ns
• Senseorgansaregroupsofreceptorcellsresponding • Negativefeedbad::providesameansofcontrol:iflevelsof
tospecificstimuli:light,sound, touch, temperature and substancesinthebodychange, the change is monitored
chemicals. and a response toadjustlevelstonormal is brought
• Describethestructureoftheeye. about.
• Describe the function of the parts of the eye. • Glucose concentration in the blood is controlled using
• Describethepupilreflex. insulinandglucagon.
• Type 1 diabetesistheresultof i~etcellsinthepancreas
• Explainthepupilreflex. failing to produce enough insulin.
• Explain accommodation to view near and distant objects. • Vasodilationandvasoconstrictionofarteriolesintheskin
• De5Cribe the roles of parts of the eye in accommodation. are mechanisms to control body temperature.
• State the distribution ofrodsandconesin the retina of a
human. Tro pi c responses
• Describethefunctionofrodsandcones • A response related to the direction of the stimulus is a
tropism.
Ho rmo nes in hum a ns • The roots and shoots of plants may respond to the stimuli of
• A hormone is a chemical substance, produced by a gland, light or gravity.
carried by the blood, which alters the activity of one or more • Gravitropism is a response in which a plant gro.vs towards or
specific target organs awayfromgravity.
• Thetestes,ovariesandpancreasarealsoendocrineglandsin • Phototropism is a response in which a plant grows towards
additiontotheirotherfunctions. or away from the direction from which light is coming.
• Growth towards the direction of the stimulus is called • Explain phototropism and gravitropism of a sh<Xlt as
'positive'; growth away from the stimulus is called 'negative'.
examplesofthechemicalcontrolofplantgrowthby
• Tropicresponsesbringsh<Xltsandrootsintothemost
favourablepositionsfortheirlife-supportingfunctions • Auxin is only made in the shoot tip and moves through
• Describe investigations into gravitropism and phototropism in theplant,dissolvedinwater.
sh<Xltsandroots • Auxinisunequallydistributedinresponseto lightand
gravity.
• Auxinstimulatescellelongation.
• The synthetic plant hormone 2,4-0 is used in weedkiller.;
@ Drugs
Dru gs Mi sused d rug s
Define drug Effectsofheroin,akohol,tobacco
Roleofliverinbreakingdowntoxin5
Medi cin a l dru gs
Use of antibiotics Effectsofheroinonthenervoussystem
Development of resistance in bacteria to antibiotics Linkbetweensmokingandcancer
Use of performance-enhancing drugs
Development of resistant bacteria
Antibioticsandviraldi-;eases
Perhaps the best kim"n antibiotic is penicillin, which

• Drugs is produced by the mould fungus Ptmicilliflm and was
discovered by Sir Alexander Fleming in 1928. Penicillin
Key definition is still an important antibiotic but it is produced by
A dru g is any substance taken into the body that modifies Of
mutant forms of a different species of Penicil/ium from
affectsdiemicalreactionsinthebody.
that studied by Fleming. l11e different mutant forms of
the fimgus produce different types of penicillin.
The drug may be one taken legally to reduce a
The penicillin types are chemically altered in
symptom such as a headache or to rreat a bacterial
the laboratory to make them more effec.tive and
infection ( medicinal drugs), but it could also be one
to 'railor' them for use with different diseases.
raken - often illegally - to provide stimulation or
'Ampicillin', 'merhicillin' and 'oxacillin' are examples.
induce sleep or create hallucinations (recreational
Antibiotics attack bacteria in a variety of ways.
drugs ). Drugs are present in many products such as:
Some of them disrupt the production of the cell wall
rea, coffee and 'energy drinks' (caffeine ); tobacco
and so prevent the bacteria from reproducing, or
(nicotine ); and alcoholic drinks (alcohol) which,
even cause them to burst open; some interfere with
although legal, can cause serious effects when taken
protein synthesis and rims arrest bacterial growth.
excessively or over extended periods of time.
Animal cells do nor have cell walls, and the
cell strnctures involved in protein production are
different. Consequently, antibiotics do not damage
• Medicinal drugs human cells although they may produce some side-
Any substance used in medicine to help our bodies effects such as allergic reactions.
fight illness or disease is called a drng. Not all bacteria are killed by antibiotics. Some
bacteria have a nasty habit of murating to forms that
A ntibi oti cs are resisrant to cl1ese drugs.
The ideal drug for curing disease would be a chemical For this reason it is imporrant not to use antibiotics
that destroyed the pathogen without harming the in a diluted form, for too short a period or for trivial
tissues of the host. In pr.i.ctice, modern antibiotics complaints. l11ese pr.i.ctices lead to a build -up ofa
such as penicillin come pretty close to this ideal for resistant population of bacteria. The drng resistance
bacterial infections. can be passed from harmless bacteria to patlmgens.
A tiny minority ofbacteria are harmful (pathogenic). It is important to note that antibiotics are
Figure 10. 1 shows some examples and the diseases ineffective in the treatment of viral diseases.
they cause.
Most of the antibiotics we use come from bacteria or Development of resistant bacteria
fimgi that live in the soil. The function of the antibiotics
in this situation is not clear. One theory suggests that the If a course of antibiotics is not completed, some
chemicals help to suppress competition for limited fuoo of the bacteria it is being used to destroy will
resources, but the evidence does not support this theory. not be killed, but will have been exposed to cl1e
One of the most prolific sources of antibiotics is drng. Some of the survivors may be drng-resisrant
Actinomycetes. These are filamentous bacteria that mutants. When cl1ey reproduce, all their offspring
resemble microscopic mould fungi. The actinomycete will have cl1e drug resistance, so the antibiotic will
Streptomycesproduces the antibiotic streptom yci n . bec.ome less effective (Figure 15.1 ).
15 DRUGS
One rype of bacteria that has developed resistance resistant strains developing. Patients need to be
to a number of widely used antibiotics is called aware of the importance of completing a course of
MRSA (methicillin-resisrant Staphylococcus aureus). antibiotics, again to reduce the risk of development
These types ofbacteria are sometime referred of resistant strains.
to as 'superbugs' because they are so difficult to
treat. Stapby/ococcus aureus is \·ery common and Antibiotics and viral diseases
is found living harmlessly on the skin, the nose
and throat, sometimes causing mild infections. It Antibiotics are not effective against viral diseases.
becomes dangerous if there is a break in the skin, This is because antibiotics work by disrupting
allowing it to infect internal organs and causing structures in bacteria such as cell walls and
blood poisoning. This can happen in hospitals with membranes, or processes associated with protein
infection during operations, especially ifhrgiene synthesis and replication of DNA. Viruses have totally
precautions are not adequate. different characteristics to bacteria, so antibiotics do
Doctors now have to be much more cautious not affect them. Compare the image of a virus in
about prescribing antibiotics, to reduce the risk of Figure 1.34 with that ofa bacterium in Figure 1.29.
many of our present-day drugs are derived from or

• Extension work based on plant products. Quinine, for example, was
used for the treatment of malaria and was extracted
Ideas about a nt ibiotics from a specific kind of tree bark.
In 1935 , a group of chemicals called
Alexande r Fl em ing (188 1- 195 5)
sulfanilamides were found to be effective against
Before 1934 there were few effective drugs. Some some bacterial diseases such as blood poisoning,
herbal preparations may have been usefiil; after all, pneumonia and septic wollllds.
Misused drugs
Fleming had discovered penicillin in 1928, 7 years Two research assistants at St Mary's then tried
before the use of sulfanilamides, but he had been to obtain a pure sample of penicillin, free from all
unable to purify it and test it on humans. Fleming the other substances in the broth. Although they
was a bacteriologist working at St Mary's Hospital succeeded, the procedure was cumbersome and the
in London. In 1928, he was studying different product was unstable. By this time, Fleming seemed
strains of Stapby/ococcus bacteria. He had made to have lost interest and to assume that penicillin
some cultures on agar plates and left them on the would be too difficult to extract and too unstable to
laboratory bencl1 during a 4 -week holiday. When he be of medical value.
returned he noticed that one of the plates had been In 1939, Howard Florey (a pathologist) and
contaminated by a mould fungus and that around Ernst Chain (a biochemist), working at Oxford
the margins of the mould there was a clear zone with University, succeeded in preparing reasonably
no bacteria growing (Figure 15.2 ). pure penicillin and making it stable. Techniques of
extraction had improved dramatically in 10 years and,
in particular, freeze -drying enabled a stable water-
soluble powder form of penicillin to be produced.
\Vorld War II was an urgent incentive for the
production of penicillin in large quantities and this
undoubtedly saved many lives that would otherwise
have been Jost as a result of infected wounds.
Once Ernst Chain had worked out the molecular
srnKture of penicillin, it became possible to modify it
chemically and produce other forms of penicillin that
attacked a difli:rent range ofbacteria or had difli:rent
properties. For example, ampicillin is a modified penicillin
that can be taken by mouth rather than by injection.
Because penicillin was the product ofa mould,
chemists searcl1cd for other moulds, particularly
those present in the soil, which might produce
Figure 15.2 Appe.iranceofthe5tap/lylococruscolo niesonf1eming~
petridish
antibiotics. A large number of these were discovered,
including streptomycin (for tuberculosis),
Fleming reasoned that a substance had diffused out chloramphen.icol (for typhoid), aureomycin and
of the mould colony and killed the bacteria. The terramycin (broad spectrum antibiotics, which attack
mould was identified as Pmici//iwm notatum and a wide range ofbacteria ). The ideal drug is one that
the supposed anti-bacterial chemical was called kills or suppresses the growth ofharmful cells, such
penicillin. Fleming went on to culture the as bacteria or cancer cells, without damaging the
Penici//ium on a liquid meat broth medium body cells. Scientists have been trying for years to
and showed that the broth contained penicillin, find a 'magic bullet' that 'homes in' exclusively on its
which suppressed the growth of a wide range target cells. For bacterial diseases, antibiotics come
of bacteria. pretty close to the ideal, though the bacteria do seem
able to develop resistant forms after a few years.
wellbeing and freedom from anxiety. They can both

• Misused drugs lead to tolerance and physical dependence within
weeks, so they are prescribed \\ith caution, to patients
Narcotics in severe pain.
Heroin, morphine and codeine belong to a group of The illegal use ofheroin has terrible effects on the
drugs called narcotics, made from opium. Heroin unfornmate addict. The overwhelming dependence
and morphine act as powerful depressants: they on the drug leads many addicts into prostitution
relieve severe pain and produce short-lived feelings of and crime in order to obtain the money to buy it.
15 DRUGS
There are severe ,,ithdrawal symptoms when an Alcohol causes vasodilation in the skin, giving a
addict tries to give up the drug abruptly. These sensation of warmth but in fuct leading to a greater
symptoms are called going 'cold turkey' and can loss of body heat (see 'Homeostasis' in Chapter 14 ).
include anxiety, muscle aches, sweating, abdominal A concenrration of 500 mg of alcohol in 100cm3 of
cramping, diarrhoea, nausea and vomiting. A 'cure' is blood results in unconsciousness. Mote than tl1is "ill
a long and often unsuccessful process. cause death because it stops the breathing centre in
Additional hazards are that blood poisoning, the brain. 1l1e liver treats alcohol as a toxin: 90% of
hepatitis and AIDS may result from tl1e use of alcohol wken in is detoxified in tl1e liver (along witl1
unsterilised needles when injecting tl1e drug. other toxins). 1l1e process of detoxification involves
Codeine is a less effective analgesic than morphine, the oxidation of alcohol to carbon dioxide and water.
but does not lead so easily to dependence. It is still Only 10% is excrered by the kidneys. On average,
addictive if used in large enough doses. the liver can oxidise about 75 mg alcohol per 1 kg
body weight per hour. 1l1is rate varies considerably
A lcohol from one indhidual to tl1e next but it indicates that
1l1e alcohol in "ines, beer and spirits is a depressant it would wke about 3 hours to oxidise the alcohol in
oftl1e central nervous system. Small amounts give a pint of beer or a glass of wine. If the alcohol inwke
a sense of wellbeing, with a release from anxiety. exceeds this rate of oxidation, the level of alcohol in
However, this is accompanied bya full -off in the blood builds up to toxic propottions; tl1at is, it
performance in any activity requiring skill. It also gives leads to intoxication.
a misleading sense of confidence in spite of the fuct Some people build up a tolerance to alcohol
that one's judgement is clouded. A drunken driver and tl1is may lead to both emotional and physical
usually thinks he or she is driving extremely well. dependence (alcoholism). High doses of alcohol can
Even a small amomu of alcohol in the blood increases cause the liver cells to form too many fut droplets,
our reaction time ( the interval between receiving a leading to the disease called cirrhosis. A cirrhotic
stimulus and making a response). In some people, the liver is less able to stop poisonous subswnces in
reaction time is doubled even when the alcohol in the the intestinal blood from reaching the general
blood is well below tl1e le&tl limit laid down for car circulation.
drivers (Figure 15.3 ). This can make a big diffi:rence
to tl1e time needed for a driver to apply the brakes after Preg nancy
seeing a hazard sucl1 as a child rum1ing into the road. Drinking alcohol during pregnancy can present a
majot risk to the developing fetus. Further details are
people most given in Chapter 16.
affected by
alcohol
Behavio ur
Alcohol reduces inhibitions because it depresses tl1at
part of tl1e brain which causes shyness. This may
be considered an advantage in 'breaking the ice' at
parties. But it can also lead to irresponsible behaviour
people least
affected by such as ,·andalism and aggression.
alcohol
Mode rat e drin k in g
A moderate inwke of alcoholic drink seems to do
little physiological harm (except in pregnant women).
But what is a 'moderate' inwke?
A variety of drinks that all contain the same
amount of alcohol is shown in Figure 15.4. Beer
80 100 is a fuirly dilute form of alcohol. Whisky, however,
alcohol concentration In blood/ is about 40% alcohol. E\·en so, half a pint of beer
mg per100cm 1 blood contains the same amount of alcohol as a single
Figure 15.3 IOOl'a'il'dti'>k of accident,; after drinking ak:ohot Peopk>vary whisky. This amount of alcohol can be called a 'unit'.
in their reaction,; to akohol. Body weigh~ for example. makes a difference
Misused drugs
It is the number of units of alcohol, not the type Many studies have now demonstrated how
of drink, which has a physiological effect on the cigarette smoke damages lw1g cells, confirming
body. In Britain, the H ealth Development Agency that smoking docs cause cancer. The higher the
recommends upper limits of21-28 units for men and number of cigarettes smoked, the greater the risk
14-21 units for women over a I-week period at the of lung cancer.
time of pubLication of this book. Pregnant women
should avoid alcohol altogether. Chronic obstructive pulmonary di sease
(COPD)
This term covers :1. number of lung diseases, which
include chronic bro nchitis, emphysema and chronic
obstructive airways disease. A person suffering
from COPD will experience difficulties with
breathing, mainly beause of narrowing of the
airways (bronchi and bronchioles). Symptoms of
COPD include breathlessness when active, frequent
chest infections and a persistent cough with phlegm
1/zplntol 1 gl;ss 1 gl~ss ; single (sticky mucus).
beer or cider ofw1ne of sherry whisky
Flgu re 1s., Ak:oholcontentofdrinl:1.Allthesedr!nKscontainthe Emphysema
S,l/Tll! ~moun t of alcohol (1 unit). Altha.Jgh the ~koho! Is more dilute in
Emph yscm:1 is :1. breakdown of the alveoli. The
thebeerffi4n In the whisky. ith ~sthe 1>ameeffect on the body.
action of one or more ofthe substances in tobacco
smoke weakens the walls o f the alveoli. The irritant
Smoking substances in the smoke cause a 'smokers' cough '
111<: short-term effects of smoking cause the and the coughing bursts some of the weakened
bronchioles to constrict and the cilia lining the air alveoli. In time, the absorbing surf.ice of the lungs
paSSJgcs to stop beating. The smoke also makes is greatly reduced (Figure 15.5 ). TI1cn the smoker
the lining produce more mucus. Nicotine, the cannot o,cygenate his or her blood properly and
addictive component of tobacco smoke, produces the least exertion makes the person breathless and
an increase in the rate of the hearrbcat and a rise exhausted.
in blood pressure. It may, in some cases, cause an
erratic and irregular heart bear. Tar in cigarette Chronic bronchitis
smoke is thought to be the main cause ofhmg cancer The smoke stops the cilia in the air p:iss:iges from
in smokers. Carbon monoxide permanently binds beating, so the irritant substances in the smoke and
with haemoglobin in red blood cells, reduci ng the the excess mucus collect in the bronchi. This leads
smoker's ability to provide oxygen to respiri ng cells. to inflammation known as brondtitis. Over 95% of
TI1is results in a smoker getting out of breath more people suffering from bronchitis arc smokers and
easily and it reduces physial TI.mess. the y have a 20 times greater cha.nee of dying from
TI1c long-term effects of smoking may rake many bronchitis than non-smokers.
years to develop but they arc severe, disabling ;i.nd
often lethal. Heart disease
Coronary h ear t d isease is the leading cause
lung cancer of death in most developed counaies. It results
Cancer is a term used fur diseases in which cells from a blockage of coronary arteries by furry
become abnormal and dh~de o ut-of-control. They deposits. This reduces the supply of oxygenated
can then move arou nd the lx>dy and invade other blood to the heart muscle and sooner or later
tissues. A chemical that causes cancer is known as a leads to hean fuilurc (sec Chapter 9 ). High blood
C1.rcinogcn . C:1.rcinogens present in cigarette smoke, pressure, diets with too much animal fat and lack
such as tar, increase the risk of lung cells becoming of exercise arc also thought to be causes of heart
cancerous. Tumours develop. These arc balls of arrack, but about a quarter of all deaths due to
abnormal cel ls, which do nor allow gaseous exchange coronary heart disease are thought to be caused
li ke normal lung cells. by smoking (sec Figure 9.12 ).
15 DRUGS
Other risks
About 95% of patients wirl1 disease of the leg arteries
are cigarette smokers; rliis condition is the most
frequent cause ofleg amputations.
Strokes due to arterial disease in the brain are more
frequent in smokers.
Cancer of the bladder, ulcers in the stomach and
duodenum, tooth decay, gum disease and tuberc.ulosis
all occur more frequently in smokers.
Babies born to women who smoke during
pregnancy are smaller than average, probably as a
result of reduced oxygen supply caused by rl1e carbon
monoxide in die blood. In smokers, rliere is twice the
frequency of miscarriages, a 50% higher still-birth rate
and a 26% higher death rate of babies.
A recent estimate is that one in every three smokers
will die as a result of rlieir smoking habits. Those who
do not die at an early age will probably be seriously
disabled by one of the conditions described abo,·e.
Passive smoking
It is not only the smokers themselves who are
harmed by tobacco smoke. Non-smokers in die same
room are also affected. One study has shown that
children whose parents both smoke brearlie in as
much nicotine as if they were rl1emselves smoking
SO cigarettes a year.
Statistical studies also suggest that the non-smoking
wives of smokers have an increased cliance of
(b) Lung tissue frnm a per;oo with emphr,ema . This is the s.me
lung cancer.
magnificatioo.is(a). Thealvooliha,,,ebroKendc:M'nleavingonlyabout
fiveair1ac1,whic:hprovideamuchrl.'ducedabsorb ing1urface Reducing the risks
Flgure15.5 Emphysema By giving up smoking, a person who smokes up
to 20 cigarettes a day will, after 10 years, be at no
The nicotine and carbon monoxide from cigarette
greater risk than a non-smoker ofrlie same age.
smoke increase the tendency for the blood to clot and
A pipe or cigar smoker, provided he or she does not
so block the coronary arteries, already partly blocked
inhale , is at less risk rlian a cigarette smoker but still
by fatty deposits. llie carbon monoxide increases
at greater risk rl1an a non-smoker.
the rate at which the fatty material is deposited in
die arteries.
How heroin affects the nervous messenger called a neurotransmitter is released into
system the gap. When it reaches rl1e neurone on die other
side, receptor molecules are stimulated to generate
As described in Chapter 14, heroin produces its and release new electrical impulses. Heroin mimics
effects by interacting wirli receptor molecules at the transmitter substances in synapses in die brain,
synapses. Synapses are tiny gaps between neurones, causing the stimulation of receptor molecules. This
across which electrical impulses cannot jump. To causes the release of dopamine (a neurotransmitter),
maintain die transmission of the impulse, a chemical which gives a short-lived 'high'.
Misused drugs
Evidence for a link between higher risk of dying from lung cancer is correlated
smoking and lung cancer with hea,1' smoking does not actually prove
that smoking is the cause of lung cancer. The
Although all forms of air pollution are likely ro alternative explanation is that people who become
increase the chances of lung cancer, many scientific heavy smokers are, in some way, exposed ro other
studies show, beyond all reasonable doubt, that potential causes of lung cancer, e.g. they live in
the vast increase in lung cancer ( 4000% in the last areas of high air pollution or they have an inherited
century) is almost entirely due to cigarette smoking tendency to cancer of the lung. These alternatives
(Figure 15.6 ). are not very convincing, particularly when there
is such an extensive list of ailments associated
with smoking.
TI1is is not to say that smoking is the only cause
of lung cancer or that e,•eryone who smokes will
eventually develop lung cancer. There are likely
to be complex interactions between life-styles,
environments and genetic backgrounds which could
lead, in some cases, to lung cancer. Smoking may
be only a pan, but a very important pan, of these
interactions.
Performance-enhancing hormones
In the last 30 years or so, some athletes and sports
persons have made use of drngs to boost their
performance. Some of these drugs are synthetic
forms ofhormones.
Testosterone is made in the testes of males and
is responsible for promoting male primary and
Flgure15.6 Smokingandlungcaricer.Cigarandp""1mol(ersa!l'
Pfobablyatle11 riskbecausetheyoftendonotinha~.Butnotkethat secondary sexual characteristics. Taking testosterone
theirdeathratefmmlungcaocerisstil ltwicethatofoon-smokers.They supplements (known as 'doping' ) leads to increased
areal'iOatri'ikolotherQocerssuchasmolllhandthroatcancer. muscle and bone mass. The practice therefore
has the potential to enhance a sportsperson's
There are at least 17 substances in tobacco smoke performance.
known to cause cancer in experimental animals, and Anabolic steroids are synthetic derivatives of
it is now thought that 90% oflung cancer is caused testosterone. They affect protein metabolism,
by smoking. Table 15.1 shows the relationship increasing muscle development and reducing body
between smoking cigarettes and the risk of fut. Athletic performance is thus enhanced. There
developing lung cancer. are serious long-term effects of taking anabolic
Tilble15.1 Cig.irettesmoking.illdlungcancer steroids. The list is a long one but the main effects
Number ofdgarettesperday lncreasedrtskoflu
are sterility, masculinisation in women, and liver and
kidney malfunction.
An internationally fumous athlete caught using
performance enhancing drugs was Ben Johnson
(Figure 15.7 ), who represented Canada as a sprinter.
H e gained medals in the 1987 World Championships
Correlations and causes and the 1988 Olympics, but these were withdrawn
after a urine sample rested positive for anabolic
In Chapter 9 it was explained that a correlation steroids.
between two variables does not prove that one
of the variables causes the other. The fuct that a
15 DRUGS
Because these drugs enhance performance beyond

what c.ould be achieved by normal training, they
are deemed unfuir and banned by most sports
organisations. Anabolic steroids are universally
banned but different sports regulato ry bodies have
diffi: re m rnles for other substances.
The products of the steroid hormones can
be detected in the urine and this is the basis of
most tests for banned substances . Without these
regulations, sport would become a competition
between synthetic chemical substances rather than
betv,,ee n individuals and teams.
Rgure 15.7 BenJolln500(inll.'d)beatioghis,m:hrivalCa~Lewis{in
blue).John,;onwooldlater bebanned frominternational atMetiofOf life
!Ofu1ioganabolk:steroid1
Questi ons Extende d

4 What are·
Core a theimmedia teeffects and
1 Whyaredoctorsamcemedabouttheover-useof b thelong-termeffects
a ntibiotics? of tobacco smoke on the trachea, bronchi and lungs?
2 Lista t leastfoureffectsof theexcessiveconsumptionof 5 Why does a regular smoker get out of breath sooner than a
alcohol. non-smokerofsimilarageandbuild?
3 Findoutthecostofapacketof20ciga rettes.lfaperson 6 If you smoke 20 cigarettes a day, by how much a re your
smokes 20 cigarettes a day, how much would this cost in a chancesofgettinglung cancerincreased?
year? 7 Apartfromlungcancer,whatotherdiseasesareprobably
causedby=king?
Checklist • Tolerance means that the body needs more and more of a
particulardrugtoproducethesameeffect
After studying Chapter 1S you ~ould know and understand the
• Depe ndence means that a per'iOn cannot do withou t a
following:
particular drug.
• A drug is any substance taken into the body that modifies or • Withdrawalsymptorm areunpleasantphysicaleffects
affectschemicalreactionsinthebody. experiencedbyanaddictwhenthedrugisnottaken.
• Antibiotics are used in the treatment of bacterial infections. • Tobacco smokeaffects the gaseousexchangesystembecause
• Some bacteria bemme resistant to antibiotics, wh ich reduces it contains toxic componen ts.
their effectiveness • Alcohol is a depressant drug, which slows down reaction
• Antibioticskillbacteria butnotviruses. time and reduces inh ibitions.
• Alcohol in a pregnant woman's blood can damage her fetus
• It is possible to minimise the development of resistant • The liver is the site of breakdown of alcohol and other toxins
bacteriasuch asMRSA.
• Viruseshave a differentstructuretobacteria, 'iOlheyare • Heroinisastronglyaddictivedrug,whichaffectsthe
not affected by antibiotics nervous system
• There is now strong enough evidence to provide a link
• Smokingandexcessivedrinkingrontribute toill-health. betweensmokingandlungcancer.
• Mood-influencing drugs may be useful for treating certain • Some hormones are used to improve sporting
illnessesbutaredangerousifusedforotherpurposes. performance.
@ Reproduction
Asexua l reproduction Antenatal care
Define asexual reproduction Labour and birth
Examples of asexual reproduction
Compare male and female gametes
Adv;mtagesanddisadvantagesofasexualreproduction Functionsoftheplacentaandumbilicalcord
Passageoftoxinsandvirusesacrossplacenta
Sexual reproduct ion Comparing breast feeding and bottle feeding
Define sexual reproduction and fertilisation
Sex hormon es in human s
Haploid and diploid cells Puberty,hormonesandsecondarysexualcharacteristics
Advantagesanddisadvantagesofsexualreproduction Menstrual cycle
Sexual reproduction in plants Sitesofproductionandrolesofhormonesrelatedto
Partsofinsect-pollinatedandwind-pollinatedflcmersandtheir menstrual cycle and pregnancy
functions
Define poll ination Methodsofbirthcontrolinhumans
Fertilisation Methods of birth control
Adaptations of insect-pollinated and wind-pollinated flowers
lnvestigateconditionsneededforgermination Use of hormones in fertility treatment and contraception
Artificial insemination
Define 5elf-pollination and cross-pollination In vitro fertilisation
lmplicationsofself-pollinationtoaspecies Social implications of contraception and fertility
Growth ofpollentubeandfertilisation
Sexual reproduction in human s Sexua llytransm itted infections(ST ls)

Parts of male ;md female reproductive systems Define sexually transmitted infection
Describe fertilisation HIV
Adaptivefeaturesofspermandeggs SpreadandcontrolofSTls
Development of embryo
Growth and development of fetus Hem HIV affects the immune system
No organism can live for ever, but part ofit lives Bacteria reproduce by cell division or fi ssion. Any
on in its offspring. Offspring are produced by bacterial cell can divide into two and each daugl1ter
the process of reproduction. l11is process may be cell becomes an independent bacterium (Figure 1.31 ).
sexual or asexual, but in either case it results in the In some cases, this cell division can take place every
continuation of the species. 20 minutes so that, in a \·cry short time, a large
colony ofbacteria can be produced. l11is is one
reason why a small number of bacteria can seriously
• Asexual reproduction conraminare our food products (see Chapter 10).
This kind of reproduction, without the formation of
Key def inition
Asex ua l reproductioni s theprocessresultinginthe gametes (sex cells), is called asexual reproduction.
production of genetically identical off1.pring from one
parent. Asexua l reproduction in fungi
Fungi have sexual and asexual methods of
Asexual means 'without sex' and this method of reproduction. ln the asexual method they produce
reproduction does not involve gametes (sex cells). single-celled, haploid spores. These are dispersed ,
In the single-celled protoctista or in bacteria, the cell often by air currents and, if they reach a suitable
simply divides into two and each new cell becomes an situation, they grow new hyphae, which develop into
independent organism. a mycelium (see Figures 1.25 and 1.26 ).
In more complex organisms, part of the body ma y Penici/lium and Mucorare examples of mould
grow and develop imo a separate individual. For fungi that grow on decaying food or vegerable
example, a small piece of stem planted in the soil may matter. Penicilliflm is a genus of mould fungi that
form roots and grow into a complete plant. grows on decaying vegetable matter, damp leather
16 REPRODUCTION
and citrus fruits. The mycelium grows over the food ,

digesting it and absorbing nutrients. Vertical hyphae
grow from the mycelium and , at their tips, produce
chains of spores (Figures 16.l and 16.2 ). These
give the colony a blue·green colour and a powdery
appearance (see Figure 19.17 ). The spores are
dispersed by air currents and, if they reach a suirable
substrate, grow into a new mycelium.
Flgure 16.3 A,exualreprodu ctionin Muax. Theb!.:Kkspherl."iate

sporangia that have ootyetdi'iCharged their lo,XHl."i (~1 60)
vertical
hyphae
M11cor feeds, grows and reproduces in a similar way

to Penicilliflm, but Afflcor produces spores in a
slightly different way. Instead of chains of spores at
the tips of the vertical hyphae, M11cor forms spherical
sporangia, each containing hundreds of spores
(Figure 16.3 ). These are dispersed on the feet of
insects or by the splashes of rain drops.
The gills on the underside of a mushroom or Flgure 16.S Abr..cketlungu1 . The "br..cket1·arethe!l'productJVe
toadstool (Figures 16.4 and 16.5 ) produce spores. 1truc:turl."i . Toemycelium inthetrunkfeed1 oolivingti11uearldwill
Puflballs release clouds of spores (Figure 16.6 ). eventual!y kill theltee
Flgure16.6 Pvffb~ldispersingspore1.Whena1aindrqihil1theripe Flgure16.7 llryophytlum. Toe plantletsa.-eprod\1(1.'dfromthe~af
puffba ll.acloodaf1pore1i1ejected marg in. When they fall ta the soil below. they grow ioto indl'pendent plants
Asexua l reproduction in flowe ring leaves at their nodes and very long internodes. Ar
plants (vegetative propagation) each node there is a bud that can produce nor only
Although all flowering plants reproduce sexually (that a shoot, but roots as well. Thus a complete plant
is why they have flowers ), man y of them also have may develop and take root at the node, nourished
asexual methods. for a time by food sent from the parent plant
Several of these asexual methods (also called through the stolon. Eventually, the stolon dries
'vegetative propagation' ) are described below. up and withers, leaving an independem daughter
When vegetative propagation takes place namrally, it plam growing a short distance away from the
usually results from the growth of a lateral bud on a parent. In this way a strawberry plant can produce
stem which is close to, or under, the soil. Instead of many daughter plants by vegetative propagation in
just making a branch, the bud produces a complete addition to producing seeds.
plant with roots, stem and leaves. When the old stem In many plants, horizontal shoots arise from
dies, the new plant is independent of the parent that lateral buds near the stem base , and grow under
produced it. the ground . Such underground horizontal
An unusual method of vegetative propagation is stems are called rhizomes. Ar the nodes of
shown by Bryophyllum (Figure 16.7 ). the rhizome are buds, which may develop to
produce shoots above the ground. The shoots
Sto lons and rhizomes become independent plants when the connecting
The flowering shoots of plams such as rhe rhizome dies.
strawberry and the creeping buttercup are very Many grasses propagate by rhizomes; the couch
short and, for the most part, below ground. The grass (Figure 16.9 ) is a good example. Even a small
stems of shoots such as these are called roots tocks. piece of rhizome , provided it has a bud, can produce
The rootstocks bear leaves and flowers. After the a new plant.
main shoot has flowered, the lateral buds produce In the bracken, the entire stem is horizontal
long shoots, which grow horizontally over the and below ground. The bracken fronds you see in
ground (Figure 16.8 ). These shoots are called summer are produced from lateral buds on a rhizome
stolons (or 'runners'), and have only small, scale- many centimetres below the soil.
16 REPRODUCTION
,...,.,
leaf
~ . ~f~"-·'i /"ctr
.. fruit new new
bod ~ .•..... " .. '"·~

... ,. df=d
,hort><=
<·=··~"
~/l\\l
I I~
''fr
.- ' -. -
"'~ -
''r' '""""'
~ .•
, L
late,albudfo,ms a ,unne,(stolon)
Flgure 16.8 Strawbenyrunnerdevelopingfromroot5toc:k
next year's
terminal
bod
Flgure 16.9 Couchgra-;1rhizDme Mll\1\----- - remalns

of leaves
Bulbs a nd co rm s
Bul bs such as those of the daffodil and snowdrop are
very short shoots. The srem is only a few millimerres
long and the leaves which encircle the stem are thick
and fleshy with stored food.
In spring, the stored food is used by a rapidly
growing terminal bud, whid1 produces a flowering
stalk and a small number ofleaves. During the
growing season, food made in the leaves is sent to the
leafbases and stored. l11e leaf bases swell and form a
new bulb ready for growth in the following year.
Flgure 16.10 Oaffodilbulb;vl'(}l'talil'l'll'productioo
Vegetative reproduction occurs when some of
the food is sent to a lateral bud as well as to the leaf
bases. The lateral bud grows inside the parent bulb In many cases the organs associated with asexual
and, next year, will produce an independent plant reproduction also serve as food stores. Food in the
(Figure I 6.l0 ). storage organs enables very rapid growth in the
The corms of crocuses and anemones have life spring. A great many of the spring and early summer
cycles similar to those of bulbs but it is the stem, plants have bulbs, corms, rhizomes or tubers: daffodil,
rather than the leafbases, which sv.'ells with stored snowdrop and bluebell, crocus and cuckoo pint, iris
food. Vegetative reproduction takes place when and lily-of-the -valley and lesser celandine.
a lateral bud on the short, fut stem grows into an Potatoes are stem tu bers. Lateral buds at the base
independent plant. of the potato shoot produce underground shoots
Asexual reproduction
(rhizomes). These rhizomes swell up with stored plants. This can be done naturally, e.g. by planting
starch and form tubers (Figure 16. l l (a)) . Because potatoes, dividing up rootstocks or pegging down
the mbers are stems, they have buds. If the tubers stolons at their nodes to make them take root.
are left in the ground or transplanted, the buds l11ere are also methods that would nor occur
will produce shoots, using food stored in the tuber naturally in the plant's life cycle. Two methods of
(Figure 16.ll (b )) . In this way, the potato plant can artificial propaga tion are by taking cuttings and by
propagate vegetatively. tissue culture.
Cuttings
It is possible to produce new individuals from certain
plants by putting the cut end of a shoot into water
or moist earth. Roots (Figure 16.12 ) grow from
the base of the srem into the soil while rhe shoot
continues to grow and produce leaves.
(a) rootsdevelopingfmm8usy (b) rootsgrowingfmmColeus

Lizzie stem rutting
Flgure16.12 Rootedrnttings
In practice, the cut end of the stem may be treated

with a rooting 'hormone' (a type of auxin - see
'Tropic responses' in Chapter 14 ) to promote
root growth, and evaporation from the shoot is
reduced by covering it with polythene or a glass jar.
Carnations, geraniums and chrysanthemums are
commonly propagated from cuttings.
Tissue culture
Once a cell has become part of a tissue it usually
loses the ability to reproduce. H owever, the nucleus
of any cell in a plant still holds all the 'instructions'
Flgure16.11 Stemtubersgrowi ng ona potatop!antanda potato ( Chapter 17) for making a complete plant and in
tubersprooting
certain circumstances they can be brought back
into action.
Artificial propagation In laboratory conditions, single plant cells can be
Agriculture and horticulture exploit vegetative induced to divide and grow into complete plants.
reproduction in order to produce fresh stocks of One technique is to take small pieces of plant tissue
16 REPRODUCTION
from a root or stem and treat it with enzymes to

separate it into individual cells. The cells are then
provided with particular plant 'hormones', which
induce cell division and, eventually, the formation of
roots,stemsand leaves.
An alternative method is to start with a small
piece of tissue and place it on a nutrient jelly. Cells
in the tissue start to divide and produce many
cells, forming a shapeless mass called a callus. If
the callus is then provided with the appropriate
hormones it develops inro a complete plant
(Figure 16.13 ).
r-i
Rgure 16.14 Tissue rnlture . l'!ant1 grown fmm ,;mall amounl5 of
un~alised tissue oo an agar culture medium
Asex ual reproducti o n in animals

Some species of invertebrate animals are able to
J~(<)
reproduce asexually.
Hydra is a small animal, 5- lOmm long, which
lives in ponds attached to pondweed. It traps small
animals with its tentacles, swallows and digests
them. Hydra reproduces sexually by releasing
Flgure 16.1 3 Propagationbytis'illernltureusingnutrientje lly its male and female gametes into the water but
it also has an asexual method, which is shown in
Using the technique of tissue culture, large numbers Figure 16.15.
of plants can be produced from small amounts of
tissue (Figure 16.14 ) and they have the advantage
of being free from fungal or bacterial infections.
The plants produced in this way form clon es,
because they have been produced from a single
parent plant.
,oi :•1-~~
W 00
Flgure 16.1 5 AsexualreproductioninHydra
W 00
(a) agroupofcell1onthernlumn1tartdividingrapidlyandprndLKeabulge
(b) thebulgedevelopsll'fltades
(c) thedaughterHydrapullsitse/fofftheparent
(d) thedaughterbecome1anindepl'fldentanimal (e) Hydrawithbud

Sexual reproduction
The advantages and disadvantages Dispersal

of asexual reproduction A plant that reproduces vegetatively will already be
gro,ving in a favourable situation, so all the offspring
TI1e ad\'antages and disadvantages of asexual ,viii find themselves in a suitable environment.
reproduction discussed below are in the context However, there is no vegetative dispersal mechanism
of flowering plants. However, the points made and the plants will grow in dense colonies,
are equally applicable to most forms of asexual competing \\ith each other for water and minerals.
reproduction. TI1e dense colonies, on the other hand , leave little
In asexual reproduction no gametes are involved room for competitors of other species.
and all the new plants are produced by cell division As mentioned before, most plants that reproduce
( 'Mitosis', Chapter 17) from only one parent. vegetatively also produce flowers and seeds. In this
Consequently they are genetically identical; way they are able to colonise more distant habitats.
there is no variation. A population of genetically
Food storage
identical indh•iduals produced from a single
parent is called a clone. This has the advantage TI1e store of food in mbers, tap roots, bulbs,
of preserving the 'good' characteristics of a etc. enables the plants to grow rapidly as soon
as conditions become favourable. Early growth
successful species from generation ro generation.
The disadvantage is that there is no variability for enables the plant to flower and produce seeds before
natural selection ( Chapter 18 ) to act on in the competition ,vith other plants (for water, mineral
salts and light) reaches its maximum. This must be
process of evolution.
In agriculture and hor ticulture, asexual particularly important in woods where, in summer,
the leaf canopy prevents much light from reaching
reproduction (vegetative propa&1tion) is exploited
the ground and the rree roots tend to drain the soil
to preserve desir.i.ble qualities in crops: the good
char.i.cteristics of the parent are passed on to all the of moismre over a wide area.
offipring. With a flower such as a daffodil, the bulbs "&lble16.1 Summary: ..dvantage1;mddisadvant..ge1ola'>!':rual
produced can be guar.i.nteed to produce the same reproduction
shape and colour of flower from one gener.i.tion to Dlsadvant;ges
the next. In some cases, such as tissue culmre, the Thereisliltk>variation created,
young plants grown can be transported much more No gametes are needed madaptatiootoachanging
All the good c:haracteri1tk1of environment{evolution)isunlikely.
cheaply than, for example, potato tubers as the latter theparentarepa11edontothe !ltheparenthasooresistaoceto
are much heavier and more bulky. Growth of new offspring apartic:ulardisea'>!',nol\l'olthe
plants by asexual reproduction tends to be a quick Wherethereisnodispersal(e .g offspringwillhaveresistaoce
wilhpot.1totuber1),offspfing L.Kkofdispersal (e.g.wilhpotato
process. will grow in the same favourable tubers) can Jead to compl'tition for
In natur.i.l conditions in the wild it might be environment as the parent nutlient5,w.iterandlight
a disadvantage to have no variation in a species. Plantsttiatrepmduce asexually
u1ually1torelatg.eamou nt1of
If the climate or other conditions change and a
lood ttiat.illow r~gmwth
\'egetatively produced plant has no resistance to a whencooditiomare'illitable
particular disease, the whole population could be
wiped out.
• Sexual reproduction TI1e following statements apply equally to plants

and animals. Sexual reproduction involves the
Key def in it ions production of sex cells. These sex cells are called
Sexua l reproduction is a process involving the fusion gametes and they are made in reproductive or&1ns.
of two gametes {sex cells} to form a zygote and the TI1e process of cell division that produces the
productionofoffspringthataregeneticallydifferent gametes is called meiosis (Chapter 17). In sexual
from each other.
reproduction, the male and female &1metes come
Fert ili sation isthefu!.ionofgametenuclei.
together and fuse, that is, their cytoplasm and nuclei
16 REPRODUCTION
join together to form a single cell called a zygote. gametes and are not mobile. Pollination in seed -
The zygote then grows into a new individual (see bearing plants and mating in most animals bring the
Figure 16.30 ). male and female gametes close together.
In flowering plants the male gametes are found
in pollen grains and the female gametes, called
egg cells, are present in ovules. In animals, male ~ ,,.,m,w,m,
gametes are sperm and female gametes are eggs.
l to ovum '°"'""''
grows to
egg cell
Details of fertilisation are given later in this
chapter. ~
In both plants and animals, the male gamete is
microscopic and mobile (i.e. can move from one place
to another). TI1e sperm swim to the ovum; the pollen
8
(a) animal (b)plant
cell moves down the pollen tube (Figure 16.16 ). Figure 16.16 The male gamete is small a!ld mW le; the female
The female gametes are always larger than the male gamete is larger.
Chromosome numbers '

offspring will have resistance to disease. These plants
will survive and produce further offspring with
In normal body cells (somatic cells) the chromosomes disease resistance.
are present in the nucleus in pairs. Humans, for The seeds produced as a result of sexual
example, have 46 chromosomes: 23 pairs. Maize reproduction will be scattered over a relatively wide
(s,veercorn) has 10 pairs. This is known as the range. Some will land in unsuitable environments,
diploid number. When gametes are formed, the perhaps lacking liglu or water. These seeds will fuil
number of chromosomes in the nucleus of each sex to germinate. Nevertheless, most methods of seed
cell is halved. This is the haploid number. During dispersal result in some of the seeds establishing
fertilisation , when the nuclei of the sex cells fuse , a populations in new habitats.
zygote is formed. It gains the chromosomes from The seeds produced by sexual reproduction all
both gametes, so it is a diploid cell (see Chapter 17). contain some stored food but it is quickly used up
during germination, which produces only a miniature
The advantages and disadvantages plant. It takes a Jong time for a seedling to become
of sexual reproduction established and eventually produce seeds ofits own.
Sexual reproduction is exploited in agriculture
In plants, the gametes may come from the same and horticulture to produce new varieties of animals
plant or from different plants of the same species. In and plants by cross-breeding.
either case, the production and subsequent fusion
of gametes produce a good deal of ,·ariation among Cross-breeding
the offspring (see Chapter 18 ). This may result from
new combinations of characteristics, e.g. petal colour It is possible for biologists to use their knowledge
of one parent combined with fruit size of the other. of genetics (see 'Monohybrid inheritanc.e' in
It may also be the result of spontaneous changes in Chapter 17) to produce new varieties of plants
the gametes when they are produced. and animals. For example, suppose one variety of
Variation can have its disadvantages: some wheat produces a lot of grain but is not resistant to
combinations will produce less successful individuals. a fungus disease. Another variety is resistant to the
On the other hand, there are likely to be some more disease but has only a poor yield of grain. If these
successful combinations that have greater survival two varieties are cross-pollinated (Figure 16.17), the
value or produce individuals which can thrive in new F 1 (which means 'first filial generation') offspring
or changing environments. should be disease-resistant and give a good yield of
In a population ofplanrs that have been produced grain ( assuming that the useful characteristics are
sexually, there is a chance that at least some of the controlled by dominant genes ).
Sexual reproduction in plant5
-/,
/ 'fi(\
{': " ~, ~
YI e8
A long-term dis;idvantage of sdecth'C breeding is the
loss of \':lriabiliry. By eliminating all the offspring who
do nor bear the desired characteristics, many genes are
lost from the population. At some future dare, when
new combinations of genes arc sought, some of the
potentially useful ones may no longer be available.
You will find more information on cross-breeding
in 'Selection', Ch:iptcr 18.
"Dble16.2 Summ;ny:idv~s~ddis;idv;;JnugesofseXUil
"""
hlghyleld (H) \(. hi,..
lowyleld(hl
~it
repmdllctlon
low reffitarice (r) high reslmnce (R)
Advanbgff
Thell! isvarlidlonlntht l'woparentsamuw;ilyneedtd
-~.
offspring.so.idaptiltiontoa (thoughrDl~-someplants
cl'wngingornewE'l"lVironrrent canself-pollin.te)
is li~ely. el\ilblingsur.11/.11 of the Growth of a new plant to maturity
lmm.iseedisslow.
Newv.irietiesc.inbecre.1ted,
which~yhawreslst.1nceto
di<;u§I!
lnpl.lnts.seeds.1repmduced,
(Hh\ F1 seeds glv& rise to pl;mts with
whichalowdlspers.;il'ifflilj
~hlghyleld;mdhlghrfflstan<:e
fromtheparentp!Mlt,reducing
flgLl,.16.17 Combmingusefulch~xteristics competition
female gamete (i.e. from stamen to stigma) is called

• Sexual reproduction in pollination. TI1e pollen grain grows a microscopic tube,
plants which carries the male gamete the last few millimetres
to reach the female gamete for fertilisation. 11,e zygote
Flowers arc reproductive srrucrnrcs; they contain the
then grows to form the seed. These processes arc all
reproductive organs of the plant. The male organs
described in morc detail later in this chapter.
arc rhe stamens, which produce pollen. The female
organs arc the carpels. Afi:cr fenilis:1tion, part of the Flower structure
carpel becomes the fruit of chc plant and contains the
TI1e basic structure of a Rower is shown in
seeds. ln the flowers of most planr:s there are 00th Figures 16. 18 and 16.21.
stamens and carpels. TI1ese flowers arc, therefore,
OOrh male and female, a condition known as bisexual Petals
or hermaphrodite. Petals are usually brightly coloured and sometimes
Some species of plants have tmiscxual flowers, i.e. seemed. They arc .1.rranged in a circk ( Figure 16. 18 )
any one flower will contain either stamens or carpels or a cylinder. Most fl owers ha\·e from four to ten
bur nor both. Sometimes both male and female petals. Sometimes they arc joined together to form
flowers arc present on the same plant, e.g. the hazel, a tube (Figures 16.20 and 16.21 ) and the individual
which has male and female catkins on the same tree. petals can no longer be distinguished. 111c colour and
In rhc willow tree, on the other lund , the male and seem of rhe petals attract insects to rhe flower; the
female catkins are on different trees. insects may bring about pollination.
The male gamete is a ceUin the pollen grnin. The The flowers of grasses and many trees do not ha\·e
female gamete is an egg cell in the ovule. llte process petals but small, leaf-like structures tl1at enclose the
that brings the male gamete within reach of the reproductive organs (Figures 16.28 and 16.29).
16 REPRODUCTION
Flgure16.21 Oaffodilflower. Outlinedrawir,go f figure 16.20. In

Figure 16.18 W. llftower; structure of flower (of\l' sepal. two daffodi~. lil H's, tul ips. etc. {monoc ots)there is no dislill(lio n between
peta!:land1tamenremoved) 5ep,1l1 arldpetal1
Sepals
petal
Outside the petals is a ring of sepals. They are often
green and much smaller than the petals. They may
protect the flower when it is in the bud.
Stamens
The stamens are the male reproductive organs of a
'"'!h"
~,.
flower. Each stamen has a sralk called the filament,
~,.,gma ~ ~"''
with an anther on the end. Flowers such as the
buttercup and blackberry have many stamens; others
such as the tulip have a small number, often the
nectary · same as, or double, the number of petals or sepals.
. tl longitudinal Each anther consists of four pollen sacs in which the
peas, section
stamens. pollen grains are produced by cell division. When the
fil ament sepals
removed anthers are ripe, the pollen sacs split open and release
sepal carpel their pollen (see Figure 16.26 ).
Flgure1 6.19 Aoralpartsofwallflower
Pollen
Insect-pollinated flowers tend to produce smaller
amounts of pollen grains (Figure 16.22(a)), which
are often round and sticky, or covered in tiny spikes
to attach to the fitrry bodies of insects.
Wind-pollinated flowers tend to produce
larger amowus of smooth, light pollen grains
(Figure 16.22(b)), whid1 are easily carried by rhe
wind. Large amounts are needed because much of
the pollen is lost: there is a low chance ofit reaching
another flower of the same species.
Carpels
These are the female reproductive organs. Flowers
such as the buttercup and blackberry have a large
Flgure16.20 Oaffodilflowerrntinhatf. The innerpetalskxmatube
number of carpels while others, sud1 as the lupin,
Three1tamema1evi1ibleroundthe lon gstyk>andtheovarycootaim have a single carpel. Each carpel consists ofan ovary,
manyovuk>I bearing a style and a stigma.
Sexual reproduction in plants
Inside the wings are two more petals joined together

to form a boat-shaped keel.
TI1e single carpel is long, narrow and pod shaped,
\\ith about ten ovules in the ovary. The long style
ends in a stigma just inside the pointed end of the
keel. There are ten stamens: five long ones and five
short ones. Their filaments are joined together at the
base to form a sheath around the ovary.
TI1e flowers of peas and beans are very similar to
those of lupins.
(a) insect-bomepoHengr~ns (b) wind-bome pollengraim
Flgure16.22 Pcilengrains
wing
Inside the O\'ary there are one or more ovules.

Each blackberry ovary contains one ovule but the
wallflower ovary contains several. The ovule will
become a seed, and the whole ovary will become a
fruit. (In biology, a fruit is the fertilised ovary of a
flower, not necessarily something to eat. )
TI1e style and stigma project from the top of the
ovary. The stigma has a sticky surface and pollen
grains ,,ill stick to it during pollination. The style
may be quite short (e.g. wallflower, Figure 16.18 ) or
very long (e.g. daffodil, Figures 16.20 and 16.21 ).
Receptacle
TI1e flower structures just described are all attached
to the expanded end of a flower stalk. This is called
the receptacle and, in a few cases after fertilisation,
it becomes fleshy and edible (e.g. apple and pear).
Lupin ovule ovary

TI1e lupin flower is shown in Figures 16.2 3 to Flgure16.23 Hatf-flower of lupin
16.25. There are five sepals bur these are joined
together forming a short tube. The five petals are TI1e shoots or branches of a plant carqing groups
of different shapes and sizes. The uppermost, called of flowers are called inflorescences. The flowering
the standard , is held vertically. Two petals at the shoots of the lupin in Figure 16.25 are inflorescences,
sides are called wings and are partly joined together. each one carrying about a hundred individual flowers.
(a) lntact (b) onewlngremoved (c) onesldeofkeelremoved

Flgure16.24 Lupinflowerdissected
16 REPRODUCTION
wtngsandkeelaredepressed
bythebee'swelght
Key definition
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to Rgure16.27 Pollinatk>nof thelupin
the stigma.
has collected in the tip of the keel and, as the petals
The transfer of pollen from the anthers to the are pressed down, the stigma and long stamens push
stigma is called pollination. TI1e anthers split the pollen out from the keel on to the underside of
open, exposing the microscopic pollen grains the bee (Figure 16.27). TI1e bee, with pollen grains
(Figure 16.26). TI1e pollen grains are then carried sticking to its body, then flies to another flower. If
away on the bodies of insects, or simply blown by the this flower is older than the first one, it will already
wind, and may land on the stigma of another flower. have lost its pollen. When the bee's weight pushes
the keel down, only the stigma comes out and
Insect pollination touches the insect's body, picking up pollen grains on
Lupin flowers have no nectar. The bees that visit its stickysurfuce.
them come to collect pollen, which they take back to Lupin and wallflower are examples ofinsect ·
the hive for food. Other members of the lupin family pollinated flow ers.
(Leguminosae, e.g. clover) do produce nectar.
The weight of the bee, when it lands on the Wind pollination
flower's wings, pushes down these two petals and Grasses, cereals and many trees are pollinated not
the petals of the keel. The pollen from the anthers by insects but by wind currents. The flowers are
often quite small with inconspicuous, green, leaf-like Most insect-pollinated flowers have brightly
bracts, rather than petals. They produce no nectar. coloured petals and scent, which attract a variety of
111c anthers and stigma arc not enclosed by the bracts insects. Some flowers produce nectar, which is also
but arc exposed to the air. The pollen grains, being attractive to many insects. The dark lines ('honey
light and smooth, may be carried long distances by guides' ) on petals arc believed to help direct the
the moving air and some of them will be trapped on insects to the nectar source and thus bring them into
the stigmas of other flowers. contact with the stamens and stigma.
In the grasses, at first, the feathery stigmas 1l1csc features are adaptations to insect pollination
protrude from the flower, and pollen grains floating in general, but are not necessarily associated with any
in the air arc crapped by them. Later, the anthers particular insect species. The various petal colours
hang outside the flower (Figures 16.28 and 16.29 ), and the nectaries of the wallflower attract a variety of
the pollen sacs split and the wind blows the pollen insects. Many flowers , however, have modifications
away. This sequence varies between species. that adapt them to pollination by only one type or
If the brancl1cs of a bircl1 or hazel tree ,vith ripe species of insect. Flowers such as the honeysuckle,
male catkins, or the flowers of the ornamcmal pampas ,vith narrow, deep petal tubes, arc likely to be
grass, are shaken, a shower of pollen can easily be seen. pollinated only by moths or butterflies, whose long
'tongues' can reach down the tube to the nectar.
Tube -like flowers such as foxgloves need to be
visited by fairly large insects to effect pollination.
111c petal tube is often lined ,,ith dense hairs, which
impede small insects that would take the nectar
\\ithout pollinating the flower. A large bumble-bee,
however, pushing into the petal tube, is forced to rub
against the anthers and stigma.
Many tropical and sub-tropical flowers are adapted
to pollination by birds, or even by mammals such as
bats and mice.
Wind-pollinated flowers are adapted to their method
of pollination by producing large quantities of light
pollen, and having anthers and stigmas that project
outside the flower (Figures 16.28 and 16.29). Many
grasses have anthers that arc not rigidly attached to the
filaments and can be shaken by the wind. 111c stigmas
of grasses are feathery, providing a large surface area,
and act as a net that traps passing pollen grains.
Flgure 16.28 Grassfklwers. Noteth.itthe.inthershang

ffeelyoot1idethetJract1
Adaptatio n
Insect-pollinated flowers are considered to be adapted
in various ways to their method of pollination. 111c
term 'adaptation' implies that, in the course of
Flgure 16.29 Wiml-pollin.itedgrassfklwer
evolution, the structure and physiology of a flower
ha\'C been modified in ways that impro,'c the chances Table 16.3 compares the features of\\ind- and insect·
of successful pollination by insects. pollinated flowers.
16 REPRODUCTION
Table163 FeatutESofwind-andinsect-pollinatedllOY\lm
lnsect-po nlnated Wlnd-po nlnated
petals present - oftenlarge,colouredando;cented,withguklelinesto abo;en~ or small,greenarid inrnmpku()\)1
uidein'>l'(tsintothellOY\ll'f
producedbynect.aries,toattractinsect1
long fila ments, allOY11ingthea nther1toharigfl!'elyoutlidethe
flower so the DOiien ~ exoosed to the wind
1t~m.:11 1mall1urfacearea;imidetheflOY11er largeandfeathery;h,mgingoutlidethe flowertoutdl pollen
caniedbythewind
pollen 1m.illl'f amounts; graim are often round and 'itidy or covered larger amounl:5 of smooth and light pollen grains, whkh are
inspike1toattachtothefurry bodiesofinsects easi!ycarriedbythewind
bract1 (modilied
le.wes)
• Putadropofwaterononesideoftheslide,justtouching
Practical work theedgeofthecoverslip,anddrawitunderthecoverslipby
holding apieceoffilterpaperagainsttheoppositeedge. This
willremoveexces.5stain.
The growth of pollen tubes • lfthesquashpreparationisnowexaminedunderthe
Method A microscope, pollen tubes may be seen growing between the
spread-outcellsofthestigma.
• Make a solution of 15gsuc:r<>5eand0.1gsodiumboratein
100cmiwater.
• Put a drop of this solution on a cavity slide and sc.atter some
pollengrainsonthedrop. This can be done by scraping an
anther (which must already have opened to expose the pollen} Fertili satio n
withamountedneedle,O(simplybytouchingtheantheron
Pollination is complete when pollen from an
the liquid drop .
• Coverthedropwithacoverslipandexaminetheslideunder
anther has landed on a stigma. If the flower is to
themicroscopeatintervalsofabout15minutes. lnsome produce seeds, pollination has to be followed by a
cases, pollen tubes may be seen growing from the grains process called fertilisation. ln all living organisms,
• Suitableplantsinc:ludelily,narcissus,tulip, bluebell.lupin, fertilisation happens when a male sex cell and a
wallflov,,,er,sweetpea (J( deadnettle,buta15%sucrose female sex cell meet and join together ( they are said
solution may not be equally suitable for all of them. It may be
to fuse together). The cell that is formed by this
necessary to experiment with solutions ranging from S to 20%.
fusion is called a zygote and develops into an embryo
ofan animal or a plant (Figure 16.30 ). The sex cells
Method B
of all living organisms are called gametes.
• Cut the stigma from a mature flower, e .g. honeysuckle, crocus, ln flowering plams, rhe male gamete is in the pollen
eveningprimroseorchickweed,andplac:e itonaslideina grain; the female gamete, called the egg cell, is in the
dropof0.5%methyleneblue.
• Squashthestigmaunderacoverslip(1fthestigmaislarge,it
ovule . For fertilisation to occur, the nucleus of the
may be safer to squash it between two slides}, and leave it for male cell from the pollen grain has to reach the female
Sminutes. nucleus of the egg cell in the ovule, and fuse with it.
themale ®~
"" m,,,D- 0- EB- @- itl_, ~

..Jl and their the fertilised egg cell •
0 0
c:!J
:;~:l~e
egg cell
0/ nuclei fuse divides many times :~~~~~~ ;~~: ?~:7dl~~f
Figure 16.30 Fertilisation. The male and female gametes fuse to form .i zygote, whi:: h grOY111 into a new individual
(Figure 16.31 (b )), now srans to elongate. TI1c

• Extension work radicle is by now firmly anchored in the soil, so the
rapidly growing hYJ>OCOtyl arches upwards throug h
Germination the soil, pulling the cotyledo ns with it ( Fig ure
111c stages of germination of a French bean arc 16.3 l (c )). Sometimes the cotyledons arc pulled out
shown in Figure 16.3 1 . of the rcsta, leaving it below the soil, and sometimes
A seed just shed from its parent pb.m contains rhc cotyledons remain enclosed in the tcsc for a
only 5-20% water, compared wit h 80-90% in matu re rime. In either case, t he plumule is well protected
plant tissues. Once in the soil, some seeds will absorb from damage while it is being pulled through rhc
water and swell up, but will nor necessarily sran to soil, because it is enclosed between the cotyledons
germinate until other conditions a.re suitable. ( Figure l6.3l (d )) .
The radkle grows first and burstS through the Once the cotyledons arc above the soil, the
testa (Figure 16.3 l (a)). The radick continues to hypocotyl straightens up and the Je:l\"es ofrhc
grow down into the soil, pushing iu way between plumulc open out (Figure 16.3 l (e ) ). Up ro this
soil particles and small stones. Jrs rip is protected poinr, all the food needed for making new cells and
by the root cap (sec 'Warcr uptake' in C hapter 8). producing energy has come from rhe cotyledons.
Branches, called lateral roots, grow our from the TI1e main type of food sto red in the cotyledons
side of the main root and help t0 anchor it firmly is starch. Before this can be used by the growing
in the soil. On the main root and rhc lateral roots, shoot and root, the starch has to be rurncd inro
microscopic root hairs grow our. These arc fine soluble sugar. In this form, it can be transported by
outgrowths from some of the outer cells. TI1cy make the phloe m cells. TI1c change from srarch to sugar
close contact with the soil particles and absorb water in the cotyledons is brought about by enzymes,
from the spaces between them. which become acth·c as soon as the seed srarts ro
In the French ~n a region of t he embryo's
stem, the h)1JOCOtyl, just above the radiclc
hypocoryl
'elbOW1'outofsoil
~ radicl e
,., {b) {,) {d)
FlguA! 16.3 1 Germin~tion of Frtnchbe;in

16 REPRODUCTION
germinate. TI1e cotyledons shrivel as their food the energy for the many chemical changes involved
resen'e is used up, and they full off altogether soon in mobilising the food reserves and making the new
afi:er they have been brought above the soil. cytoplasm and cell walls of the growing seedling.
By now the plumule leaves have grown
much larger, mrned green and started to Importance of tcmpcranire
absorb sunlight and make their own food by In Chapter 5 it was explained that a rise in
photosynthesis (page 66). Between the plu muk tc mperam re speeds up most chemical reactions,
leaves is a growing point, which continues the including those taking place in living organisms.
upward growth of the stem and the productio n Germination, therefore, occurs more rapidly at high
of new leaves. The embryo has now become an tcmperamrcs, up to about 400C. Above 45"C, the
independent plant, absorbing water and mineral enzymes in the cells arc denatured and the seedlings
salts from the soil, carbon dioxide from the air and would be killed. Below certain temperatures
making food in its leaves. {e.g. 0--4"C) germination may not start at all in some
seeds. Howe,·cr, there is considerable "ariation in
the range of temperatures 3.t which seeds of different
The importance of water, oxygen and species ,viii germinate.
temperature in germination
Use of water in the seedling
Most seeds, when first dispersed, contain very little • Extension work
water. In this dehrdratcd SF.Ire, their mcF.ibolism is
very slow and their food reserves arc not used up. The Germination and light
dry seeds can also resist extremes of temperature and Since a great many cultivated plants are grown
desiccation. Before the metabolic changes needed for from seeds which are planted just below soil level,
germination can F.ike place, seeds must absorb water. it seems obvious that light is not necessary for
Water is absorbed firstly through the micropyle, in germination. There arc some species, however,
some species, and then th rough the testa as a whole. in which the seeds need some exposure to light
O nce the radicle has emerged, it will absorb water belore they will germin:n e, e.g. foxglO\'eS and some
from the soil, particularly thro ugh the root hairs. varieties oflenuce. In ::ill seedlings, once the shoot is
The water that reaches the embryo and cotyledons abo,·e ground, light is neccs.s.1ry for photosynthesis.
is used to:
• activate the enzymes in the seed Dormancy
• help the com·ersion of stored starch to sugar, and When plants shed their seeds in summer and
proteins to amino adds aummn, there is usually no shortage of water,
• transport the sugar in solution from the cotyledons oxygen and warmth. Yet, in a great many species,
to the growing regions the seeds do nor germinate until the fo llowing
• expand the vacuoles of new ce lls, causing the root spring. These seeds arc said to be do rmant, i.e.
and shoot to grow and the lc:wes to expand there is some internal control mechanism that
• maintain the rurgor (Chapte r 3) of the cells pre.vents immediate germination eve n though the
and thus keep the shoot upright and the leaves external condirionsaresuir.tblc.
expanded If the seeds did germinate in the aummn, the
• provide the warer needed fo r photosynthesis once seedlings might be killed by exposure to fr ost,
the plumulc and young leaves arc above ground snow and freezing conditions. Dormancy delays the
• transport salrs from the soil to the shoot. period of germinati on so that ad\·crse conditions are
avoided.
Uses of oxygen The conrrolling mechanisms arc very varied and
In some seeds the rcsra is not very permeable to are still the subject of investigation and discussion.
O:\)'gen, and the early stages of germination are The factors known to influence dormancy are
probably anaerobic (Chapter 12). The tesra when plant growth substances {see 'Tropic responses' in
soaked o r split open allows oxygen to enter. The Chapter 14 ), rhe tesra, low tempe rature and light,
oxygen is used in aerobic respiration, which pr0\1des or a combination of these.
Practical work
Experiments on the conditions for
germination
Theenviromlffltalconditionsthat mightbeexpectedtoaffect
gerrrinationaretemperature,lightintensityandtheavailability
ofwaterandair.The~ativeimJ)()l'Ulrlaofsom@ofthese
CDnditions can be tested by the experiments that follow.
1 The need for water

• Label three cootainers A, 8 and C ;md p1.1t dry cotton wool in
the bottom of each
• Place equalnumbersofsoakedseedsinallthree
• Leave A quite dry; add water to B to mah• the cotton wool
~r=~ut
"'
pyrogallkacld
' "'"i
mo11"tcotton
wool and
ressseeds
sodium
hydroxide
Figure 16.D E,:periment tosho.Ythe need foroqgen

·
• Leave the flasks for a - k at room temperature.

moist; add water to C until all the seeds are completely
covered(Figure16.32). Result
• Put lids on the containers and ~ave them all at room TheseedsinflaskBwillgerminatebuttherewillbelittleorno
temperaturefOfaweek. germination in flask A.
c:;:J
Interpretation
The main difference between flasks A and 8 is that A lads
axygen.Sincetheseedsinthisflaskhavt>notgerminated,itlooks
asifoxygenisneededlorgermination.
M»kedpeu.drycononwool
To show that the chemica!s in flask A had not killed the seeds,
the cotton wool can be swapped from A to 8. The seeds from A
~ ~
will now germinate.
Note: Sodium hydr®de absorbs carbon dioidde from lheair. The
rrixlure (sodium hyaaude + pyrogalic acid) in flask A. therefore,
wakedpe,n , soakedpNs, absorbsbothcarbondioiudeand())("/genfromlheairinthisflask.
wet cotton wool coveredwlthw.oter
lnlhecontrolfla5k.B,lhesodiumhydto)cideilbsorbscarbondiaxide
flguni1 6.32 Experlmenttoshowtheneedlorw;nerin but not oxygen. tithe seeds in 8 gem,inate. it shows that lade of
germination carbondio:oiidedidnotaffectthem,v.hereaslad::ofoxygendid.
Resu lt
The seeds in B will genninate normally. Those in A will not 3 Temperature and germination
germirwte. The seeds in C may have started to germinate but will
prob.Jblynotbeasadvancedas thoseinBandmayhaved~ • Soak50memaizegrainsforadayandlhenrollthernupin
and5tartedtodecay. three strips of moist blotting paper as shown in figure 16.34.
• P\lt the rolls into plastic bags. Place one in a refrigerator
Interpretation
(about 4°(), leave one upright in the room (about 20"C)and
Althoogh water is necessary for germination, too much of it
putthethirdinawarmplacesuchasoveraradiatoror, better,
maypreventgerminationbycuttingclowntheoxygensupplyto
inanincubatorsetto30°C.
the seed. • Becausetheseedsintherefrigeratorwillbeindarkness,the
otherseedsmustalsobeenclosedinaboxoracupboard, to
2 The need foro1tygen
excludelight.Otherwiseitcouldbeobjectedthatitwaslackof
• Set up the experiment as shown in Figure 16.33 lightratherthanlowtemperaturethataffectedgermination
• After a week, examine the seedlings and measure the length
CARE: Pyrogallicacidandsodiumhydroxideisacaustic
oftherootsandshoots.
mixture . Useeyeshi~ds,handletheliquidswithcareand
reportanyspillageatonce.
Result
• If the moist cotton wool is rolled in some Ue$5 seeds, they will
Theseedlingskeptat30°Cwillbemoreadvancedthanth05eat
stick to it. The bungs must make an airti<jlt sea! in the flask
room temperature. The grains in the refrig,eratOf may not have
and the cotton wool must not touch the solution. Pyroga!lic
startedtogerminateatall
acidandsodiumhydroxideabsorboxygenfromtheair,so
thecre$SseedsinflaskAaredeprivedofoxygen. Flask8is Inte rpretat ion
thecontrol(see'Aerobicrespiration'in(hiill)ter 12).Thisisto Seedswillnotgerminatebelowacef"laintemperature. The
show that germination can take place in these experimenta! higherthetemperature,thefasterthegermination,atleastup
conditionsprOYidedoxygenispresenL l035.--40°C.
I
16 REPRODUCTION
<op could influence the results and then try to change

only one condition at a time. The dangers are that:
·""'"'"~ ( 1) some of the variables might not be controllable,
(2 ) controlling some of the variables might also affect
the condition you want to investigate, and ( 3 ) there
bottom ::::·,::, might be a number of important variables you have
for growth
not thought of.
I
1 In your germination experiments, you were
I' unable to control the quality of the seeds, but
I had to assume that the differences between them
I would be small. lf some of the seeds were dead
I or diseased, they would not germinate in any
conditions and this could distort the results. This is
polythene bag one reason for using as large a sample as possible in
Flgure16.34 txperimentto1howtheinfluenceoftemperatureoo the experiments.
germin.ition. Roll the1eedlinrooi'itblottingiJaperand1tandthernUs 2 You had to ensure that, when temperature was the
upright in plastic bags
variable, the exclusion oflight from the seeds in the
refrigerator was not an additional variable. This was
done by putting all the seeds in darkness.
Controlling the variables 3 A variable you might not have considered could
These experiments on germination illustrate one of be the way the seeds were handled. Some seeds
the problems of designing biological experiments. can be induced to germinate more successfully by
You have to decide what conditions (the 'variables' ) scratching or chipping the testa.
Self-pollination and The term 'cross-pollination', strictly speaking,

cross-pollination should be applied only if there are genetic
differences between the two plants involved. The
flowers on a single plant all have the same genetic
Key defin itio n s
Self-pollinationisthetransferofpollengrainsfromthe constitution. The flowers on plants growing from
anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower, or the same rhizome or rootstock (see 'Asexual
a different flower on the same plant. reproduction' earlier in this chapter) will also have
Cross-pollinationisthetransferofpollengrainslrom the same genetic constitution. Pollination benveen
the anther of a flower to the stigma of a flower on a such flowers is little different from self-pollination in
differentplantofthesamespecies.
the same flower.
If a plant relies on self-pollination, the
In self-pollinating plants, the pollen that reaches disadvantage will be tl1at variation will not occur
the stigma comes from the same flower or another in subsequent generations. Those plants may
flower on the same plant. In cross-pollination, the not, therefore, be able to adapt to changing
pollen is carried from the anthers of one flower to environmental conditions. However, self-
the stigma in a flower of another plant of the same pollination can happen even if there are no
species. pollinators, since the flower's own pollen may drop
If a bee carried pollen from one of the younger onto its stigma. This means tl1at even if pollinators
flowers near the middle ofa lupin plant (Figure are scarce (perhaps because of the reckless use
16.25 ) to an older flower near the bottom, this of insecticides ) the plant can produce seeds and
would be self-pollination. If, however, the bee visited prevent extinction.
a separate lupin plant and pollinated its flowers, this Cross-pollination, on tl1e otl1er hand, will
would be cross-pollination. guarantee variation and give the plant species a
better chance of adapting to changing conditions.

Some plants maintain cross-pollination by producing
stamens (male reproductive parts) at a different
time to the carpels (female reproductive parts).
However, cross-pollinated plants do have a reliance
on pollinators to carry the pollen to other plants.
Fertilisation
TI1e pollen grain absorbs liquid from the stigma and
a microscopic pollen tube grows out of the grain.
This tube grows down the style and into the ovary,
where it enters a small hole, the mkropyle, in an
ovule (Figure 16.35 ). The nucleus of the pollen
grain travels down the pollen tube and enters the Flgure16.35 Di..g1am offertili'kllioo1howing po ltentuttt>
ovule. Here it combines with the nucleus of the egg
cell. Each ovule in an ovary needs to be fertilised by one flower to another. The Bramley, however, is
a separate pollen grain. 'self-sterile' ; pollination with its own pollen will
Although pollination must occur before the ovule nor result in fertilisation. Pollination with pollen
can be fertilised, pollination does not necessarily from a different variety of apple tree , for example a
result in fertilisation. A bee may visit many flowers Worcester, can result in successful fertilisation and
on a Bramley apple tree, transferring pollen from fruit formation.
called cotyledons. In dicor plants (see 'Feamres of

• Extension work organisms' in Chapter I ) food made in the lea\·es
of the parent plant is carried in the phloem to the
Fruit and seed formation cotyledons.
After the pollen and rhe egg nuclei have fused , The cotyledons eventually grow so large with
the egg cell divides many times and produces a this stored food that they completely enclose the
miniature plant called an embryo. This consists embryo (see Figure 16.37 ). In monocot plants
of a tiny root and shoot, with two special leaves
(a) Tomato flowers- the petals of the older flowers are shrlvelllng
Flgure16.36 Tomato; fruitfotm.ition
stigma ls still attached.

"' '
16 REPRODUCTION
(J ,1,m,1,c ,i". "'"'

posltlonofradlcle
mlcropyle
cotyledons .
cotyledon
(a)uternalappearance (b) testaremoved (cl onecotyledonremoved

Flgure 16.37 AFrenchtwanseed
(see 'Features of organisms' in Chapter l ) the

food store is laid down in a special tissue called
endosperm, which is outside the cotyledons. In both
cases the outer wall of the ovule becomes thicker
and harder, and forms the seed coat or t esta.
As the seeds grow, the ovary also becomes much
larger and the petals and stamens shrivel and full
off (Figures 16.36(b ) and 16.38 ). The ovary is
now called a fr uit (Figure 16.36 ). The biological
definition of a fruit is a fertilised ovary. It is not
necessarily edible - the lupin ovary forms a dry pod.
Figure 16.38 Lupin Haw-er afterfertilis.ation. Toe ov~ry(still with the

~ 1,1, 00,
""1'" ~V-fJ'
1tyleandstigm.1.itt.Khed)ha1gr0Ymmuchla.rgerthanthef10W"erarid
the petals have shrivelled
"t:- rnl m,mb,ao,
cytoplasm ~
contai ning yolk
• Sexual reproduction in droplets follicle cells
humans (a) ovum
Reproduction is the process of producing new

individuals. ln human reproduction the two sexes,
male and female, each produce special types of
reproductive cells, called gametes. The male gametes
are the sperm (or spermatozoa ) and the female wh"h~;; ~:~ : :.'.l,ml ailJ
gametes are the ova (singular - ovum) or eggs
{Figure 16.39 ).
~
To produce a new individual, a sperm has to
reach an ovum and join with it (fuse with it). The
sperm nucleus then passes into the ovum and the
two nuclei also fuse. This is fertilisation. The cell
formed after the fertilisation of an ovum by a sperm
is called a zygote. A zygote will grow by cell division
JbJ,p"m
Flgure 16.39 Humangametes
Sexual reproduction in humans
Flgure16.40 fertilio;atOOanddevelopmeot
to produce first an embryo and then a fully formed

animal (Figure 16.40).
In humans, the male produces millions of sperm,
while the female produces a smaller number of
eggs (usually one a month for about 40 years).
Usually only one egg is fertilised at a time; two eggs left kidney
being fertilised at the same time produces (non- bl adder(here
identical) twins. shown
displaced to
To bring the sperm close enough ro the ova for one side,
fertilisation to take place, there is an act of mating normally It
lies In front
or copulation. In mammals this act results in sperm of the uterus)
from the male animal being injected imo the female.
111e sperm swim inside the female's reproductive
uterus
system and fertilise any eggs that are present. The (In section)
zygote then grows imo an embryo inside the body of
the female.
Figure 16.41 The female reprodvctiveorgam;frontview
The human reproductive system
Fem ale
Table 16.4 summarises the functions of parts of
the female reproductive system. The eggs are
produced from the female reproductive organs uterus__,_ _ _,._,,,, ,
called ovaries. These are rwo whitish oval bodies, (In section)
3-4 cm long. They lie in the lower half of the
abdomen, one on each side of the uteru s ( Figure
16.4 1 and Figure 16.42) Close to each ovary is the
pelvlcglrdle
expanded, funnel -shaped opening of the oviduct,
the tube down which the ova pass when released
from the O\'ary. The oviduct is sometimes called the
Fallopian rnbe.
111e oviducts are narrow tubes that open into a Flgure16.42 Thelemalereprndvctrveorgan1;1idevieN
wide r tube, the uten1s or womb, lower down in the
abdomen. When there is no embryo developing in Male
it, the uterus is only about 80mm long. It leads to Table 16.5 summarises the functions of parts of the
the outside through a muscular tube, the vagina. male reproductive system. Sperm are produced in
111e cervix is a ring of muscle closing the lower end the male reproductive organs (Figures 16.43 and
of the uterus where it joins the vagina. The urethra, 16.44 ), called the testes (singular - testis). 111ese lie
from the bladder, opens into the vulva just in front outside the abdominal cavity in a special sac called
of the vagina. the scrotum. In this position they are kept at a
16 REPRODUCTION
Table164 Function1ofpamofthefemalereproductivesy1tem
Function
aringolmuscle,separatingthe vaginafrnmthe
uterus
di1ectsan 0Yum (eqg)fromtlleovaryintothe
ovid LKI
ova"' coot.1imfollide1inwtlich0Ya(e ""')arn roduced ::_.....)..-l.-- prostate
camesanovumtotheuteru1,with propu l1ion gland
providedbytinyciliainthewall; also the site of
fertilisation ; : . . \ - - = = - - -sperm duct
wtierethefetusdevelops penis
rec:eive1themalepeni1duringsexualintercoor1e;
spermaredepositl.'dhere
temperature slightly below tl1e rest of the body. This

Flgure16.44 Themalel!'productiveo«Jaris; lideview
is tl1e best temperature for sperm production.
The testes consist of a mass of sperm-producing
mbes (Figure 16.44 ). These mbes join to form Table165 Function1ofpam olthemalerepmductJl'e1ystem
ducts leading to tl1e epididymis, a coiled tube about
6 metres long on tl1e outside of each testis. The ama11oftubesin whic:h""'ITTia1estored
epididymis, in mm, leads imo a muscular sperm duct. G1nbec:omefirm,toin1ertintothevaginaof
thefemaleduringll'xll,llinterrnurseinorderto
transfer sperm
p<o'ilategland add1fluidandnutril'nt1tolp!'rrntoform!il'men
a1acthathokl1thete1te1outsidethebody,
k-.in them rnolerthan boflvte= rature
add1fluidandnutrient1to,""rmlo for m1emen
r1ghl - -i---l.- J.'I'-. spermdlJ(t mu1culartubethatli nksthete1tistotheurnthra
kidney
to al lowthepassage ofsemencootaininglp,'rm
male <YSnadthat roducl.'ll""fffi
passes1emenrnntaining 1pe1mthmughthe
peni1; alsoG11ril.'lurioefromthebl..dder
~;;~~a'""_j____!_~/~- --+~r:d~:~,i°:d Production of gametes

sperm ducts
sperm - + -- -l, to urethra Sperm production
d,ct r- - - - Ltestls The lining of the sperm-producing tubules in tl1e
"'--- --+-epldldymls testis consists of rapidly dividing cells (Figure 16.45 ).
After a series of cell divisions, the cells grow long
tails called flagellae (singular: flagellum ) and become
Flgure16.43 ThemalernproductJl'eorgans;frnnt view
sperm (Figure 16.46), which pass into the epididymis.
During copulation, the epididymis and sperm ducts
The two sperm ducts, one from ead1 testis, open into contract and force sperm out through the urethra.
the top of tl1e urethra just after it leaves the bladder. The prostate gland and seminal vesicle add fluid to
A short, coiled mbe called the seminal vesicle the sperm. This fluid plus the sperm it contains is
branches from each sperm duct just before it enters called semen, and the ejection of sperm through tl1e
tl1e prostate gland, which surrounds the urethra at penis is called ejac ulation .
this point.
The urethra passes through the penis and may Ovulation
conduct eitl1er urine or sperm at different times. l11e l11e egg cells (ova ) are present in the ovary from the
penis consists of connective tissue witl1 many blood time ofbirth. No more are formed during the female's
spaces in it. This is called erectile tissue. lifetime, but between the ages of 10 and 14 some of
dMdlngcells
gMngrlse
to sperms
capill ary
corpusluteum(formed connect ive
fromfolllclewhlchhas tissue burst open and
released Its ovum) release Its ovum
Flgure16.45 SectKl!\throoghspermiJrodocingtub<Jk.-; Flgure16.47 SectKl!\throoghal\ rNJry
Figure 16.46 Humanspe1m (~800). Thl'headofthespermha'ia Flgure16.48 MaturefollicH'asseeninasectionthmughpart ofan

!olightlydiffl'rentappearanc ewhenseen in"side" v~orin "top "vH'w. ovary (~30). Theovumi1su1mundedbyfolliclecell1. Theseproducethe
ftuidthatoccupiesmuch ofthespaceinthefollicle
the egg cells start to mature and are released, one at
ha\·e to get through this layer of cells and the
a time about every 4 weeks from alternate ovaries. As
successfitl sperm has to penetrate the zona pellucida
each ovum matures, the cells around it divide rapidly
with the aid of enzymes secreted by the head of
and produce a fluid-filled sac. This sac is called a
the sperm.
follicle (Figure 16.47) and, when mature, it projects
from the surf.tee of the ovary like a small blister Mating and fertilisation
(Figure 16.48 ). Finally, the follicle bursts and releases
the ovum with its coating of cells into the funnel of Mating
the oviduct. This is called ovulation. From here, the Sexual arousal in the male results in an erection.
ovum is wafted down the oviduct by the action of cilia That is, the penis becomes firm and erect as a result
(see 'Levels of organisation' in Chapter 2 ) in the lining of blood flowing into the erectile tissue. Arousal
of the tube. lfthe ovum meets sperm cells in the in the female stimulates the lining of the vagina to
oviduct, it may be fertilised by one of them. produce mucus. This lubricates the vagina and makes
The released ovum is enclosed in a jelly-like coat called it easy for the erect penis to enter.
the :zona pcllucida and is still surrounded by a layer In the act of copttlation, the male inserts the penis into
of follicle cells. Before fertilisation can occur, sperm the female's vagina. The sensory stimulus (sensation)
that this produces causes a reflex (see 'Nen•ous control
16 REPRODUCTION
in humans' in Chapter 14) in the male, whid1 results in The released ovum is thougl1t to survive for about
the ejaculation of semen into the top of the vagina. 24 hours; the sperm miglu be able to fertilise an
The previous paragraph is a very simple description ovum for about 2 or 3 days. So there is only a short
ofa biological event. ln humans, however, the sex act period of about 4 days each month when fertilisation
has intense psychological and emotional importance. might occur. If this fertile period can be estimated
Most people fed a strong sexual drive, which has accurately, it can be used either to ad1ieve or to avoid
little to do with the need to reproduce. Sometimes fertilisation (conception ) (see 'Methods ofbirth
the sex act is simply the meeting of an urgent physical control in humans' ).
need. Sometimes it is an experience that both man The fertilised egg has 23 chromosomes from
and woman enjoy together. Ar its 'highest' level it is the mother and 23 from the father, bringing its
both ofthese, and is also an expression of deeply felt chromosome number to 46 ( the same as other
affection within a lasting relationship. human body cells). It is called a zygote.
Fe rtili sati o n
The spenn swim through the cervix and into the Preg nancy and develop ment
uterns by wriggling movements of their tails. They The fertilised ovum ( zygote ) first divides into two
pass through the uterus and enter the oviduct, but the cells. Each of these divides again, so producing
method by which they do this is nor known for certain. four cells. The cells continue to divide in this way
If there is an ovum in the oviduct, one of the sperm to produce a solid ball of cells ( Figure I 6.50 ),
may bump into it and stick to its surfuce. TI1e acrosome an early stage in the development of the embryo.
at the head of the sperm secretes enzymes which digest This early embryo travels down the o,·iduct to rhe
part of the egg membrane. TI1e sperm then enters the uterus. Here it sinks into the lining of the uterus, a
cytoplasm of the ovum and the male nucleus of the process called im p lan t1. tio11 (Figure 16.52 (a)) . The
sperm fi.tses with rhe female nucleus. TI1is is the moment embryo continues to grow and produces new cells
of fertilisation and is shown in more detail in Figure that form tissues and organs (Figure 16.51 ). After
16.49. Although a single ejaculation may contain m•er 8 weeks, when all the organs are formed, the
three hundred million sperm, only a few hllildred will embryo is called a fetus. One of the first organs to
reach the oviduct and only one will fertilise the ovum. form is the heart, which pumps blood around the
The fi.tnction of the others is not folly understood. body of the embryo.
follicle cells
I
: :~==£:) ;--
pelluclda ~ .......____
cytoplasm
r"vI ~ (\\ ~ I (b)Folllcle cellsarescattered,posslbly

byenzyml!Sproducedbysperms.
(a) Spermsswlmtowardsovum.
(d) Sperm passes (e) The sperm

through cell nucleus and
membrane egg nucleus
and enters fuse .
cytoplasm.
Flgure 16.49 fertilisatKl nofanovum
As the embryo grows, the uterus enlarges to Placenta

contain it. Inside the uterns the embrvo becomes Soon after the ball of cells reaches the uterus, some
enclosed in a fluid-filled sac called the.amnion of the cells, instead of forming the organs of the
or water sac, which protects it from damage and embryo, grow into a disc-like structure, the placenta
prevents unequal pressures from acting on it (Figure (Figure 16.52(c)) . The placenta becomes closely
16.52(b ) and (c)) . The fluid is called amniotic fluid. attached to the lining of the uterus and is attached
111e oxygen and food needed to keep the embryo to the embryo by a tube called the umbilical cord
alive and growing are obtained from the mother's (Figure 16.52(c)) . The nervous system (brain, spinal
blood by means of a structure called the placenta. cord and sense organs) start to develop very quickly.
After a few weeks, the embryo's heart has developed
and is circulating blood through the umbilical cord
and placenta as well as through its own tissues
(Figure 16.5l (b )) . 0.\1'gen and nutrients such as
glucose and amino acids pass across the placenta to
the embryo's bloodstream. Carbon dioxide passes
from the embryo's blood ro that of the mother.
Blood entering the placenta from the mother does
nor mix with the embryo's blood.
Figure 16.53 shows the human embryo at 7 weeks
surrounded by the amnion and placenta.
Antenatal care
Figure 16.50 Humanemb!yo at the 8-cell stage (~ 23 0) with five of the 'Antenatal' or 'prenatal' refers to the period before
ce ll1 clearlyvisible. Theembryoi11uno1mdedbythezooarwlluc:ida birth. Antenatal care is the way a woman should look
after herself during pregnancy, so that the birth will
'1°
developing developi ng be safe and her baby healthy.
·~1'~
The mother-to-be should make sure that she eats
properly, and perl1aps takes more iron and folic acid
(a vitamin), than she usually does to prevent anaemia.
'IN ~.~ ~ ~
~1~
If her job is a light one, she may go on working for
the first 6 months of pregnancy. She should not do
heavy work, however, or repeated lifting or stooping.
Pregnant women who drink or smoke are more
umblllcalcord
likely to have babies with low birth weights. These
(.:i) after2weeks (b)aboutsweeks (cl Sweeks
babies are more likely to be ill than babies of normal
Flgure16.51 Humanembryo: thefirst8wM1
placenta placenta placenta
~,~'""· '''""",.,,,.,.,
..
umbil ical
embryo ,oro
(12mm)
uterus amnion
embryo
cervix (250mm)
amniotic
vagina
cavity
(a) Sweeks (b) 10weeks (c) Smonths (d) 35weeks(afewweeksbeforeblrth)

Figure 16.52 Growth an ddevelop mentintheuteru1 (oo tto sc:ate)
16 REPRODUCTION
Flg u re 16.54 Childll'nsuffelinglromtheeffectsofthalidomide
Flg ure 16.53 Human emb ryo. 7week5 (~ 1.S). Thel.'rllb!yo isendosed
intheamnioo. 1t1limbs.f!feandear-holeareclearly 'lisibk> . The.1mnion i1 lfa woman catches rubella (German measles) during
1urroundedbythep!acenta;theftuffy-kx,ldng1tmcturesaretheplacental the first 4 montl1s of pregnancy, tl1ere is a danger that
villi.wh idl penetrateinto thelining oftheuter111 . Theu mbilical rnrd the virus may affect the fems and cause abortion or still-
coonl.'ctstheembryototheplacenta
birth. Even iftl1e baby is born alive, the virus may have
caused defects of the eyes (cataracts), ears (deafoess) or
nervous system. All girls slmuld be vaccinated against
weight. Smoking may also make a miscarriage more rubella to make sure that tl1eir bodies contain antibodies
likely. So a woman who smokes should give up to tl1e disease (see Chapter 10).
smoking during her pregnancy. Alcohol can cross
the placenta and damage the fi:tus. Pregnant women Tw ins
who take as little as one alcoholic drink a day are at Sometimes a woman releases two ova when she
risk of having babies witl1 lower tl1an average birth ovulates. lfbotl1 ova are fertilised, they may
weights. l11ese underweight babies are more likely to form twin embryos, each with its own placenta
become ill. and amnion. Because the twins come from two
Heavy drinking during pregnancy, sometimes separate ova, each fertilised by a different sperm , it
called 'binge drinking', can lead to deformed is possible to have a boy and a girl. T,vins formed
babies. This risk is particularly great in the early in this way are called fra ternal twins. Altl10ugh
stages of pregnancy when the brain of tl1e fetus is tl1e y are both born witl1in a few minutes of each
developing, and can result in a condition called otl1er, they are no more alike than otl1er brothers
feta] alcohol syndrome (FAS ). At tl1at stage the or sisters.
mother may not yet be aware of her pregnancy and Another cause of twinning is when a single
continue to drink heavily. A child suffering from fertilised egg, during an early stage of cell division,
FAS can have a range of medical problems, many forms two separate embryos. Sometimes tl1ese may
associated with permanent brain damage. All levels sl1are a placenta and amnion. Twins formed from
of drinking are thought to increase tl1e risk of a single ovum and sperm must be the same sex,
miscarriage. because only one sperm (X or Y) fertilised tl1e ovum.
During pregnancy, a woman should not take any These 'one-egg' twins are sometimes called identical
drugs unless they are strictly necessary and prescribed twins because, unlike fraternal twins, they will closely
by a doctor. In the 1950s, a drug called thalidomide resemble each other in every respect.
was used to treat tl1e bouts of early morning sickness
that often occur in the first 3 months of pregnancy. Birth
Although tests had appeared to show tl1e drug l11e period from fertilisation to birth takes about
to be safi: , it had not been tested on pregnant 38 weeks in humans. l11is is called the gestation
animals. About 20% of pregnant women who took period. A fi:w weeks before the birth, the fems has
thalidomide had babies with deformed or missing come to lie head downwards in the uterns, witl1 its
limbs (Figure 16.54 ). head just above tl1e cervix (Figures 16.52(d ) and
16.55). When birth starts, the uterus begins ro contract TI1e sudden fall in temperature felt by the newly born
rhythmically. This is the beginning of what is called baby stimulates it to take its first breath and it usually
'labour'. TI1ese regular rhythmic contractions become cries. In a few days, the remains of the umbilical cord
stronger and more frequent. The opening of the cenix attached to the baby's abdomen shrivel and fall away,
gradually widens (dilates) enough to let the baby's head lea\ing a scar in the abdominal wall, called the navel.
pass through and the contractions of the muscles in
the uterus wall are assisted by muscular contractions of Indu ced bi rth
the abdomen. TI1e amniotic sac breaks at some stage Sometimes, when a pregnancy has lasted for more
in labour and the fluid escapes through the vagina. than 38 weeks or when examination shows that the
Finally, the muscular contractions of the urerns wall and placenta is not coping with the demands of the ferns,
abdomen push the baby head-first through the widened birth may be induced. This means that it is starred
cervix and vagina (Figure 16.56 ). The umbilical cord, artificially.
which still connects the child to the placenta, is tied and TI1is is often done by carefully breaking the
cut. Later, the placenta breaks away from the urerns membrane of the amniotic sac. Another method is to
and is pushed out separately as the 'afterbirth'. inject a hormone, oxytocin, into the mother's veins.
Either of these methods brings on the start of labour.
Sometimes both are used together.
Flg u re 16.55 Mode lofhum,mfetusjustbe!Ofebirth. The{ervixand Flg u re 16.56 Deliveryofababy. Theumb ilical rnrdisstilliot..ct
vaginaseemto prOYidenarrow Olannel'ifor the baby topassthmvgh
buttheyWKJeoquiteoaturally durillgl abou randdelivel)'.
Comparing male and female gametes providing energy to make the tail (flagellum ) move
and propel the sperm forward.
Figure 2.13(g) shows a sperm cell in detail. Sperm TI1e egg cell (see Figure 2. 13(h )) is much larger
are much smaller than eggs and are produced in than a sperm cell and only one egg is released each
much larger numbers (over 300 million in a single momh while the woman is fertile. It is surrounded
ejaculation ). The tip of the cell carries an acrosome, by a jelly coat, which protects the contents of the cell
which secretes enzymes capable of digesting a and prevents more than one sperm from entering
path into an egg cell, through the jelly coat, so the and fertilising the egg. The egg cell contains a
sperm nucleus can fuse with the egg nucleus. TI1e large amount of cytoplasm, which is rich in fats and
cytoplasm of the mid -piece of the sperm contains proteins. The fats act as energy stores. Proteins are
many mitochondria. TI1ey carry out respiration, available for growth if the egg is fertilised.
16 REPRODUCTION
Functions of the placenta and infect the fetus and results in major health problems,
umbilical cord including deafoess, congenital heart disease, diabetes
and mental retardation. HN is potentially futal.
The blood vessels in the placenta are very close The placenta produces hormones, including
to the blood vessels in the utems so that oxygen, oestrogens and progesterone. It is assumed
glucose, amino acids and salts can pass from the that these hormones play an important part in
mother's blood to the embryo's blood (Figure maintaining the pregnancy and preparing for birth,
16.57(a)) . So the blood flowing in the umbilical but their precise function is not known. They may
vein from the placenta carries food and oxygen to be influence the development and activity of the muscle
used by the living, growing tissues of the embryo. layers in the wall of the uterus and prepare the
ln a similar way, the carbon dioxide and urea in mammary glands in the breasts for milk production.
the embryo's blood escape from the vessels in the
placenta and are carried away by the mother's blood Feeding and parental care
in the uterus (Figure 16.57(b )). ln this way the
embryo gets rid of its excretory products. Within the first 24 hours after birth, the baby starts to
There is no direct communication between the suck at the breast. During pregnancy the mammary
mother's blood system and that of the embryo. TI1e glands (breasts) enlarge as a result ofan increase in
exchange of substanc.es takes place across the thin the number of milk-secreting cells. No milk is secreted
walls of the blood vessels. In this way, the mother's during pregnancy, but the honnones that start the
blood pressure cannot damage the delicate vessels birth process also act on the milk-secreting cells of
of the embryo and it is possible for the placenta the breasts. l11e breasts are stimulated to release
to select the substances allowed to pass into the milk by the baby sucking the nipple. The continued
embryo's blood. TI1e placenta can prevent some production of milk is under the control ofhormones,
harmful substances in the mother's blood from but the amount of milk produced is related to the
reaching the embryo. lt cannot prevent all of them, quantity taken by the child during suckling.
however: alcohol and nicotine can pass to the Milk contains the proteins, futs, sugar, vitamins and
developing fetus. lfthe mother is a heroin addict, salts that babies need for their energy requirements
the baby can be born addicted to the dmg. and tissue-building, but there is too little iron present
Some pathogens such as the rubella virus and for the manufucture ofhaemoglobin. All the iron
HIV can pass across the placenta. Rubella (German needed for the first weeks or months is stored in the
measles), althougl1 a mild infection for the mother, can liver of the fetus during gestation.
Flgure 16.57 Theexc:haogeofsvb'itancesbetweentheMood oftheembf)o andthemother

Sex hormones in humans
The liquid produced in the first few days is called against infection at a time when its own immune
colostrum. It is sticky and yellow, and contains responses are not fully developed. Breastfeeding
more protein than the milk produced later. It also provides milk free from bacteria, whereas bottle -
contains some of the mother's antibodies. This feeding carries the risk of introducing bacteria
provides passive immunity (see Chapter 10 ) to that cause intestinal diseases. Breastfeeding also
infection. offers emotional and psychological benefits to both
The mother's milk supply increases with the mother and baby.
demands of the baby, up to! litre per day. It is Other advantages ofbreastfeeding over bottle-
gradually supplemented and eventually replaced feeding include the following:
entirely by solid food, a process known as
• There is no risk of an allergic reaction to
weaning.
breast milk.
Cows' milk is not wholly suitable for human
babies. It has more protein, sodium and phosphorus, • Breast milk is produced at the correct
and less sugar, vitamin A and vitamin C, than human temperature.
milk. It is less easily digested than human milk. • TI1ere are no additives or preservatives in
Manufucturers modify the components of dried breast milk.
cows' milk to resemble human milk more closely and
this makes it more acceptable if the mother cannot • Breast milk does not require sterilisation since
breastfeed her baby. there are no bacteria present that could cause
Cows' milk and proprietary dried milk both intestinal disease.
lack human antibodies, whereas the mother's milk • TI1ere is no cost involved in using breast milk.
contains antibodies to any diseases from which • Breast milk does not need to be prepared.
she has recovered. It also carries white cells that
produce antibodies or ingest bacteria. These • Breastfeeding triggers a reduction in the size of
antibodies are important in defending the baby the mother's uterus.
time and also release a hormone, called testosterone,

• Sex hormones in humans into the bloodstream. TI1e male secondary sexual
characteristics, which begin ro appear at puberty,
Puberty and the menstrua l cycle are enlargement of the testes and penis, deepening
Puberty of the voice, growth of hair in the pubic region,
Although the ovaries of a young girl contain all the armpits, chest and, later on, the face. In both sexes
ova she will ever produce, they do not start to be there is a rapid increase in the rate of growth during
released until she reaches the age of about 10- 14 puberty.
years . This stage in her life is known as puberty. In addition to the physical changes at puberty,
At about the same time as the first ovulation, the there are emotional and psychological changes
ovary also releases female sex hormones into the associated with the transition from being a child to
bloodstream. These hormones are called oestrogens becoming an adult, i.e. the period of adolescence.
and when they circulate around the body, they Most people adjust to these changes smoothly and
bring about the development of secondary sexual without problems. Sometimes, however, a conflict
characteristics. In a girl these are the increased arises between having the status of a child and the
growth of the breasts, a widening of the hips and the sexuality and feelings of an adult.
growth ofhair in the pubic region and in the armpits.
TI1ere is also an increase in the size of the uterus and The menstrua l cycle
,·agina. Once all these changes are complete, the girl TI1e ovaries release an ovum about every 4 weeks.
is capable ofhaving a baby. In preparation for this the lining of the uterus wall
Puberty in boys occurs at about the same age as in thickens, so that an embryo can embed itselfifthe
girls. The testes start to produce sperm for the first released ovum is fertilised. Ifno implantation occurs,
16 REPRODUCTION
the uterus lining breaks down. The cells, along with menstrnal period is one of the signs of puberty in
blood are passed out of the vagina. This is called girls. After menstrnation, the uterus lining starts to
a menstrual period. The appearance of the first re·form and another ovum starts to mature.
Hormones and the menstrual cycle progesterone, which affects the uterus lining in the
At the start of the cycle, the lining of the uterns wall same way as the oestrogens, making it grow thicker
has broken down (menstrnation ). As each follicle and produce more blood vessels.
in the ovaries develops, the amount of oestrogens If the ovum is fertilised, the corpus luteum
produced by the ovary increases. TI1e oestrogens act continues to release progesterone and so keeps the
on the uterus and cause its lining to become thicker uterus in a state suitable for implantation. If the ovum
and de,·elop more blood vessels. TI1ese are changes is not fertilised, the corpus luteum stops producing
that help an early embryo to implant. progesterone. As a result, the thickened lining of the
Two hormones, produced by the pituitary gland uterus breaks down and loses blood, which escapes
at the base of the brain, promote ovulation. The through the cervix and vagina. The e,·enrs in the
hormones are follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH ) menstrual cycle are shown in Figure 16.58.
and luteinising hormone, or lutropin ( LH ). They
act on a ripe follicle and stimulate maturation and Menopause
release of the ovum. Benveen the ages of 40 and 55, the ovaries cease to
Once the ovum has been released, the follicle that release ova or produce hormones. As a consequence,
produced it develops into a solid body called the menstrnal periods cease, the woman can no longer
corpus lutemn. This produces a hormone called have children, and sexual desire is gradually reduced.
corpusluteumdeveloplng corpusluteum
follicle maturing breaks down
copulaUoncould
menstruation menstruation resultlnfertlllsatlon
Flgure16.58 Themen1trualc:,de
Methods of birth control in humans
• Methods of birth Artificial methods of family planning

Barrier methods
control in humans Sh eath o r condom
As little as 4 weeks after giving birth, it is possible, A thin rubber sheath is placed on tl1e erect penis
though unlikely, that a woman may conceive again. before sexual intercourse. The sheatl1 traps the sperm
Frequent breastfeeding may reduce the chances of and prevents tl1em from reaching tl1e uterus. It also
conception. Nevertheless, it would be possible ro prevents tl1e rransmission of sexually transmitted
have children at about I- year intervals. Most people infections (STls).
do not want, or cannot afford, to ha\·e as many
children as this. All human communities, therefore, Diaphragm
practise some form of birth control to space out A thin rubber disc, placed in the vagina before
intercourse, covers the cervix and stops sperm
births and limit the size of the family.
entering the uterus. Condoms and diaphragms, used
Natural methods of family planning in conjunction witl1 chemicals that immobilise sperm,
are about 95% effective. H owever, a diaphragm does
Abstinence not prevent tl1e risk of transmission of STi s.
1l1is is the most obvious way of pre\·enting a
pregnancy. This involves a couple avoiding sexual Femidom
intercourse. In this way, sperm cannot come into lbis is a female condom. It is a sheath or pouch, made
contact with an egg and fertilisation cannot happen. of polyurethane or rubber, with a flexible ring at each
end. The ring at the closed end of the sheath is inserted
Monitoring body temperature into the vagina to hold the femidom in place. l11e ring
If it were possible to know exactly when ovulation at the open end is placed outside tl1e vagina. During
occurred, intercourse could be avoided for 3-4 days sexual intercourse, semen is trapped inside the femidom.
before and 1 day after ovulation. At the moment, A femidom reduces the risk of infection by STis.
however, there is no simple, reliable way to recognise
ovulation, though it is usually 12--16 days before tl1e Chemical methods
onset oftl1e next menstrual period. By keepingcarefiil
Spermicides
records of the intervals between menstrual periods, it Spermicides are chemicals which, though harmless
is possible ro calculate a potentially fertile period of
to tl1e tissues, can kill or immobilise sperm. The
about 10 days in mid-cycle, when sexual intercourse
spermicide, in the form of a cream, gel or foam, is
should be avoided if children are not wanted.
placed in the vagina. On their own, spermicides are
On its own, this method is not very reliable but
not very reliable but, in conjunction witl1 condoms or
there are some physiological clues that help to make
diaphragms, they are effective.
it more accurate. During or soon after ovulation,
a woman's temperature rises by about 0.5 °C. It is Intra -uterin e d evice (IUD )
reasonable to assume tl1at 1 day after the temperature A small T-shaped plastic and copper device, also
returns to normal, a woman will be infertile. known as a coil, can be inserted by a doctor or nurse
imo the wall of the uterus, where it probably prevents
Cervical mucus implantation of a fertilised O\'llm. It is about 98%
Another clue comes from the type of mucus secreted effective but there is a small risk of developing uterine
by the cervix and lining of tl1e vagina. A5 the time infections, and it does not protect against STis.
for ovulation approaches, the mucus becomes more
Intra"uterine syst em ( IUS)
fluid. Women can learn to detect these changes and
l11is is similar to an I UD; is T-shaped and releases
so calculate their fertile period.
the hormone progesterone slowly over a long period
By combining the 'calendar', 'temperamre' and
of time (up to 5 years ). The hormone prevents
'mucus' metl1ods, it is possible to achieve about 80%
ovulation. An !US does not protect against STis.
'success', i.e. only 20% unplanned pregnancies. Highly
motivated couples may achieve better rates of success Contracep tive pill
and , of course, it is a very helpfiil way of finding the l11e pill contains chemicals, which have tl1e same
fertile period for couples who do wam to conceh·e. effect on the body as the hormones oestrogen and
16 REPRODUCTION
progesterone. When mixed in suitable proportions thins the lining of the uterus, making it unsuitable
these hormones suppress ovulation and so prevent for implantation of an embryo. It does not protect
conception. The pills need to be taken each day for against STls.
the 21 days between menstrual periods.
There are many varieties of contraceptive Surgical methods
pill in which the relative proportions of Male sterilisation - vasectomy
oestrogen- and progesterone-like chemicals This is a simple and safe surgical operation in which
vary. TI1ey are 99% effective, but long-term use the man's sperm ducts are cut and the ends sealed.
of some types may increase the risk of cancer of This means that his semen contains the secretions of
the breast and cervix. The pill does not protect the prostate gland and seminal vesicle but no sperm,
against STls. so cannot fertilise an ovum. Sexual desire , erection,
copulation and ejaculation are quite unaffected.
Contraceptive implant The testis continues to produce sperm and
This is a small plastic tube about 4 cm long, testosterone. The sperm are removed by white cells as
which is inserted under the skin of the upper fust as they form. The testosterone ensures that there
arm of a woman by a doctor or nurse. Once in is no loss of masculinitv.
place it slowly releases the hormone progesterone, The sperm ducts ea~ be rejoined by surgery but
preventing pregnancy. It lasts for about 3 years. thisisnotalwayssuccessful.
It does not protect against STls, but has more
than a 99% success rare in preventing Female sterilisation - laparotomy
pregnancy. A woman may be sterilised by an operation in which
her oviducts are tied, blocked or cut. TI1e ovaries are
Contraceptive injection unaffected. Sexual desire and menstruation continue
This injection, given to women, contains as before, but sperm can no longer reach the ova.
progesterone and stays effective for between 8 and Ova are released, but break down in cl1e upper pan of
12 weeks. It works by thickening the mucus in the the oviduct.
cervix, stopping sperm reaching an egg. It also The operation cannot usually be reversed.
The use of hormones in fertility insemination (AI ). This involves injecting semen
and contraception treatments through a tube into cl1e top ofcl1e uterus. In some
cases, the husband's semen can be used but, more
Infertility
often, cl1e semen is supplied by an anonymous
About 85-90% of couples trying for a baby achieve donor.
pregnancy within a year. Those that do not may be Wicl1 AI, cl1e woman has the satisfuction of bearing
sub-fertile or infertile. Female infertility is usually her child rather than adopting, and 50% of the
caused by a fuilure to ovulate or a blockage or child's genes are from the mother. It also allows a
distortion of the oviducts. The latter can often be couple to have a baby that is biologically theirs if the
corrected by surgery. man is infertile.
Using hormones to improve fertility Apart from religious or moral objections, the
Failure to produce ova can be created with fertility disadvantages are that the child can never know his
drugs. TI1ese drugs are similar to hormones or her futher and cl1ere may be legal problems about
and act by increasing the k,-els ofFSH and LH. the legitimacy of the child in some countries.
Administration of the drug is timed to promote
ovulation to coincide with copulation. Ill vitro fertilisation
'In vitro' means literally 'in glass' or, in ocl1er words,
Artificial insemination (AI) the fertilisation is allowed to take place in laboratory
Mak infertility is caused by an inadequate quantity glassware (hence the rerm 'test·tube babies' ). TI1is
of sperm in the semen or by sperm that are technique may be employed where surgery cannot
insufficiently mobile to reach the oviducts. There be used ro repair blocked oviducts.
are few effective rreatmems for this condition, In vitro fertilisation has received considerable
but pregnancy may be achieved by artificial publicity since the first 'test-tube' baby was born
Sexually transmitted infections (ST/s)
in 1978. The woman may be given fertility drugs, prevents the release of FSH. IfFSH is blocked , no
which cause her ovaries to release several mature further ova are matured. The uterus lining needs
ova simultaneously. These ova are then collected by to be thick to allow successful implantation of an
laparoscopy, i.e. the y are sucked up in a fine tube embryo.
inserted through the abdominal wall. The ova are Progesterone maintains the thickness of the
then mixed with the husband's seminal fluid and uterine lining. It also inhibits the secretion of
watched under the microscope to see if cell division luteinising hormone ( LH ), which is responsible
takes place. (Figure 16.50 is a photograph of such an for ovulation. If LH is suppressed, ovulation
'in vitro' fertilised ovum. ) cannot happen , so there are no ova to be
One or more of the dividing zygotes are then fertilised.
introduced to the woman's uten1s by means of Because of the roles of oestrogen and
a tube inserted through the cervix. Usually, only progesterone, they are used, singly or in
one ( or none ) of the zygotes develops, though combination, in a range of conrracepth·e methods.
occasionally there are multiple births.
Socia l implications of contraception and fertility
The success rate for in vitro fertilisation is between
12 and 40% depending on how many embryos are
transplanted. However, new research using time· Some religions are against any artificial forms of
lapse photography of the developing rvF embryos contraception and actively discourage the use of
during the first few days oflife could raise the success contraceptives such as the sheath and femidom.
rate to up to 78%. It could also reduce the cost from However, these are important in the prevention of
between £ 5000 and £10000 for each treatment transmission of STDs in addition to their role as
cycle to £750 in Britain. The photographs are used contraceptives.
to select the best embryos, based on their early Fertility treaanents such as in vitro fertilisation
development. are controversial because of the 'spare' embryos that
are created and not returned to the uterus. Some
Using hormones for contraception people believe that since these embryos are potential
Oestrogen and progesterone control important human beings, they should not be destroyed or used
events in the menstrual cycle. for research. In some cases the 'spare' embryos have
Oestrogen encourages the re-growth of the been frozen and used later if the first transplants did
lining of the uterus wall after a period and not work.
other people, however. It is not known for certain

• Sexually transmitted what proportion of H rv carriers will eventually
infections (STls) develop AIDS: perhaps 30--50%, or more.
HIV is transmitted by direct infection of the blood.
Key def init ion Drug users who share needles contaminated with
Asexua lly tra nsmi tted infection is aninfectionthatis infected blood run a higl1 risk of the disease. It can
transmitted via body fluids through 5exual contact. also be transmitted sexually, both between men and
women and, especially, between homosexual men
who practise anal intercourse. Prostitutes, who have
A IDS and HIV many sexual partners, are at risk of being infected
The initials of AIDS stand for acquired immune if they have sex without using condoms and are,
deficiency syndrome. (A 'syndrome' is a pattern therefore, a potential source of HIV to others.
of symptoms associated with a particular disease. ) Haemophiliacs have also fullen vie.rim to AIDS.
The virus that causes AIDS is the human Haemophiliacs have to inject themselves with a blood
hnmunodeficicncy virus ( HIV). product that contains a clotting fuctor. Before the
After a person has been infected, years may pass risks were recognised, infected carriers sometimes
before symptoms develop. So people may carry the donated blood, which was used to produce the
virus yet not show any symptoms. l11ey can still infect clotting fuctor.
16 REPRODUCTION
Babies born to H IV carriers may become infected These are good reasons, among many others, for
with HIV, either in the uterus or during birth or being faithful to one partner.
from the mother's milk. The rate ofinfection \'aries The risk of catching a sexually transmitted disease
from about 40% in parts of Africa to 14% in Europe. can be greatly reduced if the man uses a condom or
If the mother is given drug therapy during labour and if a woman uses a femidom. These act as barriers to
the baby within 3 days, this method of transmission is bacteria or viruses.
reduced. If a person suspects that he or she has caught
There is no evidence to suggest that the disease can a sexually transmitted disease, treatment must
be passed on by droplets (Chapter 10 ), by saliva or by be sought at once. Information about treatment
normal everyday contact. can be obtained by phoning one of the numbers
When AIDS first appeared, there were no effective listed under 'Venereal Disease' or 'Health
drugs. Today, there is a range of drugs that can be Information Service' in the telephone directory.
given separately or as a 'cocktail', which slow the Treatment is always confidential. The patients
progress of the disease. Research to find a vaccine and must, however, ensure that anyone they have had
more effective drugs is ongoing. sexual contact witl1 also gets treatment. There is no
There is a range of blood tests designed to detect point in one partner being cured if the other is still
HIV infection. These rests do nor detect the virus infected.
but do indicate whether antibodies to the virus are in STls tl1at are caused by a bacterium, such as
the blood. IfHIV antibodies are present, the person syphilis and gonorrhoea, can be treated with
is said to be HIV positive. The tests vary in their antibiotics if the symptoms are recognised early
reliability and some are too expensive for widespread enough. However, HIV is viral so antibiotics are not
use. The American Food and Drug Administration effective.
claims a 99.8% accuracy, but this figure is disputed.
The effects of HIV on the immune
Co ntro l of t he spread of STl s
system
The best way to avoid sexually transmitted infections
is to avoid having sexual intercourse with an infected HIV attacks certain kinds oflymphocyte (see
person. However, the symptoms of the disease are 'Blood' in Chapter 9), so the number of these
often not obvious and it is difficult to recognise an cells in the body decreases. Lymphocytes produce
infected individual. So the disease is avoided by not antibodies against infections. If the body cannot
having sexual intercourse with a person who might respond to infections through tl1e immune system,
have the disease. Such persons are: it becomes vulnerable to patlmgens tl1at might not
• prostitutes who offer sexual intercourse for money othenvise be life -threatening. A5 a result, the patient
• people who are known to have had sexual has little or no resistance to a wide range of diseases
relationships with many orhers such as influenza, pneumonia, blood disorders, skin
• casual acquaintances whose background and past cancer or damage to the nervous system, which the
sexual activities are not known. body cannot resist.
Questions 6 Putthefollowingeventsinthec01"rect01"derforpollination
in a lupin plant:
1 Plants can often be propagated from stems but rarely from A Beegetsdustedwithpollen.
roots. What feature5 of shoots account !Of this difference? B Pollenisdepositedonstigma.
2 Theplantsthatsurviveaheathfireareoftenthosethathave C Beevisitsolderflower.
arhizome(e.g.fems).Suggestareasonwhythisisso. D Bee visits young flower.
3 Working from outside to inside, list the parts of a bisexual E Anthers split open.
flower. 7 Whatarethefunctioosinaseedof:
4 What features of flowers might attract insects? a theradicle
5 Whichpartofafla.verbecomes: b theplumule
a theseed c thecotyledons?
b thefruit7
8 During germination of the broad bean, how are the 22 In what ways will the composition of the blood in the
followingpartsprotectedfromdamageastheyareforced umbilical vein differ from that in the umbilical artery?
through thernil: 23 Anembryoissurroundedwithfluid,itslungsarefilled
a theplumule withfluidanditcannotbreathe.Whydoesn'titsuffocate?
b theradicle? 24 If a mother gives birth to twin boys, does this mean that
9 Listallthepossiblepurposesforwhichagrowingseedling theyareidenticaltwins?Explain
might use the food stored in its ootyledons 25 StudyFigures16.51and16.52.0neachdiagramtheage
10 At what stage of development isa seedling able to stop andsizeofthedevelopingembryoarestated
depending on the cotyledom for its food? a Copy and complete the following table:
11 Whatdoyouthinkaretheadvantagestoagerminating
seed of having its radide growing some time before the Age/Weeks
shoot starts to grow?
12 a Describe the natural conditions in the soil that would be
most favourable for germination
b How could a gardener try to create these conditions?
13 How do sperm differ from 0\/a in their structure {see Figure
16.39)?
14 List the structures, inthecorrectorder,throughwhichthe
sperm must pass from the time they are produced in the
testis,tothetimetheyleavetheurethra.
b Use the data in your table to plot a graph to show the
15 Whatstruc:turesareshowninFigure16.44,butarenot
growth of the embryo
shown in Figure 16.437
16 1nwhatwaysdoesazygotedifferfromanyothercellin Exte nded
the body? 26 In what ways does asexual reproduction in Mocor differ
17 If a woman starts 011ulating at 13 years old and stops at 50: from asexual reproduction in flowering plants?
a how many ova are likely to be released from her 0\/aries 27 A gardener finds a new and attractive plant produced
b about how many of these are likely to be fertilised? as a result of a chance mutation. Should she attempt to
18 List,inthecorrectorder,thepartsofthefemale produce more of the same plant by self-pollination or by
reproductive system through which sperm must pass vegetative propagation?Explainyourreasoning.
beforereachingandfertilisinganovum. 28 Whichofthefollowingdonotplayapartinasexual
19 State exactly what happens at the moment of fertilisation. reproduction?
20 lsfertilisationlikelytooccurifmatingtakesplac:e: mitosis, gametes, meiosis, cell division, chromosomes,
a 2 daysbefore011ulation zygote
b 2daysafterovulation? 29 Revise asexual reproduction and then state how we exploit
Explain your answers. the process of asexual reproduction in plants
21 Draw up a table with three columns as shown below. In 30 Which structures in a flower produce:
the first column write: a the male gametes
male reproductive organs b thefemalegametes?
female reproductive organs 31 In not more than two sentences, distinguish between the
male gamete termspol/inationandfertilixltion.
female gamete 32 lnfloweringplants
plac:ewherefertilisationoccurs a canpollinationoccurwithoutfertilisation
zygote grows into b can fertilisation occur without pollination?
Now complete the other two columns. 33 Which parts of a tomato flower:
a growtoformthefruit
Flowerl ngpla nts b falloffaherfertilisation
male reproductive c remainattachedtothefruit?
34 Fromthelistofchangesatpubertyin girls, select those
fem.ilereproductive thatarerelatedtochildbearingandsaywhatpartyou
()f(J.lflS think they play.
maleg.imete. etc 35 Oneofthefirstsignsofpregnancyisthatthemenstrual
periods stop. Explain why you would expect this.
16 REPRODUCTION
Checklist Sexua l reprod ucti o n in p la nts

After studying Chapter 16you!.houldknowandunderstandthe • Flowerscontainthereproductiveorgansofplants.
following: • Thestamensarethemaleorgans.Theyproducepollen
grains, which contain the male gamete.
Asex ua l rep rod ucti on
• Thecarpelsarethefemaleorgans. They produce ovules,
• Asexual reproductionistheprocessre5ulting in the which contain the female gamete and will form the seeds
production of genetically identical offspring from one parent. • The flowers of most plant species contain male and female
• Asexual reproduction occurs without gametes or fertilisation. organs. A few species have unisexual flowers
• Fungicanreproduceasexuallybysingle-celledspores. • Brightlycolouredpetalsattractinsects,whichpollinatethe
• Many floweringplantsreproduceasexuallyby vegetative f l =.
propagation. • Pollination is the transfer of pollenfromtheanthersofone
• Plants reproduce a5exually when some of their buds grow flower to the stigma of a flower on the same or another
into new plants. plant.
• The stolon of the strawberry plant is a horizontal stem • Pollinationmaybecarriedoutbyinsectsorbythewind.
that grows above the ground, takes root at the nodes and • Flowersthatarepollinatedbyinsectsareusuallybrightly
produces new plants coloured and have nectar.
• The couch grass rhizome is a horizontal stem that grows • Flowers that are pollinated by the wind are usually small and
below the ground and sends up !.hoots from its nodes. green. Theirstigmasandanthershangootsidetheflower
• Bulbsarecondensedshootswith circular fleshy leaves. Bulb- wheretheyareexposedtoairmovements.
formingplantsreproduceasexually from lateral buds • Fertilisation occurs when a pollen tube grows from a pollen
• Rhizomes, corms, bulbs and tap roots may store food, which grainintotheovaryanduptoanovule. Thepollennudeus
isusedtoaccelerateearly growth. passesdownthetubeandfu5eswiththeovulenudan.
• A done is a population of organisms produced asexually from • After fertilisation, the ovary grows rapidly to become a fruit
a single parent. andtheovulesbecomeseeds
• Whole plants can be produced from single cells or small • Germination is influenced by temperature and the amount of
pieces of tissue water and oxygen available.
• Artificialpropagationfromcuttingsorgraftspreservesthe • Self-pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the

desirablecharacteristicsofacropplant anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower.
• Vegetativepropagationproduces(genetically)identical • Cross-pollination is transfer of pollen grains from the
individuals anther of a flower to the stigma of a flower on a different
• Asexualreproductionkeepsthecharacteristicsofthe plantofthel.ilmespecies.
organism the same from one generation to the next, but • Self-pollinationandcross-pollinationhaveimplicationsto
does not result in variation to cope with environmental
change.
Sexua l reprod ucti o n in hum a ns
Sexua l re productio n
• The male reproductive cells {gametes} are sperm. They are
• Sexualreproductionistheprocessinvolvingthefusionofthe produced in thetestesandexpelledthroughtheurethraand
nuclei of two gametes (sex cells} to form a zygote and the penis during mating
productionofoffspringthataregeneticallydifferentfrom • The female reproductive cells {gametes} are ova (eggs). They
each other. are produced in the ovaries. One is released each month. If
• The male gamete ism.all and mobile. The female gamete is spermarepresent,theovummaybefertilisedas itpas5es
largerandnotoftenmobile downtheoviducttotheuterus.
• The male gamete of an animal is a sperm. The male gamete • Fertilisationhappenswhenaspermentersanovumandthe
of a flowering plant is the pollen nucleus. spermandeggnudeijoinup(fuse}.
• The female gamete of an animal is an 011um. The female • Thefertilisedovum(zygote)dividesintomanycellsand
gamete of a flowering plant is an egg cell in an ovule becomesembeddedinthelining oftheuterus.Hereitgrows
• Fertilisationisthefusionofgametenudei. into an embryo
• The embryo gets its food and oxygen from its mother.
• Thenucleiofgametesarehaploidandthenucleusofthe • The embryo's blood is pumped through blood vessels in
zygote is diploid theumbilicalcordtotheplacenta,whichisattachedto
• Thereareadvantagesanddisadvantagesof5exual the uterus lining. The embryo's blood comes very dose to
reproduction to a species. the mother's blood so that food and oxygen can be picked
• Thereareadvantagesanddisadvantagesof5exual upandcarbondioxideandnitrogenouswastecanbe
reproduction in crop production got rid of.
• Good ante-natal care, in the form of special dietary needs Me th od sofbirth co ntrolinhum a ns
and maintaining good health, is needed to support the
• Thereareeffectivewaysofspacingbirthsandl imitingthe
motherandherfetus.
sizeofafamily. Theseindudenatural,chemical,barrierand
• When the embryo is fu lly grown, it is pushed out of the
surgical methods
uterusthroughthevaginaby contractionsoftheuterusand
abdomen.
• Twins may result from two <:Nil being fertilised at the same • Hormones can be usedtooontrolfertility, induding
time or from a zygote forming two embryos. contraception and promoting egg-cell development.
• Femaleinfertilitymayberelievedbysurgery,fertilitydrugs
• Eggsandspermaredifferentinsize,structure,mobility or in vitro fertilisation .
and numbers produced. • Maleinfertilitycanbeby-passedbyartificialinsemination.
• Spermandeggshavespecialfeaturestoadaptthemfor • There are social implications of using hormones in
their functions. contraceptionandforincreasingthedlancesof
• Theplacentaandumbilicalcordareinvolvedinexchange pregnancy.
of materials between the mother and fetus. Some toxins
andvirusescanalsobepassedacrossandaffectthefetus. Sexua lly tra ns mittedinfecti o ns (STl s)
• Humanmilkandbreastfeedingarebestforbabies.
• Asexuallytransmittedinfectionisaninfectiontransmittedvia
bodily fluids through sexual contact
Sex hormon es in human s
• HIVisanexampleofanSTI
• At puberty, the testes and <:Naries start to produce mature • HIV can be transmitted in a number of Wil"fS.
gametesandthesecondarysexualcharacteristiadevelop. • ThespreadofHIVcanberontrolled.
• Eachmonth,theuterusliningthickensupinreadinessto • HIV infection may lead to AIDS.
receiveafertilisedovum.lfanovumisnotfertilised,the
lining and some blood are lost through the vagina. This is • HIV affects the immune S"jStem by reducing the number
menstruation. of lymphocytes and decreasing the ability to produce
antibodies
• Oestrogen and progesteronearesecretedbyendocrine
glands
• The release of ova and the development of an embryo
areunderthecontrolofhormoneslikeoestrogen,
progesterone,follic:le-stimulatinghormoneandluteinising
hormone.
@ Inheritance
Inheri ta nce Me ios is
Define inheritance Definemeim.is
Role of meiosis
Chromosomes,genesa ndp rote in s
Definechromo=eandgene Theprocessofmit05is
lnheritanceofsexinhumans The function of chromosomes
Stem cells
Genetic code for proteins
Gamete production and chromosomes
RoleofDNAincellfunction
Meiosis
How.iproteinismade
Gene expression Mo no hybrid inh e ri ta nce
Define haploid nucleus, diploidnudeus Defineallele,genotype,phenotype,homozygous,heterozygous,
Diploid cells dominant, recessive
Useofgeneticdiagr;imsandPunnettsquares
Mitos is
Define mitosis Use of test crosses
Roleofmitmis Co-dominance and incomplete dominance
Duplication and separation of chromo!iOffles Define sex-linked characteristic
Colour bl indness
Geneticcrossesinvolvingco-dominanreandsexlinkage
• Inheritance
Key definition
Inheri ta nce is the transmis.sion of genetic information from
generation to generation.
We often talk about people inheriting certain

characteristics: 'Nathan has inherited his futher's curly
hair', or 'Fatima has inherited her mother's brown
eyes'. We expect tall parents to have tall children. The gene for hair
inheritance of such characteristics is called heredity colour
and the branch of biology that studies how heredity
works is called ge netics. Figure 17.1 Structure of a chromosome
A human body (som atic) cell nucleus contains

• Chromosomes, genes 46 chromosomes. These are difficult ro distinguish
and proteins when packed inside the nucleus, so scientists separate
them and arrange them according to size and
Key definit ions appearance. TI1e outcome is called a karyotype
A chro mosome is a thread of DNA, made up of a string of (Figure 17.2 ). There are pairs of chromosomes. TI1e
genes. only pair that do not necessarily match is chromosome
A gene is a length of DNA that codes for a protein.
pair 23: the 'sex chromosomes'. The Y chromosome is
much smaller than the X chromosome.
Inside a nucleus are thread -like structures called
chrom osom es which can be seen most dearly at the Th e inh erita nce of sex
time when the cell is dividing. Each chromosome Whether you are a male or female depends on the
has certain characteristics when ready to divide: there pair of chromosomes called the ·sex d1romosomes'.
are two ch rom atids, joined at one point called a ln females, the two sex chromosomes, called
centromere (Figure 17.1 ). Each chromatid is a string of the X chromosomes, are the same size as each
genes, coding for the person's characteristics. TI1e other other. In males, the two sex chromosomes are of
chromatid carries the same genes in the same order. different sizes. One corresponds to the female sex
e
Chromosomes, genes and proteins
X chromosome and 50% getting a Y d1romosome

(Figure 17.3 ). !f an X sperm fertilises the ovum, the
zygote will be XX and will grow into a girl. If a Y
sperm fertilises the ovum, the zygote will be XY and
will develop into a boy. There is an equal chance of
an X or Y chromosome fertilising an ovum, so the
numbers of girl and boy babies are more or less rhe
same.
Figure 17.4 shows how sex is inherited.
parents
Flgure17.2 Humankaryotwe of parents
chromosomes and is called the X c.hromosome. TI1e gametes{sex{ells)

other is smaller and is called the Y duomosome. So
the female cells contain XX and male cells contain XY.
A process called meiosis takes place in the female's
sex chromosomes
ovary. It makes gametes: sex cells, which have half the ofchlldren
normal number of chromosomes. During the process,
sex of
each ovum receives one of the X chromosomes, children
so all the ova are the same for this. Meiosis in the
male's testes results in 50% of the sperms getring an Flgure17.4 OeterminatKlflafsex
,
producing
cell
®)'\ sperm·
producing
cell
®)
m""" / \ m""" I \
~·CD CD , .,. !."'""''~ wtllcontalnan
X<h<0mo~mrnd
halfwlllcarry
Flgure17.3 OeterminatKlflafsex.Natettl.:!t aYchromosome
(I) onlytheX and Y{hromasOO\l"iares.h wm
(II) ~ ii i of meklsi1 have ~en omitted
(Ill) infact,foorgametesareprnducedineachcase.
bu ttwaa1el\lffkientta1howthedi'itributionofXandY
17 INHERITANCE
The genetic code The chemical reactions that take pl:ice in a cell
determine what sort of a cell it is and what ics
The strncturc of DNA has already been described in fimctions arc. l11cse chemical reactions arc, in rum,
Chapter 4. controlled by enzymes. Enzymes :ire proreins. It
Each nucleotide carries one of four bases (A, T, follows, therefore, that the genetic code of DNA, in
C or G ). A string of nucleotides thcrclorc holds determining which proteins, particularly enzymes,
a sequence of bases. This sequence forms a code, arc produced in :i cell, also determines the cell's
which instructs the cell to make particular proteins. suucrnre and function. Jn this way, the genes also
Proteins arc made from :imino acids linked together determine the structure and fimction of rhe whole
(Chapter 4 ). The type and sequence of the :imino organism.
acids joined together will determine the kind of Other proteins coded for in DNA include
protein formed. For ex:implc, one protein molecule antibodies and the receptors for neurotransminers
may start with the sequence rrllmi11e-glycine-glycine (see details of synapses in Chapter 14 ) .
.. A different protein may start glyci11e-serine--
alanine ..
Itis the seque nce ofbases in rhe DNA molecule
The manufacture of proteins
that decides which amino acids arc used and in in cells
which order they arc joined. Each group of three
DNA molecules remain in the nucleus, bur the
bases stands for one amino acid, e.g. the triplet of proteins they carry the codes for arc needed
bases CGA specifies the amino acid a/a,iinc, rhc
elsewhere in the cell. A molecule called messenger
base triplet CAT specifics the amino acid va/inc, and RNA (m.RNA) is used to transfer rhc information
the triplet CCA stands for glycine. The tri-pcptidc from the nucleus. It is much smaller than a DNA
va/int-;!]lyci11c--alrr11ine is specified by the DNA code
molecule and is made up of only one Strand. Another
CAT-CCA-CGA (Figure 17.5). diffi:rcncc is that mRNA molecules contain slightly
A gene, then, is a sequence of triplets of the four diffi:rent bases (A, C, G and U). Base U is uracil. It
bases, which specifics an entire protein. Insulin is a
atraches to the DNA base A.
small protein with only 5 I amino acids. A sequence To pass on the protein code, the double helix
of 153 (i.e. 3 x 51 ) bases in the DNA molecule of DNA (see Figure 4.12 ) unwinds to expose the
would constitute the gene th:ir m:ikcs an islet cell
chain of bases. One strand acts as templ:ue. A
in the pancreas produce insulin. Mosr proteins arc messenger RNA molecule is formed :ilong pan
much larger than this :ind most genes contain a
ofrhis strand, made up of :i chain of nucleotides
thousand or more bases. with complementary bases to a section of the DNA
strand (Figure 17 .6 ). The m RNA molecule carrying
The DNA b.iSe sequer.ce . , determines , . the sequence of amino
adds In a peptide the protein code then passes our of the nucleus,
through a nuclear pore in the membrane. Once
}- in the cytoplasm it anachcs itself to :i ribosome.

Ribosomes make proteins. The mRNA molecule
instructs the ribosome to put together a chain of
amino acids in a specific sequence, rhus making a
protein. Other mRNA molecules will carry codes for
}- diffi:rentproteins.
Some proteins arc made up of a relatively small
number of amino acids. As stared, insulin is a chain
}- .,.L. of 51 amino acids. On the mRNA molecule each

amino acid is coded by a sequence of three bases (a
triplet), so the mRNA molecule coding for insulin
will contain 153 bases. Other protein molecules are
much bigger: haemoglobin in red blood cells is made
Agurt117.5 Thi!genet k:code(ttiplet code) of574 amino acids.
Chromosomes, genes and proteins
(they come from a diploid cell). Because the
r.~~:: ; : }
( - cytosine ba,e,
chromosomes are in pairs, the diploid number is
always an even number. The karyotype of a sperm cell
would show 23 single chromosomes (they come from
G-guanine
U-uradl
a haploid cell). l11e sex chromosome would be either
X or Y. l11e duomosomes have different shapes and
sizes and can be recognised by a rrained observer.
l11ere is a fixed number of chromosomes in
each species. Human body cells each contain
46 chromosomes, mouse cells contain 40 and garden
pea cells 14 (see also Figure 17.7).
l11e number of chromosomes in a species is
the same in all of its body cells. l11ere are
46 chromosomes in each of your liver cells, in every
nerve cell, skin cell and so 011.
111c chromosomes are always in pairs
(Figure 17.7 ), e.g. rwo long ones, rwo short ones,
two medium ones. This is because when the zygote
is formed, one of each pair comes from the male
gamete and one from the female gamete. Your
(a)The DNAhelixunwinds: 46 d1romosomes consist of23 from your mother
the ,trandsseparate,
exposingtheba"'5.
and 23 from your father.
The chromosomes of each pair are called
Figure 17.6 fomiationolmes,;engerRNA
homologous chromosomes. In Figure 17.lS( b), the
two long chromosomes form one homologous pair
and the two short chromosomes form another.
Gene expression
\i.;,.'St',,.
Body cells do not all have the same requirements
for proteins. For example, the function of some cells
in the stomach is to make the protein pepsin (see
'Chemical digestion' in Chapter 7). Bone marrow
;n.)\fr,\ z
• ,,
C' fr .J.
1,-~v-._
~
~ "'··, . . r-
cells make the protein haemoglobin, but do not
need digestive enzymes. Specialised cells all contain
the same genes in their nuclei, but only the genes
needed to code for specific proteins are switched on
(expressed). This enables the cell to make only the
.
- &:-
kangaroo(12)
'r'1nJfhuman(46)
proteins it needs to fulfil its function.
Key definitions
.\)~"~~
//)\..~~
A hap lo id n ucle usisanudeuscontainingasinglesetof
,,...
. .__. .. , _..,('9'
unpaired chromosomes present, for example, in ~rm
and egg cells
A di plo id nucleusisanudeuscontainingtwosetsof
chromosomes present, for example, in body cells ,~
~-'
Number of chromosomes
'?.If"'
domestlcfowl(36) frultfly(8)
Figure 17.2 is a karyotype ofa human body cell Fig ure 17.7 Chmmo10mes ofdifferentspeci!.'s . Note ttlatthe
because there are 23 pairs of chromosomes present dlrnmo50me1 are atw;iys in pairs
17 INHERITANCE
• Mitosis Ce ll division
When plants and animals grow, their cells increase
Key definitions in number by dividing. Typical growing regions are
Mitos isisnucleardivi'>iongivingrisetogenetically the ends of bones, layers of cells in the skin, root
identical cells.
tips and buds (Figure 17.11 ). Each cell divides to
produce two daugliter cells. Both dauglner cells may
Genetics is the study of inheritance. It can be used
dh•ide again, but usually one of the cells grows and
to forecast what sorts of offspring are likely to be
changes its shape and structure and becomes adapted
produced when plants or animals reproduce sexually.
to do one particular job - in other words, it becomes
What will be the eye colour of children whose mother
specialised (Figure 17.8 ). At the same time it loses
has blue eyes and whose futher has brown eyes? Will
its ability to divide any more. The other cell is still
a mating betv,,een a black mouse and a white mouse
able ro divide and so continue the growth of the
produce grey mice, black-and -white mice or some
tissue. Growth is, therefore , the result of cell division,
black and some white mice?
followed by cell enlargement and, in many cases, cell
To understand the method of inheritance,
specialisation.
we need to look once again at the process of
sexual reproduction and fertilisation. In sexual cellbecome5
reproduction, a new organism starts life as a single r'"' specialised
cell called a zygote (Chapter 16 ). This means that
you started from a single cell. Although }'OU were
1 •) ~ ~
8~8 ~~
supplied with oAygen and food in the uterus, all
your tissues and organs were produced by cell
division from this one cell. So, the 'instructions'
that dictated which cells were to become liver
or muscle or bone must all have been present
in this first cell. The instructions that decided
0
cell division cell retains
power to
dMde
that you should be tall or short, dark or fuir, male
Flgure 17.8 Ce ll division arid spec:ialisation. CellsthatretaintheatJility
or female must also have been present in the todivideare '>Ometill\l"icalledstem ce lls.
zygote.
The process of mitosis is important in growth. The process of cell division in an animal cell is
We all started off as a single cell (a zygote ). 1l1at cell shown in Figure 17.9. The events in a plant cell
divided into two cells, then four and so on, to create are shown in Figures 17.10 and 17.11. Because of
the organism we are now, made up of millions of the cell wall, the cytoplasm cannot simply pinch off
cells. Cells have a finite life: they wear out or become in the middle, and a new wall has to be laid down
damaged, so they need to be replaced constantly. between the two daughter cells. Also a new vacuole
The processes of growth, repair and replacement has to form.
of cells all rely on mitosis. Organisms that reproduce Organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts
asexually (see Chapter 16 ) also use mitosis to create are able to divide and are shared more or less equally
more cells. betv.·een the daughter cells at cell division.
(a) Animal cell about to (b) The nucleus divides flm. (c) The daughter nuclei separate (d) T'Wo cells are formed - one
dMde. andthecytoplasmplnches maykeeptheabllltyto
offbetweenthenudel. dlvlde,andtheothermay
becomespecl allsed.
Flgure 17.9 Ce ll division in an animal cell
Meiosis
(a) Aplantcell (b)Th e nucleusdlvldes (c) Thecytoplasmaddslayersof (d) ThevacuolesJolnuptoformone

abouttodMde flrst.Anewcellwall celluloseoneachsldeofthenew vacuole.Thlstakeslnwaterandmakes
has a large develops and cellwall.Vacuolesformlnthe thecellblgger.Theothercellwllldlvlde
nucleus and separates the two cytoplasm of one cell. again.
no vacuole. cells.
Makin g th e sq uash prepa ra tio n

• Squashthesoftened,stainedroottipsbylightlytappingonthe
cover~ipwitha pencil: hold the pencilverticallyandletit~ip
through the fingers to strike thecoverslip{Figure 17.12}.
• The rCX>t tip will spread out as a pink mass on the ~ide;
thecellswillseparateandthenudei,manyofthemwith
chromosomes in various stages of mitosis {because the root tip
isaregionofrapidcelldivision),canbeseenunderthehigh
power of the microsc:ope {><400).
Figure 17.11 Cell drl'i'iKlft in an onKln roottip{x250). The nudei are

'ilainedblue.MD'itolthecellshavejuslcDmpletedcelldivision
Practical work Flgure17.1 2 Tapthecovenlipgentlyto1quao;htheti1sue
Squash preparation of
chromosomes using acetic orcein
Prepara ti o n of root tips • Meiosis
• SupportAJ/ium~(onioo)roottipsoverbeakersorjarsofwater.
• Keeptheonionsindarlcnessfor5e11eraldaysuntiltheroots Key defin itions
growing into the water are 2~3cm long Me iosis is nuclear division, which gives rise to cells that are
• Cut off about 5mm of the rCX>t tips and place them in a genetically different.
watch glass.
• Cover the root tips with nine drops acetic orcein and one drop TI1e process of meiosis takes place in the go nads
molar hydrochloric acid. of animals ( e.g. the testes and ovaries of mammals,
• Heat the watch glass gently over a very small Bunsen flame till and the anthers and ovules of flowering plants).
thesteamrisesfromthestain, but do not boil. TI1e cells formed are gam etes (spenn and egg cells
• LeavethewatchglasscoveredforatleastSminutes.
• Place one of the root tips on a dean ~ide, cover with 45% in mammals; egg cells and pollen grain nuclei in
ethanoic{acetic)acidandcutawayallbuttheterminallmm. flowering plants). Gametes are different from other
• Cover this root tip with a dean cover~ip and make a squa~ cells because they have half the normal number of
preparation as described next. chromosomes (they are haplo id ).
17 INHERITANCE
The process of mitosis

To understand how the 'instructions' are passed
from cell to cell, we need to look in more detail at
what happens when the zygote divides and produces
an organism consisting of thousands of cells. This
rype of cell division is called mitosis. It takes place
not only in a zygote but in all growing tissues.
When a cell is not dividing, there is very little
detailed srructure to be seen in the nucleus even if it
is treated witl1 special dyes called stains. Just before
cell division, however, a number oflong, thread -like
structures appear in the nucleus and show up very (a)JustbeforethecelldMdes, (b)Thechromosomesget
clearly when tl1e nucleus is stained (Figures 17.13 chromosomes appear In the shorter and thicker.
and 17.14). These thread -like structures are called nucleus.
chromosomes. Although they are present in tl1e
nucleus all the time, they show up clearly only at cell
division because at this rime they get shorter and
thicker.
Each chromosome duplicates itself and is seen
to be made up of two parallel strands, called
chromatids (Figure 17.1). When the nucleus
divides into two, one chromatid from each
chromosome goes into each daughter nucleus.
The chromatids in each nucleus now become
chromosomes and later they will make copies of
themselves ready for the next cell division. The
process of copying is called replication because (c) Eachchromosomels (d) Thenucleiirmembrane
each chromosome makes a replica (an exact copy) nowseentoconslstof disappears and the
twochromatlds. chromaUdsarepulledapart
of itself. As Figure 17.13 is a simplified diagram toopposlteendsofthecell.
of mitosis, only two chromosomes are shown,
but tl1ere are always more tl1an this. Human cells
contain 46 chromosomes. nuclear membrane nucleuswlthtw:> 'daughter'
~
Mitosis will be taking place in any part of a plant
or animal tl1at is producing new cells for growth or ,h,om~
replacement. Bone marrow produces new blood
cells by mitosis; tl1e epidermal cells of tl1e skin are
replaced by mitotic divisions in the basal layer;
new epithelial cells lining the alimentary canal are
~ @
produced by mitosis; growth of muscle or bone in
animals, and root, leaf, stem or fn1it in plants, results
from mitotic cell divisions.
An exception to this occurs in the final stages of
gamete production in the reproductive organs of (e) Anuclearmembraneforms (f) Celldlvlsloncompleted,
plants and animals. TI1e cell divisions that give rise to roundeachsetofchromatlds, glvlngtwo'daughter'cells,
gametes are not mitotic bur meiotic. andthecellstartstodlvlde. each containing the same
number of chromosomes
Cells that are nor involved in the production of as the parent cell.
gametes are called somatic cells. Mitosis takes place Figure 17.1 3 Mito<;is. Only two d11omosome1 are shDYm. Three
only in somatic cells. ofthestagesdesubedhereare lhownin Figull' 17.14
Meiosis
' ~'
:~:
' ~'
', V
'
~·,.,
Flgwt l7.1' M~<M ini rool~ (>< SOl'.1. Thelettenrefertothest~
desaibed ln f91ni!17.13. (The!Mue~sbeensquiShedto~r.ite
the eels.)
H
' ~·
't>, H
(a) A chromosome (b)When the cell (c) Mitosis

buUdsu~ dMdes,theof19ln,1I sep~f~testhe
1epl1G11 ol ind the replk,1 ~r11 chrom~tlds. Exh
Itself. Cilled chrom~tlds. new cell getH
The function of chromosomes lullsetolgenes.
flgure17.16 lll'J}lk.lUoo. (A,B.C,etcrepres entgenes.)
When a ce ll is not dividing, its chromosomes
become very long and thin. Along rhe length of Which of the instructions are used depends on where
the chromosome is a series of chemkal structures a cell finally ends up. 1l1e gene that causes brown
called genes {Figure 17. 15). Tiie chemical that eyes will have no effect in a stomach cell and the
lorms the genes is called DNA (which is short gene for making pepsin will nor fi.mction in the cells
lor deoxyribonucleic acid, Chapter 4 ). Each gene of the eye . So a gene's chemical instructions arc
controls some pan of the chemisrry of the cell. It is carried o ut only in the correct situation .
these genes that provide the 'instructions' mentioned llie genes that produce a specific effect in a cell
at the beginning of the chapter. For example, one (or whole organism) are said to be expressed. In the
gene may 'instruct' the cell to make the pigment stomach lining, the gene for pepsin is expressed. The
that is formed in the iris ofbrown eyes. On one gene for melanin {the pigment in brown eyes) is not
chromosome there will be a gene that causes the cells expressed.
of the stomach to make the enzyme pepsin. When
the chromosome replicates, it builds an exact replica Stem cells
ofirself, gene by gene (Figure 17.1 6). When the
chrom:uids separate at mitosis, each cell will receive a Recent developments in tissue culmre have involved
foll set of genes. In this way, the chemical instructions stem cells. Stem cells are those cells in the body that
in the zygote are passed on to all cells of d1e body. All have retained their power of division. Examples are
the chromosomes, all die genes and, therefore, all the the basal cells of the skin (' H omeostasis' in Chapter
inst:rucrions are fuithfolly reproduced by mirosis and l 4 ), which keep dividing to make new skin cells, and
passed on complete to all the cells. cells in the red bone marrow, which constantly divide
to produce the whole range ofblood cells ('B lood'
in Chaprer9).
In normal circumstances this type ofsrem cell can
produce only one type of tissue: epidermis, blood,
muscle, nerves, etc. Even so, culmre ofd1ese stem
cells could lead to effi:ctive therapies by introducing
healthy Stem cells into the body to take over the
foncrion of diseased or defective cells.
Cells t:iken from early embryos ( embryonic
stem cells) can be induced to develop into almost
any kind of cell, but there are ethical objections to
Flgure17.1S Rel,1tiomh"betweenchromosomes ,11"ldgeoes
Thedr~n9doesnot11'pre5enlre.ilgeneso,.11e.1lchromosome. using human embryos for this purpose. However,
The1e,1reprnbablythou1.and1ofgene1on,1chromosome. it has recently been shown that, gi\·en the right
17 INHERITANCE
conditions, brain stem cells can become muscle or 0

blood cells, and liver cells have been cultured from G~ ~ 8
blood stem cells. Scientists have also succc:c:dc:d in
reprogramming skin c.c:lls to devel op into other
types of cell , such as nerve cells. Bone marrow cells
rr~:cl~
cell r;perm;
0~
ov; (only
~O:uc1ng
cell
arc used routinely to treat patients with leukaemia ~ e develops)
{c;i.ncer of white blood cdls). The use of ad ult lertlll!.ltlo~
stem cells docs nor ha\·c the ethical problems of
embryonic stem cells, since cells that could become I
whole org:misms arc not being destroyed.
Gzygote
'
Gamete production and
chromosomes
TI1e genes on the chromosomes carry the instructions
VJ
Cf::\celldlvtslon
bymltosls
that turn a single-cell zygote into a bird or a rabbit

or an oak tree. The zygote is fom1ed at fertilisation, i
when a male gamcrc fuses with a fi.:rrutle gamete. Ead1
gamete brings a set of chromosomes to the zygocc. embryo
l11e g;imetcs, therefore, must each contain only half
the diploid number of chromosomes, ochenvisc rhc
chromosome: number would double each time an
organism reproduced sexually. Each human sperm cell
contains 23 chromosomes and each human ovum has Rgwe 17.17 Chromosoll'W!~in g.:imete production ¥id ferolisitlon
23 chromosomes. When the sperm and ovum fi.1SC at By now (Figure 17.I S(d )), each chromosome: is seen
fi.:rtilisation {Chapter 16), the diploid num ber of46 to consist of two chromatids and there is a second
(23 + 23) chromosomes is produced (Figure 17. 17). division of the nucleus (Figure 17.1 8(c)), which
The process of cell division that gives rise to separates the chromatids into four distinct nuclei
gametes is different from mitosis because it results {Figure 17.1 8(f)).
in the cells containing only half the diploid num ber This gives rise to four gametes, each with the
of chromosomes. TI1is num ber is called the haploid haploid number of chromosomes. In the anthe r of
number and the process of cell division that gives rise a plant {C hapte r 16), four haplo id pollen grains
to g;imeres is called meiosis. arc produced when a po llen mother cell divides by
Meiosis rakes place only in reproductive org;ins. meiosis (Figure 17 .19 ). In the testis o f an :mimal,
meiosis o f each sperm-prod ucing cell forms four
Meiosis sperm. In the cells of the ovule ofa flowering
plant o r the ovary of a mammal , meiosis gives rise
In a diploid cell that is going to divide and produce to only o ne marure female gamete. Four gametes
gametes, the chromosomes shorten and thicken as in may be prod uced initially, but only o ne of them
mitosis. The pairs of homologous chro mosomes, turns into an egg cel l that can be fertilised.
e.g. the rwo long ones and the two short ones in A!,, a result of meiosis and fertilisation, the
Figure 17. J8(b ), lie alongside each other and, when maternal and paternal chromosomes meet in
the nucleus divides for the first time, it is the difkrcnt combinations in die zygotes. Consequently,
chromosomes and nor die chromatids that are die offspring will differ from their parents and from
separated. This results in only half the tot:11 number each other in a variety of ways.
of chromosomes going ro each daughter cell. In Asexually produced org;inisms (Chapter 16) show
Figure l 7.18(c), the diploid number of four no such variation because the y arc produced by
chromosomes is being reduced to two chromosomes mitosis :i.nd all their cells arc identical to those of
prior to the first cell division. their single parent.
Monohybrid inheritance
Table 17 .1 compares meiosis and mitosis.

Tilble17.1 Mitos.isandmeiolisco~ared
ocrursinthelinal'ilagesolcelldivilioofeadingtoproductionof ocrnrsduringce11divi1ioool\.OO"laliccells
''"="'
oolyl8/ themromo'i0fl1!.'larep.-lootothe~tera.>!~. i.e. the a full set of chromosomes is passed oo to each daughtl'f cell; this is the
hapbdnumberofchromosomes diploidnumberofdlromosome1
homologous dlromosomes ;md their genes .ire randomly assorted the chromolOITl!.'5 arid geries in each daughter {ell are identical
between the gametes
new organisms produced by meios.is in sexual reproduction will show ii new organisms are produced by mitO'iil in .isexual reproduction {e.g
variatioosfromeac:hotherandfrnmtheirparl'llls bulbs.Chapll'l"16)theywilla llresembk>eadlotherandtheirparents:they
aresaidtobe"{looes·
(b) Homolog04.lschromosomes
lie along,ideeachother.
Figure 17.19 Meiosis in an ;mthl'f(~1000). The l.istdivisionof meiosis

in theantherofaHowerpmducesfourpoltengrair,s
(c) ~~~;;~~',.~J;!~: ~nding (d) ~~n~;,;,"e\!~:~r=:~d<.

chromosomesmOVl!apartto
opposite endsofthece ll. • Monohybrid inheritance
Key defi niti o ns
Ana llele isaversionofagene.
Genotype is the genetic make-up of an organism in terms of
the alleles present
Phenotype isthefeaturesofanOfgani=
Homozygou s means having two identical alleles of a
particular gene e.g. TI, where T is tall. Note that two
identicalhomozygousindividualsthatbreedtogetherwill
be pure-breeding
Heterozygou s means having two different alleles of a
particular gene e.g. Tt.Notethataheterozygous
(f) F04.lrgametesareformed. individualwillnotbepurebreeding.
Each contains only h~lfthe Anallelethatisexpressedifitispresentis dominant.
~~~~:,':;~er of An allele that is only expressed when there is no dominant
alleleofthegenepresentisrecess ive
Flgure17.18 Meiosis
17 INHERITANCE
A ll eles Single-fa ctor inheritance

The genes that occupy corresponding positions on Because it is impossible to follow the inheritance
homologous chromosomes and control the same of the tho usands of characte ristics controlled by
characteristic are c.1llcd :1.lle.lom o rphic ge nes, or ge nes, it is usual to start with the study of a single
al.leles. The word 'a[lclomo rph ' mc:1.ns '.altcrnath'C ge ne d1at controls o ne characteristic. We have used
form '. Fo r example, there are two :1.ltcrnativc forms eye colour as an example so fur. Pro bably mo re
of a gene fo r eye colour. One allele produces brown than one allele pair is involved, but the simplified
eyes and one allele produces blue C}'CS. example ,,ill serve o ur pu rpose. It has already
T here arc o ften more than two alleles of a gene. been explained how an allele for brown eyes fro m
The human ABO blood groups arc conrrolled by each parent results in the child having brown eyes.
three alleles, though onl y two of these can be present Suppose, however, that the mother has blue eyes
in one genotype . and the futher brown cycs. The child might rec.cive
an allele fur blue eyes fro m its m other and an allele
Pattern s of inheritance for brown eyes from its futher ( Figure 17.2 1). If this
A knowledge of mitosis and meiosis allows us to happens, the child will , in fuct, have brown eyes.
explain, at least to some extent, how heredity works. The allele for brown eyes is said ro be dominant
The allele in a mother's body cells that causes her to the allele fo r blue eyes. Although rhe allele for
to have brown eyes may be present on one of the blue eyes is present in all d1e child 's cells, iris nor
chromosomes in e:1.c h ovum she produces. If the expressed. It is said to be recessive ro brown.
futher's sperm cell contains an allele for brown eyes Eye colour is a useful 'model' for explaining
on the corresponding chromosome, the zygote will inheritance but it is not wholly reliable because 'blue'
rcceh·c an allele fo r brown eyes from each parem. eyes vary in colour and sometimes contain small
These alleles will be reproduced by mitosis in all the amowus of brown pigment.
embryo's body cells and when the embryo's eyes
develop, the alleles will make the cells of the iris
produce brown pigme nt ( melanin) and the child ~.,.. fd-,,.,....
will have brown eyes. ln :1. simibr way, the child may
receive alleles for curl y hair.
Figure I 7 .20 shows this happening, but it does
not, of course, show all the othe r chromosomes with
,p.,m \
from
/0 ovum from
bl~oyn
d10usands of genes for producing the e nzymes, making

diffi: rent types o f cell and all the other processes that
control the development of the organism .
fa<h®='""
zygote
Flgure 17.21 Combinationofalk!k!sl11thezygote(onfy011e
chromoo;ome'51hown). Thezygoteha1both allfle$forf!'jecoklur;
the childwil lhavebrow11eyes.
This example ill ustrates the fo llowing important

points:
• There is a pair of alleles for each characteristic, one
allele from each parent.
• Aldmugh the allele pairs cont rol the s..1me
zygote characteristic, e.g. eye colo ur, they may have
Fl,g,J re 17.20 fef"lllis.1tion. fertllis.1tionrest0fe$thediploid different eflccts. One tries to produce blue eyes,
numberold'lromosomesandcorrobklesthe.iHeles d1e other tries to produce brown eyes.
lromthemothl!r,lll(jfilther. • Often one allele is dominant o,·er the other.
• The alleles of each pair arc on corresponding not true-breeding because they may produce some
chromosomes and occupy corresponding positions. white babies as well as black o nes. The 8b rabbits arc
For example , in Figure 17.20 the alleles for eye called h eterozygous ('hetero-' means 'different').
colour arc shown in the corresponding position on 111c black 88 rabbi ts arc homozygous dominant.
the two sho rt chromosomes and the alleles for hair 111c white bb rabbits arc homozygous rcccssi\lc.
curliness arc in corresponding positions on the n\lo
long chromosomes. In diagrams :md explanations
o f heredity:
• alleles arc represented by letters
@ bl~m•I• @.
• alleles controlling the same characteristic arc
giventhesameletter,and
• the dominant allele is gi\len the capital lener.
I -= \ I ""'~· \
For example , in rabbits, the dominant allele for black
carry B.. ~ ,
,11,,_ ~I ...
,,. ~'
sperm~
have B
fur is labelled 8 . The recessi\'e allele for white fur have b
is labelled b to show that ir corresponds to 8 for
black fur. I fit were labelled w, we would nor see any
~
(a)true-breedlng (b)nottrue-breed lng
connection bcn11een Band w. Band b arc obvious Flgure17.22 Brnedingtrue
partners. In the sa me way L could represent the allele
for long fur and I the allele for short fur.
Genotype and phenotype
Breeding true The ~,.,o kinds ofblack rabbit BB and 8b are said to
A white rabbit must have both the recessi\le alleles ha,.·c the same phenotype . This is because their coat
b and b . Ifit had B and b , the dominant allele for colours look exactly the same. H owever, because they
black ( B) would override the allele for white ( b ) and ha,.·c diffi:rcnt allele pairs for coot colour they are said to
produce a black rabbit. A black rabbit, on the other ha,.·c diffi:rcnt genotypes, i.e. diffi:rcnt combin.1tions of
hand, could be either 88 or 8b and , by just looking alkles. 0 1x genotype ~ 88 and the other is Bb.
at the rabbit, you could nor tell the difference. When You and your brod1er might both be brown-eyed
a male black rabbit 88 produces sperm, each one of phenotypes but your genotype could be 88 and his
the pair of chromosomes carrying the 8 alleles ,,ill could be Bb. You would be homozygous dominant lor
end up in different sperm ccJls. Since the alleles arc brown eyes; he would be heterozygous for eye colour.
the same , all the sperm will have the 8 allele for black
fur (Figure l7.22 (a)). Th e three to one ratio
A black rabbit 88 is called a mic-brccding black and is The result of a mating between a true-breeding
said robe homozygous for black coat colour ('homo-' ( homozygous) black mouse ( BH) and a true-breeding
means 'the same'). If this rabbit mares with another ( homozygous) brown mouse ( bb) is shown in
black (88) rabbit, all the babies will be black because all
Figure l 7.23(a). 1l1e illustration is greatly simplified
will receive a dominant allele for black fur. When all the
because it shows onl y one pair of the 20 pairs of
oflspring h:n·e the same characteristic as the parents, this
mouse chromosomes and onl y one pair of alleles on
is calkd 'breeding trne' for thischaracrerisric.
\-Vhen a 8b black rabbit produces gametes by the chromosomes.
meiosis, the chro mosomes with the 8 allele and Because black is dominant to brown, all rhc
the chromosomes with the b allele will end up offspring from this mating will be black phenotypes,
in different gametes. So 50% of the sperm cells because they all rccci\'e the dominant allele for black
will carry 8 alleles and 50% will carry b alleles fur from the futher. Their genotypes, howe\lcr, will be
(Figure 17.22( b)). Similarly, in the fema le, 50% of the 8b because they all receive the recessive b allele from
ova will have a 8 allele and 50% will ha\lc a b allele. If the mother. They arc heterozygous for coot colour.
a b sperm fertilises a b ovum, the offspring, with two 111c offspring resulting from this first mating are
b alleles ( bb), will be white. The black 8b rabbi ts arc called the F 1 ge neration .
17 INHERITANCE
Figure 17.23(b ) shows what happens when these other parent. The parent's genotype is written to
heterozygous, F 1 black mice are mated together to the left. The genotypes of the offspring can then be
produce what is called the F2 generation. Each sperm predicted by completing the four boxes, as shown.
or ovum produced by meiosis can contain only one of ln this example, two heterozygous tall organisms
the alleles for coat colour, either B or b. So there are (Tt) are the parents. The genotypes of tl1e offspring
two kinds of sperm cell, one kind with the B allele and are TT, Tt, Tt and tt. We know that tl1e allele T is
one kind with the b allele. TI1ere are also two kinds dominant because tl1e parents are tall, altlmugh they
of ovum, ,,ith either B or b alleles. When fertilisation carry both tall and dwarf alleles. So, the phenotypes
occurs, there is no way of telling whether a b or a B of the offspring \,ill be three tall to one dwarf.
sperm \\ill fertilise a B or a b ovum, so we have to
look at all the possible combinations as follows:
• A b sperm fertilises a B ovum. Result: bB zygote.
•
•
•
A b sperm fertilises a b ovum. Result: bb zygote.
A B sperm fertilises a B ovum. Result: BB zygote.
A B sperm fertilises a b ovum. Result: Bb zygote.
TI1ere is no difference between bB and Bb, so there
are three possible genotypes in the offspring - BB,
Bb and bb. There are only two phenotypes - black
(BB or Bb ) and brown (bb ). So, according to the
C±?~ " bl ac k male
homozygous x homozygousbb
brown female
laws of chance, we would expect three black baby mice

and one brown. Mice usually have more than four
offspring and what we really expect is that the rntio
(proportion) ofblack to brown \\ill be close to 3:1.
::" (,jf\
testls v (!) ~:.
lf the mouse had 13 babies, you might expect nine
black and four brown, or eight black and five brown.
I \ I \
cl) er, (E)
I G)
faen if she had 16 babies you would not expect to find
exactly 12 black and four brown because whether a B or
b sperm fertilises a B orb ovum is a matter of chance. If w,
you spun ten coins, you would not expect to get exactly \ 'P"m' \ \
five heads and five tails. You would not be surprised at
six heads and four tails or even seven heads and three
tails. ln tl1e same way, we would not be surprised at 14
black and two brown mice in a litter of 16.
--6(j)
i
(all possible
To decide whether tl1ere really is a 3:1 ratio, we ,om"""""'
are the same)
need a lot of results. These may come eitl1er from
breeding the same pair of mice together for a year
or so to produce many litters, or from mating 20
black and 20 brown mice, crossing tl1e offspring and
adding up the number ofblack and brown babies in
the F 2 fumilies (see also Figure 17.24 ).
When working out the results of a genetic cross,
it is useful to display tl1e outcomes in a ' Punnett
®
square' (Figure 17.25 ). This a box divided into
four compartments. The two boxes along tl1e top
are labelled with the genotypes of the gametes of
one parent. The genotypes are circled to show they
are gametes. The parent's genotype is written above
tl1e gametes. TI1e boxes down the left-hand side are (a)alltheF 1generatlonareheterozygousblack
labelled \\ith the genotypes of the gametes of the Flgure17.23 lnherit.mceof rn.it rnlou rinmke
(±?~ Bb
heterozygous black male
Bb
heterozygous black female
::" (tr\
testlsv
POSSIBLE
ZYGOTES
(b) t heprobableratloofcoatcolourslntheFigeneratlonls3black:1 brown

Flgure17.23 lnheritonc:eofrnatcolourinmice(conrtlued)
Rgure17.24 F,hyoodsioma.ze.lothetwoJeft-handcOO'i. the gra.n

mlou1phenotypesappearioa3 •1ratio(tlyrnunm(jsiflgerw11inthe lglter Flgure17.25 U1ir,g aPunf\!'ttsquaretopredicttheoutrnme1ofa
rob). What was the rnlour of the parental grajns for earn of these cOO'il genetk: cross
17 INHERITANCE
The recessive test-cross (back-cross) Since the alleles for groups A and B are dominant ro
that for group 0, a group A person could have the
A black mouse could have either the BB or the Bb genotype JAIA or JAJ 0 • Similarly a group B person
genotype. One way to find out which is to cross the could be JBJB or JB1°. There are no alternative
black mouse with a known homozygous recessive genotypes for groups AB and 0.
mouse, bb. TI1e bb mouse will produce gametes
with only the recessive b allele. A black homozygote, Inheritance of blood group 0
BB, will produce only B gametes. Tims, if the black Blood group O can be inherited, even though
mouse is BB, all the offspring from the cross will be neither parent shows this phenotype.
black heterozygotes, Bb. Two parents have the groups A and B. The futher
Half the &1metes from a black Bb mouse would is JAI 0 and the mother is JB1° (Figure 17.26 ).
carry the B allele and half would have the b allele. So,
if the black mouse is Bb, half of the offspring from
the cross will, on average, be brown homozygotes,
bb, and half will be black heterozygotes, Bb. Phenotypes of parents blood group A bloodgroupB
The rerm 'back-cross' refers to the fuct that, in
effect, the black, mystery mouse is being crossed
with the same genotype as its brown grandparent,
the bb mouse in Figure 17.23(a). Mouse ethics and
speed of reproduction make the use of the actual 0 0 00
grandparent quite feasible!
Co-dominance and incomplete Punnettsqu;re

dominance
Co-dominance
If both genes of an allelomorphic pair produce their
effects in an individual (i.e. neither allele is dominant
to the other) the alleles are said to be co-dominant.
The inheritance of the human ABO bl(X)d groups
F1 genotypes
provides an example of co-dominance. In the ABO
system, there are four phenorypic blood groups, A, F1 phenotypes
B, AB and 0. The alleles for groups A and Bare
co-dominant. If a person inherits alleles for group
A and group B, his or her red cells will carry both Rgure17.26 lnheritaoceofblood groupO
antigen A and antigen B.
However, the alleles for groups A and Bare both
completely dominant to the allele for group 0. Some plants show co-dominance with re&1rd ro
(Group O people have neither A nor B antigens on petal colour. For example, with the gene for flower
their red cells. ) colour in the geranium, the alleles are CR (red) and
Table 17.2 shows the genotypes and phenotypes cw (white ). The capital letter 'C' has been chosen
for the ABO blood groups. ( Nore that the allele to represent colour. Pure breeding (homozygous)
for group O is sometimes represented as 1° and flowers may be red (CRCR) or white (CWCW). If
sometimes as i. ) these are cross-pollinated, all the first filial (F 1)
Table17.2 TheABOblood groups generation will be heterozygous (CR.CW) and they
Blood rou (heno ) are pink because both alleles have an effect on the
phenotype.
Self-pollinating the pink (Fi) plants results in an
unusual ratio in the next (F 2) generation of 1 red : 2
pink: 1 white.
Incomplete dominance One example of this is a form of colour blindness

TI1is term is sometimes taken to mean the same (Figure 17.27). In cl1e following case, the mother
as 'co-dominance' but, strictly, it applies to a is a carrier of colour blindness (XCXc). TI1is means
case where cl1e effi:ct of the recessive allele is not she shows no symptoms of colour blindness, but the
completely masked by cl1e dominant allele. recessive allele causing colour blindness is present on
An example occurs wicl1 sickle·cell anaemia (see one of her X chromosomes. The futher has normal
'Variation' in Chapter 18 ). If a person inherits colour vision (Xcy).
both recessive alleles (HbSHbS) for sickle-cell
haemoglobin, then he or she will exhibit signs of Phenotypes of parents
the disease, i.e. distortion of the red cells leading to

severe bouts of anaemia.
Genotypes of parents
A heterozygore (HbAHbS ), however, will have
a condition called 'sickle-cell trait'. Although there
may be mild symptoms of anaemia the condition
is not serious or life·threatening. In this case, the
normal haemoglobin allele (HbA) is not completely
dominant over the recessive (HbS) allele.
Punnett squ are

Sex linkage
Key defi n it i ons
Asex- linkedtharacteristic isonein whichthegene
res.ponsible is located on a sex chromosome, which makes
it more common in one sex than the other.
TI1e sex chromosomes, X and Y, carry genes cl1at F1genotypes

control sexual development. In addition they carry
genes that control other characteristics. These rend to F1 phenotypes 2female,swlthnormalvlslon;2male,s,
onewlthnormalv1slon,
be on the X chromosome, whid1 has longer arms to one with colour blindness
the chromatids. Even ifcl1e allele is recessive, because Rgure17.27 lnheritaoceofcolourblilldnes1
there is no corresponding allele on cl1e Y chromosome,
it is bound to be expressed in a male (XY). TI1ere is less If the gene responsible for a particular condition is
chance of a recessive allele being expressed in a female present only on the Y chromosome, only males can
(XX) because the ocl1er X duomosome may carry the suffer from the condition because females do not
dominant form of the allele. possess the Y chromosome.
characteristics. This he did by using varieties of the

• Extension work pea plant, Pimm sativum, which he grew in the
monastery garden. He chose pea plants because they
Ideas about heredity: Gregor Mendel were self-pollinating (Chapter 16 ). Pollen from the
(1822---84) anthers reached cl1e stigma of the same flower even
Mendel was an Augustinian monk from the town before the flower bud opened.
ofBrtinn (now Erno) in Czechoslovakia (now cl1e Mendel selected varieties of pea plant that bore
Czech Rt:public ). He studied macl1s and science at the distinctive and contrasting characteristics, such as
University ofVienna in order to teach at a local school. green seeds vs yellow seeds, dwarh•s tall, round
He was cl1e first scientist to make a systematic seedsvswrinkled (Figure 17.28 ). He used only
study of patterns of inheritance involving single plants that bred true.
17 INHERITANCE
fruit shape
-·- • row1d \'S wrinkled seeds

• yellow \'S green seeds
5474 :18 50 . 2 .96: I
6022 :2001 . 3.01 :1
flJ
frult(pod)colour
0
0
0
cotyl•don colour
(j
• green vsyellowpods 428:152 -2.82 :1
Two-thirds of the do minant tall F2 plants did not
breed true when self-pollinated but produced the
3:1 ratio ofrall : dwarf. They were therefore similar
to the plants of the F1 gener.i.tion.
P'"'"
})
It is not clear whether Mendel speculated on how
sHd coat(t••Uo) colo ur the characteristics were rc:prcscmcd in rhe gametes
m or how they achicn:d their effects. Ac one point he:
~- P'"'" -·
([{fJ)
Figure 17.28 Some oftlle cllar.ctwlnlo Investigated by Me ndel
H e rhen crossed pairs ofrhc: conrn.sring va rieties.

wrote of ·the di fferentiating ek menrs of the egg
a.t1d pollen cells', but it is questio nable whether he
envisaged actual struct ures being responsible .
Simibrly, when Mendel wrote 'exactly similar
factors must be at wo rk', he meant that there must
To do this he had to open the: flower buds, remove be similar processes taking place. He docs not use
rhc: stamens and use them to dusr po llen on the the term 'fuctor' to imply particles or any entities
stigmas of the contrasting variety. The offsprin g of that conrrol heritable characteristics.
thi s cross he called the 'first fili al' generation , or F 1. His ~ m bols A, Ab and b seem ro be shorthand
TI1e first thing he noticed was that all the o ffiprin g for the types of plants he studied: A . true-breeding
o f the F1 cross showed the: chararn;: ristic of only one dominam, b . true-breeding recessive and Ab . the
of the parents. For example, rall pbnts crossed with non-true-breeding ' hybrid'. The letters represented
dwarf plants produced only tall plants in the fi rst the visible characte ristics, whereas today they
generation. represent the alleles responsible for producing the:
Next he allowed the pla.t1ts of rhe F1 gene ration characteristic. For example, Mendel never refers to
to self- pollinate and so produce a second filial AA or bb so he probably did nor appreciate that
generation, or F2. Surprisingly, the dwarf characteristic each characteristic is rep resented twice in the somatic
that had , seemingly, disappeared in the F1 reappeared cells bur onl y o nce in the gametes.
in rhe F2, ll1is characteristic had not, in fuct, been When Mendel crossed plants, each carrying
lost but merely concealed or suppressed in the F1 two contrasting characteristics, he found rhat
ro re-emerge in the F2. Mendel called the re pressed the characmistics tu rned up in the offspring
fcarure 'recessive:' a.tx:I the expressed fe ature independently o f each other. For example, in a cross
'do minant'. between a tall plant with green seeds and a dwarf plane
AJso, it must be noted , the plants were all either with yellow seeds, some of the offipring were r.ill with
tall o r dwarf; there were no intermediates, as might ye Uow seeds and some dwarf with green seeds.
be expected if the charaaerisrics blended. So, Mendel's work was descriptive ai1d
Mendel noticed that pollen from tall plants, marhemarical rat her tha.t1 expla.t1arory. H e showed
transfe rred to the stigmas of short plants, prod uced that certain characteristics were inherited in a
the same result as transferring pollen from short predictable way, that the gametes were rhc vehic les,
pbms to the stigmas of tall plams. This meant that that these characteristics did nor blend but retained
male and fem ale gametes conrribured equally to the their identity and could be inherited independently
observed characteristic. of each orhcr. He also recognised dominant and
Wh en Mendel counted the number of contrasting recessive characteristics and, by 'hybridisation', that
offipring in the F2, he found char rhey occurred in in the prese nce of the do minant characteristic the:
rhe ratio of three do minanc co one recessive. For recessive characteristic, though nor expressed, did
example,of 1064 F2 planes from the tall x dwa rf nor 'disappear'.
cross, 787 were: tall a.t1d 2 77 dwarf, a ra tio of 2 .84: l. Mendel published his results in 1866 in
This F2 ratio occurred in all Mendel's crosses, fu r ' Tramncriom of the Br1im 1 N awrnl Hinory
example: Society', which, understandably, did nor have a
wide circulation. Only when Mendel's work. was • T he first 'law' (the law of segregation) is expressed
rediscove red in 1900 was the importance and as 'of a pair of contrasted characters o nl y one can
signi ficance of his fi ndings appreciated. be represented in the gamete'.
Mendel's observations arc someti mes lillmmarised • The second ·law' (the law of independent
in the for m of'Mendel's laws', but Mendel did nor assortment) is given as ·each of a pair of
lorm ulate any laws and these arc the product of contrasting characters may be combined with
modern knowledge of genetics. either of a nor her pair'.
Questions 13 How many ctvomosomes would there be in the nucleus

c~• of:
1 A married couple has four 9rl children but n o ~ This a ahumanmusdeceU
does not mean that the husbaod produces only X 51)efms. b amousekidnevcell
Explain why not. c ahumanskinceUthathasjustbeenproducedbymitosis
2 Vv"hich sex chromosome determines the sex of a baby7 d a kangaroo sperm cell?
Explain your answer. 14 'Nhatisthediploidnumberinhumans7
3 Some plants occur in one of two sizes. tall or dwarf. This 15 Suggest why sperm could be described as male sperm and
cha racteristiciscontrolledbyonepair ofgenes. Ta ll nes:. female sperm
is dominant to shortness. Choose suitable letters for t he 16 a 'Nhat aregametes7
gene pair. b 'Nhatarethemaleandfemalegametesol
4 Vv"hyal"('theretwotypesofgenecontrollingone i plant.and
characteristic?Dothetwotypesaffectthecharacteristicin ii animalscalled,andwhel"('aretheyproduced?
thesamewayaseachother7 c 'Nhathappensatfertilisation?
S Thealleleforredhairisrecessivetothealleleforblack d Whatisazygoteandwhatdoesitdevelopinto?
hair. 'Nhatcolourhairwill apersonha...eifheinheritsan 17 Howmanydvomatidswill there be inthenudeusofa
allele for red hair from his mother and an alele for black humancelljustbeforecelldivisioo7
hair from hisfather7 18 'Nhycanchromosomes not be seen when a cell is not
6 a ReadQuestionSagain. Chooselettersforthealleles dividing?
for red hair and blad: hair and write down the allele 19 In which human tissues would you expect mitosis to be
combination for having red hair. going on, in:
b WouldyouelCpectared-hairedcoupletobreedtrue7 a aS..year-oldchild
c Couldablad:-hairedcouplehaveart'd.hairedbaby? b an adult?
7 Use the words 'homozygous', 'heterozygous., 'dominant' 20 What is the haploid number for.
and 'recessi...e' (where suitable) to describe the folla,yjng a ahuman
allele combinations: Aa, AA, aa. b afn..itfly7
8 A plant has two varieties, one with red petals and one 2 1 'Nhich of the following cells would be haploid and which
with white petals. 'Nhen these two varieties are uos:.- diploid:whitebloodcell, malecellinpollengrain,guard
pol!inated, alltheoffspringhaveredpetals.. 'Nhich allele cell, root hair, O'Alm, spe,m, skin cell, egg cell in ovule?
is dominant? Choose suitable letters to r ~ n t the two 22 'Nhere in the body of the following organisms would you
alleles. expectmeiosistobetakingplace7
9 Look at Figure 17.23(a). Wrryistherenopossibilityof a ahumanmale
gettinga BB ora bb combinationintheoffspring? b a human female
10 In Figure 17 .23(b) what proportion of the F1 black mice are c alloweringplant
true-breeding? 23 How many chromosomes would be present in:
11 Two black guinea-pigs are ma ted togethe r on - ra l a amousespermcell
occasionsand t hetrollspringareinvariablyblack. However, b amouse0111Jm7
when their black offspring are ma ted with wh ite guinea - 24 Why are organisms that are produced by asexual
pigs, hall ol the matings result in all black litters and reproductionidenticaltoeachother?
theotherhalfproduce litterscontainingequalnumbers 25 Two black rabbits thought to be homozygous for coat
of blad::: and white babies. From these result., deduce colourwerematedandproducedalitterthatcontained
the genotypes of the parents and e~plain the results of all black babies. The F1. ho'Never, res\Ated in some white
thevarioosmatings.assumingthatcolourinthiscaseis babies, which mean t that one of the grandparents WilS
de terminedbyasing!epairolalleles. heterozygous for coat colour. How would you find out
which grandparent was heterozygous?
Extend@d 26 What combinations of blood groups can f'MU!t in a child
12 Howmanybasesv.rill there be in an mRNA molecule beingbornwithbloodgroup07UsePunnettsquaresto
codingforhaemoglobin7 show your reasoning.
17 INHERITANCE
27 A woman of blood group A daims that a man of blood a lsthisanexampleofrn-dominanceorinrnmplete

group AB is the father of her child. A blood test reveals dominance?
thatthechild'sbloodgroupisO b What mat colours would you expect among the
a Is it possible that the woman's claim is cOfrect? offspring of a mating between two roan cattle?
b CouldthefatherhavebeenagroupBman? 29 Predic:ttheratioofchildrenwithcolourblindnessresulting
Explain your reasoning. from a mother who is a carrier for colour blindness having
28 A red cow has a ~ir of alleles fOf red hairs. A white bull has childrenwithafatherwhoiscolourblind.
a ~ir of alleles fOf white hairs. If a red o:m and a white bull
aremated,theoffspringareall'roan',i.e.theyhaveredand
whitehairsequallydistributedovertheirbody.
Checklist • A diploid nucleus is a nucleus containing two sets of

After studying Chapter 17youshouldknowandunderstandthe chromosomes (e.g. in body cells).
following: • lnadiploidcell,thereisapairofeachtypeof
chromosome; in a human diploid cell there are 23 pairs.
• Inheritance is the transmission of genetic information from
generation to generation.
Mitos is
Chro moso mes,genesa ndp ro te in s • Mitosisisnucleardivisiongivingrisetogenetically
identical cells
• A chrom=e is a thread of DNA, made up of a string of
• Mit05is is important in growth, rep;iir of damaged tissues,
genes.
replacement of cells and in asexual reproduction.
• A gene is a length of DNA that codes !Of a protein
• Analleleisaversionofagene • Before mitosis, the exact duplication of chromosomes
• Chromosomes are found as thread-like structures in the
nuclei of all cells. • Eachspeciesofplantoranimalhasafixednumberof
• Chrom05omes are in ~irs; one of each pair comes from the chromosomes in its cells.
male and one from the female parent • When cells divide by mitosis, the chromosomes and genes
• Sex, in mammals, is determined by the X and Y arecopiedexactlyandeachnewcellgetsafullset.
chromosomes. Males are XY; females are XX. • Stemcellsareunspecialisedcellsthatdividebymitosisto
producedaughtercellsthatcanbecomespecialisedfor
• The DNA molecule is roiled along the length of the
specific purposes.
chromosome.
• A DNA molecule is made up of a double chain of Me ios is
nudeotidesintheformofahelix.
• Meiosis is reduction division in which the chromosome
• ThenudeotidebasesinthehelixpairupA- TandC---G
numberishalvedfromdiploidtohaploidresultingin
• Triplets of bases control production of the specific amino
genetically different cells
acidsthatmakeupaprotein.
• Gametesaretheresultofmeiosis
• Genes consist of specific lengths of DNA.
• At meiosis, only one chromosome of each ~ir goes into
• Most genes control the type of enzyme that a cell will make.
the gamete
• Whenproteinsaremade
• Meiosis produces variation by forming new comb.nations
- the DNA with the genetic code for the protein remains
of maternal and paternal chromosomes.
inthenudeus
- mRNA molecules carry a copy of the genetic code to
the cytoplasm Mo no hyb ridinh e ri tance
- the mRNA ~sses through ribosomes in the cytoplasm
and the ribosome puts together amino acids to form • The genotype of an organism is its genetic make-up.
protein molecules. • Thephenotypeofanorganismisitsfeatures.
• Thespecificorderofaminoacidsisdecidedbythe • Homozygous means having two identical alleles of a
sequenceofbasesinthemRNA. ~rticular gene. Two identical homozygous individuals that
• All body cells in an organism contain the same genes, but breedtogetherwillbepure-breeding
manygenesina~rticularcellarenotexpressedbecause • Heterozygous means having two different alleles of a
thecellonlymakesthespecificproteinsitneeds. ~rticular gene. A heterozygous individual will therefore not
• Ahaploidnudeusisanucleuscontiliningasinglesetof be pure-breeding.
unpaired chromosomes (e.g. in sperm and egg cells). • Adominantalleleisonethatisexpressedifitispresent
• A recessive allele is one that is only expressed when there is • The inheritance of ABO blood groups is an example of
nodominantalleleofthegenepresent. co-dominance.
• Geneticdiagramsareusedtopredicttheresultsof • The phenotypes are A. B, AB and O blood groups.
monohybrid crosses and calculate phenotypic ratios • The genotypes are IA, lijandlo
• Pun nett squares can be used in crosses to work out and ~ow • Asex-linkedcharacteristicisacharacteristicinwhichthe
the possible different genotypes gene responsible is located on a sex chromosome. This
• A test-cross is used to identify an unknown genotype, for makes it more common in one sex than in the other.
instancetofindoutifitispurebreedingorheterozygous • Colourblindnessisanexampleofsexlinkage.
• In some cases, neither one of a pair of alleles is • Geneticdiagramsc:anbeusedtopredicttheresultsof
fullydominantovertheother. Thisisc:alled monohybrid crosses involving co-dominance and sex
co-dominance. linkage.
@ Variation and selection
Variat ion Define;idaptivefeature,fitness
Define variation Adaptivefeaturesofhydrophytesandxerophytes
Oi5Conlinuous and continuous variation
Define mutation
Causes of mutations Selection
Natural selection
Causes of discontinuous and continuous variation
Artificial selection
Define gene mutation
Selective breeding
Sickle-cell anaemia
Down's syndrome Definetheprocessofadaptation
Mutations in bacteria Evolution
Adapt ive fea tures Developmentofstr;iinsofresistantbacteria
Define adaptive feature Use of selective breeding
Describe adaptive features of organisms Comp;irenaturalandartificialselection
genes for producing pigment will only go brown ifhe

• Variation or she exposes themselves ro sunlight. So the ran is a
Key definit ion result ofboth inherited and acquired characteristics.
Variat ion is the differences between individuals of the 5ilme
The term ·variation' refers to observable differences

within a species. All domestic cats belong to the
same species, i.e. they can all interbreed, but
there are many variations of size, coat colour, eye
colour, fur length, etc. Those variations that can be
inherited are determined by genes. l11ey are ge netic
variations. Phenotypic va riatio n s may be brought
about by genes, but can also be caused by the
environment, or a combination of both genes and
the environment.
So, there are variations that are not heritable, but
determined by fuctors in the environment. A kitten
that gets insufficient food will not grow to the same
size as its litter mates. A cat with a skin disease may
have bald patches in its coat. These conditions are not Flgure1 8.1 Acquiredmaractl'frffic:1. These apple,; haveal lbeenpicked
from differmtparnofthes.amelrl'l'. Alltheappleshaitesim i~rgeoolype'i.
heritable. They are caused by environmental effects. 'iO lhe diffell'ocl"i in siZ!'musthaitebeenLlUSl'dbyerwiromnentaleffect1
Similarly, a fair-skinned person may be able to change
the colour of his or her skin by exposing it to the Sun,
so getting a tan. l11e tan is an acq uired characteristic. Discontinuous va riati on
You cannot inherit a suntan. Black skin, on the other In discontinuous variatio n , the variations take the
hand, is an inherited characteristic. form of distinct, alternative phenotypes ,vith no
Many features in plants and animals are a mixture of intermediates (Figures 18.2 and 18.4 ). The mice in
acquired and inherited d1aracteristics (Figure 18. l ). Figure 17.23 are either black or brown; the.re are no
For example, some fair-skinned people never go brown intermediates. You are either male or female. Apart
in the Sun, they only become sunbumed. They have from a small number of abnormalities, sex is inherited
nor inherited the genes for producing the extra brown in a discontinuous way. Some people can roll their
pigment in their skin. A fuir-skinne.d person with the tongue into a tube. Others are unable to do it. They
Variation
are known as non-tongue rollers. Again, there are no There are many characteristics that are difficult
intermediates ( Figure 18.2). to classify as either wholly continuous or
discontinuous variations. Human eye colour has
already been mentioned. People can be classified
roughly as having blue eyes or brown eyes, bur
there are also categories described as grey, hazel
or green. It is likely that there are a small number
of genes for eye colour and a dominant gene for
brown eyes, which overrides all the others when
it is present. Similarly, red hair is a discontinuous
variation but it is masked by genes for orher colours
and there is a continuous range of hair colour from
blond to black.
M utatio ns
Flgure 18.2 Disc:onlirmoo1variatKln.Tonguerollersandnon-rnlH'rs
inadas1 Key definit ion
A muta ti o n is a ~ntaneous genetic change. Mutation is the
Discontinuous variation carumt usually be altered by way new alleles are formed .
the environment. You cannot change your eye colour
by altering your diet. A genetic dwarf cannot grow Many of the cat coat variations mentioned overleaf
taller by eating more food. You cannor learn how to may have arisen, in the first place, as mutations in
roll your tongue. a wild stock of cats. A recent variant produced by a
mutation is the 'rex' variety, in which the coat has
Cont inu o us va ri atio n curly hairs.
An example of continuous variation is height. There Many of our high-yielding crop plants have
are no distinct categories ofheight; people are nor arisen as a result of mutations in which the whole
either tall or short. There are all possible intermediates chromosome set has been doubled.
between very short and very tall (Figure 18.3 ). Exposure to m u t agens, namely certain chemicals
and radiation, is known to increase the rate of
mutation. Some of the substances in tobacco
smoke, such as tar, are mutagens, which can cause
Ionising radiation from X-rays and radioactive

i10 compounds, and ultraviolet radiation from sunlight,
can both increase the mutation rate. It is uncertain
.•'''
0 '
whether there is a minimum dose of radiation
below which there is negligible risk. It is possible
that repeated exposure to low doses of radiation
' is as harmful as one exposure to a higl1 dose. It
has become clear in recent years that, in light-
skinned people, unprotected exposure to ultraviolet
radiation from the Sun can cause a form of skin
height/cm cancer.
Flgure 18.3 Cootinuousvari.itioo. HeightsofgQOOOatmyreO\/ils.The Generally speaking, however, exposure to natural
.ipparent·1teps"inthedistribution.iretheresultofartJitrarilyc:hosen and medical sources of radiation carries less risk than
categories.differinginheightbylcm.Btrthekjhlsdonotd ifferby
exactlylcm.lfmeasurementsrnuldbemac!eacruratelytothenearl'St smoking cigarettes or driving a car, but it is sensible
millimetre there wook! be a smooth curve like the OI\I' shown in rnklur. to keep exposure to a minimum.
18 VARIATION AND SELECTION
Genetic variation may be the result of new intelligence, are always the result of interaction
combinations of genes in the zygote, or mutations. bet:v.·een the genotype and the environment.
Discontinuous variation New combinations of genes

Discontinuous variation is under the control of a If a grey cat witl1 long fur is mated with a black cat
single pair of alleles or a small number of genes. with short fur, tl1e kittens will all be black with short
An example is human blood groups. These were fur. If these offspring are mated together, in due
discussed in Chapter 17. course the litters may include four \'arieties: black-
A person is one of four blood groups: A, B, AB or short, black-long, grey-short and grey-long. Two of
0. There are no groups in between. these are different from either of the parents.
Mutation
IKeyd efi n iti o n
A gene mutation isachangeintheba5e5equenceinDNA.
I
A mutation may occur in a gene or a chromosome.
In a gene mutation it may be that one or more
genes are not replicated correctly. A chromosome
mutation may result from damage to or loss of pan
of a chromosome during mitosis or meiosis, or even
the gain ofan extra chromosome, as in Down's
syndrome (see page 273 ).
blood group An abrupt change in a gene or chromosome is
Rgure 18.4 Discootinuou1variation. Fr1'Quendl'1 of ABO Mood likely to result in a defective enzyme and will usually
groupsin Britain.Theligurp,;rnuklnotbeadju1tedtolita disrupt the complex reactions in the cells. Most
1moo thrnrvebec:ausethereare no intemwdiate1 mutations, tl1erefore, are harmful to the organism.
Surprisingly, only about 3% of human DNA
Continuous variation consists of genes. The rest consists of repeated
sequences of nucleotides tl1at do nor code for
Continuous variation is influenced by a combination proteins. This is sometimes called 'junk DNA',
of both genetic and environmental fucrors. but tl1at term only means tl1at we do not know its
Continuously variable characteristics are usually fimction. lfmutations occur in tl1ese non-coding
controlled by several pairs of alleles. There might be sequences they are unlikely to have any effect on the
five pairs of alleles for height - (Hh), (Tt), (LI ), (Ee ) organism and are, tl1erefore, described as ' neutral'.
and (Gg) - each dominant allele adding 4cm to your Rarely, a gene or chromosome mutation produces
height. If you inherited all ten dominant genes ( HH, a beneficial effect and this may contribute to tl1e
TT, etc. ) you could be 40cm taller than a person success of tl1e organism (see 'Selection' later in this
who inherited all ten recessive genes (hh, tt, etc. ). chapter).
The acmal number of genes that control height, If a mutation occurs in a gamete, it will afkct all
intelligence, and even the colour of hair and skin, is the cells of the individual tl1at develops from the
not known. zygote. Thus the whole organism ,viii be affected. If
Continuously variable characteristics are greatly the mutation occurs in a somatic cell ( body cell), it
influenced by the environment. A person may inherit will affect only tlmse cells produced, by mitosis, from
genes for tallness and yet not get enough food to theaffec.tedcdl.
grow tall. A plant may have tl1e genes for large fruits Thus, a mutation in a gamete may result in a
but not get enough water, minerals or sunlight genetic disorder, e.g. haemophilia or cystic fibrosis.
to produce large fruits. Continuous variations in Mutations in somatic cells may give rise to cancers
human populations, such as height, physique and by promoting uncontrolled cell division in the
Variation
affected tissue. For example, skin cancer results

from uncontrolled cell division in the basal layer of
the skin.
A mutation may be as small as the substitution
of one organic base for another in the DNA
molecule, or as large as the breakage, loss or gain
re duce d,urvival;
J J
positive ..,le ction reduced survival;
of a chromosome.
"' le cte d against due to malari a , ~lected agaimt
by ma laria byilln.,.,
Sickle-cell anaemia
This condition has already been mentioned in Flgure18.6 Selec:tkmiosic:kle-celldisease
Chapter 17. A person with sickle -cell disease
has inherited both recessive alleles (HbSHbS) With sickle-cell anaemia, the defective haemoglobin
for defective haemoglobin. The distortion and molecule diffi:rs from normal haemoglobin by only one
destruction of the red cells, which occurs in low amino acid (represented by a sequence of three bases),
oxygen concentrations, leads to bouts of severe i.e. valine replacesgflltamic acid. lbis could be the
anaemia (Figure 18.5 ). In many African countries, result offuulty replication at meiosis. When the televant
sufferers have a reduced chance of reaching parental chromosome replicated at gamete formation,
reproductive age and having a fumily. There is thus the DNA could have produced the triplet --CAT-
a selection pressure, whid1 tends to remove the (which specifies va/ine) instead of-CIT- (which
homozygous recessives from the population. In such specifies glutamic acitf). In this case, a change of just
a case, you miglu expect the harmful HbS allele one base (from A to T) makes a significant diffi:rence
to the characteristics of the protein (haemoglobin).
to be selected out of the population altogether.
H owever, the heterozygotes (HbAHl,S) have Down's syndrom e
virtually no symptoms of anaemia but do have the Down's syndrome is a form of mental and physical
advantage that they are more resistant to malaria disability, which results from a chromosome mutation.
than the homozygotes HbAHbA. It appears that the During the process of meiosis which produces an
malaria parasite is unable to invade and reproduce in ovum, one of the chromosomes (chromosome 21 )
the sickle cells. fails to separate from its homologous partner, a
The selection pressure of malaria, therefore, process known as non-disjunction. As a result, the
fuvours the heterozygotes over the homozygotes ovum carries 24 chromosomes instead of 23, and
and the potentially harmful HbS allele is kept in the the resulting zygote has 47 instead of the normal 46
population (Figure 18.6 ). chromosomes. The risk of having a baby with Do,,n's
When Africans migrate to countries where malaria syndrome increases as the mother gets older.
does not occur, the selective advantage of the HbS
allele is lost and the frequency of this allele in the Mutations in bacteria
population diminishes. Mutations in bacteria often produce resistance to
drugs. Bacterial cells reproduce very rapidly, perhaps
as often as once every 20 minutes. Thus a mutation,
even if it occurs only rarely, is likely to appear in a
large population of bacteria. If a population of
bacteria containing one or two drug-resistant
mutants is subjected to that particular drng, the
non-resistant bacteria will be killed but the drug·
resistant mutants survive (see Figure 15.1 ). Mutant
•
genes are inherited in the same way as normal genes,
J so when the surviving mutant bacteria reproduce, all

their offspring will be resistant to the drng.
Mutations are comparatively rare events; perhaps only
Flgure18.5 Sic: kle-cellaoaemia (~800). At low oxyqeocoo c!'lltratioo one in every 100000 replications results in a mutation.
theredceli'ibecomedistort:ed Nevertheless they do occur namrally all the time.
18 VARIATIONANDSELECTION
• Adaptive features ball and

socket joint
hinge
joint
five groups of bone.,
e.cherrangedin1'thain'
1
Key defi nition
An adaptive featu re is an inherited fe,UUft that heP5 an
organism to survive and reproduce in its environmenL
·~~~:, one bone
(hum.rus)
two bones
(r.diusandulna)
g,,oupof 5
smallbones(wrfst)
la) p.ott«nofbonesinh,...,anforellmb
Adaptation
When biologists say that a plant or animal is adnpttd
to its habitat they usually mean that, in the course of
C\'oiurion, changes have occurred in the organism,
which make it more successful in exploiting its
habitat, e.g. animals finding and digesting food,
selecting nest sites or hiding places, o r plants (b) whale
exploiting limited mineral resources or tolerating
figure 18.8 Skeletons of the fOfellmbs of human and wh.ale
salinity or drought. It is tempting to assume that
because we find a plant or animal in a particular
habitat it must be adapted to its habitat. There is The came l
some logic in this; if an organism was not adapted Camels arc adapted ro survi\'C in a hot, dry and
to its habitat, presumably it would be eliminated sandy environment. Adaptive physical features arc
bynamral selection. However, itis best to look for closable nostrils and Jong e}•clash cs, which help
positive evidence of adaptation. keep out wind-blown sand (Figure 18.9). Their feet
Sometimes, just by looking at an organism and arc broad and splay our under pressure, so reducing
comparing it \\ith related species, it is possibk to male the tendency to sink into the sand. Thick fur
reasoned guesses about adaptation . For cxampk, rhcrc insulates the body agains1 hea1 gain in the imcnse
seems little doubt that the long, hair-fringed hind legs sunlight.
of a water beetle arc adaptations to locomotion in Physiologically, a camel is able to survive without
water when compared with the corresponding kgs of water lor 6-8 days. Its stomach has a large water-
a land-living relative (Figure 18.7). holding capacity, though it drinks to replace water
lost by evaporation rather tha n in anticipation of
\vatcrdcprivation .
The body temperature of a 'thirsty' camel rises to
as much as 40 °C during the day and falls to about
35 °Car night. The elevated daytime temperature
reduces the hear gradient between the body and the
surroundings, so less heat is absorbed. A camel is able
to tolerate \\/'ater loss equivalent to 25% of its body
weight, compared \vith humans lor whom a 12% loss
may be futal. The blood volume and concentration
are maintained by withdrawing water fro m the body
(ajw~terbeetle (b)groundbeetle tissues.
flgure 18.7 AdclptatlontolocomoOonlnwaterandonland The nasal passages arc lined with mucus. During
exhalation, the dry mucus absorbs water vapour.
Similarly, in Figure 18.8 it seems reasonable to During inhalation the now moist mucus adds water
suppose that, compared with the generalised vapour to the inhaled air. In this way, water is
mammalian limb, the forelimbs of whales arc adapted conserved.
for locomotion in water. The role of the camel's humps in water
By srnd}fog animals which live in extreme habitats, conservation is more complex. The humps contain
it is possible 10 suggest ways in which they might be fut and arc thcrclorc an importam reserve of energy-
adapted 10 these habitats especially if the o bservations giving food. H owc\'cr, when the fut is metabolised
arc supported by physiological c\'idcncc. during respira tio n, carbon dioxide and water
Adaptive features
Flgure1 8.9 PmtectKlfl.19ainstwinO.blownsarid.Thenostril1areslil· Flgure18.11 Theheavycoatandsma lle.irs.ilsohelpthe polarbearto

likeaodcanbeclosed . Theloogeyelashesprotecttheeyes reduc: eheatlos1e1
(metabolic water) are produced. l11e water enters l11e principal thermal insulation comes from a 10cm
the blood circulation and would normally be lost by layer of fut (blubber) beneath the skin. The thermal
evaporation from the lungs, but the water-conserving conductivity of fut is little different from any other
nasal mucus will trap at least a proportion ofit. tissue but it has a limited blood supply. This means
that very little warm blood circulates close to cl1e
The polar bear skin surfuce.
Polar bears live in the Arctic, spending much The hollow hairs of the white fur are thought to
of their time on snow and ice. Several physical transmit the Sun's heat to the black skin below. Black
features contribute to their adaptation to this cold is an efficient colour for absorbing heat. The white
environment. colour is also probably an dkctive camouflage when
It is a very large bear (Figure 18.10 ), which hunting its prey, mainly seals.
means that the ratio of its surfuce area to its volume A specific adaptation to walking on snow and ice
is relatively small. The relatively small surf.tee area is the heat-exchange arrangement in the limbs. The
means that the polar bear loses proportionately less arteries supplying cl1e feet run very close to cl1e veins
heat than its more southerly relatives. Also its ears returning blood to the heart. Heat from the arteries
are small, another feature that reduces hear loss is transferred to the veins before the blood reaches
(Figure 18. 11 ). the feet ( Figure 18. 12 ). So, little heat is lost from
It has a thick coat with long, loosely packed coarse the feet but their temperature is maintained above
hairs (guard hairs) and a denser laye r of shorter woolly freezing point, preventing frost-bite.
hairs forming an insulating layer. The long hairs are Polar bears breed in winter when temperatures
oily and water-repellent and enable the bear to shake full well below zero. However, the pregnant female
off water when it emerges from a spell of swimming. excavates a den in the snow in which to give bircl1
and rear her two cubs. In this way the cubs are
protected from the extreme cold.
The female remains in cl1e den for about 140 days,
suckling her young on the rich milk, which is formed
from her fut reserves.
Venus flytrap
Many plants show adaptions as well as animals.
Insectivorous plants such as the Venus flytrap
(Figure 18.13 ) live in habitats where there is often a
Flgure18.10 Thepolarbearandthe1unbear{fromSEA1ia).The shortage of nitrates for growth. They have developed
1,11).iilersurfaceare.l"Volumeratiointhe polarbearhelpsrnnserveheat pairs ofleaves with tooth-like edges. The leaves have
Q
.., warmblood
Other adaptations
Adaptive features of the long-eared bat and the hare
are illustrated in Figures 18.14 and 18.15.
O coolblood
he.:itlstr.:insferred - -1---- -ll-- 1

from the artery to
the vein
Flgure18.14 Long-eall.'d bat.Thebatgive1olllhfgh-pitc:hed10Unds.

whic:harereflectedbackfmmitsp<eyaridfrornobst..des. toitsearsa!ld
semilivepatc:hesooit1f..c:e.Bylimingth!."ieechoe1thebatunjudge
it1di1taric:efmmtheot,,;tadeorp<ey.Thi1allow1ittollyandfeedinthe
dark.1t1bodyisrnveredinlurf0<imulatioo.Jtsforearm1arecovell.'dbya
membraneof1kintoformawing.Thefingersa reverykmgto1tretchout
the blood supply
to the foot ls themembranetoincre.1sethe1urfaceareaofthewing
maintained but
heat loss ls
minimised
Flgure18.12 Theheat-exchangemechanisminthepolarbear'ilimb
sensitive hairs on their surface. When an insect walks

inside the leaves, the hairs are triggered, causing the
leaves to close very rapidly - trapping the animal. The
leaves then secrete protease enzymes, which digest
the insect's protein and produce soluble amino acids.
These are absorbed by the leaf and used to build new
proteins. It is unusual for a photosynthetic plant to
show such rapid movement or to gain nourishment
other than by photosynthesis.
Flgure18.15 Hare.Toisanimali1aherbivorea!ldi1huntedby
pred.itor11ucha1foxe1.Jtsfuri1agoodinsulatoranditsrnklurp<ovides
excellent camouflage. ThelongearshelptopidupandkxalelOUrid
vibratiom.Theeyes.itthesideoftheheadgro.retheharegoodallaround
vi'iion.Thehindleg:s.teveryloogtol'fl.ibletheanimaltorunaway
frompredator1andi11kidisagooddeferic:emechani1m. Somespedl.'5
Figure 18.13 Venus ftytrap with trapped irisec:t. which wil l eYentually be of hare change the rnlour of their fur in winter from brown to white to
digested provide better camouflage in snow.
Adaptive features
Key definitions Some plants live in very sandy soil, which does not
Adaptivefeaturesaretheinheritedfunctionalfeaturesofan retain moisture well. Often this is combined with
organimithatinaeaseitsfitness.
Fitnessistheprobabilityofthatorganimisurvivingand very low rainfull, making access to water difficult.
reproducing in the environment in which it is found . Only plants with special adaptations, such as desert
and sand dw1e species, can survive.
Adaptations to arid conditions Cacti

Cacti are adapted to hot, dry conditions in se,'eral
In both hot and cold climates, plants may suffer ways. Often they ha,·e no leaves, or the leaves are
from water shortage. High temperatures accelerate reduced to spines. This reduces the surf.ice area
evaporation from leaves. At very low temperatures for transpiration and also acts as a defence against
the soil water becomes frozen and therefore herbivores. Photosynthesis is carried out by a thick
unavailable to the roots of plants. Plants modified to green stem, which offers only a small surface area
cope with lack of water are called xerophytes. for evaporation. Cacti are succulent, i.e. they store
It is thought that the autumn leaf-full of water in their fleshy tissues and draw on this store for
deciduous trees and shrnbs is an essential adaptation photosynthesis (Figure 18.17).
to winter 'drought'. Loss ofleaves removes virtually
all evaporating surf.ices at a time when water may
become unavailable. Without leaves, however, the
plants cannot make food by photosynthesis and so
they enter a dormant condition in which metabolic
activity is at a low level.
Pinc tree
TI1e pine tree (Pinus) (Figure 18.16) is an evergreen
tree that survives in cold climates. It has small,
compact, needle-like leaves. TI1e small surf.ice area of
such leaves offers little resistance to high winds. TI1is
helps to resist wind damage and can reduce the amollilt
of water Jost in transpiration. H owever, photosynthesis
can continue whenever water is available. Sunken
stomata create high humidity and reduce transpiration.
A thick waxy cuticle is present on the epidermis to
prevent evaporation from the surface of the leaf.
Flgure18.17 Acactus (=cuk>nt} grw.irigindesertrnndlions inAtizooa
TI1e stomata of many cacti are closed during the day

when temperatures are high, and open at night when
evaporation is at a minimum. TI1is strategy requires
a slightly different form of photosyntl1esis. At night,
carbon dioxide diffuses in through tl1e open stomata
and is 'fixed' (i.e. incorporated ) into an organic
acid . Little water vapour is lost at night. In the
daytime the stomata are closed but tl1e organic acid
breaks down to yield carbon dioxide, which is then
Figure 18.16 Pill!'H'.we<;. reduced to needles to klwertherateof built into sugars by photosynthesis. Closure of the
tfam.piration stomata in the daytime greatly reduces water loss.
Marramgrass Adaptations to living in water

Marram grass (Ammophila) lives on sand dunes
(Figure 18.18 ), where water drains away very Plants adapted to living in water are called
quickly. It has very long roots to search for water h ydrop hytcs. An example is the water lily
deep down in the sand. Its leaves roll up into straw- ( Nymphaea ) (Figure 18.20). The lea,·es contain
like tubes in dry weather due to the presence of large air spaces to make them buoyant, so they float
hinge cells, which become flaccid as they lose water on or near the surface (Figure 18.21 ). This enables
(Figure 18. 19 ). Leaf rolling, along with the fuct that them to gain light for photosynthesis. The lower
the stomata are sunken, helps to increase humidity epidermis lacks stomata to prevent water entering
around the stomata, reducing transpiration. The the air spaces, while stomata are present on the
presence of fine hairs around the stomata reduces air upper epidermis for gas exchange. With land plants,
movement so humidity builds up and transpiration most stomata are usually on the lower epidermis.
is reduced. The roots ofhydrophytes, which can be poorly
developed, also contain air spaces. This is because
the mud they grow in is poorly oxygenated and the
root cells need oxygen for respiration. Stems lack
much support as the water they are surrounded by
provides buoyancy for the plant.
Rgure18.19 Trarisver,;e51'd:Km olrolk>dupMarramgrassJeaf Rgure18.21 Sectioothroughwaterlilyleaf

Selection
the number of rabbits stemming from the original

• Selection pair would be 512 (i.e. 2 -t 8 -t 32 -t 12 8 -t 512 ).
l11e population of rabbits, however, remains more
Natural selection or less constant. Man y of the offipring in each
TI1eories of evolution have been put forward in generation must, therefore, have fuiled to survive to
,·arious forms for hundreds of years. In 1858, Charles reproductive age.
Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace published a theory
of evolution by natural selection, whid1 is still an
acceptable theory today.
TI1e theory of evolution by natural selection is as
follows:
• Individuals within a species are all slightly diffi:rent
from each other (Figure 18.22 ). These differences
an: called variations.
• If the climate or food supply changes, individuals
possessing some of these variations may be better
able ro survive than others. For example, a variety
of animal that could eat the leaves of shrubs as well
as grass would be more likely to survive a drought
than one that fed only on grass.
• If one variety lives longer than others, it is also
likely to leave behind more offipring. A mouse
that lives for 12 months may have ten litters of five
babies ( 50 in all). A mouse that lives for 6 months
may have only five litters of five babies (25 in all ).
• Ifsome of the offspring inherit alleles responsible
for the variation that helped the parent survive
better, they too will live longer and have more
offipring.
• In time, this particular variety will outnumber and
finally replace the original variety.
Flgure18.22 Vatiatbn. Thegardeotiger moth1iothis pictufl'afl' allfrom
l11is is sometimes called 'the survival of the fittest'. thes.amefa mily.Thereisa lotolvariatiooiothepattemoothewif\91
However, 'fitness', in this case, does not mean good
health but implies that the organism is well fitted to Competition and se lection
the conditions in which it lives. l11ere ,viii be competition between members of
l110mas Malthus, in 1798, suggested that the the rabbit population for food, burrows and mates.
increase in the size of the human population would If food is scarce, space is short and the number of
outstrip the rate of food production. H e predicted potential mates limited, then only the healthiest,
that the number of people would eventually be most vigorous, most fertile and otl1erwise well-
regulated by fumine, disease and war. When Darwin adapted rabbits will survive and breed.
read the Malthus essay, he applied its principles to l11e competition docs nor necessarily invoke
other populations ofliving organisms. direct conflict. l11e best adapted rabbits may be
He observed that animals and plants produce vastly able to run faster from predators, digest tl1eir food
more offspring tl1an can possibly survive to maturity more efficiently, have larger litters or grow coats that
and he reasoned that, therefore, there must be a camouflage them better or more effectively reduce
'struggle for survival'. heat losses. These rabbits will survive longer and
For example, if a pair of rabbits had eight offspring leave more offipring. If tl1e offipring inherit the
that grew up and formed four pairs, eventually advantageous d1aracteristics of their parents, they may
having eight offipring per pair, in four generations give rise to a new race offuster, difkrent coloured,
thicker furred and more fertile rabbits, which gradually Although this is an attractive and plausible
replace the original, less well-adapted varieties. The hypothesis of how natural selection could occur,
new variations are said to have survi val value. some of the evidence does not support the hypothesis
This is natural selection; the better adapted or has been called into question.
varieties are 'selected' by the pressures of the For example, the moths settle most frequemly on
environment (selection pressures). the underside of branches racl1er cl1an conspicuously
For natural selection to be efli:ctive, the variations on rree tnmks, as in Figure 18.23. Also, in several
have to be heritable. Variations that are not heritable unpolluted areas cl1e dark form is quite abundant,
are ofno value in natural selection. Training may give for example 80% in East Anglia in England. Research
athletes more efficient muscles, but this characteristic is continuing in order to rest cl1e hypothesis.
will not be passed on to their children.
Selective breeding
The peppered moth
A possible example of natural selection is provided by The process of selective breeding ilwolves humans
a species of moth called the peppered moth, found selecting individuals ,,ith desirable features. TI1ese
in Great Britain. TI1e common form is speckled but indhiduals are then cross-bred to produce the
there is also a variety that is black. The black variety next generation. Offspring \\ith the most desirable
was rare in 1850, but by 1895 in the Manchester features are chosen to continue the breeding
area of England its numbers had risen to 98% of the programme and the process is repeated over a
population of peppered moths. Observation showed number of generations.
that the light variety was concealed better than rhe Human communities practise this form of selection
dark variety when they rested on tree·trunks covered when they breed plants and animals for specific
with lichens (Figure 18.23 ). In the Manchester area characteristics. The many varieties of cat cl1at you see
of England , pollution had caused the death of the today have been produced by selecting individuals
lichens and the darkening of the rree-rrunks with wicl1 pointed ears, particular fur colour or lengcl1, or
soot. In this industrial area the dark variety was the even no rail, etc. One of the kittens in a litter miglu
better camouflaged (hidden ) of the two and was vary from the others by having distinctly pointed ears.
not picked off so often by birds. So the dark variety TI1is individual, when mature , is allowed to breed.
survived better, left more offspring and nearly From cl1e offipring, anocl1er very pointed-eared variant
replaced the light form. is selected for the next breeding stock, and so on, until
The selection pressure, in this case, was presumed rhe desired or 'fashionable' ear shape is established in a
to be mainly predation by birds. The adaptive true-breeding population (Figure 18.24 ).
variation that produced the selec.tive advantage was More important are the breeding programmes to
the dark colour. improve agricultural livestock or crop plants. Animal-
breeders will select cows for their higl1 milk yield and
(a) ~, (<) (d)

Flgure18.23 Seled:Klnfo,varietiesofthepeppe,edmoth
Selection
sheep for their wool quality. Plant-breeders will select

,·arieties for their high yield and resistance to fungus
diseases (Figure 18.25 ).
Flgure18.25 Selectivebreedirigintomatoes. Differentbreedirig

prng1amme5haveselectedgelleSforfruil 1ize,colourands.hape
Flgure18.24 Selectrl'ebreeding . TheSia=cat,prodocl'dbyartific: ial Simi!a1processe1havegivenlisetomo1t oloorruttivated~aotsartd
'ielectkm 0Yermanyyear1 dom esticated animals
Evolution Selective breeding

Key definit ions An important part of any breeding programme is
Adaptation istheprocess,resultingfromnaturalselection, the selection of the desired varieties. The largest
by which populations become more suited to their fruit on a tomato plant might be picked and its seeds
environment over many generations. planted next year. In the next generation, once again
Evolution canbedescribedasthechangeinadaptivefeatures
ofapopulation<:Nertimeasaresultofnaturalselection. only seeds from the largest tomatoes are planted.
Eventually it is possible to produce a rrne·breeding
variety of tomato plant that forms large fruits. Figure
18.25 shows the result of such selective breeding.
Most biologists believe that natural selection, among
TI1e same technique can be used for selecting other
other processes, contributes to the evolution of new
desirable qualities, such as flavour and disease
species and that the great variety ofliving organisms
resistance.
on the Earth is the product of millions of years of
Similar principles can be applied to furm animals.
evolution involving natural selection.
Desirable characteristics, such as high milk yield
Antibiotic-resistant bacteria and resistance to disease, may be combined. Stock-
Antibiotics are drngs used to treat infections caused breeders will select calves from cows that give large
by bac.teria (see 'Medicinal drngs' in Chapter 15 ). quantities of milk. These calves will be used as
Bacterial cells reproduce very rapidly, perhaps as breeding stock to build a herd of high yielders. A
often as once every 20 minutes. Thus a mutation, characteristic such as milk yield is probably under
even if it occurs only rarely, is likely to appear in the control of many genes. At each stage of selective
a large population of bacteria. If a population breeding the furmer, in effect, is keeping the
of bacteria containing one or two drug-resistant beneficial genes and discarding the less useful genes
mutants is subjected to that particular drug, the non- from his or her animals.
resistant bacteria will be killed but the drng-resistant Selective breeding in furm stock can be slow and
mutants survive (Figure 15.1 ). Mutant genes are expensive because the animals often have small
inherited in the same way as normal genes, so when numbers of offspring and breed only onc.e a year.
the surviving mutant bacteria reproduce, all their By producing new combinations of genes,
offspring will be resistant to the drug. selective breeding achieves the same objectives as
genetic engineering but it takes much longer and is that provide an advantage, to cope with changes
Jesspredicrable. in environmenral conditions for example, are more
In selective breeding, the transfer of genes rakes likely to survive, while others die before they can
place between individuals of the same or closely breed and pass on their genes. However, variation
related species. Genetic engineering involves transfer within the population remains.
between unrelated species. Artificial selection is used by humans to produce
Selective breeding and genetic engineering varieties of animals and plants that have an increased
both endeavour to produce new and beneficial economic importance. It is considered a safe way of
combinations of genes. Selecti,•e breeding, however, developing new strains of organisms, compared with
is much slower and less precise than genetic genetic engineering, and is a much faster process than
engineering. On the other hand, cross-breeding natural selection. However, artificial selection removes
techniques have been around for a very long time variation from a population, lea,ing it susceptible
and are widely accepted. to disease and 1mable to cope ,vith changes in
One of the drawbacks of selective breeding is environmental conditions. Potentially, therefore,
that the whole set of genes is transferred. As well artificial selection puts a species at risk of extinction.
as the desirable genes, there may be genes that, in
a homozygous condition, would be harmfiil. It is
known that artificial selection repeated over a large
number of generations tends to reduce the fitness of
the new variety.
A long·term disadvanrage of selective breeding is the
loss of variability. By eliminating all the offspring that
do not bear the desired d1aracteristics, many genes are
lost from the population. At some fiiture date, when
new combinations of genes are sought, some of the
potentially useful ones may no longer be available.
In attempting to introduce, in plants,
characteristics such as salt tolerance or resistance to
disease or drought, the geneticist goes back to wild
varieties, as shown in Figure 18.26. H owever, with
the current rate of extinction, this source of genetic
material is diminishing.
In the natural world, reduction of variability could
lead to local extinction if the population was unable
to adapt, by natural selection, to changing conditions.
Comparing natural and artificial

selection
(a) (b) (<) (d) (e)
Natural selection occurs in groups ofliving Figure 18.26 The genetk:s of bread wheat A primitive wheat (a) was
organisms through the passing on of genes to the cm1'il'dwithawiklgras1(b)toprodoceabetter-)'ieldinghytxidwheat
{c).Thehybridwheat{c)w;rc.oossedwithanotherwiklg1a11(d)to
next generation by the best adapted organisms, produce one of the varH!ties of wheat (e) which is used for making flour
without human interference. Those with genes and bread
Selection
Questions Extended
Core 4 Suggest some good characteristics that an animal-breeder
1 Study the following photographs and captions, then make a might try to combine in sheep by mating different varieties
listoftheadaptation5ofeachanimal. together.
a long-earedbat{Figure 18.14} 5 A variety of barley has a good ear of seed but has a long
b hare(Figure18.1S) stalk and is easily blown <:Ner. Another variety has a short,
b polarbear{Figure18.11}{Seealsodetailsinthetext.} sturdy stalk but a poor ear of seed.
2 Whatfeaturesofabird'sappearanrnandbehaviourdoyou Suggest a breeding programme to obtain and select a new
thin k mighthelpitcompeteforamate7 variety that combines both of the useful characteristics.
3 What selection pressures do you think might be operating Chooseletter-storepresentthegenesandshowthe
ontheplants inalawn7 genotypesoftheparentplantsandtheiroffspring.
Checklist Adaptive fe atures

After studying Chapter 18youshouldknowandunderstandthe • Anadaptivefeature isaninheritedfeaturethat helpsan
following: organismtosurviveandreproduceinitsenvironment.
Variation • Adaptivefeaturesofaspeciescanberecognisedfromits
imageinadrawingorphotograph.
• Variation is the differences between individuals of the 1<1me
species • Anadaptivefeatureistheinheritedfunctionalfeaturesof
• Variationswithinaspeciesmaybeinheritedor acquired. anorganismthatincreaseitsfitness
• Continuou5variationresultsinarangeofphenotypes • Fitnessistheprobabilityofthatorganismsurvivingand
between two extremes, e.g. height in humans. reproducingintheenvironmentinwhichitisfound.
• Discontinuousvariationresultsinalimitednumberof • Hydrophytesareplantsthathaveadaptivefeaturestolive
phenotype5 with no intermediates, e.g. tongue rolling. in a watery environment.
• Mutation is the way in which new alleles are formed • Xerophytes are plantsthathaveadaptivefeaturestolive
• lncreases intherateofmutationcanbecausedbyiOflising in very dry environments.
radiation and some chemicals
Selection
• Discontinuous variation results, usually,fromtheeffects
ofasinglep;iirofalleles, and produces distinct and • Some members of a species may have variations that enable
consistent differences between individuals. them to compete more effectively.
• Bloodgroupsareanexampleofdiscontinuousvariation. • Thesevariantswilllivelongerandleavemoreoffspring.
• Discontinuousvariationscannotbechanged by the • lfthebeneficialvariationsareinherited,theoffspringwill
environment. also survive longer.
• Phenotypic (amtinuous} variations are usually • Thenewvarietiesmaygraduallyreplacetheoldervarieties.
controlledbyanumberofgenesaffectingthe • Naturalselectioninvolvestheeliminationoflesswell-adapted
1<1mecharacteristicandcanbeinfluencedbythe varieties by environmental pressures
environment. • Selectivebreedingisusedtoimpra.ecommerciallyuseful
• Agenemutationisachangeinthebasesequence plants and animals
of DNA.
• Sickle-cellanaemiaiscausedbyachangeinthebase • Adaptationistheprocess,resultingfromnaturalselectiOfl,
sequence of the gene for haemoglobin. This results in by which populations become more suited to their
abnormal haemoglobin, which changes shape when envirOflmentovermanygenerations.
oxygen levels are low. • Thedevelopmentofstrainsofantibiotic-resistantbacteria
• Theinheritanceofsickle-cellanaemiacanbepredicted isanexampleofnaturalselection.
using genetic diagrams • Selectivebreedingbyartificialselectioniscarriedout
• Peoplewhoareheterozygousforthesickle-cellallelehave overmanygenerationstoimprovecropplantsand
a resistance to malaria. domesticated animals
• Evolutionisthechangeinadaptivefeaturesofa
population <:Ner time as the result of natural selection.
@ Organisms and their environment
En e rgy flow
Sunassourceofenergy • Energy flow
Nearly all living things depend on the Sun to provide
Flow of energy through organisms
energy. This is harnessed by photosynthesising plants
and the energy is then passed through food chains.
Food cha in s and food webs
Define food chain, food web, producer, consumer, herbivore,
carnivore,decomposer
Interpret food chains, food webs and pyramids of number Dependence on sunlight
lmpactofover-harvestingandintroductionolforeignspecies
on food chains and webs With the exception of aromic energy and tidal
Transfer of energy between trophic levels power, all the energy released on Earth is derived
Definetrophiclevel from sunlight. The energy released by animals
Lossofenergybetweenlevels comes, ultimately, from plants that they or their
Efficiency of supplying green plants as human food
prey eat and the plants depend on sunlight for
Identify levels in food chains, webs, pyramids of number
and biomass
making their food. Photosynthesis is a process
Describeandinterpretpyramidsofbiomass in which light energy is trapped by plants and
Advantages of using pyramids of biomass converted imo chemical energy (stored in molecules
Recycling such as carbohydrates, futs and proteins). Since all
animals depend, in the end, on plants for their food,
Nutrient cycles they therefore depend indirectly on sunlight. A few
Carbon cycle examples of our own dependence on photosyntl1esis
Water cycle
are given below.
Nitrogen cycle
Roles of micro-organisms in nitrogen cycle sun~ ght
photosynthesis photosynthesis
Population s ize in grass fla,veringplants
Define population
~ ~ ~
Factors affecting rate of population growth
Human population growth
Define community, ecosystem

Factorsaffectingtheinc:reaseinsizeofthehuman
-·~r·;.
flour
~
milk
nectar
....~
popul;ition
Identify and expl;iin phases on a !.igmoid population ~ ~ ~
growth curve
Nearly all the energy released on tl1e Earth can

be rraced back to sunlight. Coal comes from tree-
like plants, buried millions of years ago. These
plants absorbed sunlight for tl1eir photosyntl1esis
when they were alive. Petroleum was formed, also
millions of years ago, probably from the partly
decayed bodies of microscopic algae that lived
in tl1e sea. These, roo, had absorbed sunlight for
phorosymhesis.
Food chains and food webs
Today it is possible to use mirrors and sola r sugar from suga r-can e ca n be fermented to alcohol,
panels to collect energy from the Sun directly, but and used as a motor fuel instead of petrol.
the best way, so fur, of trapping and storing energy Eventually, t h rough one process o r another, all the
from sunlig ht is to grow plants and make use of chemical energy in organisms is transfe rred to the
their products, such as starch, suga r, o il, alcohol and environment. H o weve r, it is not a cyclical process
wood, for food or as energy sources. For exa mple , like those described later in this chapter.
• Food chains and food

webs
Ke y definitions
A food chain shov.-!i the transfl!f of enl!fgy from one organism
to the oext, beginning with a producer.
A food web is a network: of inten::onnected food chains.
A produce r is an organism that makes its O'M"'I organic nutrients,
usual'Yusingenergy fromsunlight. throogh photosynthesis.
A consumer is an organism that gel5 its energy from feeding
on other organisms.
A he rbivoreisananimal t hatgetsitsenergybyeatingplanl5.
Aca rnivoreisananimalthatgel5il5energybyeatingother
animals
A decompOSff is an organism that gets its energy from dead
or waste organic material.
' Interdependence' means the way in whic h living

organisms depend on each other in orde r to remain
ali ve, grow and reprod uce. For example, bees depend
fo r their food o n pollen and nectar fro m flowers.
Flowers depend o n bees for pollination (Chapter 16 ).
Bees and flowers arc , there fore, interdependent.
Food chains Figure 19.1 Afoodclliin. TheGlle!pillar e~t,; thele ~f;thebhie tlt
e.ihthe aterpihrbut~fallpreytolhekestrel
One impor ta nt way in which org:misms depend o n
eac h other is for their food . Many anima ls, such the chain arc often large and few in number. The food
as rabbits, feed on plants. Such anima ls arc catted pyr.u nids in Figure 192 show this rcbtionship. There
h e rbivor es. Animals that cat o the r animals arc CJ.lied will be millions of microscopic, single-celled algae in
c.-uni vores. A predator is a carnivore that kills and apond (Figurc 19.3(a)). 111escwillbecatenbythc
cats other anima ls. A fox is a predator that preys larger but less numerous water fleas and other crusracca
on rabbits . Scavengers are carnivores that cat the (Figure 19.3(b)), which in rum will become the food of
d ead remains of animals killed by predators. l11ese small fish such as minn ow and stickleback. The hundred s
are nor hard and fast definiti ons. Predators will of small fish may be able to provide enough food for
sometimes scave nge for their food and scavengers only four or five large carnivores, like pike: or perch.
may occasionally kill lh'ing animals. Animals o btain The: organisms at the: base of the food pyramids
their energy by ingestion . in Figure: 19.2 arc plants. Plants produce food from
B3Sically, al l animals depend o n plants for thei r food. carbon dioxide, water and salts (sec 'Photosymhcsis',
Foxes may cat rabbits., but rabbi!S feed on grnss. A hawk C hapter 6 ), and arc, therefore, called pro duce rs.
ca[S a li za rd, the lizard has just eaten a grasshopper 111c animals that cat the plants arc called primary
but the grasshopper was feeding on a grm blade. TI1is co n sumers, e.g. grasshoppers. Animals that prey on
relationship is called a food d1ain ( Figure 19. 1 ). the plant-eaters arc: called secondary consumers,
l11e organisms at the beginning of a food chain are c .g . shrews, and these may be eat en by terrb.ry
usually very numerous while the animals at the end of con sumers, e.g. wease ls or kestrels ( Fig ure 19.4 ).
0
19 ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT
.------------'----------------------.--------------1-
~ - - -'-''_"'_'"_w_,___~--
(a)land
_____ _,____m_'"_~•_o'_" _''_' '_' - - ~ }
(b)water
producers
Figure 19.2 Exampk-; of food pyramids (pyramids of numbers)
(a) p/lyt~ankton (~100) Thl.'le mkrosrnpic algae form the basis of a (b) zoop!a nkton <~20) Thl.'le cru1t..c:ea wi ll e.it miaosrnpic alg..e
foodpy,,amklinthew.iter.
Figure 19.3 Plankton. The mk:rosrnpc 0<g.1ni1m1 that live in the surf..c:e w.iters ol the sea or fresh w.iter are Gill ed. rnllectively. plankton. The
single-celled.ilg..e(seeChapter 1)arethephytoplankton. They are surrounded by water. salts and dissolved carbon dioxide. Theirchlornp!astsabsorb
sunlight and use its energy Im m.iking food by p/lotosynthe1i1. Phytop!anktoo is eaten by sma ll animals in the zoop!ankton. mainly austacea {lee
Chapterl). Sm.illfishwilleattheoustacea
Pyramids of numbers
The width of the bands in Figure 19 .2 is meanr to
represent the relative number of organisms at each
trophic level. So the diagrams are sometimes called
pyramids of numbers.
H owever, you can probably think of situations
where a pyramid of numbers would not show the
same effect. For example, a single sycamore tree may
provide food for thousands of greenfly. One oak tree
may feed hundreds of caterpillars. In these cases the
pyramid of numbers is upside -down, as shown in
Figure 19.5.
Food webs
Food chains are not really as straightforward as
described above, because most animals ear more than
one type of food. A fox, for example, does not feed
Flgure19.4 Toek!'ltrel. asecondaryortertiarycon1umer entirely on rabbits but takes beetles, rats and voles in
its diet. To show these relationships more accurately, nearly all tl1e rabbits in England. Foxes ate more
a food web can be drawn up (Figure 19.6). voles, beetles and blackberries, and attacks on lambs
and chickens increased. Even the vegetation was
quaternary consumer affected because tl1e tree seedlings tl1at the rabbits
used to nibble on were able to grow. As a result,
tertiary consumer
woody scrubland started to develop on what had
secondary consumer
been grassy downs. A similar effect is shown in
Figure 19.7.
primary consumer
Th e effects of over- ha rvest ing
producer Over-harvesting causes tl1e reduction in numbers of
Flgure 19.5 Miovertedpyramidofnum~rs a species to the point where it is endangered or made
extinct. As a result biodiversity is affected. The species
1l1e food webs for land, sea and fresh water, or for may be harvested for fuo:i, or for body parts such
ponds, rivers and streams, will all be different. Food as tusks (elephants), horns (rhinos - Figure 19.8 ),
webs will also change with the seasons when the food bones and fur (tigers) or for selling as pets (reptiles,
supply changes. birds and fish , ere. ). In pans of Africa, bush meat
lfsome event interferes with a food web, all the is used widely as a source of food. Bush meat is the
organisms in it are affected in some way. For flesh of primates, such as monkeys. However, hunting
example, if the rabbits in Figure 19 .6 were to die these animals is not always regulated or controlled
out, the foxes, owls and stoats would eat more and rare species can be threatened as a result of
beetles and rats. S0metl1ing like this happened in indiscriminate killing. (See also 'Habitat destruction'
1954 when the disease myxomatosis wiped out in Chaprer21. )
Flgure 19.6 Afood web

(a) Sheeph.wee~tenany seedli ng;thatgrewullderthetrees (b) Troyears later.thefencehaskept thesheep o ff andthe treoe
seedlingsh.wegrown
Flgure19.7 Effectofgr.uing
1970 12 74 76 711 80 82 84 86 88
F9Jre 1u Theltii~~MdargeredbeausesornepeoplebelM,
mistat.Mttt~tp(Mderedrhinotun(CorruRhinocerfAsliltid)hasrneddrwl FlgureHl.9 LandingsofNorthSNcod from1970to1990
properties..ind~i,eatifprizerhin)tunh~fortheird~
per day at sea goes down even mo re. Eventually the
stocks arc so depleted that it is no longer economical
Overfishing to exploit them. The cos1S of the boats, the fuel and
Small populations of humans, taking fish from lakes the wages of the crew exceed the value of the catch.
or oceans and using fuirly basic methods of caprnre, Men arc laid off, boats lie rusting in the harbo ur and
had little effect on fish numbers. At present, however, the econo my of the fishing community and those
commercial fishing has intensified to the point who depend on iris desrroyed. Overfishing has
where some fish stocks are threatened or can no se\·ercl y reduced stocks of many fish species: herring
longer sustain fishing. In the past I 00 years, fishing in the North Sea, halibut in the Pacific and anchovies
fleets have increased and the catching methods have off the Peruvian coost, for example. In 1965 ,
become more sophisticated. 1.3 million tonnes of herring were caught in the
If the number offish removed from a population North Sea. By 1977 the catch had diminished to
exceeds the number of young fish reaching maturity, 44000 tonnes, i.e. about 3% ofthe 1965 catch.
then the population will decline (Figure 19.9 ). Similarly, whaling has reduced the population
At first, the catch size remain s the same but it takes of many whak species to levels that give cause for
longer to catch it. Then the catch starts to contain concern . Whales were the first marine organisms to
a greater number of small fish so that the return face extinction thro ugh overfishing. This happened
in the early 1800s when they were killed for their reptiles and tortoises, along with young animals.
blubber (a thick fat layer around the body of the 1l1e Galapagos Islands provide a habitat for many
mammal ) for use as lamp oil. The blue whale's rare species, which became endangered as a result
numbers have been reduced from about 2 000000 of the presence of the rats. A programme of rat
to 6000 as a result of intensive hunting. extermination is now being carried om on the islands
Overfishing can reduce the populations of to protect their unique biodiversity.
fish species and can also do great damage to the The prickly pear cactus, Opuntia, was introduced
emironment where they live. For example, the use of to Australia in 1839 for use as a living fence to
heavy nets dragged along the sea floor to catch the fish control the movement of cattle, but its growth got
can wreck coral reefs, destroying the habitats of many out of control because of the lack of herbivores that
other animal species. Even if rhe reef is nor damaged, eat it. Millions of acres ofland became unusable.
fishing for the top predators such as grouper fish has A moth, Cactob/astis cacton1m, whose yo ung feed
a direct effect on the food chain: fish lower down the on rhe cactus, was successfully introduced from
chain increase in numbers, and overgraze on the reef. Argentina and helped to control the spread of
1l1is process is happening on the Great Barrier Reef in the cactus. Other places with similar problems,
Australia. Grouper fish are very slow gro,,ing and take for example the island of Nevis in the West
a long rime to become sexually mature, so rhe d1ances Indies, followed Australia's example, but with
of them recovering from overfishing are low and they less successful results. The moth had no natural
are becoming endangered. predators and are other native cactus species as well
as the prickly pear, bringing them to the brink of
Introd ucin g fore ign species to a extinction. The moth is now spreading to parts of
hab itat the United States of America and poses a threat to
One of the earliest examples of this process was the other cactus species.
accidental inrroducrion of rats to the Galapagos Food chains and webs can also be disrupted by
Islands by pirates or whalers in the 17th or 18th the use of pesticides and other poisons, sometimes
centuries. The rats had no natural predators and released accidentally during human activities. More
food was plentiful: they fed on the eggs of birds, details can be found in Chapter 21.
Energy transfer 40% warms up the plants, the soil and the air,
leaving only about 1% to be used in photosynthesis
Study Figure 19 .1. When an herbivorous animal for making new organic matter in the leaves of the
eats a plant ( the caterpillar feeding on a leaf), the plants (Figure 19.10).
chemical energy stored in that plant leaf is transferred 1l1is figure of 1% "ill vary with the type of
to the herbivore. Similarly, when a carnivore (the vegetation being considered and \\ith climatic
blue tit ) eats the herbivore, the carnivore gains the factors , such as availability of water and the
energy stored in the herbivore. lfthe carnivore is soil temperature. Sugar-cane grown in ideal
eaten by another carnivore (the kestrel ), the energy is conditions can convert 3% of the Sun's energy into
transferred again. photosymheric products; sugar-beet at the height of
its growth has nearly a 9% efficiency. Tropical forests
Use of sun light and swamps are fur more productive than grassland
To try and estimate just how much life the Earth can bur it is difficult, and, in some cases undesirable, to
support it is necessary to examine how efficiemly harvest and utilise their products.
the Sun's energy is used. The amount of energy In order to allow crop plants to approach
from the Sun reaching the Earth's surface in 1 year their maximum efficiency they must be provided
ranges from 2 million to 8 million kilojoules per with sufficient water and mineral salts. This can
m2 (2--8 x l09 J m-2yrl ) depending on the latitude. be achieved by irrigation and the application of
When this energy falls omo grassland, about fertiliser.
20% is reflected by the vegetation, 39% is used in
evaporating water from the leaves ( transpiration),
60"'not
dlgerted
Figure 19.11 fnergytr.insfef from pl~nts to.inim~ls
be rcprcscnccd by cb.ssifying the org.misms in a

community as producers, or primary, secondary or
tertiary consumers, and showing their relative masses
in a pyramid such as rhe one shown in Figure 19.2 but
Energy transfer between organ isms
on a more accurate scale. In Figure 19. 12 the width
Having considered the energy conversion from of the horizontal bands is proportional to the masses
sunlight ro planr products, the next step is to study (dry weight) of the organisms in a shallow pond.
the efficiency of transmission of energy from plant
products ro primary consumers. On land, primary
consumers ear only a small proportion of the
available vegcration. In a deciduous forest only about
2% is eaten; in grazing land, 40% of the grass may be
carcn by cows. In open water, however, where the
producers arc microscopic plants (phytoplankton,
sec Figure 19.3(a)) and arc swallowed whole by the
primary consumers in the zooplankton (sec Figure
19. 3( b)), 90% or more may be eaten. In the land Flgure 19.12 Biomz;s (drywe,ght)of lMngo~nismsin~
sh~lkw pond (gr~ms per SQUilfe metre)
communities, the parts of the vegetation not eaten
by the primary consumers ,viii eventually die and be Key definitions
used as a source of energy by the decomposers. The trophic lewl of an organism is its position in a food
chain, food web or P'J'ramid of numbers or bioma~
A cow is a primary consumer; over 60% of the
grass it cars passes through its alimentary canal
It is \·cry unusual for food chains to ha\·e more than
(Chapter 7) without being digested. Another 30% is
used in the cow's respiration to provide energy for its five rrophic lc,·cls because, on a\'eragc, about 90% of
movement and other life processes. Less than 10% of the energy is lost at each le\'el. Consequently, very little
the plant material is converted into new animal tissue of the energy entering the chain through the pfOOucer
to contribute to growth (Figure 19 . 11 ). l11is figure is available to tl1c cop consumer. The food chain below
will vary with rhe diet and the age of the animal. In a shows how the energy reduces through the chain. It is
fully grown animal all the digested fuod will be used based on grass obtaining I 00 units of energy.
for energy and replacement and none will contribute grass ~ locust ~ lizard ~ snake ~ mongoose
to growth. Economically it is desirable to harvest the
100 10 I 0.1 0.01
primary consumers before their rate of growth starts
unirs units unit unit unit
to falloff
The cransfer of energy from primary to secondary
Energy transfer in agriculture
consumers is probably more efficient, since a greater
proportion of rhe animal food is digc.5ttd and In human communities, 1hc use of plant products
absorbed ch3.n is the ea.sic with plant material. TI1c to feed animals that provide mc3.1, eggs and dai ry
transfer of energy at each stage in a food cha.in may products is wasteful, because only I 0% of the plant
material is con\·ened to animal products. It is more Pyramids of biomass

economical to ear bread made from the wheat As stated earlier, displaying food chains using
than to feed the wheat to hens and then eat the pyramids of number, such as those shown in
eggs and chicken mea1. This is because: eating the Figure 19.5, can produce i1wcrted pyramids. l11is is
wheat as bread avoids using any part of its energy because die top consumers may be represented by
to keep the chickens alive and active. Energy losses large numbers of very small organisms, for example,
can be reduced by keeping hens indoors in small fleas feeding on an owl. The way around this problem
cages, whe re they lose little he:n t0 the atmosphere is ro consider not the single tree, but the mass of the
and cannot use much energy in movement leaves that it produces in the growing season, and the
(Figure 19.13 ). The same principles can be applied mass of the insects that can live on them. Biomass
in 'intensive' methods of rearing calves. However, is the term used when the mass of living organisms
many people feel that these methods are less than is being considered, and pyramids ofbiomass c:m be
humane, and the saving of energy is fur Jess than if constructed as in Figure 19.12. A pyramid of biomass
the plant products were eaten directly by humans, as is nearly always the correct pyramid shape.
isd1e case in \"egetarians. An altemath·e is to calculan: the energy available
in a year's supply of leaves and compare this with
the energy needed to mainrain die population of
insects that feed on the leaves. This would prcxiuce a
pyramid of energy, with the producers at rhc bottom
having the greatest amount of energy. Each successive
trophic kvd would show a reduced a.mown of energy.
l11c elements that make up living organisms arc
recycled, i.e. d1cy are used over and over again (sec
next section). This is not the case with energy, which
flows from producers to consumers and is c\·cmually
lost to the atmosphere as heat.
Recycling
There arc a number of organisms that h:1.\'e
nor been fitted into the food webs or food
chains described so fur. Among these are the
decomposers. Decomposers do not obtain their
food by photosynthesis, nor do they kill and eat
living animals or plants. Instead they feed on dead
and decaying matter such as dead leaves in the
soil or rotting tree-trunl:.s (Figure 19.14). TI1c
Figure 19.13 eane,rychk:l:ens. The liens are well fed but ~eptin most numerous examples arc the fungi, such :1.s
crowded and cramped conditions with no oppo<tunrty to move about or mushrooms, toadstools or moulds, and rhe bacteria,
scratchinthes041astheywouldn0<m.illydo
particularly d1ose that live in the soil. They produce
Consideration of the energy flow of a modem extracellular enzymes that digest the decaying
agricultural system reveals other sources of matter and d1en they absorb the soluble products
inefficiency. To produce I tonne of nitrogenous back into d1eir cells. In so doing, rhey rcmo\'c die
fertiliser takes energy equi\f;llenr ro buming 5 tonnes dead remains of plants and animals, which would
of coal. Calculations show that if the energy needed od1crwise collect on the Earth's surf.ice. They also
to produce the fertiliser is added to the energy used break these remains down into substances that can
to produce a tr.letor and to power it, the energy be used by other organisms. Some bacteria, for
derived from the food so produced is less than that example, break down the protein of dead plants and
expended in producing it. animals and release nitrates, which arc taken up by
and the animals that eat the plants and each other
are the consumers. TI1e bacteria and fw1gi, especially
those in the soil, are called the decomposers because
they break down the dead remains and release the
chemicals for the plants to use again. Three examples
of recycling, for water, carbon and nirrogen, are
described in the next section.
Flgure19.14 Oecomposers. The1etoadstool1a1egettiogtheirfood

fromtherottioglog
plant roots and are built into new amino acids and
proteins. TI1is use and reuse of materials in the living
r
DECOMPOSERS
"'"'''~co,soM,esA
s m ~ • • , . , wohsh<
°""''""'
homo,
di e
•,,
'•<,
PRODUCERS
0
~
~
''"""
world is called recycling.

The gener.i.l idea of recycling is illustr.i.ted in animals
Figure 19. 15. The green plants are the producers, Flgure19.15 Recydioginaoecmy,tem
• Nutrient cycles
The ca rbon cyc le
Carbon is an element that occurs in all the
compounds which make up living organisms.
Plants get their carbon from carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere and animals get their carbon from plants.
The carbon cycle, therefore, is mainly concerned with
what happens to carbon dioxide (Figure 19.16).
Rem ova l of ca rbon dioxide from the
~'"-·-1
atmosphere
Photosynthesis
Green plants remove carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere as a result of their photosymhesis. TI1e
carbon from the carbon dioxide is built first into a
carbohydrate sucl1 as sugar. Some of this is changed into form deposits of coal
starch or the cellulose of cell walls, and the proteins, petroleum and natural gas
pigments and other compounds of a plant. When the Rgure19.16 TheG1rboocyde
plants are eaten by animals, the organic plant material
is digested, absorbed and built into the compow1ds
organisms becomes tr.i.pped and compressed
making up the animals' tissues. Tirns the carbon atoms
and can remain there for millions of years. The
from the plant become part of the animal.
carbon may form fossil fuels such as coal , oil
Fossilisation and natur.i.l gas. Some animals make shells or
Any environment that prevents rapid decay exoskeletons containing carbon and these can
may produce fossils. The carbon in the dead become fossils.
Nutrient cycles
Add iti o n of carbon dioxide to the Combustion (burning )

atmosphere When carbon-containing fiiels such as wood, coal,
Respiration petroleum and natural gas are burned, the carbon is
Plants and animals obrain energy by oxidising oxidised to carbon dioxide ( C + 02 ~ C02). TI1e
carbohydrates in their cells to carbon dioxide and hydrocarbon fiiels, such as coal and petroleum, come
water ( Chapter 12 ). The carbon dioxide and wate r from ancient plants, which have only partly decomposed
are excreted so the carbon dioxide returns once again over rhe millions of years since tl1ey were buried.
to the aanosphere. So, an atom of carbon which today is in a molecule
of carbon dioxide in tl1e air may tomorrow be in a
Decomposition molecule of cellulose in the cell wall of a blade of
A crucial fuctor in carbon recycling is the process of grass. When tl1e grass is eaten by a cow, the carbon
decomposition, or decay. If it were nor for decay, atom may become part of a glucose molecule in the
essential materials would not be released from dead cow's bloodstream. When tl1e glucose molecule is
organisms. \Vhen an organism dies, the enzymes in used for respiration, the carbon atom will be breathed
its cells, freed from normal controls, start to digest our into tl1e air once again as carbon dioxide.
its own tissues (auto-digestion ). Soon, scavengers TI1e same kind of cycling applies to nearly all the
appear on the scene and eat much of the remains; elements oftl1e Eartl1. No new matter is created, but
blowfly larvae devour carcases, earthworms consume it is repeatedly rearranged. A great proportion of the
dead leaves. atoms of which you are composed will, at one time,
Finally the decomposers, fungi and bacteria have been part of other organisms.
(collectively called micro-organism s), arrive and
invade the remaining tissues ( Figure 19.17). These The effects of the combustion of fossil fuels
saprophytes secrete extracellular enzymes ( Chapter 5 ) If you look back at tl1e carbon cycle, you will see tl1at
into the tissues and reabsorb the liquid products of the namral processes of photosyntl1esis, respiration
digestion. When the micro-organisms themsel\'es die, and decomposition would be expected to keep the
auto-digestion takes place, releasing the products C0 2 concentration at a steady le\'el. H owever, since
such as nitrates, sulfutes, phosphates, etc. into the soil the Industrial Revolution, we have been burning the
or the surrounding water to be raken up again by the fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum and releasing
producers in the ecosystem. extra C0 2 into tl1e atmosphere. As a result, tl1e
concentration ofC0 2 has increased from 0.029% to
0.035% since 1860. It is likely to go on increasing as
we burn more and more fossil fuel.
Although it is nor possible to prove beyond all
reasonable doubt that production ofC0 2 and other
'greenhouse gases' is causing a rise in tl1e Eartl1's
temperature , i.e. global warming, the majority of
scientists and climatologists agree tl1at it is happening
now and will get worse unless we rake drastic action
to reduce the output oftl1ese gases (see 'Pollution'
in Chapter 21 for furtl1er details of the greenhouse
Flgure19.17 Mou kllurig usgrawing on over-r ipeor anges effect and global warming).
Another fu.ctor contributing to the increase
The speed of decay depends on the abundance of in atmospheric C0 2 is deforestation. Trees are
micro-organisms, temperamre, the presence of water responsible for removing gaseous C02 and trapping rhe
and, in many cases, oxygen. High temperatures speed carbon in organic molecules (carOOhydrates, proteins
up decay because they speed up respiration of the and futs - see Chapter 4 ). When they are cut down tl1e
micro-organisms. Water is necessary for all living amount of photosynthesis globally is reduced. Often
processes and OAl'gen is needed for aerobic respiration deforestation is achieved by a process called 'slasl1 and
of the bacteria and fimgi. Decay can take place in burn', where the felled rrees are burned to provide land
anaerobic conditions but it is slow and incomplete, as for agriculture (see ' H abitat desmKtion' in Chapter 21 )
in the waterlogged conditions of peat bogs. and this releases even more atmospheric C0 2.
The water cycle in streams, rivers :ind lakes and ultimately finds its
way back to the oceans. The human populatio n
The water cycle (Figure 19.18) is somewhat different
diverts some of this water for drinking, washing,
from other cycles because only a tiny proportion of the
cooking, irrig:iti on , hydroelectric schemes and other
water that is recycled passes through living organisms.
industrial purposes, before allowing it to return
Animals lose water by evaporation (Chapter 14),
to the sea.
defecation (Chapter 7), urination (Chapter 13 ) and
exhalation (Chapter 11 ). They gain water from their
-
..•. .,
food and drink. Plants take up water from the soil
and lose it by transpiration (Chapter 8). Millions of
tonnes of water arc transpired, but only a tiny fraction
of d1is has r.ikcn part in die reactions of respiration <
(C hapter 12 ) or photoSynd1csis (Chapter 6). _J
The great proportion of water is recycled wi thout
the intervention of animals or plants. The Sun
shining and the wind blowing over the oceans
evaporate water from their vast, exposed surf.ices.
-~··~· """" l ll l
wuerby"""""• Wipo<lllon
The water vapour produced in this way enters the

atmosphere and eventually condenses to form
clouds. The clouds release their water in rhe form
of rain or snow (precipitation ). The rain collects Fl,g,Jre19.18 Thew.ite,rcyi;le
The nitrogen cycle • 'Nitntc'b.1Cteri:ioxidiscnitritcstonitntcs

(N0 2---+ NOr).
\.Vhen a plant or animal dies, its tissues decompose,
partly as a result of the action of saprotrophic Although plant roots can take up ammonia in the
bacteria. One of the important products of the decay fom1 of its compounds, they take up nitrates more
of animal and plant protein is ammonia (NH.1, a readil y, so the nitrif)11lg bacteria increase the fertility
compound of nirrogen ), which is washed into the of the soil by making nitrates available to the plants.
soil (Figure 19.20). It dissolves readily in w:iter to
form ammonium ions (NH r). Nitrogen-fixing bacteria
The excrcrory products of animals contain l11t'i is a sped:il group of nitrifyi.ng bacteria rim can
nitrogenous waste products such as ammonia, absorb nitrogen as :i gas from the air spaces in the soil,
urea and uric acid (Chapter 13). Urea is formed and build ir imo compounds of ammonia. Nitrogen
in the liver of humans as a result of de:iminarion. gas cannot itsclfbc used by plants. When it has been
The organic mancr in animal droppings is also made into a compound of ammonia, hov.--cver, it
decomposed by soil bacteria. can easily be changed to nitrates by other nitrif)fog
bacteria. The process of building the gas, nitrogen, into
Processes that add nitrates to soil compow1ds of ammonia is called nitrOb,'Cll fixation.
Nitrifying bacteria Some of the nitrogen-fixing bacteria live freely in the
These are b:icreria living in the soi l, which use the soil. Others live in rhe rcxxs ofleguminous plants
ammoni:i from excretory products and decaying (peas, beans, clo\'er), where they cause swellings called
organisms :is :i source of energy (as we use glucose root nodules (Figure 19.19). l11csc leguminous plants
in rcspin tion ). In the process of getting energy from arc able to thri\'e in soils where nitrates arc scarce,
ammonia, called nitrification , the b.1cteria produce because the nitrogen-fixing baacria in their nodules
nitrates. make compounds of nitrogen 3\'ailablc for them.
• The 'nitrite' bacteria oxidise ammonium Leguminous plants arc also included in crop rotations
compounds to niaitcs (NH 4---+ N02-). ro increase the nitrate content of the soil.
Nutrient cycles
Lighuiing
TI1e high temperature oflightning discharge causes
some of the nitrogen and oxygen in the air to
combine and form oxides of nitrogen. TI1ese dissolve
in the rain and are washed into the soil as weak acids,
where they form nirrares. Although several million
tonnes ofnirrate may reach the Earth's surf.tee in
this way each year, this forms only a small fraction of
the total nitrogen being recycled.
Processes t hat remove nitrates from the so il

Uptake by plants
Plant roots absorb nitrates from the soil and
combine them with carbohydrates to make amino
acids, whid1 are built up into proteins (Chapter 6 ).
TI1ese proteins are then available to animals, whid1
feed on the plants and digest the proteins in them.
Leaching
Nitrates are very soluble (i.e. dissolve easily in
water), and as rainwater passes through the soil
it dissolves the nitrates and carries them away in
the run-off or to deeper layers of the soil. This is
called leaching. (See Chapter 21 for some of the
implications ofleaching. )
Denitrifyin g bacteria
These are bacteria that obtain their energy by
breaking down nitrates to nitrogen gas, which then
escapes from the soil into the atmosphere.
All of these processes are summed up in
Flgure 19.1 9 Rootnodulesofwhiteclover-aieguminouspl,mt
Figure 19.20.
The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates

• Population size that there were 660000 malaria deaths in 2010 and
Key def in ition there were about 219 million cases of the disease.
Apop ul ationis;igroupoforgani=5ofonespecies,living Malaria (Chapter 10) is caused by a single -celled
andinteractinginthe5i.1meare;i;itthe5i.1metime. parasite, spread by mosquitos. It is a treatable disease
and drugs are gradually becoming more widely
In biology, the term population always refers available to prevent it being fatal.
to a single species. A biologist might refer to
the population of sparrows in a farmyard or the Hu ma n pop ul ation
population of carp in a lake. In each case this would In AD 1000, the world population was probably
mean the total numbers of sparrows or the total about 300 million. In the early 19th century it
numbers of carp in the stated area. rose to 1000 million ( 1 billion), and by 1984 it
had reached 4.7 billion. In 2000 it reached about
Pop ulation changes 6 billion and rose to 7.2 billion in 2014. The
United Nations predicts that the global population
If conditions are ideal, a population can increase will decline steadily by 2050, quoting predictions
in size. For this to happen there needs to be a of between 8.3 and 10.9 billion people by that
good food supply. This will enable organisms to date. The graph in Figure 19.21 shows that the
breed more successfully to produce more offspring; greatest population surge has taken place in the last
shortage of food can result in starvation, leading to 300years.
death, or force emigration, reducing the population.
The food shortage may be because the food source
has all been eaten, or died out, or completed its
growing season, or there is competition for it with
other species in the same habitat.
In a habitat there are likely to be predators. If
heavy predation of a population happens, the rate
ofbreeding may be unable to produce enough
organisms to replace those eaten, so the population
will drop in numbers. TI1ere tends to be a time lag in
population size change for predators and their prey:
as predator numbers increase, prey numbers drop
and as predator numbers drop, prey numbers rise
again (unless there are other factors that prevent this
happening) (see 'Predator- prey relationships' later in
thisd1aprer). Rg ure 19.21 Worldpopulationgmwth.Thetimescale (horizootalaxis)
islogafithmic.Theright-hand'ipa<e (0--10)rep resent1 ooly10years.tJut
Disease can be a particular problem in large theleft-hand'ipace(100000--1millKln)repre sentsOOOOOOyears.Toe
populations because it can spread easily from greatest popu lo tiongrowthhastakenpla.c:einthe!ast 300yeof5
one individual to another. Epidemics can reduce
population sizes very rapidly. An example was given Population growth
in the section on food webs: the disease myxomatosis Abom 20 years ago, the human population was
is caused by a virus. It wiped out nearly all the rabbits increasing at the rate of 2% a year. This may not
in England in 1954 and then spread to other parts sound very much, but it means that the world
of Europe, carried by fleas. It was first discovered in population was doubling every 35 years. This
1896 in Uruguay and was deliberately inrroduced to doubles the demand for food, water, space and other
Australia in 1951 in an attempt to control its large resources. Recently, the growth rate has slowed to
rabbit populations. 1%. However, it is not the same everywhere. Nigeria's
When a disease spreads globally it is called a population is growing by 2.9% each year, but Western
pan demic. One of the worst cases experienced by Europe's grows at only 0.1%.
humans was known as Spanish flu. TI1is virus killed Traditionally, it is assumed that population growth
ben•,.een 40 and 50 million people in 1918. is limited by famine, disease or war. These fucrors are
Population size
affecting local populations in some parts of the world

today but they are unlikely ro have a limiting effect
on the rate of overall population growth.
Diseases such as malaria (see Chapter 10) and
sleeping sickness (spread by tsetse flies ) have for many
years limited the spread of people into areas where
these insects carry the infections.
Diseases such as bubonic plague and influenza have
checked population growth from time to time, and
the current AIDS epidemic in sub-Saharan Africa is
ha\'ing significant effects on population growth and
life expectancy. o +-~~~~~~~~~~~
1750
Factors affecting population growth
If a population is to grow, the birth rate must be Flgure 19.22 Birthaoddeathral!'5inEngla!ldand Wale1frnml750
higher than the death rate. Suppose a population to 1950. Atthou ghthebirthratefellduringthisperiod.sodidthedl>.ith
of 1000 people produces 100 babies each year but rate.A.5aresult.thepopulatKlflcontinuedtogrnw. Notethe "baby
boo m"afteftheSec:ond'MlrldWar.{Useclbypermi11ionofCarolina
only 50 people die each year. This means that 50 BiologK.ilSupplyC ompany.)
new individuals are added to the population each
year and the population will double in 20 years ( or
less if the new individuals start reproducing at 16) world are growing, not because of an increase in the
(Figure 19.22). number of babies born per fumily, but because more
One of the factors affecting population growth babies are surviving to reach reproductive age. Infant
is infant mortality, i.e. the death rate for children mortality is fulling and more people are living longer.
less than 1 year old. Populations in the developing That is, life expectmcy is increasing.
Key defi niti on Ecosystems

A com muni ty is all of the populations of different ~ies in
anec05ystem. TI1e community of organisms in a habitat, plus the
Anecosystemisaunitcontainingthecommunityof
organi!.ITisandtheirenvironment,interactingtogether.
non-living part of the environment (air, water, soil,
Examples include a decomposing log or a lake. light, etc.) make up an ecosystem. A lake is an
ecosystem, which consists of the plant and animal
conununities mentioned above, and the water, minerals,
Communities dissolved oxygen, soil and sunlight on which they
depend. An ecosystem is self-supporting (Figure 19.23).
I I
A community is made up of all the plants and
animals living in an ecosystem. ln the soil there
is a community of organisms, which includes iooividw.l, 00"·"'"'
pmof
earthworms, springtails and other insects, mites,
fimgi and bacteria. In a lake, the animal community
<i~•.,.,..1-
specie,
POPUL\
.+ TION environment
+ • ECOSYSTEM
p<¥Jlation, • COMMUNITY
will include fisl1, insects, crustacea, molluscs and
<io1ber
protoctista.
The plant community will consist of rooted """'
plants with submerged leaves, rooted plants with In a woodland ecosystem, the plants absorb light and
floating leaves, reed-like plants growing at the rainwater for photosynthesis, the animals feed on
lake margin, plants floating freely on the surf.ice, the plants and on each other. The dead remains of
filamentous algae and single-celled algae in the animals and plants, acted upon by fungi and bacteria,
surface waters. return nutrients to the soil.
Lakes and ponds are clear examples of ecosystems. most of their time. Plaice, sole and flounders feed
Sunlight, water and minerals allow the plants to on molluscs and worms on the sea floor, whereas
grow and support animal life. The recycling of herring and mackerel feed on plankton in the surfac.e
materials from the dead organisms maintains the waters. In a pond, the snails do not range mud1
supply of nutrients. beyond the plants where they feed. On a rocky
So, a population of carp forms part of the animal coast, limpets and barnacles can withstand exposure
community living in a habitat called a lake. l11e betv,,een the tides and colonise the rocks. Sea
communities in this habitat, together with their watery anemones, on the other hand, are restricted mainly
environment, make up a self-supporting ecosystem. to the rocky pools left at low tide.
Factors affecting the increase in

size of the human population
Increase in life expectancy
The life expectancy is the average age to which a
newborn baby can be expected to live. In Europe
berv,,een 1830 and 1900 the life expectancy was
40-50 years. Between 1900 and 1950 it rose to
65 and now stands at 73- 74 years. In sub-Saharan
Africa, life expectancy was rising to 58 years until the
AIDS epidemic reduced it to about 45 years.
These figures are averages. They do not mean,
for example, that everyone in the developing world
will live to the age of 58. In the developing world,
40% of the deaths are of children younger than 5
Rgu re 19.23 An "l'Cosphere". The 5-inchglobernotains'i!'awater.
years and only 25-30% are deaths of people over
b..cteria.algae.snajl1,mdafewPacific1hrimps.Givenasoorceofl'9ht 60. In Europe , only 5~20% of deaths are those of
iti1a'i!'!f-,;upporting1y;temand1111vive1lor1everalyears(at~a11).The children below the age of 5, but 70--80% are of
1hlimps live forupto7ye.irsbutfewrepmduce
people over 60.
A carp is a secondary conmmer at the top of a food
An increase in the number of people over the
age of 60 does not change the rate of population
chain, where it is in competition with other species of
growth much, because these people are past child-
fish for food and with other carp for food and mates.
bearing age. On the other hand, if the death rare
The whole of that part of the Earth's surf.tee
among children fulls and the extra children survive
which contains living organisms ( called the
to reproduce, the population will continue to grow.
biosphere) may be regarded as one vast ecosystem.
This is the main reason for the rapid population
No new material (in significam amoums) enters
growth in the developing world since 1950.
the Earth's ecosystem from space and there is no
significant loss of materials. The whole system Causes of the reduction in death rate
depends on a constam input of energy from the Sun The causes are not always easy to identify and vary
and recycling of the chemical elements. from one community to the next. In 19th century
Distribution in an ecosystem Europe, agricultural development and economic
expansion led to improvements in nutrition, housing
All ecosystems contain producers, consumers and
and sanitation, and to dean warer supplies. These
decomposers. The organisms are not distributed
improvements reduced the incidence of infec.tious
uniformly throughout the ecosystem but occupy
diseases in the general population, and better-fed
habitats that suit their way oflife.
children could resist these infections when they
For example, fish may range freely within an
did meet them. The drop in deaths from infectious
aquatic ecosystem bur most of them will have
diseases probably accounted for three-quarters of the
preferred habitats in which they feed and spend
total full in deaths.
Population size
111e social changes probably affected the population In the past 300 years, the mortality rate has fallen
growth more than did the discm·ef}' of new drngs but the birth rate has not gone down to the same
or improved medical techniques. Because of these extent. As a result the population has expanded rapidly.
techniques - particularly immunisation - diphtheria, In 18th century Europe, the fertility rate
tuberculosis and polio are now rare (Figure 19 .24 ), was about 5. This means that, on average, each
and by 1977 smallpox had been wiped out by the woman would have five children. When the death
World Health Organization's vaccination campaign. rate fell, the fertility rate lagged behind so that the
In the developing world , sanitation, clean water population increased. However, the fertility rate has
supplies and nutrition are improving slowly. The now fullen to somewhere between 1.4 and 2.6 and
surge in the population since 1950 is likely to be the European population is more or less stable.
at least 50% due to modern drngs, vaccines and A full in the fertility rate means that young people
insecticides. will form a smaller proportion of the population.
111ere will also be an increasing proportion of old
people for the younger generation to look after. In
Britain it is estimated that, between 198 l and 199 l,
the number of people aged 75- 84 increased by 16%.
111e number of those over 85 increased by about
46% (Figure 19.25 ).
§ 10 In the developing world, the fertility rate has
~ dropped from about 6.2 to 3.0. This is still higher
than the mortality rate. An average fertility rate of
,i. 2.1 is necessary to keep the population stable.
'
-:i1.o As a community grows wealthier, the birth rate
goes down. There are believed to be four reasons:
• Longer and better education: Marriage is
postponed and a better-educated couple will have
learned about methods offumily limitation.
• Better living conditions: Once people realise
that half their offspring are not going to die from
disease or malnutrition, fumily sizes full.
• Agriculmre and cities: Modern agriculture is no
Rgure19.24 fallindeath ratefrom diph theriaasaresultol
longer labour intensive. Farmers do not need large
immunis.ation. The arrows \.how when 50% or more of children were families to help out on the land. City dwellers do
vaccinated. Notettlattheratewa1alreadylallingbutw;r;greatly not depend on their offspring to help raise crops
inc:reasedbyimmunis.alion
or herd animals.
• Application of family planning methods: Either
Stability and growth namral methods ofbirth control or the use of
Up to 300 years ago, the world population was contraceptives is much more common.
relatively stable. Fertility (the birth rate) was high
and so was the mortality rate (death rare). Probably It takes many years for social improvements to
less than half the children born lh·ed to ha~·e children produce a full in the birth rate. Some countries
of their own. Many died in their first year (infant are trying to speed up the process by encouraging
mortality}, and many mothers died during childbirth. couples to limit their fumily size (Figure 19.26 ), or
No one saw any point in reducing the birth rate. If by penalising fumilies who have too many children.
you had a lot of children, you had more help on your Meanwhile the population goes on growing.
land and a better chance that some of them would 111e United Nations expect that the birth rare and
live long enough to care for you in your old age. death rate will not be in balance until the year 2100.
total population total population

3.3billion 1.1billion
i'40 40 i'
populationin1980(millions) populationin1980(million,l
(a) The developingre gions.The tape ringpatter nischaracteristicof a (b) The developedre gion,.Thea lmostrectangularpatter n
population with a high birth rate and low average life expectancy. is characteristic of an industrialised soci ety, with a steady
The bulkofthepopulationisunder2S. birthrate andalifeexpectancyofabout70.
(Th e horizontalsca le isnotthe , ame asina.)
Rgure19.25 Age distlitJution olpopulationin 1980
By that time the world population may have reached

10 billion, assuming that the world supply of food
will be able to feed this population.
In the past few decades, the world has produced
enough food to feed, in theory, all the extra people.
But the extra food and the extra people are nor
always in the same place. As a result, 72% of the
world's population has a diet that lacks energy, as
well as other nutrients.
Every year between 1965 and 1975, food
production in the developed nations rose by 2 .8%,
while the population rose by 0.7%. In the developing
nations during the same period, food production
rose by only 1.5% each year, while the annual
population rise was 2.4%.
The Western world can produce more food than
its people can consume. Meanwhile people in the
drier regions of Africa face fumine due to drought Flgure19.26 Familyplanning . Ahea1thworkerin Banglade1h
and population pressure on the environment. Even expt1instheu5e ofarn!ldom
if the food could be taken to the developing world,
people there are often too poor to buy it. Ideally, Population pressures
each region needs to grow more food or reduce its More people, more agriculture and more
population until the community is self-supporting. industrialisation will put still more pressure on
Some countries grow tobacco, cotton, tea and coffee the environment unless we arc very watchful. If
( cash crops) in order to obtain foreign currency for we damage the ozone layer, increase atmospheric
imports from the Western world. This is fine, so carbon dioxide, release radioactive products or allow
long as they can also feed their people. But when furmland to erode, we may meet with additional
food is scarce, people cannot live on the cash crops. limits to population growth.
Population size
Sigmoid population growth curves • C: Stationary phase. The resources will no longer
support an increasing population. At this stage,
Population growth li miting factors come into play. The food supply
A population will not necessarily be evenly spread may limit furd1cr expansion of the population,
throughout its habitat, nor will its numbers remain diseases may start to spread through the dense
S1cady. The population will also be made up of a population and overcrowding may lead co a full
wide variety ofindividuals: adults (male and female), in reproduction rate. Now the mornliry race
juveniles, L'ITVae, eggs o r seeds, for example. In studying (death rate) equals the reproduction rate, so che
populations, these variables ofien have to be simplified. population numbers stay the same.
In the simplest case, where a single species is allowed • D: Death phase. The mortality rate (death rate)
to grow in laboratory conditions, the population is now greater than the reproduction rate, so the
develops more or less as sho\111 in Figure 19.27. population numbers begin to drop. Fewer offi.pring
will live long enough to reproduce. TI1e decline in
i! 1o' population numbers can happen because the food
ii 10s
supply is insufficient, waste products contaminate the
habitat or disease spreads through the population.
~ t 10'4
U,,, Limits to population growth
TI1e sigmoid curve is a very simplified model of
~i 1oi
population growth. Few organisms occupy a habitat
I] ,o on their own, and the conditions in a natural habitat

will Ix changing all the time. TI1e steady state ofrhc
population in part C of the sigmoid curve is rarely
ci o4,~ ~~~,~,~~.,~,~,~,.~ ,. reached in nature. In fuct, the population is unlikely
tlmeldays to reach its maximum theoretical lc\·d because of rhc
Ag..e 19.27 Theslgmoldcurve(P.l~mGIJ(D1r.m). This many factors limiting its growth. These: arc called
isthectmxteristicgrowthpitternofapopul.ltionwhenloodis
limitingfuctors.
aburdmtatfirst
Competitio n
TI1c population might be ofycast cells growing in If, in the laboratory, rwo species of Paramuimn
a sugar solution, Aour beetles in wholemeal flour (P. a,ut:lia and P. &a11darum) arc placed in :m aquarium
or weevils in a grain store. The curve shown in tank, the population gro,\i-h of P. a11relin lollows the
Figure 19.27 was obtained using a single-celled sigmoid curve but the population of P. rnudnrum soon
organism called Pnrnmecimn (sec Chapter I ), which declines to zero because P. n11rtlin rakes up food more
repnxluces by dividing into rwo (binary fission). rapidly than P. ca11dnrum (Figure 19.28).
The sigmo id (S-shaped) form of the graph can be This example of competition for food is only one
explained as follows: of many factors in a natural environment that will
• A: Lag phase. The population is small. Although limit a population or cause it to change.
the numbers double at each generation, this does Abiotic and biotic limiting factors
not result in a large increase.
Plant populations will be affected by abiotic (non-
• B: Exponential phase (log phase). Continued biological ) factors such as rainfall, temperature and
doubling of the population at each generation light intensity. The population of small annual plants
produces a logarithmic growth rate (e.g. 64 - 128 - may Ix greatly reduced by a period of drought; a
256-512-1024). When a population offour severe winter can affect the numbers of more hardy
doubles, it ~ not likely to strain the rCSOllfccs of the perennial plants. Biotic (biological) facrors affecting
habitat, but when a population of 1024 doubles plants include their lca,·es being eaten by browsing
there is likely to be considerable competition fur fucxJ and grazing an imals or by caterpillars and otl1cr
and space and d1c growth rate snns to slow dmm. insects, and the spread of fungus diseases.
Flgurt19.28 Theeffectofcanpetition.Ar.rmec.ul'l~.ind Flgure 111.29 Acolonyofn.estingg.aimets.Availabilifyof sultablenest

P. c.wdalUrl eat the same food but P. -elid c.in capture and l ~ t it ,;itl"i i5oneof thefildorsthatlimitsthepopulation
l~terthilnP.c.wdalUrl
Animal populations, too, will be limited by abiotic The lynx preys on the snowshoe hare, and the mosr
fuctors such as seasonal d1anges. A cold winter can likely explanation of the graph in Figure 19 .30 is
se\'ercly reduce the populations of sm.all birds. HowC\1:r, that an increase in the hare population allowed the
anim..,t popubtions an: also greatly .tfkcted by biotic predators to increase. Eventually the increasing
fuctors such as the availability of food, competition fur num bers of lynxes caused a reduction in the hare
nest sites (Figure 19.29), predation (i.e. being eaten by population.
other animals), parasitism and diseases. H owever, seasonal or other changes affecting one
The size ofan animal population will also be or both of the animals could not be ruled out.
affected by the numbers of animals enrcring
~
from other localities (immigration) or leaving the
population (emigration). "'
In a narural environment, it is rarely possible to say
whether the fluctuations observed in a population J::
f'" ~ -
~~hoe ~----i~-.----
are mainly due to one particular fucror because there
are so many fuctors at work. ln somc cases, however,
the kcy fucrors can be ide ntified as mainly responsible
for li miting the population .
.
g
~"
~
80
40 I
Predator- prey relationships
A classic example of predaroc-prey relationships comes
: ~
184S18SS1865187S1885189519051915192519)51Sl4S
from an analysis of the fluctuating populations of
lynxes and snowshoe hares in Canada. TI1e figures arc Flgure1Sl.30 Prey-predatorre lationship1:fluctuatlonslnthenun'bef1
derived from the numbers of skins sold by rr:i.ppers to ofpeltsreceiwdb')'!heHuclson~B;iyCompaoylDflynx{pred.itol)ancl
the Hudson's Bay Company between 1845 and 1945. 100W1hoe h~re (prey)over a 100-yearpefiod
Population size
Questions 16 Study Figure 19.2S and then comment on

a the relative number of bo>f and girl babies
c~• b the relative number of men and women of reproductive
I Construct a simple food web using the following:
sparrow, fo11, wheat seeds, a1t. kestrel, mou'II! age(2G--40)
2 ~bebrieflyallthepossiblewaysinwhichthefolkming c therelativenumbersoftheO'Jef-70s.
rrightdeptndoneachothet: 17 lnFiguAL" 19.24,whatrrightbethereasonsforthefallin
gra55,earthworrn,blackbird,oaktree, soil. death rate from diphtheria even bef0tt> SO% irrmunisation
3 Expl.ain how the folowing foodstuffs ar(' produced as a wasachieved1
re.ultofphotosynthesis: Extended
wine, butter.eggs. beans. 18 It can be daimed that the Sun's energy is used indirectly to
4 Anelectricmotof,acarengineandaracehor5ecanall produce a muscle contraction in your arm . Trace the steps
produce energy. inthetransferofenergythat'M>Uldjustilythisdaim
a Show how this energy could come, originally, from 19 Di=stheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofhuman
5Unlight. attempts to exploit a food chain nearer to its source,
b What forms of energy on the Earth aAL" nor derived from e.9.theplanktoninFigure1g_3_
5Unlight1 20 On a lawn gro'Mng on nitrate-deficient so~. the patches of
5 How do you think evidence is obtained in order to place doveroftenstandootasdarkgreenandhealthyagainsta
animals such as a fox and a pigeon in a food web? backgroundofpalegreengrass. Suggest a reason for this
6 When humans colonised islands they often introduced contrast.
their domestic animals, such as goats or cats. This u5Ually 2 1 Verybrieflyexplainthedifferencebetweennitrifying,
hadadevastatingeffectonthenaturalfoodwebs. Suggest nitrogen-fixinganddenitrifyingbacteria
AL"asonsforthis. 22 StudyFigure1g.21.
7 a Why do living organisms need a 5Upply of carbon? a How many days does it take for the mortality rate to
b Give three e i,;ample s of carbon-containing compounds equal the replacement rate?
that occur in livingorganisms(seeChapter4) b What is the approl'.imate increa'II! in the population of
c Where do these Ol'ganisms get their cart>on from? Paramecium:
i animals i between day O and day 2
ii plants ii between day 2 and day 4
8 Write three chemical equations: iii between day 8 and day 10?
a toillustratethatrespirationproducesa1rbondiollide c ln'51!C!ion8ofthegraph, whatistheapp,oximate
(5eeChapte112) r ~ rate of Pa,amedum (i.e. the m..mber of
b to show that burning produces cart>on dkmde new individuals per day)?
c to show that photosynthesis u'll!S up carbon dioxide 23 In 1937, Iv.<> male and si• female pheasants were
(5eeChapter6). introducedtoanislandoffthet,N{coast.ofAmerica. There
9 Outline the events that might happen to a carbon atom were no other pheasants and no natural predators. The
inamoleculeofcarbofl6oxide, ....-hichentefedthestoma populationfortheneJrt6yearsincAL"asedasfollows:
in the leaf of a potato plant and became part of a starch
moleculeinapotatotuber,whichwastheneatenbya
man. fiflal y the carbon atom is breathed out again in a
,,.
1937 24
molecule of carbon dioxide .
10 LookatthegraphinFigure1g.22.
a When did the post-war 'baby-boom' occur?
b What was the growth rate of the population in 18007
11 Whichofthefollo'Mngcausesofdeatharelikelytohave
most effect on the growth rate of a population: smallpox,
tuberculosis, heartdi'll!ase,polio,strokes, measles?
Plotagraphofthe5eliguresandSil"fwhetherit
Givereasonsforyooranswer.
correspondstoanypartofthesigmoidcurve
12 Suggest somereasonslMlythebirth ratetendstofallasa
24 lnFigure 19.28,\Mlichpartofthecurveapproximately
coontrybecomeswealthier.
represents the exponential growth of the P. aurelia
13 a Giveeio;amplesofthekindofdemandsthatan
population?Givetheanswoerin days.
increasing population makes on the environment
25 What form1 of competition might limit the population of
b In what ways can these demands lead to environmental
sticldebacbina pond?
"'-'
14 If th~ are 12000 live births in a population of 400000 in
1~ar,....-hatisthebirthrate7
26 Suggest!i0mefact0f'Sthatmightpreven1anincrea'll!inthe
population of sparrows in a farmyard :
a abioticfactors
15 Try to el!J)lain why, on aYefage, cooples need to have just.
b bioticfactors
OYeJ Iv.<> children if the population is to remain stable.
Checklist • Plants take up carbon dioxide during photosynthesis; all living

After ~udying Chapter 19 you should know and undernand the organismsgiveoutcarbondio)(ideduringf\'spiration; the
folk:,wr,g: burning of carbon-containing fuels pro6Jces carbon dioxide.
• Theuptakeofcarbonooxidebyplantsbalana-stheproduction
Energy flow ofcarbon<iollidefromf\'S?rationandcombustion.
• TheSunistheprincipalsourceofenergyinputtobiological • Thewatercydeinvolvesevaporation,transpiration,
systerTI$. condensationandprecipitation(rain)
• Thecarb.J51ionoffossilfuelsandthecuttingdownoflore5ts
• Energy from the Sun 111:.iws through IMng organM"IS.
increa;esthee.arixwicioxideconceritrations in theatrno5phefe.
• First,lightene,gyis convettedintochemicalenergy
• SoilnitratesarederiYednaturallyfromtheextn!!Ofyproducts
in photosynthetic organisms. Thentheyareeatenby
ofanimalsandthedeadremainsoflivingorganisms.
herbivores.Camivores e atherbivores.
• Nitrifyingbacteriaturntheseproductsintonitrates,which
• Asorganismsdie,theeoergyistransferredtotheenvironmenl
aretakenupbyplants.
• Nitrogen-f1Xing bacteria can make nitrogenous compounds
f ood cha in s a nd food webs
from gaseous nitrogen .
• A food chain shCMls the transfer of energy from one • Plantsmakeaminoacidsandproteins.
organism to the next, beginning with a producer. • Animalseattheproteins.
• A food web is a networlo: of interconnected food chains. • Proteins af\' broken down to remove the nitrogen by the
• ProducersareorganismsthatmaketheirCMlnorganic processofdeamination.
nutrients, usuallyusingenergyfromsunlight, through • Micro-organisms play an important part in the nitrogen
photosynthesis cycle. They are involved in decomposition, nitrification,
• Consumers are organisms that get their energy from feeding nitrogenfixationanddenitrification.
on other organisms.
• Aherbivoreisananimalthatgetsitsenergybyeatingplants. Po pulatio n s ize
• Acamivoreisananimalthatgetsitsenergybyeatingother
animals • A population is a gro1.1p of organisms of one species, living
• All animals depend, ultima~. on plants for their 50Ur'Ce of food. and intl'facting in the same area at the same time.
• Plants af\' the p!OOucers in a food web; animals may be • The factors affecting the rate of population gro.vth for a
primary, secondary or tertiary consumers. population of an organism include food supply, predation
• A pyramid of numbers has levels which repre5ent the number and disease
of each species in a food chain. Thef\' af\' usually fewer • The human population has increased in size rapidy OYer the
consumers than producers, faming a 17tTamid Wpe . past2S0years
• CNer·harvesting unbalances food chains and~. as does • Theworldpopulation is growingattherateof1 .7%eachyear.
theintroductionofforeignspeciestoahabital At this rate, the population more than doubles - . , SO years.
• The rate of increase is slowing down and the population may
• Ener!JI is transferred between trophic !Ms through feeding. stabilise at 10biltionbytheyear2100.
• ThetrophicleYelolanorganismisitspositioninafoodchain. • A population grows when the birth rate exceeds the death
• The transfer of energy from ooe trophic leYel to another is rate, provided the offspring live to f\'produce
inefficient
• Only about 1%oftheSun'senergythatreachestheEarth's • A community is all of the populations of different species
surfaceistrappedbyplantsduringphotosynthesis. in an ecosystem.
• At each step in a food chain, only a small proportion of the • An ecosystem is a unit containing the community of
food is used for growth . The rest is used for energy to keep organisms and the ir environment, interacting together.
the organism alive • A sigmoid population growth curve for a population
• Food dlains usually have fewer than five trophic levels. growinginanenvironmentwithlimitedresourceshaslag,
• Feeding crop plants to animals uses up a lot of energy and exponential (log), stationary and death phases.
makes the process inefficient • In the developed countries, the birth rate and the deat h
• Thereisanincreasedefficiencyinsupplyinggreenplantsas rate af\' now about the same.
human food. • lnthedevelopingcountries.thebilthrateexceedsthedeath
• A decomposer is an organism that gets its energy from rateandtheirpopulationsaregrowing. This is not because
deadorwasteorganicmaterial more babies af\' born, but because more of them survive.
• A pyramid of biomass is more useful than a pyramid of • The increased survival rate may be due to improved social
numbersinf\'l)fl:'Serltingafoodchain. conditions, soch as dean water, efficient sewage disposal,
better nutrition and better housing
• It is also the result of vaccination, new drugs aod improved
Nutri en t cyd u
medcalse~.
• The materials that make up living organisms Me constantly • Asapopulationbecorneswealthier.itsbirthratetendstofal.
"""''
Biotechnology and genetic
@ engineering
Biotechnology and g t ne ti< ,mgine4i ring ~ g a te useoflactasetoproduce1i1Ctose-freemilk
Use of bacteria in biotechnology and genetic engineering Production of antibiotics
Reasonswhybacteriaareusefulinbiotechnologyand Use of fermenten in penicillin production
genetic engineering
G, netic e ngin H ring
Define genetic engineering
Biotechnology
Roleofa~obicf'Ml)iratioo inyeastinproductionofethanol Example5ofgeneticengineeriog
forbiofuelsandbfead•making Outlinegeneticengir.eerir,g
lnvetigateuseofpectinaseinfruitjuiceproduction Advantagesanddisadvantagesofgeneticallymodifyirig
Investigate use of biological washing IX)',Yders containing
• Biotechnology and • Biotechnology

genetic engineering Altho ug h bio techno logy is "ho t news', we ha\·c been
making use ofit fo r hund reds ofycars. Wine-making,
Biotechnolo1,,y is the application of biological t he brewing of beer, the baking of bread and the
o rganisms, systems or processes to manufucruring and prod uction of c heese all depend on fermentation
service industries. Ge n,..tic e nginee rin g invol\·cs the processes brought about by yeasts, other fi.tngi and
transfer of genes from one organism to ( usuall y) an bacteria, o r enzymes from t hese organisms.
un re lated species. Anti biotics, such as penicillin, arc prcxi uced by
Bodi processes often make use o f b:ictcria bcausc mo uld fung i o r bacteria. ll1e production of ind ustrial
of their ability to make complex mo lec ules (proteins c he micals such as citric acid o r lactic acid needs
for example) a nd t heir r.ipid reproductio n rate. bacte ria o r fi.tng i to bri ng about essential chemical
c hanges.
Sewa ge disposal (C hapter 21 ) depe nds o n bacteria
Use of bacteria in biotechnology in the filter beds to form the basis of the food chain
and genetic engineering that purifies the effiuent.
Biotechno logy is not concerned solely with the
Bacteria arc usefu l in biotechn o logy and genetic
use of micro-organisms. Cell cultures and enzymes
en gi neerin g because they can be grown and
also feature in modem de,•clopmenrs. In t his
manipulated wi t h o ut r.i ising eth ical concerns.
chapter, however, there is space to consider o nly a
They have a ge ne ti c cod e that is the same as all
representa tive sample of biotechno logical processes
other organisms, so genes fro m o ther animals
that use micro-orga nisms.
or plants can be successfull y transfe rred into
bacterial DNA . Biofue ls
Bacterial DNA is in the form of a circular srrand
l11e term •fi:: rmentatio n' docs no r apply o nly to
and also small circula r pieces called plasmids.
alco ho lic ferm enta tio n but to a wide r.i nge of
Scientists have deve loped techniques ro cut o pen
reactio ns, bro ug ht abo ut by e nzymes o r micro-
these plas mids and insert sections of DNA from
organisms. In C hapter 12 , t he anaerobic respiratio n
othe r o rga nisms into t he m. When the bacterium
of glucose to alco ho l o r lactic acid was descri bed as a
divid es, the D NA in the modified plas mid is copied,
form of fe rmentation .
including the 'fore ig n' D NA. This ma y contai n a
Micro-organisms that bring abou t fcr mc:nt:1tion are
ge ne to make a particular protei n such as insulin,
using the c he mical reactio n to prcxi ucc energy, whic h
which can be extracted and used as a medicine to
they need for their livi ng processes. The reactions chat
treat d iabetes.
are useful in fi:: rment:1tion biotechnology arc mosd y
20 BIOTECHNOLOGY AND GENETIC ENGINEERING
those that produce incompletely oxidised compounds. A protein called gluten gives the dough a sticky,
A reaction that goes all the way to carbon dioxide and plastic texmre, which holds the bubbles of gas. TI1e
water is not much use in this context. dough is repeatedly folded and stretched ( 'kneaded' )
The micro-organisms are encouraged to grow either by hand , in the home, or mechanically in the
and multiply by providing nutrients such as glucose, bakery. The dough is then left for an hour or two at
with added salts and, possibly, vitamins. Oxygen or a temperature of about 27°C while the yeast does
air is bubbled through the culmre if the reaction is its work. The accumulating carbon dioxide bubbles
aerobic, or excluded if the process is anaerobic. An make the dough rise ro about double its volume
optimum pH and temperamre are maintained for the (Figure 20.1 ). The dough may then be kneaded
species of microbe being culmred. again or put straight into baking tins and into an
In 'Conservation' in Chapter 21, it is pointed out oven at about 200°C. This temperature makes the
that ethanol (alcohol ), produced from fermented bubbles expand more, kills the yeast and evaporates
sugar or surplus grain, could replace, or at least the small quantities of alcohol before the dough turns
supplement, petrol. into bread.
Brazil, Zimbabwe and the USA produce ethanol as
a renewable source of energy for the motor car. Since
1990, 30% of new cars in Brazil can use ethanol and
many more use a mixmre of petrol and ethanol. As
well as being a renewable resource, ethanol produces
less pollution than petrol.
H owever, biofuels are not yet economical to
produce. For example, the energy used to grow,
fertilise and harvest sugar-cane, plus the cost of
extracting the sugar and converting it to ethanol, uses
more energy than the ethanol releases when burned.
In addition, there are also environmental costs,
some of which will be outlined in Chapter 21. Forests
are being destroyed to plant soy beans or oil palms,
removing the habitats of thousands of organisms,
some of which, sud1 as the orang-utan, are on the Flgure20.1 CartxJndioxideproducedbytheyeasthasuu'iedthe
dough to rise
verge of extinction.
Another biofuel, oil from rapeseed or sunflower
seed, can with suitable treatment replace diesel fiiel. En zymes
It is less polluting than diesel but more expensive to Enzymes can be produced by commercial
produce. fermentation using readily a\'ailable feedstocks such as
corn-steep liquor or molasses. Fungi (e.g. Aspergi/Jus)
Bread or bacteria (e.g. Bacillus) are two of the commonest
Yeast is the micro-organism used in bread-making organisms used to produce the enzymes.
bur the only fermentation pnxluct needed is carOOn These organisms are selected because they are
dioxide. The carOOn dioxide makes bubbles in the bread non-pathogenic and do not produce antibiotics. The
dough. TI1ese bubbles make the bread 'ligl1t' in texmre. fermentation process is similar to that described for
Flour, warer, salt, oil and yeast are mixed to make a penicillin. If the enzymes are extracellular ( Chapter 5 )
dougl1. Yeast has no enzymes for digesting the starch then the liquid feedstock is filtered from the organism
in flour but the addition of water activates the amylases and the enzyme is extracted (Figure 20.2 ). If the
already present in flour and these digest some of the enzymes are intracellular, the micro-organisms have
starch to sugar. With higl1ly refined white flour, it may to be filtered from the feedstock. They are then
be necessary to add sugar to the dougl1. The yeast crushed and the enzymes extracted with water or
then ferments the sugar to alcohol and carbon dioxide. other solvents.
Biotechnology
,-
w;iste from fi.mgi such as Asptrgi/1111 nigtr. They work by
breaking down pectin, the jclly-lil::.e substance that
sticks plant cell walls ro each other. The enzymes can
also be used to clarify fruit juice and wine (mal::.e it
more transparent). During the breakdown process,
a num ber of different polys3ccharides are released ,
which mal::.c the juice cloudy, but pectinases breal::.
these down to mal::.c the juice dearer. The sugars
produced also make the juice sweeter.
Biolog ica l washing powders

l11e majority of commercial enzyme production
invol\·cs protcin-digcsring enzymes (proteases) and
fut -digesting enzymes {lip:iscs) for use in the food
and textile indusrrics. When combined in washing
powders rhcy arc effective in removing srains in
clothes caused by proteins, e.g. blood, egg and gravy,
and furs, e.g. grease. Prorein and fut molecules tend
enzymes
e~tr;icted to be large and insoluble. When they h:n-e been
digested rhc products are small, sol uble molecules,
which can pass our ofrhc cloth .
Flgure20.2 Princlplesofenzymeprodl.lCtlol1frommicro-orgar.imi1
Biological washing powders sa\·c energy because
Using the techniques of genetic engineering, new they can be used to wash clothes at lower tcmperarurcs,
genes can be introduced into the microbes to so the re is no na:d ro boil water. However, if they
'impro\'e' the action of the enzymes coded for by the arc put in water at higher temperatures the enzymes
genes (e.g. making the enzymes mo re heat stable ). become denarured (sec Chapter 5) and they lose their
One effi:ctive way of using e nzymes is by dkctivcncss.
·immobilising' them . The e nzymes or the micro-
organisms that produce them are held in or 011 beads
or membranes of an insoluble and ine rt substance, Practical work
e.g. plastic. T he beads or membranes are packed into
columns and the substrate is poured over them at Investigating the use of pectinase
the optimum rate. This method has the advantage
that the enzyme is nor lost every time the product
in fruit juice production
is extracted. Immobilised enzymes also allow the • Make 100cmlofapplepurttusin,galiquidiser,oruseatinof
process ro take place in a continuous way rather than applepuree
abatcharatime. • Transferthepul'eetoa250emlbeaker.
• Add one level teaspoon of powdered pectinase enzyme (care
Some commercial uses of e nzymes are listed below.
needed-seesafetynote).stirthemixtureandleaveitlor
• Proteases: In washing powders for dissolving srains aboutSminutes
• Place a funnel in the top of a 100cml measuring cylinder and
from, e.g. egg, milk and blood; removing hair from
linethefunnelwithafoldedfilterpaper.
animal hides; cheese manufucturc; tenderising meat. • Transfer the purl!e into the filter formel and leave it in a warm
• Lipases: Flavour enhancer in cheese; in washing place for upto 24hours.
pm.vders for removal of futty stains. • Othermeasuringcylinderscouldbesetupinthesameway,
• Pectinases: Clarification of fruit juices; maximising with puree left to stand at different temperatures to compare
juice extraction. thesuccessofjuiceextraction.
• Amylases: Production of glucose from starch. Safety note: Take car\' to avoid skin Of eye contact with the
enzyme powder. Enzyme powder can cause allergies. Wipe up
Pccrinascs are used to separate the juices fro m any spillages immediately and rinse the doth thoroughly with
fruit such as apples. The e nzymes can be extracted water. Do not allow spillages to dry up.
Res ult C 5cml(1 levelte.ispoon)ofbiologicatwashingp(M,'def

Juice is extracted from the poree. It collects in the mea'illring dissolved in 100crnl warm water,
cylinderandis transparentO t hasbeendarified) D 5cml(1 levelte.ispoon) ofbiologicalwashingp(M,'def
di~ed in 100crnl water and ~ d for 5 lffnutes, then
lnte rp~ta tion
leh to cool until warm.
Pectinase bre.ib doNn the apple tissue, releasing sugars in
• Placeapieceofegg..staineddoth in eachbeakerandleavefor
solution. More juice collects in the measuring cylinder when the
30minutes.
po!eehasbeenkeptinwarmconditions; coldertemperatures
• RernoYe the pieces of doth and compare the effective~ of
WW down the process.
each washing process.
Furthe r investigation
lfotherenzymesareavailable,trycomparingcellulase and
a mylase with pectir"lilse. Combinations of these could be used Results
The piecr of doth in beaker C is most effectrvely deaned,
to find out which is the most effective in extracting the juice
followed by B and the!'\ D. The doth in A is largely unchanged
Remember to control variables to make a fair compari,;on
lnterp~tation
The e nzymes in t he biolog ical washing powder break down
Investigating the use of biological theproteinsand fa tsintheeggstaintoaminoacidsand
washing powder fattyacids and glycerol.Thesearesmaller,solublemolecules,
which can er.ca pe from theclothandd issolveinthewater.
• Breakan eggi ntoaplasticbeake r andwhisk it witha Non -bio logica l wash ing powder is less effective beca use it
fork, sp.1t ulaorstiningroduntilthoroughlymixed. does no t contain enzymes. Boil ed biological was hing powder
• Cut upfourpecesofwtiitedoth to make squares 10cm >< 10cm, is not very effectivebecausetheenzymesi n it have been
smear egg evenl( onto each of them and leave to dry. denat ured. Beaker A wasacon trol,wi t hnoactivedetergent
• Set up lou r 250cml beakers as follows· or en zymes. Soaki ng t he clot h in warm water alone does not
A 1OOcml warm water, with no washing powder. remove the sta in.
B Scml (1 level te.ispoon)of non-biological washing powder
dissolved in 100 crnl warm water.
Lactose-free milk An alternative, large-scale method is to immobilise

lactase on the surface of beads, llte milk is then
Lactose is a type o f dis;1ccharide sugar found in pas.scd O\'er the beads and the l:ictose sugar is
milk and dairy products. Some people suffer from dTccrivdy removed . This met hod avoids having the
lactose into lerance, a digesti\'e pro blem where enzyme molecules in the milk because they remain
the body docs no t produce eno ugh o f the enzyme on the beads.
lactasc . As a result, the lactose remains in the The food industry uses lacrase in the production
gut, where it is ferm ented by bacteria, causing of milk products such as yoghurt : it speeds up the
symptoms such as flatulen ce (wind ), diarrhoea and process and makes the yoghurt taste sweeter.
stomach pains. Many foods contain dairy products,
so people with lactose intolerance cannot cat them,
or suffer the sympto ms described above. However, Practical work
lactose-fre e milk is now produced using the enzyme
lactase. Action of lactase
The lactase cart be produced on a large scale by
This inve5tigationusesglucose te5tstri ps(diastill,). Theyare used
fermenting yeasts such as Kluyveromyu sfragilisor
bypeoplewithdiabetes to test for gl ucoseintheir urine(see
fungi such as Aspergilfos m"ger. The fermentation 'Homeo5tasis' in Chapter 14 for details of diabetes). The strips do
process is shown in Figure 20.2. notreacttothe presence of ot hersuga rs(lactose,sucrose, e tc.)
A simple way to make lactose- free milk is to add • Pour 25 cmJ warm, fresh mil k into a l OOcmJ beaker.
lactase to milk. llte enzyme breaks down lactose • Test themilkforg!ucosewithagtucoseteststrip
sugar into rwo mo nos.icch:uide sugars: glucose and • Mea'il.lre out 2cml of 2% lactase u5'1g a syringe or pipette
galactosc. Both can be absorbed by the intestine. andaddthis tothemi!k.
Biotechnology
• Stir the minure and le<IYI' for a few minutes.

• Testthemilkagainwithanewg!ucoseteststrip.
Resu lt
Mil kgivesa"t'9ativeresultforgluc05l',bu tmilkexposed to
lactasegivesaposi tiverl'SUlt
Inte rpretation
Lactasl' breaks down the lactose in milk, as shown in the
equation below.
lactose lactase glucose+ga1actose

Note: milk sometmes contains traces of glucose. If the milk gives
apositr.oeresultwiththe9U(:osete5tstrip,analternativemethod
wo.Adbetousea'iOU:ionoflactoseinsteadofmilk. HooNever,the
amount d glucose in the milk, a5 indicated by the colour change
on the test strip, should increase after treatment with lactase
Antibiotics
When micro-organisms arc used for the production
of antibiotics, it is not their fcrmcm,uion products
that arc wa nted, but complex orga nic compounds,
called antibiotics, that they synthesise.
Most of the antibiotics we use come from
bacteria or fungi that live in the soil. The function
of the antibiotics in this situation is nor clear. One
theory suggests that the chemicals help to suppress
competition for limited food resources, bur the
evidence docs nor support this theory. Figure 20.3 A la!xir~tory fli"!menl2f f0< ~ntbiotic Pfoduction, which
One of rhc most prolific sources of antibiotics willeventu~lt, btSGIE'd I.IP to 1000().frtrefermentlUonwssels.
is Aui,um,yceres. These arc filamentous bacteria
that rese mble microscopic mould fungi. 111c even cause them to burst open; some interfere with
actinomycetc StTtptomyces produces the antibiotic protein synthesis :md thus arrest bacterial growth .
strepto mycin . Those that stop bacteria from reproducing arc said
Perhaps the best known antibiotic is pe nicillin, to be bacteriost:1tic; those that kill the bacteria arc
which is produced by the mould fun gus Pmicil/ium bactcriocida l.
and was disco\'ercd by Sir Alexander Fleming in Animal ce lls do n0t have cell walls, and the
1928. Penicillin is still an important antibiotic cell structures involved in protein productio n are
but it is produced by mutant forms ofa different differe nt. Consequently, antibiotics do not damage
spt.-c.ics of Pmici//illm from that studied by Fleming human cells although they may produce some
( Figure 20.3 ). The different mutant forms of the side-effects such as allergic reactions.
fungus produce different types of penicillin.
The penicillin types arc chemically altered in Commercial production of penicillin
the labor.11ory to make them more cffecth·e and
to 'tailo r• them for use \\ith diffe rent diseases. Antibiotics arc produced in giant fermenting
'Ampicillin', ·mcthicillin' and ·oucillin' arc examples. tanks, up to 100000 litres in capacity. The ranks
Antibiotics arrack bacteria in a variety of ways. arc filled with a nutrient solution . For penicillin
Some of them disrupt the production of rhc cell wall producti on, the carbohyd rate source is sugar, mainly
and so prevent the bacteria from reproducing, or lactose or 'corn-steep liquor' - a by- product of
the manufucture of cornflour and maize stard1; it allowed to grow for a day or two. Sterile conditions
contains amino acids as well as sugars. Mineral salts are essential. If'foreign' bacteria or fiingi get into the
are added, the pH is adjusted to between 5 and 6, system they can completely disrupt the process. As
the temperamre is maintained at about 26°C, air the nutrient supply diminishes, the micro-organisms
is blown through the liquid and it is stirred. TI1e begin to secrete cl1eir antibiotics into the medium.
principles of industrial fermentation are shown in The nutrient fluid containing cl1e antibiotic
Figure 20.2. The nutrient liquid is seeded with a is filtered off and the antibiotic extracted by
culture of the appropriate micro-organism, which is crystallisation or other mecl1ods.
• Genetic engineering
Key defin ition
Geneticengineeringischangingthegenetic:materialofan
o-ganismbjremoving,changingorinsertingindvidualgenes
Applications of genetic engineering

TI1e following section gives only a few examples of
genetic engineering, a rapidly advancing process. Some
products, such as insulin, are in foll -scale production.
A few genetically m odified (GM ) crops, e.g. maize
and soya bean, are being grown on a large scale in the
USA. Many other projects are still at the experimental
stage, undergoing rrials, awaiting approval by
regulatory bodies or simply on a \v:ish list'.
Producti o n of human insulin

This hormone can be produced by genetically
modified bacteria and has been in use since 1982.
The human insulin gene is inserted into bacteria,
which then secrete human insulin. The human Flgure20.4 Humaninsulinp1Epatedfromgeneticallyengifll.'l'l"l.'d
insulin produced in this way (Figure 20.4 ) is purer bactefia. Thoughfreefromforl'ignpmteim.itdoesnot1uil
all patients
than insulin prepared from pigs or cattle, which
sometimes provokes allergic reactions owing to traces
of'foreign' protein. TI1e GM insulin is acceptable to Pest resistance
people wicl1 a range of religious beliefs who may not The bacterium, Bacill11s tlmringie11sis, produces
be allowed to use insulin from cows or pigs. a toxin cl1at kills caterpillars and other insect
larvae. The toxin has been in use for some years
GM crops as an insec.ticide. The gene for the toxin has been
Genetic engineering has huge potential benefits successfiilly introduced into some plant species using
in agriculture but, apart from a relatively small a bacterial vector. The plants produce the toxin and
range of crop plants, most developments are in the show increased resistance to attack by insect lan•ae.
experimental or trial stages. In the USA, 50% of the The gene is also passed on to the plant's offspring.
soya bean crop and 30% of cl1e maize harvest consist Unfortunately there are signs that insects are
of genetically modified plants, which are resistant to developing immunity to cl1e toxin.
herbicides and insect pests. Most American GM maize, apart from its
In the UK at cl1e moment, GM crops are grown herbicide-resistant gene, also carries a pesticide gene,
only on a trial basis and there is resistance to their whid1 reduces the damage caused by a stem-boring
growth and the presence of GM products in food. larva ofa mocl1 (Figure 20.5 ).
Genetic engineering
f'9u.-20.S Them.iizf>slrol borercanQUse consider.blelossesby

kilingyoungplints.
Rgure20.6 Genetic.illyengineeredlDmltoes. lnthethreeeogineered
to=toesonthet'oght biologtmllavedeleted thegeoe thatproduces
Herbicide resistance theenzyme wllk:hmakesfruit go'iOft.
Some of the s:ifest and most effective: herbicides arc
those, such as glyphosate , which kill any green plant Inadequate intake: of iron is one of the major
but become harmless as soon as they reach the soil. dic:tuy deficiencies (Chapter 7 ) worldwide: . An
l11esc herbicides cannot be used on crops because enzyme: in some plant roots enables them to extract
they kill the crop plants as well as the: weeds. A gene: more: iron from the soil. The: gene: for this enzyme
for an enzyme: that breaks down glyphosatc: can be can be transferred to plants, such as rice:, enabling
introduced into a plant cdl culture: (C hapter 16 ). them to extract iron from iron-deficient soils.
l11is sho uld lead to a red uced use: o f herbicides. Over I 00 million children in the: world arc
deficient in vitamin A. This deficiency often leads
Modifying plant products to blindness. A gene: for beta-carotene:, a precursor
A gene introduced to oilseed rape :i.nd other oil - of vitamin A, can be: inserted into plants to alleviate:
producing plants can change the nature of the this widespread deficiency. This is not, of course,
oils they produce to make them more suitable for the only way to increase vitamin A availabi lity but it
commercial processes, e.g. detergent production. could make a significant contribution.
l11is mig ht be very important whe n stocks of Some: acid soils contain kvc:ls of aluminium that
petroleum run out. It could be a renewable source: of reduce: yields of maize: by up to 8%. About 40% of soils
oil, which would not contribute to glo lxll warming in tropical and subtropical regions have: this problem.
(sec: 'Pollution' in Chapter 21 ). A gene: introduced into maiz.c: produces citr.1rc, which
The: to mmx:s in Figure: 20.6 have: been modified binds the: aluminium in the: soil and rdc:.~ phosplucc:
to improve their keeping qualities. ions. After 15 years of aials, the: GM maize was made:
available: to furmers, but pressure: from c:nvironmcnral
groups has blocked irs adoption.
• Extension wo rk Ma result of irrigation, much agriculrnral land has
become salty and unproductive. Transfi:rring a gene
Other app lications of genetic for salt tokrancc from, say, mangrove plants to crop
engineering plants could bring these regions back into production.
If the: gene, or genes, for nitrogen fixation
One: of the objections to GM crops is that, although
( Chapter 19) fro m bacteria or leguminous plants
they show increased }'kids, this has benefited only could be introduced to cereal crops, yields could be:
the furmcrs and the: chemical comp,mies in the: increased \\,ithout the: need to add fi:rtilisc:rs.
developed wo rld. So fur, genetic engineering has
Similarly, genes for drought resistance: would
done little ro improve: yid ds or quality of crops in the make: arid areas available for growing crops.
developing world, except perhaps in China. In fuct, Genes coding for human vaccines have: been
there arc a great many trials in progress, which hold
intrOOucc:d into plams.
out hopes of doing just that. Here: arc jusr a few.
Hepatitis B vaccine plant might become resistant to herbicides and so

l11e gene for the protein coat of the hepatitis virus become a ·super weed'. TI1e purpose of field trials is
is inserted into yeast cells. When these are cultured, to assess the likelihood of this happening. Until it is
they produce a protein that acts as an antigen (a established that this is a negligible risk, licences to
vaccine, Chapter 10) and promotes the production of grow GM crops will not be issued.
antibodies to the disease. To prevem the transfi:r of pollen from GM plams,
Transgenic plants have been engineered to other genes can be introduced, which srop the
produce vaccines that can be rakcn effectively by plant from producing pollen and induce the seeds
mouth. These include vaccines against rabies and and fruiis to develop without fertilisation. This is a
cholera. Several species ofplam have bttn used, process tha1 occurs naturally in many cultivated and
including the banana, which is cheap and widespread wildplams.
in the tropics, can be eaten without cooking and Apart from specific hazards, d1ere is also a sense of
does not produce seeds (Figure 20.7). unease about introducing genes from one species into
a torally different species. This is something that does
nor happen 'in nature' and d1erefore long-term effects
are nor known. In conventional cross-breeding,
the genes transferred come from the same, or a
closely re)arcd, species. However, in cross-breeding
the whole raft of genes is transferred and this has
sometimes had bad results when genes other than
the target genes have combined to produce ham1ful
producis. Genetic e ngineering offers d1e advantage of
transferring o nly those ge nes that are required.
The differences between the generic make-up
of different organisms is not as great as we tend to
think. Plants and animals share 60% of their genes
and humans have 50% of their genes in common
with fruir flies. Not all ge neric engineering invol\·es
transfer of 'alien' genes. In some cases it is the
plant's own genes that are modified to improve its
success in the field.
Possible hazards of GM crops

One of the possible harmful effects of planting GM
crops is that their modified genes might get into Flgur•20.I •~Judgtdprotest. ThesevandalisedpopbrsCilffitda
geneth.itsoftenedtfleceHwall1, redudngtheneedfOfenvlrorvnentaRy
wild plants. !fa gene for herbicide resistance found damaging chemical! used In p;iper making. They Wen! ~lso ;Ill femak!
irs way, via pollination, into a 'weed' plant, this plant1 sonopollencouldh.webeeoprodurn:l
Genetic engineering
Use of bacteria and restriction bacteria reproduce by mirosis (Ch::ipter 17) and so
enzymes in genetic engineering each daughter b::icterium will contain the s::ime DNA
and the s::ime plasmids as the parent. The offspring
To understand rhc principles of genetic engineering form a clone and the insulin gene is said to be cloned
you need to know something about bacrcria by this method.
(Figure 1.29) and restriction enzymes. TI1e bacteria are cultured in special vessels called
Bacteria arc microscopic single-celled organisms with fermcntcrs (Figure 20.2) and the insulin that they
cyropL,sm, cell membranes and cell walls, bur without produce can be: e:nractcd from the culture medium
a proper nucleus. Genetic control in a bacterium is and purified for use in treating diabetes (Chapter 14).
exercised by a double srrand of deoxyribonucleic acid
( DNA) in the form ofacirclc,but not enclosed in a plumld-1 citll w.oll cell membr.one
nuclear membrane. Ths circular DNA strand carries

the genes tlm control bacterial metabolism.
In addition, there arc present in the cytoplasm b.octerl.ol cytoplum
a number of small, circular pieces of DNA called cell
plasmids. The plasmids often carry genes that gh·c
the bacterium resistance to particular antibiotics such
as tetracycline and ampicillin.
Restriction enzymes arc produced by bacteria.
l11cy 'cur' DNA molecules at specific sites, e.g.
between the A and the T in the sequence GAA- TIC. (.o) plasm Ids t1etr.octed ;ind cut (b) donor DNA (hum.on) cut b¥
Restriction enzymes can be extracted from bacteria byrestr1<tlonenzymeE restrktlonenzymeE
and purified. By using a selected restriction enzyme,
DNA molecules extracted from diffcrcm organisms
Oc-·
can be cut at predicrable sites and made to produce
lengths of DNA that contain specific genes.
DNA from human cells can be: extracted and
C-·o
restriction enzymes used to 'cut' out a sequence of
DNA th..1r includes a gene, e.g. the gene for production
of insulin (Figure 20.9). TI1esc: lengths have sticky ends.
PWmids are cxrr:i.cred from bacteria and 'cut open'
with the same rcsaiction enzyme. If the human DNA
is then adck:d to a suspension of the plasmids, some of
the human DNA will ana.ch to some of the plasmids
by their sriclcy ends, and the plasmids \\ill then close up
again, given suitable enzymes such as li br.i.se· The DNA
in these plasmids is called recombinant DNA.
0 (cl human DNAtikenupt)¥pl.osmkk.
uslngllgaseenzymes
The bacteria can be induced to rake up the

plasmids and, by ingenious culmre methods using
antibiotics, it is possible ro select the bacteria that (d)plasmldsretumedto
1 bacterium
contain the recombinant DNA. The human DNA
in the plasmids continues to produce the same
(t)lnsu!ln
protein as ir did in the human cells. In the example P,odU(,ad
mentioned, this would be the protein, insulin
( Chapter 14). The plasmids arc said to be the
vectors th::it carry the human DNA into the bacteria
and the technique is sometimes called gene-splicing.
(f) b.octerlumdoned
Given suirabk nutrient solutions, bacteria multiply
rapidly and produce vast numbers of offspring. The Flgure20.II Hieprlr.dplesofgeneticrogineering
This is only one type of genetic engineering. The potentially harmful bacteria, it might make them
vector may be a virus rather than a plasmid; the resistant to antibiotic drugs.
DNA may be inserted directly, without a \·ector; the Although there is no evidence to suggest this
donor DNA may be synthesised from nucleotides happens in experimental animals, the main biotech
rather than extracted from cells; yeast may be used companies are trying to find methods of selecting
instead ofbacteria. The outcome, however, is the vectors without using antibiotics.
same. DNA from one species is inserted into a Another concern is that GM food could contain
different species and made to produce its normal pesticide residues or substanc.es that cause allergies
proteins (Figure 20.9 ). (allergens). However, it has to be said that all
In the example shown in Figure 20.9, the gene GM products are rigorously tested for toxins and
product, insulin, is harvested and used to treat allergens over many years, fur more so than any
diabetes. In other cases, genes are inserted into products from conventional cross-breeding. The GM
organisms to promote d1anges that may be beneficial. products have to be passed by a series of regulatory
Bacteria or viruses are used as vectors to deliver the and advisory bodies before they are released on to
genes. For example, a bacterium is used to deliver a the market. In fuct only a handful of GM foods are
gene for herbicide resistance in crop plants. available. One of these is soya, which is included, in
one form or another, in 60% of processed foods.
GM food Golden rice was a variety of rice developed
This is food prepared from GM crops. Most genetic through genetic engineering to carry a gene that is
modifications are aimed at increasing yields rather responsible for making beta·carotene, a precursor of
than changing the quality of food. However, it is vitamin A. In countries where rice is a staple food,
possible to improve the protein, mineral or vitamin the use of golden rice could reduce the incidence
content of food and the keeping qualities of some of a condition called night blindness - a serious
products (Figure 20.6 ). problem which is estimated to kill 670000 children
under the age of 5 each year.
Possible hazards of GM food However, some argue that there is a danger of the
One of the worries is that the vectors for precursor changing into other, toxic chemicals once
delivering recombinant DNA contain genes eaten. There were also concerns about a reduction
for antibiotic resistance. The antibiotic- in biodiversity as a result of the introduction of GM
resistant properties are used to select only those species. Subsistence furmers could also be tied to
vectors that have taken up the new DNA. If, large agricultural suppliers who may then manipulate
in the intestine, the DNA managed to get into seed prices.
Questions b Useofarenewable50Urceofenergysuchasethanol
Core for fuel in motor cars seems like a good solution to fuel
1 Outlinethebiologyinvolvedinmakingbread. shortages. Whatarethedisadvantagesofusingethanol7
2 How is DNA in a bacterium different from DNA in an animal 6 Some people are lactose-intolerant. Explain how
cell? biotechnology can be used to allow people with this
3 Outline three commercial uses of enzymes condition to eat milk products
7 Makeatabletooutlinetheadvantagesanddisadvantages
Extension ofGMcrop5
4 Give two rea5ans why bacteria are more suitable for use in 8 Howcangeneticengineeringbeusedtosolvemajor
genetic engineering than, for example, mammals worldwidedietarydefic:ienciessuchasvitaminandmineral
5 a Withreferencetotheir50Urces,explainwhyethanolis deficiencies?
describedasarenewableenergy50Urcewhilepetrolis
describedasanon-renewablesource.
Genetic engineering
Checklist • Fermenters are used in the production of penicillin.

AfterstudyingChapter20 yoo shooldknowandunderstandthe • Enzymes from micro-organisms can be produced on an
following : industrialscaleandusedinotherbiotechnologyprocesses.
• Sterileconditionsareessentialinbiotechnologyto.ivoid
Bio techn o log y a nd ge ne ti c e ng in ee ring contamination by unwanted microbes.
• Bacteria.ireusefulinbiotechnology .indgeneticengineering
because of their .ibility to m.ike complex molecules .ind their
rapid reproduction. Ge ne ti c e ng in ee rin g
• Geneticengineeringischangingthegeneticmaterialof
• Bacteriaareusefulinbiotechnologyandgenetic .in °'ganism by removing, changing°' inserting individu.il
engineeringbeciiuseoflackofethiCillconcernsovertheir
manipul.ition.indgrowth
"'"~
• Examplesofgeneticengineeringindude:
• Thegeneticrodeinbacteriaissh.iredwithallother - the insertion of humans genes into bacteria to produce
organisms human insulin
• Bacteria contain ONA in the form of plasmids, which c.an - the insertion of genes into crop plants to confer resistance
becutopentoinsertgenes toherbicidesorinsectpests
- the insertion of genes into crop pl.ints to provide
.iddition.il vitamins
Bio techn o logy
• Pl.ismidsandviruses.irevect°'susedtodeliverthegenes.
• Biotechnology is the appliCiltion of living organisms, systems • Geneticengineeringisusedintheproductionofenzymes,
°' processes in industry. hormones.inddrugs
• M.iny biotechnologic.ilprcx:essesusemicro-O(g.inisrm • Cropplantscanbegenetic.allymodifiedtoresistinsectpests
{fungi andbacteria) tobringabout the re.ictions and herbicides
• MostbiotechnologicalprocessesaredassedilS • Thereisconcemth.itthegenesintroducedintocropplants
'fermentations' . mightspreadtowildplants
• Fermentation m.iy be aerobic or .inaerobic
• The required product of biotechnology may be the organism • GeneticengineeringCilnusebacteri.itoproducehuman
itself (e.g . mycoprotein) or one of its products {e.g. alcohol). protein,such.isinsulin
• Ye.ists produce ethanol by .inaerobic respiration. The ethanol • Human gene ONA is isol.ited using restriction enzymes,
Ciln be produced commercially for biofuel. forming sticky ends.
• An.ierobicrespir.itionby ye.istisalso involvedin bre.id- • Bacterial plasmid ONA is cut with same restriction
m.iking. enzymes, forming matching sticky ends.
• Pectin.isec.mbeusedtoextractfruitjuices. • Human gene ONA is inserted into the bacteri.il pi.ism id
• Lipase .ind protease enzymes are used in biologic.ii washing ONA using ONA ligase to form ii recombinant plasmid
powders to remove fat and prote in stains. • The pl.ismidisinsertedintobacteria.
• Thebacteriacontainingtherecombinantplasmid.ire
• Lactaseisusedtoproducelactose-freemilk. replicated
• Antibiotics .ire produced from bacteria .ind fungi. • Theymakeahumanprotein.istheyexpres.sthegene.
• ThefungusPenici//iumisusedintheproductionofthe • Thereareadv.intagesanddisadvantagesofgenetically
antibiotic penicillin. modifyingcrops,suchassoya, m.iizeandrice.
@ Human influences on ecosystems
Food supply Eutrophication
Use of modem technology in increased food production Effectsofnon-biodegradableplasticsonthe
Negativeimpaetsofmonoculturesandintensive livestod:: environment
production to an ecosystem Acid rain
Social,environmentalandeconomicimplicatioosof Greenhouseeffectanddimatechange
providing!.Ufficientfoodforanincreasinghumanglobal Negative im~cts of female hormones in water courses
population
Conservatio n
Definewstainablere500.m:e
Hab itat destruction
Theneedtoconservenon-renewableresources
Reasonsforhabitatdestruction
Maintenanceofforestandfahstocks
Effects of altering food chains and webs on habitats
Reuseandrecyclingofproducts
Effectsofdeforestationonhabitats Treatment of sewage
Expla in undesirable effects of deforestation on the Reasonswhyspeciesarebecomingendangeredorextinct
environment Con5efVationofendangeredspecies
Define sustainable development

Pollution Methodsforsustainingforestandfishstoch
Sourcesandeffectsoflandandwaterpollution Strategies for sustainable development
Soun::esandeffectsofairpollution Rea50ns for conservation programmes
harvest crops to improve efficiency. To make the

• Food supply process even more efficient, fields are made larger by
A few thousand years ago, most of the humans on the taking out hedges (Figure 21.1 ).
Earth obtained their food by gathering leaves, fruits
or roots and by hunting animals. The population was
probably limited by the amount of food that could be
collected in this way.
Human fueces, urine and dead bodies were left
on or in the soil and so played a part in the nitrogen
cycle (Chapter 19 ). Life may have been short, and
many babies may have died from starvation or illness,
but humans fitted into the food web and nitrogen
cycle like any other animal.
Once agriculture had been developed, it was possible
to support much larger populations and the balance
between humans and their environment was upset.
Intensificat io n of ag riculture Flgure21.1 ~1tructio n of ahedgerow.Permi11ionnowha1tobe

sou ghtfrnmthe kx:alauthoritybefarethiscanhappen. Grantsare
Forests and woodland are cut down in order to grow availableinsomecou ntrH'1toreplanthedge1
more food. This destroys important wildlife habitats
and may affect the climate. Tropical rainforest
is being cut down at the rate of 111400 square Larger \'ehicles such as tractors (see Figure 21.6 )
kilometres per year. Since 1950, between 30 and 50% and combine harvesters (see Figure 21.5 ) can
ofBritish deciduous woodlands have been felled to then be used in the fields to speed up the furming
make way for furmland or conifer plantations. processes. However, studies ha\·e shown that repeated
Modern agricultural machinery is used to clear ploughing of a pasture reduces the number of species
the land, prepare the soil and plant, maintain and in the soil.
Food supply
The use of chemica l fertilisers to

improve yield
ln a namral community of plants and animals, the
processes that remove and replace mineral elements
in the soil are in balance. In agriculmre, most of the
crop is usually removed so that there is little or no
organic matter for nitrifying bacteria to act on. In a
furm with animals, the animal manure, mixed with
straw, is ploughed back into the soil or spread on tl1e
pasture. The manure tlms replaces tl1e nitrates and
other minerals removed by the crop. It also gives the
experimental plots
soil a good strucmre and improves its water-holding
Flgure21.3 Aver..geyea,,,fywheatyieldlfrnm1852to192S.
properties. Broachllkfield. Rothamstl'dExperimentalSt.1tion. Pklt 1 rec:eivedno
When animal manure is nor available in large manure Of {hemical fertilio;er for 73 years. Pklt 2 rec:l'ived an anmial
enough quantities, chemical fertili sers are used. These applicatklnoffarmya,,,dmanure.~ot3rec:eiveddlemical fertiliser
withallnec:ess.arymineral1 . Plot14to6receiveddlemicalfl'r1:iliser
are mineral salts made on an industrial scale. Examples
lading one element
are anunonium sulfute (for nitrogen and sulfirr),
ammonium nitrate (for nitrogen ) and compound NPK
fertiliser for nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.
1l1ese are spread on the soil in carefully calculated
amounts to provide the minerals, particularly nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium, which the plants need.
1l1ese artificial fertilisers increase the yield of crops
from agricultural land , but they do little to maintain
a good soil strucmre because they contain no organic
matter (Figures 2 1.2 and 21.3 ). In some cases, their
use results in tl1e pollution of rivers and streams
(see ' Pollution' later in this chapter).
Monoculture
The whole point of crop furming is to remove a mixed
population of trees, shrubs, wild flowers and grasses
(Figure 21.4 ) and replace it with a dense population of Rgure21.4 Naturalvegetatkln . Unrnltivatedlandc,mie-;awidevarlety
only one species such as wheat or beans (Figure 21.5 ). of species
When a crop of a single species is grown on the same
land, year after year, it is called a monoculture.
=
- --
Flgure21. 2 Experimentalplotsofwtieat.Toerec:tangular plotshave Figure 21.5 A monoculture. Oofywheatis alklwed to grow. All
beentreatedwilhd ifferentfertili'il'fl {ompetingpl;mt1a1ede1tmyed
21 HUMAN INFLUENCES ON ECOSYSTEMS
In about 1960, a group of chemicals, including

aldrin and dk ldrin, we re used as insecticides to kill
wireworms and other insect pests in the soil . Ho we\'er,
aldrin was found t0 reduce the num ber of species of
FlgY rt21.6 Weed controllYj herbicide spr~ng. A)'Ollngwhe.it cropis soil animals in a pasture to half the original number
spr~wtthhert:ilcidelo'iupprrnweed~. ( Figure 21 .8). Dickirin was also used as a seed
dressing. If seeds were dipped in the che mical before
The negative impact of monocultures planting, it prevented certain insects from attacking
In a monoculture, every ancmpt is mack to destroy the seedlings. This was thought to be better than
organisms that feed on, compete with o r infect the spraying the soil wit h dicldrin, which would have killed
crop plam. So, the balanced lifi: ofa natural plant and all the insects in the soil. Unfornmatcly pigeons, rooks,
animal community is displaced fro m furmland and lcfi: pheasants and partridges dug up and ate so much of
to survive o nl y in small areas of woodland, heath or the seed that the dicldrin poisoned them . l11o usands
hedge ro w. We have to decide o n a ba lance between of these birds were poisoned and, because tht-y were
the amount ofland to be used fo r agricu lmrc and part of a food we b, birds of prey and foxes, which
the amount ofland left alone in order to keep a rich fi:d on them, were also killed. TI1e use of dicldrin and
va riety ofwildlifi: on the Earth's surfuce. aldrin was restricted in 198 1 and banned in 1992.
Pesti cides: insecticides and he rbicides

Mo noculmres, with their de nse populations of sing le
species and repea ted planting, arc ve ry susceptible sprlngUlls
to ;mack by insects or the spread o f fungus diseases.
To combat these threats, pesticid es arc used. A
pesticide is a chemical that destroys agricultural pests
or competitors.
Fo r a mo noculture to be main ti.incd, plants that
compete with the crop plant fo r root space, soil
minerals and sunlight arc killed by che micals called
he r bicides ( Figures 2 1.6 and 2 1.7). To destroy
insects that cat and damage the plants, the c ro ps arc
sprayed with insecticides.
The trouble with most pesticides is 1ha1 they kill
indiscriminately. Insec ticides, for example, kill not
o nly harmful insects but the harmless and beneficial
o nes, such as bees, which pollinate fl owering plants, months ~tier tre~tment
and ladybirds, which cat aphids. Figure 21.8 TIie effect of in'>(!Ctkide oo ~ me ~ii Ofg~nlsms
Food supply
One alternative to pesticides is the use of biological known that artificial selection repeated over a large
conrrol, though this also is not without its number of generations tends to reduce the fitness of
drawbacks unless it is thoroughly researched and the new variety (Chapter 18 ).
tested. It may involve the introduction of foreign A long-term disadvantage of selective breeding is the
species, which could interfere with food chains and loss of variability. By eliminating all the offspring who
webs (see Chapter 19 ). do not bear the desired characteristics, many genes are
lost from the population. At some future dare, when
Se lective breedin g new combinations of genes are sought, some of the
An important part of any breeding programme is potentially usefitl ones may no longer be a\'ailable.
the selection of the desired varieties. The largest In attempting to introduce , in plams,
fruit on a tomato plant might be picked and its characteristics such as salt tolerance or resistance to
seeds planted next year. In the next generation, disease or drought, the plant breeder goes back to
once again only seeds from the largest tomatoes are wild varieties, as shown in Figure 18.26. However,
planted. Eventually it is possible to produce a trne - with the current rate of extinction, this source of
breeding variety of tomato plam that forms large genetic material is diminishing.
fruits. Figure 18.25 shows the result of such selective In the natural world, reduction of variability could
breeding for diffi:rem characteristics. TI1e same lead to local extinction if the population \\'3.S unable
technique can be used for selecting other desirable to adapt, by natural selection, to changing conditions.
qualities, such as flavour and disease resistance.
Similar principles can be applied to farm animals. Th e negative impacts of intens ive
Desirable characteristics, such as high milk yield
livestoc k productio n
and resistance to disease, may be combined. Stock-
breeders will select calves from cows that give Intensive livestock production is also known as
large quantities of milk. These calves will be used ·factory farming'. Chickens (Figure 19.13 ) and cakes
as breeding stock to build a herd ofhigh yielders. are often reared in large sheds instead of in open
A charac.teristic such as milk yield is probably fields. Their urine and faeces are washed out of the
under the control of many genes. At each stage of sheds with water forming 'slurry'. If this slurry gets
selective breeding the farmer, in effect, is keeping the into streams and rivers it supplies an excess of nitrates
beneficial genes and discarding the less useful genes and phosphates for the microscopic algae. This starts
from his or her animals. a cl1ain of events, whicl1 can lead to cutrophication
Selective breeding in farm stock can be slow and of the water system (see later in this chapter).
expensive because the animals often have small Overgrazing can result if too many animals are
numbers of offspring and breed only once a year. kept on a pasture. TI1ey eat the grass down almost
One of the drawbacks of selective breeding is to the roots, and their hooves rrample the surface
that the whole set of genes is transferred. As well as soil into a hard layer. As a result, the rainwater will not
the desirable genes, there may be genes which, in penetrate the soil so it runs off the surf.ice, carrying
a homozygous condition, would be harmful. It is the soil with it. The soil becomes eroded.
The problems of world food produce before it is ripe. When it has reached its
supplies destination, it is exposed to chemicals such as plant
auxins to bring on the ripening process. The use of
TI1ere is nor always enough food available in a aeroplanes to transport food is very expensive. The
country to feed the people living there. A severe redistribution of food from first world counrries to
food shortage can lead to fumine. Food may a poorer one can have a derrimental effect on that
have to be brought in (imported). Fresh food country's local economy by reducing the value of
can ha\·e a limited storage life, so it needs to be food grown by local furmers. Some food grown by
transported quickly or treated to prevent it going counrries with large debts may be exported as cash
rotten. Methods to increase the life of food include crops, even though the local people desperately need
transport in chilled containers, or picking the the food.
Other problems that can result in fumine include: • lack of money to buy seeds, fertiliser, pesticides or
machinery
• climate change and natural disasters such as
flooding ( caused by excessive rainfull or tsunamis) • war, which can make it too dangerous to furm, or
or drought; waterlogged soil can become infertile which remo,·es labour
due to the activities of denitrifying bacteria, which • urbanisation (building on furmland ); the
break down nitrates development of towns and cities makes less and
• pollution less land available for farmland
• shortage of water through its use for other • an increasing population
purposes, the diversion of rivers, building dams to • pest damage or disease
provide hydroelectricity
• poor education of farmers and outmoded farming
• eating next year's seeds through desperation for practices
food
• the destruc.tion of forests, so there is nothing to
• poor soil, lack of inorganic ions or fertiliser hunt and no food to collec.t
• desertification due to soil erosion as a result of • use of farmland to grow cash crops, or plants for
deforestation biofuel.
• Habitat destruction betv.·een fields significantly increase tl1e population of

beneficial insects.
Re mova l of hab itats l11e development of towns and cities (urbanisation)
Farmland is not a natural habitat but, at one time , makes a great demand on land, destroying natural
hedgerows, hay meadows and stubble fields were habitats. In addition, the crowding of gro,,ing
important habitats for plants and animals. Hay populations into towns leads to problems of waste
meadows and hedgerows supported a ,,ide range of disposal. The sewage and domestic waste from a town
v.ild plants as well as providing feeding and nesting of several tlmusand people can cause disease and
sites for birds and animals. pollution in the absence of effective means of disposal,
Intensive agriculture has destroyed many of damaging surrounding habitats.
these habitats; hedges have been grubbed out (see
Figure 21.1 ) to make fields larger, a monoculture of Extract ion of natu ral resources
silage grasses (Figure 21.9 ) has replaced the mixed An increasing population and greater demands
population ofa hay meadow (Figure 21.10 ) and on modern technology means we need more raw
planting of \\inter wheat has denied animals access materials for the manufucturing industry and greater
to stubble fields in autumn. AI, a result, populations energy supplies.
ofbunerflies, flowers and birds such as skylarks, Fossil foels such as coal can be mined, but this
grey partridges, corn buntings and tree sparrows can permanently damage habitats, partly due to the
have crashed. process of extraction, but also due to dumping of the
Recent legislation now prohibits the removal of rock extracted in spoil heaps. Some methods of coal
hedgerows without approval from the local authority extraction involve scraping off existing soil from the
but the only hedges protected in this way are those surfuce of the land. Spoil heaps created from waste rock
deemed to be 'important' because of species diversity can contain toxic metals, which prevent re·colonisation
or historical significance. of the land. Open-pit mining puts demands on local
In Britain, the Farming and Wildlife Advisory water sources, affecting habitats in lakes and rivers.
Group {FWAG ) can ad,ise furmers how to manage Water can become contaminated v.ith toxic metals
their land in ways that encourage wildlife. l11is from tl1e mining site, damaging aquatic habitats.
includes, for example, leaving strips of uncultivated Oil spillages around oil wells are extremely toxic.
land around the margins of fields or planting new Once tl1e oil seeps into the soil and water systems,
hedgerows. Even strips of wild grasses and flowers habitats are destroyed (Figure 21.11 )
Habitat destruction
Mining for raw materials such as gold, iron

aluminium and silicon leaves huge scars in the
landscape and destroys large areas of natural habitat
(Figure 21.12 ). The extraction of sand and gravel
also leaves large pits that prevent previous habitats
redeveloping.
-- ~. -
Flgure21.9 Gra11forsilage . Therei'inovarietyofp!antlifealld.

therefore.animpoverishedpopulatiooof insectsamlotheranimal1
In response to this increased human activity, in 1982

the United Nations developed the \Vorld Charter
for Nature. This was followed in 1990 by The
World Ethic of Sustainability, created by the World
Wide Fund for Nature (VvvVF), the International
Union for Conservation ofNature (IUCN ) and the
United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP).
Included in this charter were habitat conservation
and the need to protect natural resources from
depletion.
:~1~~r~i1~11;~:.,,~~~lo~~;i:~!1;er1 in a tr..d rtional hay meadow Marine pollution

Marine habitats around the world are becoming
contaminated with human debris. This includes
untreated sewage, agricultural fertilisers and
pesticides. Oil spills still cause problems, but this
source of marine pollution is gradually reducing.
Plastics are a huge problem: many are non -
biodegradable so they persist in the environment.
Others form micro-particles as they break down and
these are mistaken by marine organisms for food and
are indigestible . They stay in the stomach, causing
sickness, or prevent the gills from working efficiently.
Where fertilisers and sewage enter the marine
environment, 'dead zones' develop where tl1ere
is insufficient oxygen to sustain life. TI1is destroys
Figure 21.11 Habitat destruction c:aused by an oil spillage in Nigeria habitats (see next section ).
Oil spills wash up on the intertidal zone, killing • Animals living in the forest lose tl1eir homes and
the seaweeds that provide nutrients for food chains. sources of food; species of plant become extinct
Filter-feeding animals such as barnacles and some as the land is used for other purposes such as
species of mollusc die from taking in the oil (see agriculture , mining, housing and roads.
Figure 1.8 ). • Soil erosion is more likely to happen as there are no
Any form ofhabitat destruction by humans, even roots to hold the soil in place. The soil can end up
where a single species is wiped out, can have an in rivers and Jakes, destroying habitats there.
impact on food chains and food webs because other • Flooding becomes more frequent as there is no
organisms will use that species as a food source, soil to absorb and hold rainwater. Plant roots rot
or their numbers will be controlled through its and animals drown, destroying food chains and
predation. webs.
• Carbon dioxide builds up in the atmosphere
Deforestation as there are fewer trees to photosynthesise,
The removal oflarge numbers of trees results in increasing global warming. Climate change affects
habitat destruction on a massive scale. habitats.
The undesirable effects of up with mud and silt, which can cause floods
deforestation on the environment (Figures 21.14 and 21.15 ). For example, Argentina
spends 10 million dollars a year on dredging silt
Forests have a profound effect on climate, water from the River Plate estuary to keep the port of
supply and soil maintenance. TI1ey have been Buenos Aires open to shipping. It has been found
described as environmental buffers. For example, that 80% of this sediment comes from a deforested
they intercept hea\y rainfall and release the water and overgrazed region 1800 km upstream, which
steadily and slowly to the soil beneath and to the represents only 4% of the river's total catchment
streams and rivers that start in or flow through them. area. Similar sedimentation has halved tl1e lives of
The rree roots hold the soil in place. reservoirs, hydroelectric scl1emes and irrigation
At present, we are destroying forests, particularly programmes. The disastrous floods in India and
tropical forests, at a rapid rate ( 1) for their timber, Bangladesh in recent years may be attributed largely
(2 ) to make way for agriculture, roads (Figure 21.13 ) to deforestation.
and settlements, and (3) for firewood. TI1e Food and
Agriculmre Organisation, run by the United Nations,
reported tl1at the overall tropical deforestation rates
in the decade up to 2010 were 8.5% higher than
during tl1e 1990s. Ar rhe current rare of destruction,
it is estimated that all tropical rainforests will have
disappeared in the next 75 years.
Removal of forests allows soil erosion, silting up
oflakes and rivers, floods and the loss for ever of
tlmusands of species of animals and plants.
Trees can grow on hillsides even when the soil
layer is quire thin. When the trees are cut down
and the soil is ploughed, there is less protection
from the wind and rain. H eavy rainfall washes tl1e
Flgure21.13 Cuttingaroadthroughltmpicalrainfoll'SI.Thero..d
soil off tl1e hillsides into tl1e rivers. The hillsides are notonlyOOtrnysthenaturalvegetatk>n. ilalsoopen1upthelore1tto
left bare and useless and the rivers become choked furt:herexploitatioo
Habitat destruction
Forests and climate

About half the rain that falls in tropical forests
comes from the transpiration of the trees
themselves. The clouds that form from this
transpired water help to reflect sunlight and so keep
the region relatively cool and humid. When areas
of forest are cleared, this source of rain is removed,
cloud cover is reduced and the local climate
changes quite dramatically. The temperamre range
from day to night is more extreme and the rainfall
diminishes.
In North Eastern Brazil, for example, an area
which was once rainforest is now an arid wasteland.
If more than 60% ofa forest is cleared, it may
cause irreversible changes in the climate of the
Flgure2 1.14 Soill'r()';ion. Removaloffore'itlll'l'Sfromsll'l'ply1lopiog whole region. This could mm the region into an
groundhasallowedtheraintowashawaythetopsoil
unproductive desert.
Removal of trees on such a large scale
The soil of tropical forests is usually very poor in also reduces the amount of carbon dioxide
nutrients. Most of the organic matter is in the leafy removed from the atmosphere in the process of
canopy of the tree tops. For a year or two after photosynthesis (see ' Nutrient cycles', Chapter 19 ,
felling and burning, the forest soil yields good crops and 'Photosynthesis', Chapter 6 ). Most scientists
but the nuaients are soon depleted and the soil agree that the build -up ofC0 2 in the atmosphere
eroded. The agriculmral benefit from cutting down contributes to global warming.
forests is very short-lived , and the forest does not
recover even if the impoverished land is abandoned.
,. ' ,/;-"~ ···-,.j;.·

lakesandrlverschokedwtth
sllt,resultlnglnfloods
Fl gure2 1.1 5 Thl'cau1esofsoilem1ion
Forests and biodiversity animals produce. The US National Cancer Institute

has identified 3000 plants having products active
One of the most characteristic features of tropical against cancer cells and 70% of them come from
rainforests is the enormous dh•ersity of species they rainforests (Figure 21.16 ).
contain. In Britain, a forest or wood may consist
of only one or two species of tree such as oak,
ash, beech or pine. In tropical forests there are
many more species and they are widely dispersed
throughout the habitat. It follows that there is
also a wide diversity of animals that live in such
habitats. In fuct, it has been estimated that half
of the world's 10 million species live in tropical
forests.
Destrnction of tropical forest, therefore , destroys
a large number of different species, driving many of
them to the verge of extinction, and also drives out
the indigenous populations ofhumans. In addition,
we may be depriving ourselves of many valuable
sources of chemical compow1ds that the plants and Flgure21.16 Theworld~rainfoll'Sts
• Pollution Larger scale pollution of water by insecticides, for

instance by leakage from storage containers, may kill
Insecticides aquatic insects, destroying one or more levels in a
The eflects of the insecticides aldrin and dieldrin food chain or food web, with serious consequences to
were discussed earlier in this chapter. Most insecticide the ecosystem.
pollution is as a result of their use in agriculture. A build-up of pesticides can also occ.ur in food
However, one pesticide, called DDT, was used to chains on land. In the 1950s in the USA, DDT
control the spread of malaria by killing mosquitos, was sprayed on to elm trees to tr y and control
whid1 carry the protoctist parasites that cause the beetle that spread Dutch elm disease. The
the disease. Unfortunately, DDT remains in the fallen leaves, contaminated with DDT, were eaten
environment after it has been sprayed and can by earthworms. Because each worm ate many
be absorbed in sub-lethal doses by microscopic leaves, the DDT concentration in their bodies was
organisms. Hence, it can enter food chains and increased ten times. \Vhen birds ate a large number
accumulate as it moves up them. of worms, tl1e concentration of DDT in tl1e birds'
The concentration of insecticide often increases bodies reached lethal proportions and there was a
as it passes along a food chain (Figure 21.17). Clear 30- 90% mortality among robins and other song
Lake in California was sprayed with DDT to kill gnat birds in the cities.
larvae. The insecticide made onlv a weak solution of faen if DDT did not kill the birds, it caused them
0.015 parts per million (ppm ) i~ the lake water. l11e to lay eggs with thin shells. The eggs broke easily
microscopic plants and animals that fed in the lake and fewer chicks were raised. In Britain, the numbers
water built up concentrations of about 5 ppm in their of peregrine falcons and sparrow hawks declined
bodies. The small fish that fed on the microscopic drastically between 1955 and 1965. l11ese birds are
animals had lOppm. The small fish were eaten by at tl1e top of a food web and so accumulate very high
larger fish , which in turn were eaten by birds called doses of the pesticides that are present in their prey,
grebes. The grebes were found to have 1600ppm of such as pigeons. After the use of DDT was restricted,
DDT in their body fut and this high concentration the population of peregrines and sparrow hawks
killed large numbers of them. started to recover.
Pollution
the Insecticide makes e;ichmlcroscoplcanlmal each small fish eats each large fish eats the grebe eats several
only a weak solution In eats many microscopic many microscopic several small fish large fish
thewater,butthe plants animals
microscopic plants take
up the DDT
Figure 21.17 Pestkides may become more rnocentfated as they mol'I' ab og a food lti~o. The intensity of colou r represents the rnocentfaticm of DDT.
l11ese new insecticides had been thoroughly rested \\ith or are absorbed by. Ifherbicides are sprayed
in the labor.nory to show that they were harmless indiscriminately, they may blow onto surrounding
to humans and other animals when used in low land and kill plants other than the weeds in the
concentrations. It had not been foreseen that crop being treated. This can put rare species of,,ild
the insecticides would become more and more flowers at risk.
concentrated as they passed along the food chain.
Insecticides like this are called persistent because Nuclear fall-out
the y last a long time without breaking down. This l11is can be the result of a leak from a nuclear power
makes them good insecticides but they also persist station, or from a nuclear explosion. Radioactive
for a long time in the soil, in rivers, lakes and the particles are carried by the ,,ind or water and
bodies of animals, including humans. l11is is a serious gradually settle in the environment. If the radiation
disadvantage. has a long half-life, it remains in the environment
and is absorbed by living organisms. l11e radioactive
Herbicides material bioaccumulates in food chains and can cause
Herbicides are used by furmers to control plants cancer in top carnivores.
( usually referred to as weeds ) that compete with crop Probably the worst nuclear accident in history
plants for nutrients, water and light (see Figure 21.7). happened at Chernobyl in Russia in April 1986.
If the weeds are not removed, crop productivity is One of the reactor vessels exploded and the
reduced. However, if the herbicides do not break resulting fire produced a cloud of radioactive
down straight away, they can leach from furmland fullout , which was carried by prevailing winds
into water systems sucl1 as rivers and lakes, where over other parts of the Soviet Union and Europe.
they can kill aquatic plants, removing the producers The predicted death toll, from direct exposure to
from food chains. Herbh•ores lose their food source the radiation and indirectly from the fallout, is
and die or migrate. Carnivorous animals are then estimated to be at least 4000 people (and possibly
affected as well. much higher), with many others suffering from
Leakage or dumping of persistent herbicides into birth defects or canc.ers associated \\ith exposure
the sea can have a similar effect on marine food to radiation. The full -out contaminated the soil
chains. it fell on and was absorbed by plants, which were
Herbicides tend to be non-specific: they kill grazed by animals. Farmers in the Lake District
any broadleaved plants they come into contact in England were still banned from selling sheep
for meat until June 2012 , 26 yea rs after the

contamination of land there first happened.
Another major nuclear disaste r happened at
the Fukushima nuclear power plant in Japan in
March 2011 (Figure 21.18 ). The plant was hit by
a powerful tsunami, caused by an earthquake. A
plume of radioactive material was carried from the
site by the wind and came down onto the land,
forming a scar like a teardrop over 30 kilometres
wide. The sea around the power plant is heavily
contaminated by radiation. This is absorbed
into fish bones, making the animals unfit for
consumption.
Flgure21.19 RlmpollutJO!l. Theriverisb..dlypollutedbytheefftuent
fmmapaperm ill
In 197 1, 45 people in Minamata Bay in Japan died

and 120 were seriously ill as a result of mercury
poisoning. It was found that a fuctory had been
discharging a compound of mercury into the bay as
part of its waste. Although the mercury concemration
in the sea was very low, its concentration was
increased as it passed through the food chain (see
Figure 21.17 ). By the time it readied the people of
Minamata Bay in the fish and other sea food that
formed a large parr of their diet, it was concentrated
enough to cause brain damage, deformity and death.
Rgure21.18 Fukushim.inuclearpowerplant.destroyl'dbya High levels of mercury have also been detected
powerful tsunami and fire in the Baltic Sea and in the Great Lakes ofNorth
America.
Oil pollution of the sea has become a fumiliar
Chemica l waste evem. In 1989, a ranker called the Exxon Valdez ran
Many industrial processes produce poisonous waste on to Bligh Reef in Prince William Sound, Alaska,
products. Elecrroplating, for example, produces and 11 million gallons of crude oil spilled into the
waste containing copper and cyanide. If these sea. Around 400 OOO sea birds were killed by the
chemicals are released into rivers they poison the oil (Figure 21.20 ) and the populations ofkiller
animals and plants and could poison humans who whales, sea otters and harbour seals among others,
drink the water. It is estimated that the River Trent were badly affected. The hot water high-pressure
receives 850 tonnes of zinc, 4000 tonnes of nickel hosing techniques and chemicals used to clean up the
and 300 tonnes of copper each year from industrial shoreline killed many more birds and sea creatures
processes. living on the coast. Since 1989, there have continued
Any fuctory getting rid of its effiuent into to be major spillages of crude oil from tankers and
water systems risks damaging the environment off-shore oil wells.
(Figure 21.19 ). Some detergents contain a lot
of phosphate. This is not removed by sewage Discarded rubbi sh
treatment and is discharged into rivers. The large The developmem of towns and cities, and the
amount of phosphate encourages growth of crowding of growing populations into them, leads to
microscopic plants (algae ). problems of waste disposal. The domestic waste from
Pollution
a town of several thousand people can cause disease

and pollution in the absence of effective means of
disposal. Much ends up in landfill sites, taking up
valuable space, polluting the ground and attracting
vermin and insects, which can spread disease. Most
consumable items come in packaging, which, if nor
recycled, ends up in landfill sites or is burned, causing
air pollution. Discarded rubbish that ends up in the
sea can cause severe problems for marine animals.
Fe rtili se rs
When nitrates and phosphates from farmland and
Flgure2 1.20 Oilpol lutkln. Oiledseabirdllikethislong-ta i~dd\ld sewage escape into water they cause excessive growth
cannotflytore.Khtheirfl'!.'dinggrounds.Theyalsopci,;onthemsetl'eo;
bytryingtocleJntheoilfromtheirfeathers
of microscopic green plams. This may result in
a serious oxygen shortage in the water, resulting
in the death of aquatic animals - a process called
eutrophication .
Sewage
Diseases like typhoid and cholera are caused by Eut rop hicatio n
certain bacteria when they get into the human Nitrates and phosphates are present from a number
intestine. The faeces passed by people suffering from of sources, including untreated sewage, detergents
these diseases will contain the harmful bacteria. If from manufacturing and washing processes, arable
the bacteria get into drinking water they may spread farming and factory farming.
the disease to hundreds of other people. For this If these nitrates or phosphates enter a water
reason, among others, untreated sewage must not be system, they become available for algae (aquatic
emptied into rivers. It is treated at the sewage works plants) to absorb. The plants need these nutrients
so that all the solids are removed. The human waste to grow. More nutrients result in faster growth
is broken down by bacteria and made harmless (free (Figure 21.21 ). As the plants die, some through
from harmful bacteria and poisonous chemicals), lack of light because of overcrowding, aerobic
but the breakdown products include phosphates and bacteria decompose them and respire , taking
nitrates. When the water from the sewage treatment oxygen our of the water. As oxygen levels
is discharged into rivers it contains large quantities of drop , animals such as fish cannot breathe, so
phosphate and nitrate, which allow the microscopic they die and the whole ecosystem is destroyed
plant life to grow very rapidly (Figure 21.21 ). (Figure 21.22 ).
• increasing numbers of animals (including humans)

- they all respire.
An increase in levels of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere is thought to contribute to global
warming. Carbon dioxide forms a layer in the
atmosphere, which traps heat radiation from
the Sun.
Methane also acts as a greenhouse gas. Its levels
in the atmosphere have more than doubled over the
past 200 years and its effects on global warming are
much greater than carbon dioxide. It is produced by
the decay of organic matter in anaerobic conditions,
such as in wet rice fields and in the stomachs of
Flgure2 1.22 R:s.hkilledbypollution. Thew.iterm.iy look dearbutis'iO
shortofoxyg.enth.itthefishhavedH'dfromsuffocotion animals, e.g. cattle and termites. It is also released
from the ground during the extraction of oil
Figure 21.23 shows this sequence of events as a and coal.
flowchart. The build -up of greenhouse gases causes a gradual
increase in the atmospheric temperature, known as
the enhan ced greenho use effect. TI1is can:
nitrates or phosphates from raw sewage, fertilisers or
othersourcesenterawatersystem(riverorlake) • melt polar ice caps, causing flocxling oflow-lying land
• change weather conditions in some countries,
increasing flooding or reducing rainfall - changing
algaeabsorbthenutrientsandgrowrapidly arable (furm ) land to desert; extreme weatl1er
(called an algal bloom)
conditions become more common
• cause the extinc.tion of some species tl1at cannot
survive in raised temperatures.
algaeformablanketonthesurfaceofthewater,
blocking light from the reaching algae below
Eutrophication
algae die without light In Chapter 6 it was explained that plants need a
supply of nitrates for making tl1eir proteins. They
also need a source of phosphates for many chemical
bacteriadecomposethedeadalgae, using up reactions in their cells. The rate at which plants grow
theoxygeninthewaterforrespiration is often limited by how much nitrate and phosphate
tl1ey can obtain. In recent years, the amount of
nitrate and phosphate in our rivers and lakes has
animalsinthewaterdiethrough lack of oxygen been greatly increased. This leads to an accelerated
process of eutrophication.
Flgure21.23 The1equeoce ofeveot1lead ingtol.'lllrop hic.ition Eutrophication is tl1e enrichment of natural
waters with nutrients tl1at allow the water ro support
Th e g ree nh o use effect a nd globa l an increasing amount of plant life. This process
wa rmin g takes place namrally in many inland waters but
usually very slowly. TI1e excessive enrichment tl1ar
Levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are results from human activities leads to an overgrowth
influenced by natural processes and by human activities. of microscopic algae (Figure 21.21 ). These aquatic
Processes that change the equilibrium (balance) include:
algae are at the bottom of tl1e food chain. The extra
• cutting down forests (deforestation) - less nitrates and phosphates from the processes listed
photosynthesis on page 329 enable them to increase so rapidly tl1at
• combustion of fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) tl1ey cannot be kept in check by the microscopic
Pollution
animals which normally eat them. So they die and arable crops such as wheat and barley. When soil is
full to the bottom of the ri,·er or lake. Here, their exposed in this way, the bacteria, aided by the extra
bodies are broken down by bacteria. The bacteria oxygen and water, produce soluble nitrates, which are
need oxygen to carry out this breakdown and the washed into streams and rivers where they promote
oxygen is taken from the water (Figure 21.24). the growth of algae. If the nitrates reach underground
So much oxygen is taken that the water becomes water stores they may increase the nitrate in drinking
deoxygenated and can no longer support animal water to levels considered 'unsafe' for babies.
life. Fish and other organisms die from suffocation Some people think that it is excessive use of
(Figure 21.22 ). artificial fertilisers that causes this pollution but there
The following processes are the main causes of is not much evidence for this.
eutrophication.
'Factory farming'
Discharge of treated sewage Chickens and calves are often reared in large sheds
In a sewage treatment plant, human waste is instead ofin open fields. Their urine and faeces
broken down by bacteria and made harmless, but are washed out of the sheds with water forming
the breakdown products include phosphates and 'slurry'. If this slurry gets into streams and rivers it
nitrates. vVhen the water from the sewage treatment supplies an excess of nitrates and phosphates for the
is discharged into rivers it contains large quantities of microscopic algae.
phosphates and nitrates, which allow the microscopic TI1e degree of pollution ofriverwarer is often
plant life to grow very rapidly (Figure 21.21). measured by its biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD ). This is the amount of oxygen used up by a
Use of detergents
sample of water in a fixed period of time. TI1e higher
Some detergents contain a lot of phosphate. This is the BOD, the more polluted the water is likely to be.
not removed by sewage treatment and is discharged It is possible to reduce eurrophication by using:
into rivers. The large amount of phosphates
encourages growth of microscopic plants (algae ). • detergents with less phosphates
Arable farming • agricultural fertilisers that do not dissolve so easily

Since the Second \Vorld \Var, more and more • animal wastes on the land instead ofletting them
grassland has been ploughed up in order to grow reach rivers.
2 allow microscopic
plants to reproduce
and grow rapidly
1 ucessnltrate
and phosphate
<;:=== oxygen
(
4sothemlcroscoplc
plants die and are
3buttherearenot broken down by
enough microscopic bacterla,whlchuse
anlmalstoeatthe
surplus plants
Flgure21.24 Proce1sesleadingtoeutrophkation
Plastics and the environment

Plastics that are non-biodegradable are not broken
down by decomposers when dumped in landfill sites
or left as litter. This means that they remain in the
em•ironment, taking up valuable space or causing
visual pollution. Discarded plastic bottles can trap
small animals; nylon fishing lines and nets can trap
birds and mammals such as seals and dolphins.
As the plastics in water gradually deteriorate, they
fragment into tiny pieces, which are eaten by fish and
birds, making them ill. When plastic is burned, it can
release toxic gases.
Plastic bags are a big problem, taking up a lot of
space in landfill sites. In 2002, the Republic of Ireland
introduced a plastic bag fee, called a PlasTax, to try
to control cl1e problem. It had a dramatic effect,
cutting the use of single-use bags from 1.2 billion to
230 million a year and reducing the litter problem
cl1at plastic bags create. Revenue raised from cl1e fee
is used to support environmental projects.
A ir pollut io n
Some factories (Figure 21.25 ) and most motor
vehicles release poisonous substances into cl1e
air. Fac.tories produce smoke and sulfur dioxide;
cars produce lead compounds, carbon monoxide
and the oxides of nitrogen, which lead to smog Flgure2 1.26 Pl\otoc:hemic al'smog' ovl'fadty
(Figure 21.26 ) and acid rain (Figure 21.27 ).
Flgure21.27 Effectsofacidr.Mnoo{ooifoointl\!'Bladfo!E'il,Germany
Pollution
Sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen certain marine algae. These microscopic 'plants'
produce the gas dimethylsulfide which is oxidised to
Coal and oil contain sulfur. When these fuels are sulfur dioxide in the air.
burned, they release sulfur dioxide (S02) into the Nevertheless, there is considerable circumstantial
air (Figure 21.28 ). Although the tall chimneys of evidence that industrial activities in Britain, America and
factories (Figure 21.25 ) send smoke and sulfur Cenrral and Eastern Europe add large amounts of extra
dioxide high into the air, the sulfur dioxide dissolves sulfirr dioxide and nitrogen oxides to the aunosphere.
in rainwater and forms an acid. When this acid fulls
on buildings, it slowly dissolves the limestone and
mortar. When it falls on plants, it reduces their Control of air pollution
growth and damages their leaves. The Clean Air Acts of 1956 and 1968
This form of pollution has been going on for TI1ese acts designated certain city areas as 'smokeless
many years and is getting worse. In North America, zones' in Britain. l11e use of coal for domestic
Scandinavia and Scotland, forests are being destroyed heating was prohibited and fuctories were not
(Figure 21.27 ) and fish are dying in Jakes, at least allowed to emit black smoke. l11is was effective in
partly as a result of acid rain. abolishing dense fogs in cities but did not stop the
Oxides of nitrogen from power stations and discharge of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides in
vehicle exhausts also contribute to atmospheric the country as a whole.
pollution and acid rain. The nirrogen oxides dissolve
in rain drops and form nitric acid. Reduction of acid gases
Oxides of nitrogen also take part in reactions with l11e concern over the damaging effects of acid rain
other atmospheric pollutants and produce ozone. It has led many countries to press for regulations to
may be the ozone and the nitrogen oxides that are reduce emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen
largely responsible for the damage observed in forests. oxides.
One effect of acid rain is that it dissolves our the Reduction of sulfm dioxide can be achieved either
aluminium salts in the soil. These salts eventually by fitting desulfurisation plants to power stations
reach toxic levels in streams and lakes. or by changing the fuel or the way it is burnt. In
There is still some argument about the source of 1986, Britain decided to fit desulfi.trisation plants to
the acid gases that produce acid rain. For example, three of its major power stations, but also agreed to
a large proportion of the sulfur dioxide in the a United Nations protocol to reduce sulfur dioxide
atmosphere comes from the natural activities of emissions ro 50% of 1980 levels by the year 2000,
and to 20% by 2010. This was to be achieved largely protocol has proved to be very successful: by 2012,
by changing from coal-fired to gas-fired power the world had phased-out 98% of the ozone-
stations. depleting substances such as CFCs. However, the
chemicals that were used to replace CFCs (HCFCs )
Reduction of vehicle emissions
are not as harmless as they were first thought to be,
Oxides of nitrogen come, almost equally, from as the y contribute to global warming.
industry and from motor vehicles (Figure 21.28 ).
Flue gases from industry can be rreated to
remove most of the nitrogen oxides. Vehicles can The 'greenhouse effect' and global
have catalytic converters fitted to their exhaust warming
systems. l11ese converters remove most of the
nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide and unburned TI1e Earth's surf.ice recei\'es and absorbs radiam
hydrocarbons. They add £200--600 to the cost of heat from the Sun. It re-radiates some of this heat
a car and will work only if lead -free petrol is used, back into space. The Sun's radiation is mainly in the
because lead blocks the action of the catalyst. form of short-wavelength energy and penetrates our
Another solution is to redesign car engines to atmosphere easily. The energy radiated back from the
burn petrol at lower temperatures (' lean burn' Earth is in the form oflong wavelengths (infrared
engines). These emit less nitrogen oxide but just as or IR), much of which is absorbed by the atmosphere.
much carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons as normal l11e atmosphere acts like the glass in a greenhouse.
engines. It lets in light and heat from the Sun but reduces the
In the long term, it may be possible to use fuels amount of heat that escapes (Figure 21.29 ).
such as alcohol or hydrogen, which do not produce !fit were not for this 'greenhouse effect' of the
so many pollutants. atmosphere, the Earth's surf.ice would probably
The European Union has set limits on exhaust be at - 18 °C. The 'greenhouse effect', therefore, is
emissions. From 1989, new cars over 2 litres had to entirely natural and desirable.
have catalytic com•erters and from 1993 smaller cars Not all the atmospheric gases are equally effective
hadtofitthemaswell. at absorbing I R radiation. Oxygen and nitrogen,
Regulations introduced in 1995 should cut for example, absorb little or none. The gases that
emissions of particulates by 75% and nitrogen oxides absorb most I R radiation, in order of maximum
by 50%. These reductions will have less effect if the absorption, are water vapour, carbon dioxide
volume of traffic continues to increase. Significant ( C02), methane and atmospheric pollutants such
reduction of pollutants is more likely if the number as oxides of nitrogen and CFCs. Apart from water
ofvehicles is stabilised and road freight is reduced. vapour, these gases are in very low concentrations
in the atmosphere, but some of them are strong
Protecting the ozone layer absorbers of I R radiation. It is assumed that if the
concentration of any of these gases were to increase,
The appearance of'ozone holes' in the Antarctic the greenhouse effect would be enl1anced and the
and Arctic, and the thinning of the ozone layer Earth would get warmer.
elsewhere, spurred countries to get together and In recent years, attention has focused principally
agree to reduce the production and use of CFCs on C0 2. If you look back at the carbon cycle in
(d1lorofluorocarbons ) and other ozone·damaging Chapter 19, you will see that the natural processes
chemicals. of photosynthesis, respiration and decay would be
1987 saw the first Monrreal protocol, which set expected to keep the C0 2 concentration at a steady
targets for the reduction and phasing out of these level. However, since the Industrial Revolution, we
chemicals. In I 990, nearly 100 countries, including have been burning 'fossil fuels' derived from coal
Britain, agreed to the next stage of the Monrreal and petroleum and releasing extra C0 2 into the
protocol, which committed them to reduce atmosphere. As a result, the concentration ofC0 2
production of CFCs by 85% in 1994 and phase has increased from 0.029 to 0.039% since 1860. It is
them out completely by 2000. Overall, the Montreal likely to go on increasing as we burn more and more
Pollution
distribution will change, and disrupt the present

pattern of world agriculture; the oceans will expand
and the polar icecaps will melt, causing a rise in sea
level; extremes of weather may produce droughts
and food shortages.
An average of temperature records from around
the world suggests that, since 1880, there has
been a rise of0.7-0.9°C, most ofit very recently
(Figure 21.30 ), but this is too short a period from
which to draw firm conclusions about long-term
trends. lfthe warming trend continues, however, it
could produce a rise in sea level ofbetween 0.2 and
1.5 metres in tl1e next 50-100 years.
-
.2
~
:::~~
15.4 :'"
370"?!
'~ "'
~~14.S
15.1 360~-~
'"' ~;
340~~
ti
;; ,f!j
14.2
13.9
:~~ ~~~
310 u c.
Earth'ssurfaceabsorbsenergy ... andwarmsup
Flgure21.29 The'grl.'!'nhooseeffect' 13.6 300
fossil fuel. According to NOAA data, C0 2 levels

'""
18801900192019401960198020002020
year
rose 2.67 parts per million in 2012, to 395ppm.
Flgure21.30 Annualaverageglobaltempl!faluresa!ldcartxin
l11is was the second largest increase since 1959, dioxidek>vel5since1880
when scientists first began measuring atmospheric
C02b'els. l11e first Kyoto Conference (Japan) in 1997 set
Although it is not possible to prove beyond all targets for the industrialised countries to reduce
reasonable doubt that production ofC02 and other C0 2 emissions byan average of5.2% by 2010.
'greenhouse gases' is causing a rise in the Earth's Europe, as a whole, agreed to cuts of8%, tlmugh
temperature, i.e. global warming, the majority this average allowed some countries to increase tl1eir
of scientists and climatologists agree that it is emissions. The countries committed to the Kyoto
happening now and will get worse unless we rake convention, excluding the USA, eventually modified
drastic action to reduce the output of these gases. the targets, but agreed to make cuts of 4.2% on
Predictions of the effi:cts of global warming average for tl1e period 2008-2012.
depend on computer models. But these depend on Britain planned to reduce emissions by 20% of
very complex and uncertain interactions of variables. 1990 levels by 20 I O but really needed an overall
Changes in climate might increase cloud cover cut of 60% to halt tl1e progress of global warming.
and this miglu reduce the heat reaching the Earth l11e big industrialised countries who contribute 80%
from the Sun. Oceanic plankton absorb a great deal of the greenhouse gases, particularly the USA, are
ofC0 2. Will the rate of absorption increase or will a opposed to measures that might interfere with tl1eir
warmer ocean absorb less of the gas? An increase in industries, claiming that global warming is not a
C0 2 should, theoretically, result in increased rates pro,·en fuct.
of photosynthesis, bringing the system back into The precautionary principle suggests that, even
balance. if global warming is not taking place, our supplies
None of these possibilities is known for certain. of fossil fuels will e,'entually run out and we need
The worst scenario is that the climate and rainfall to develop alternative sources of energy now.
The generation of energy using fossil fuels is the does not extract the hormones, so they end up
biggest source of C0 2 released by humans into the in water systems such as rivers, lakes and the
atmosphere. The alternatives are nuclear power or sea. Their presence in this water affects aquatic
methods such as wind farms and solar energy. The organisms as they enter food c.hains. For example ,
experiences of Chernobyl and Fukushima have made male frogs and fish can become 'feminised ' (they
people around the world very wary of the nuclear can start producing eggs in their testes instead
option. Not all countries have climates and weather of sperm ). This causes an imbalance between
suited to alternative energy and their environmental numbers of male and female animals (more females
impact (visual and sometimes through the noise than males).
they can create) creates opponents to these Drinking water, extracted from rivers where
methods. The next section discusses this topic in water from treated sewage has been recycled, can
more detail. also contain the hormones. This has been shown to
reduce the sperm count in men, causing a reduction
Pollution by contraceptive hormones in fertility.
It should be noted that the contraceptive pill is
When women use the conrraceptive pill, the not the only source of female hormones in water
hormones in it ( oestrogen or progesterone - systems: natural hormones are also present in urine
Chapter 16 ) are excreted in urine and become from cattle, for example, and cl1ese can enter cl1e
present in sewage. The process of sewage treatment water\\ith rnn-offfrom farms.
• Conservation
Key defin ition
Asusta in ablereso urceis ooe thatisproducedasrapidly asitis
removed from the envi ronment so that it does not run out .
Non-renewable resources such as fossil fuels need

to be conserved because the stocks of them on the
planet are finite: coal, oil, natural gas and minerals
(including metallic ores) cannot be replaced once
their sources have been totally depleted. Estimates
of how long these stocks will last are unreliable but
in some cases, e.g. lead and tin, they are less than
lOOyears.
By the time that fossil foels nm out, we will have to
have alternative sources of energy. Even the uranium
used in nuclear reactors is a finite resource and will,
one day, run out.
The alternative sources of energy available to us
are hydroelectric, nuclear, wind and wave power,
wcxxl and other plant products. l11e first two are well
established; the others are either in the experimental
stages, making only a small contribution, or are more
expensive (at present) than fossil foels (Figure 21.31 ).
Plant products are renewable resources and
include alcohol distilled from fermented sugar (from
sugar-cane), which can replace or supplement petrol Rg ure21.31 Windgenerator;inthe USA.OnothelWise unpmductrve
(Figure 21.32 ), sunflower oil, which can replace la!ld m offshme.thesegeneratoo makean iocl!'asing rnntfibution to
diesel fitd, and wood from fast-gro,,ing trees. In the electlicity supply.
Conservation
addition, plant and animal waste mate rial c:m be Recycl ing
decomposed anaerobically in fi:rmcmcrs to produce As minerals and other resources become scarcer,
bi ogas, which consists largely of methane. . the y also beconx more expensive. It then pays to
Chemicals for indusrry or drugs, currently denved use them more than once . The recycling of materials
fro m petroleum, will have to be made from plant may also reduce rhe amount of energy used in
products. manufactu ring. Jn turn this helps to conserve fuels
In theory, fuels produced fr o m planr sources and reduce pollurion.
shou ld have a minimal effect on the carbon dioxide For example, producing aluminium alloys from
concentration in the atmosphere and, therefore, on scrap uses only 5% of the energy that would be
global warming. The a rbon dioxide rcleas_cd _when needed to make them from alu minium ores. In 2000,
the y are burned derives from the ca rbon dioxide Europe recycled 64.3% of the alu minium in waste.
the y absorbed during d1cir photosymhesis. They Germany and Finland do really well , partly because
arc ·carbo n ne utral' . H owever, the harvesting they have a deposit scheme on cans: they recycle
of the cro p and the processes of extraction and between 95 and 96% of their aluminium waste.
distillation all produce carbon dioxide . The About 60% ofrhe lead used in Britain is recycled.
net effect on armospheric carbon d ioxide is This seems quire good until you realise that it also
questionable . means that 40% of rhis poisonous substance enrers
Also the clearing of forests to make space fo r fuel the environment.
crops r~moves a \'aluable carbon sink and rhe burning Manufuctu ring glass bottles uses about three rimes
that accompanies it produces a great deal of carbon more energy than if they were collected, sorted,
dioxide. In addition, the use ofland for growing deaned and reused. Recycling the glass from bottles
crops for bio fuels reduces the land available for docs not sa\·e energy bur docs reduce the demand for
growing food and increases the price offood. sand used in glass manufacture. In 2007, 57%ofglass
C urrently, the benefit of derivi ng fuel from pbnt containers were recycled in Britain .
material is open to question. Polythene wasrc is now also recycled (Figure 21.33).
When no n -renewable resources run out they will Tix plastic is used t0 make items such as car scat
have to be replaced by recycling or by using man- cm·ers, sports shoes, hi-fi headphones and even bridges
made materials derived from plant products. Already
(Figure 21.34). . .
some bacteria ha\·e been ge netically e ngineered to Waste paper can be pulped and used aga m, mamly
produce substances that can be conve n ed to plastics. for making paper and cardboard. Newspapers arc
Some resources, such as forests and fish stocks can be de-inked and used again for newsprint. One tonne of
maintained with careful management. TI1is may involve waste paper is equivalent to perhaps l 7 trees. ( Paper
replanting bnd with new seedlings as mature trees is made from wood-pulp.) So collecting waste paper
arc felled and controlling dx activities of fishermen may help to cut a countr y's import bill for timber and
operating where fish stocks arc being depicted. spare a few more hecrarcsofnamral habitat fro m the
spread of commercial forestry.
Sewage treatment
Micro-org-.tnisms, mainl y bacteria and protoctisra,
play an esse ntial part in the treatment of sewage ro
make it harmless.
Sewage conra.ins bacteria from the human intestine
that an be harmful (Chapter 10). TI1csc bacteria
must be destroyed in order to prc\·ent the spread of
intestinal diseases. Sewage also contai ns substances
from household wastes (such as soap and dc1crgcnt)
and chemicals from factories. These too mus1 be
removed before the sewage effiuent is released
into the rivers. Rainwater from the streets is also
Flgure21.32 An;ikohol-powell.'dcarin6r.llil combined \\~th the sewage .
The rest of the organic matter is in the form of tiny

suspended particles, which pass, with tl1e liquid, to
the aeration tanks.
The semi-liquid sludge from tl1e bottom of the
rank is pumped to tl1e sludge digestion plant.
4 Aeration tanks. Oxygen is added to the sewage
Flgure21.ll Recyclingpolythene.Po!ythenewa1tei1recycledfor
industrialu'i!'
liquid, either by stirring it or by bubbling
compressed air through it. Aerobic bacteria and
Inland towns have to make their sewage harmless protoctista grow and reproduce rapidly in these
in a sewage treatment plant before discharging the conditions.
effiuent into rivers. A sewage works removes solid These micro -organisms clump the organic
and liquid waste from the sewage, so that the water particles together. Enzymes from the bacteria
leaving the works is safe to drink. digest the solids to soluble products, which are
In a large town, the main method of sewage absorbed by the bacteria and used for energy
treatment is by the activated sludge process and growth.
(Figures 21.35 and 21.36 ). Dissolved substances in the sewage are used in
tl1e same way. Different bacteria turn urea into
Th e act ivated slud ge process
ammonia, ammonia into nitrates and nitrates into
1 Screening . The sewage entering the sewage nitrogen gas. TI1e bac.teria derive energy from these
works is first 'screened' . That is, it is made to flow chemical changes. The protoctista (Figure 21.37 )
through a metal grid , which removes the solids like eat the bacteria.
rags, plastics, wood and so forth. The 'screenings' In tl1is way, the suspended solids and dissolved
are raked off and disposed of - by incineration, for substances in sewage are converted to nitrogen,
example. carbon dioxide (from respiration ) and tl1e
2 Grit . The sewage next flows slowly through long cytoplasm of the bacteria and protoctista, leaving
channels. As it flows, grit and sand in it settle down fuirlypure water.
to the bottom and are removed from time to time. 5 Second settling tanks. The micro-organisms settle
The grit is washed and used for landfill. out, forming a fine sludge, which is remrned to
3 First settling ta nks. The liquid continues slowly tl1e aeration tanks to maintain the population of
through another series of tanks. H ere about 40% micro-organisms. This is the 'activated sludge'
of the organic matter settles out as crude sludge. from which tl1e process gets its name. The sewage
Conservation
Flgure21. 35 Sewagetreatment - activatl.'dsludgeprocess
stays in the aeration tanks for only 6--8 hours but

the recycling of activated sludge allows the micro-
organisms to act on it for 20-30 days.
6 When all the sludge has settled, the water is pure
enough to discharge into a river and tl1e sludge
passes to a digester, which is used to produce
methane (biogas).
Endangering species and causing their

extinction
Anytl1ing that reduces the population of a species
Flgure21.36 Sewagetreatment - activatl.'dsludgemetho<l.lnthe endangers it (puts it at risk of extinction). Factors
foregrounda1etherectangularaeratiootanks that endanger species include habitat destruction, the
imroduction of otl1er species, hunting, imernational
trade or pollution. Climate change can also put
Biagas production is not confined to sludge. Many species at risk of extinction.
organic wastes, e.g. those from sugar factories, can Species become extinct in tl1e course of evolution.
be fermented anaerobically to produce biogas. In After all, tl1e fossil remains of plants and animals
developing countries, biogas generators use animal represent organisms tl1at became extinct hundreds of
dung to produce methane for whole villages. On tlmusands of years ago. There have been periods of mass
a small scale, biogas isa useful form of sustainable extinction, such as that whicl1 wiped out the di.t10s.1.urs
alternative energy. during the Cretaceous era, 65 million years ago.
The 'background' extinction rate for, say, birds lampreys found their way into the lakes through the
might be one species in 100- 1000 years. Today, as new waterways. The lampreys had no natural predators
a result oflmman activity, the rate of extinc.tion has in the lakes and fed on rrout by sticking to them
gone up by at least ten times and possibly as much as with their circular mouths and boring into their flesh
1000 times. Some estimates suggest that the world (Figure 21.39). The fisheries in the lakes harvested
is losing one species every day and within 20 years about 7 million kilograms of trout annually before the
at least 25% of all forms of wildlife could become lampreys entered the water systems. Afterwards, the
extinct. Reliable evidence for these figures is hard to harvest dropped to about 136000 kilograms, so the
obtain, however. fisheries collapsed. The lampreys are now controlled to
A classic example is the colonisation of the Pacific enable the trout population to recover.
islands by the Polynesians. They hunted and ate the
larger bird species, and introduced rats, which ate
the eggs and young of ground-nesting species. TI1eir
goats and cattle destroyed plant species through
grazing and trampling. Of about l OOO plant species,
85% has been lost since they were first discovered.
This may be an exrreme example bur the same
sorts of changes are happening all over the world. For
example, the World Wide Fund for Nature (VvVl'F)
estimated that only about 3200 tigers remained in
the wild in 20 11. TI1is is less than 5% of their number
in 1900 (Figure 21.38 ). They are hunted for their
skins and their bones and some body parts are used in
traditional Chinese medicines.
Climate change is also responsible for a reduction in

the number of species. Some people argue that this is
a natural, uncontrollable process, but the consensus
by scientists is that processes like global warming are
made worse by human activity.
Global warming is causing oceans to warm up.
Even prolonged temperature increases of just one or
two degrees can have a devastating effect. In 1994,
coral colonies (see Figure 1 .8 ) in the Indian Ocean
were observed to expel food -producing algae they
are closely associated with. As the coral rely on the
algae, if they lose them they die. The coral reefs
became bleached. When the area was surveyed again
in 2005, four fish species appeared to be extinct and
six other species had declined to the point of being
Flgure2 1.38 1011oyear1thetigerpopulatKJOha1fa lteolrom120000 endangered. Increases in C0 2 in the sea also affect
to3200
coral reefs. TI1e C0 2 dissokes in the water, making it
Some species of animal are not introduced deliberately more acidic. The acid dissolves the calcium carbonate
into different ecosystems, but find their way in due deposited in the coral, making it collapse.
to man's activities and then upset food chains. One Species such as the Atlantic cod are becoming
example happened in the Great Lakes in Canada and endangered and at possible risk of extinction, partly
the USA. The lakes were artificially joined together because of overfishing (see Chapter 19 ) but also
with shipping canals to provide transport links, but sea because of climate change. Cod survive in cold water.
Conservation
As seaw:uer warms up, the cod migrate north. However,

the popubtions o f microscopic plankton that cod
rely on fiinher down the food chain are also sensitive
to tcmpcramre change ~ cod may not have the food
supplies they need to survive.
ScientistS developed a computer model to study
the effect of climan: change on fi sh stocks over the
next 50 years. It predicted a large-scale redistribution
of species and the extinction of so me species, with
the disruption of ecosystems and reduction in
biodh·ersiry.
Conservation of species Flgure2UO Ttytngtostopthetr~inend;mge,« l ~.Awstoms

Species can be conserved by passing laws that make offic:~ched:s i<lllleg.ll c.irgoimpounded at ~ ar..lOmspost.
killing or collecting them an offi:ncc, by international The IWC :illocares quoras of whales that the membe r
agreements on global bans or trading restrictions, countries may catch bur, having no powers to
and by conserving habitats (Figure 2 1.40). enforce its decisions, cannot prevent countries from
Habitats can be conserved in a number of ways: cxcccdingthcirquoras.
• using laws to protect the habitat In 1982, the JWC declared a moratorium (i.e. a
• using wardens to protect the habitat complete ban ) on all whaling, which was reaffirmed
• reducing or controlling public access to the habitat in 2000 and is still in pl:icc in 2014, despite
• controlling factors such as water d rainage and opposition from Japan and Norway. Japan continues
grazing, that may othe rwise help 10 destroy the to catch whales ·for sciem:ilic purposes'.
habitat.
Captive breeding and reintroductions
In Britain, iris an offi:ncc to capture or kill almosr all Provided a species has nor become totally extinct, ir
species of wild birds or to take eggs from their nests; may be possible ro boost its numbers by breeding
wild flowers in their natural habitats may nor be in captivity and releasing die animals bacl:. imo rhe
uprooted; ncwrs, otters and bats arc just d1rce of d1e environment . In Britain, modest success has been
protected species of mammal. achic\·cd with otters (Figure 21.41 ). It is important
Many organisations monitor species numbers, (a) d1at the animals do not become depc1Kknt on
so that conservation measures can Ix taken if rhey humans fo r food and (b) diat there arc sui table
decline significantly. h:ibitats left for them to recolonise.
C ITES (Convention on International Trade Sea eagles, red kites (Figure 21.42 ) and ospreys
in Enda ngered Species) gives protection to about have been introduced from areas where they arc
1500 animals and thousands of plants by persuading plentiful to areas where they had died out.
governments to restrict or ban trade in endangered
species or their products, e.g. snake sl:.ins or rhino
horns. In 2013, nearly 180 countries were parry to
the Convention.
TI1c WWF operates on a global scale and is
represented in 25 countries. The WWF raises money
for conservation projects in all parts of the world, but
with particular emphasis on endangered species and
habitats.
The IWC (lmcmational Whaling Commissio n)
w:is set up ro rry and avoid the extinction of
wh:ilcs as a result of uncontrolled wh:iling, and has
88 members. Rgu-1112 1.41 Theonerh1sbe,entndSll(Ces'ifuUy inc;ip1Mtyandrele1sed
.....
Habitats arc many and varied: from vast areas of
tropical forest to the village pond, and including
such dl\·crse habitats as wetlands, pear bogs, coral
reefs, mangrove swamps, lakes and rivers, ro list
but a few.
~ \ Internationa l initiatives
-~. . · .
In rhc last 30 rears it has been recognised that
conservation of major habir;its needed international
agreements on stra tegics. In 1992 , the Convention
,__ .......
i
on Biological Diversity was opened for signature
at the 'Earrh Summit' Conference in Rio, and 168
countrie s signed it. 111e Convention aims to preserve
. ' ~ biological diversity ('biodiversity').
Biodiversity encompasses the whole range of
, · -~~ species in the world . The Comention will rry t0
share the costs and benefits between developed
and developing countries, pro more ·sustainable
~~;~i~1.42 fled kites from Spain and SWeden h.we been ~nlrodtxed development' and support local initiatives.
'Sustainable dc\·clopment' implies that industry
and agriculture should use natur:il resources sparingly
Seed banks and avoid damaging natural habitats and the
These are a way of protecting plant species from organisms in them.
extinction . lncy include seed from food crops and
rare species. They act as gene banks (sec the next Key definition
section). The Millennium Seed Bank Parmcrship Sustainabledevelopment is~tp,ovidingfor
was set up by Kew Bor;inicat Gardens in London. the needs of an increasing human population without
It is a global project in\"olving 80 partner countries. harmingtheenvironmenl.
The target of the partnership is ro have in storage
25% of the world's plant species with bank.able seeds The Earth Summit meeting addressed problems of
by 2020. That involves about 75 OOO plam species. population , global warming, pollution , ere. as well as
biodiversity.
Conservation of habitats There arc several volunr;iry organisations that work
If animals and plants arc to be conserved iris \~tal for worldwide conserv:nion, e.g. WWF, Friends of
that their habitats arc conserved also. the Earth and Greenpeace.
Sustaining forest and fish stocks them and dragging the trees out of the forest also
creates more damage. Education ofrhe men carrying
There arc three main ways of sustaining the numbers out the operations in alternative ways ofrrcc
ofkcyspccics. These arc: felling, reduction of wastage and in the selection of
species of trees to be fi.:lled makes the process more
1 Education sustainable and helps to conserve rarer species.
Local communities need ro be educated about In the tomato fish project in Germany (sec
the need for conservation. Once they understand later in this section), the Research Institute
its importance, the environment they live in is involved has an active education prog ramme to
more likely to be cared for and the species in it inform the public about its work in sustainable
protected . development. It has even published a book for
In tree-felling operatio ns in tropical rainforests, child ren (Nim, nr,d the tonu,ro fish) to educate diem
it has been found that the process of cutting down about the topic.
the trees actually damages twice as many next ro
Conservation
2 Legal quo tas Commission has been steadily increasing t he range of

In Europe the Common Fisheries Policy is used m:e species it planis, growing them in mixed woodland,
to set quow for fishing, ro manage fish srocks and which provides habirats for a wider range of animals.
help protect species that were becoming endange red
through overfishing (see Chapter 19). Quoras were Sustainable development
set for each species offish taken co mmercially and
also for the size of fish. This was to allow fish to l11is is a complex process, requiring the management
reach breeding age and maintain o r increase their of conflicting demands. As die world's population
populations. grows, so docs the demand for d1e extraction of
T he Rainforest Alliance has introduced a scheme resources from the environment. However, th is
called Smarrlo!l!Ji"!J· This is a ccrtificuion service, needs co be carried o uc in a controlled way to
which demonstrates that a logging comp:my is prevent environmental damage and strategics need
working legally and is a sustainable way to protect ro be put in place ro ensure habitats and species
the environment. The timber can be tracked from diversity arc not threatened.
where it is fe lled to its final export destination and Planning the removal of resources needs to be
its use in timber products. l11e customer can then done at local, national and international levels. This
be reassured that the timber in the product is from a is to make sure that everyone involved with the
reputable source and has not been removed illegally. process is aware ofrhc pote ntial conseque nces of the
In some areas of China where bamboo is growing, process on t he environment, and that appropriate
there arc legal quotas to prnent too much felling. strategics arc put in place, and adhered co, to
Some animals such as giant panda rely on the minimise an y risk.
bamboo for their food .
In Britain it is illegal co cut down trees without To mato fi sh project
permission. The Forestry Commission issues lice nses The ASTAF-PRO project -Aquaponic System for
for tree fcJling. Included in the license arc conditions ( nearl y) Emission -Free Tomato and Fish Production
that the felled area must be replanted and the trees - in Germany is run by the l..e.ibniz Institute of
main tained for a minimum of ten years. Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries. The
scientists have developed a way of simultaneo usly
3 Restock ing
producing fish and tomatoes in a dosed gree nho use
Where populations of a fish species arc in decline, e nvironment. Both o rganisms d1rivc at a temperature
their numbers may be conserved by a restocking of2 7 °C . 111c system is almost emission-free
programme. This involves breeding fish in captivity, (so atmosp heric C0 2 le\"cls arc not affected), recycles
then releasing the m imo die wild . H owever, die all die wate r in the process and docs not put any
reasons for the decline in numbe rs need to be waste into the environ me nt (Fi&1rc 21.43). All the
identified first. For example , if pollutio n was the energy needed co heat the g reenhouses is ge nerated
cause of the decline, the restocked fish will die as by solar panels. These factors make it a sustainable
well: the issue of pollution needs co be addressed and climate -friendly method offood production.
first. Grear care is needed in managing fish farms TI1c scie nti sts recognised that fish and plants have
because thq' can produce pollution if the waste ,·ery similar e nviro nmental needs for d1cir g rowth.
water from the farms, containing uneaten food and Nile Tilapia ( Ortoc/Jromis ,ii/oticus) is chose n as d1c
fi sh excreta, is discharged into the environment. fish species, because they survive well in artificial
Organisations such as the Woodland Trust help co conditions, growing and maturing quickly. Since
conserve areas of woodland and provide funding for the y arc o mnivorous as adul ts, no fish meal diet is
restocking whe re species of trees arc in decline. This needed, and they can be fed with pellets of processed
is important as some animal species rel y o n certain food extracted from planes. Water fro m the fish ranks
trees for food and shelte r. Large areas of land planted is deaned and the nutrie nts remaining in it arc used
with single species (an example ofa monoculture) as a fertiliser for tomato plants, grown in the same
create little biodiversity. In Britain, the Foresrry g reenhouse ( Figure 21.44).
The plants arc grown on mineral wool, through Conservation programmes

which the nutrient-rich water flows . This avoids
soil, which can contain pathogens. 1ltis mcthOO of If the population of a species drops, the range of
growing plants, called hyd roponics, also means that variation within the species drops, making it less
no peat is needed for soil. The removal of peat for able to adapt to environmental change. The species
use in horticulture is threatening heathland and the could, therefore, be threatened with extinction.
organisms living on it. When animal populations full, there is less chance of
As the tomato plants mmspire, the water vapou r individuals finding each other to mate.
is condensed and recycled into the fish tanks. T he In 'Selection', Chapter 18, it was explained that
tomatoes arc han·cstcd and sold unde r the name crossing a wild grass with a strain of wheat produced
'fish tomatoes'. The scientists call the project 'The an improved variety. l11is is only one example
Tomatofish'. 111c next goal is to implement the of many successful attempts to improve yield,
system into global food production systems. drought resistance and disease resistance in food
plants. Some 25 OOO plant species arc threatened
with extinction at the moment. This cou ld result
in a devastating loss of hereditary material and a
reduction of about I 0% in the genes available for
crop improvement. 'Gene banks' have been set up
to preserve a wide range of plants, but these banks
arc vulnerable to accidents, disease and human
error. The only secure way of preserving the full
range of genes is to keep the plants growing in their
natural environments.
Conservation programmes arc set up for a number
of reasons:
Reducing extinction
Conservation programmes strive to prevent
extinction. Once a species becomes extinct its genes
Flguni21.0 Thetomato.lishproJe(t
arc lost forever, so we arc also likely to deprive the
world of genetic resources. Apart from the fuct that
we have no right to wipe out species forever, the
chances arc that we will deprive ourselves not only
of the beauty and diversity of species but also of
potential sources of valuable products such as drugs.
Many of our present-day drugs arc derl\'cd from
plants (e.g. quinine and aspirin) and there may be
many more sources as yer undiscovered.
Prot ecting vulne rable envi ronments
Conservation programmes arc often set up to
protect threatened habitats so that r.tre species living
there arc nor endangered. Some species of plant
require very special conditions to grow succcssfillly,
for instanc.e wet, acidic conditions associated with
heathland (sec Figure 21.46 ). Some animal species
have vciy limited diets or 01hcr needs: the large
heath buncrfly only feeds on one type of plant called
con on grass. If that plant was allowed to become
Ag1. . 21.44 Tom;itots illd fish being gio,yn in the sMJM> envirmment extinct, perhaps through drainage of the peat bog
Conserva tion
land on which the cottongrass lives, the butterflies

would die oUt as well.
There are a number of organisatio ns involved with
habirat conservation in Brit.1in . English Nature, the
Countryside Council for Wales and Scottish Namral
Heritage were formed from the Nature Conservancy
Council ( NCC). They arc regulatory bodies
committed to csrablish, manage and maintain nature
rcsen·cs, protect threatened habitats and conduct
research inro matters relevant ro conservation.
The NCC esr.i.blished 195 nature reserves
(Figure 21.45 ) but, in addition, had responsibility
for notifying planning authorities of Areas of
Flgure21.46 A11S1ofSpec~SClentlflclnte1eSt.Thl$he~thlandin
Special Scientific Interest (ASS1s), also known as SUrreyisprntectedby a m d ~ t ~reement with the IJndowner.
Sites ofSpecial Scientific Interest (SSSJs). l11csc are
privately owned lands that include important habitats
or rare species (Figure 21.46). English Nature and
other conservation bodies establish management
agreemcms with the owners so that the sites arc not
damaged b}' felling trees, ploughing land or draining
fens (Figure21.47).
111c National Parks Commission has set up 15

National Parks covering more than 9% of England
flgur•2 1.45 AnEngllshNiltureNatloMNatureRe:.erve~t and Wales, e.g. Dartmoor, Snowdonia and the Lake
Sridgev,/dter B;iy In SOmerset. The mudflm and ~ltmaflh ~ttrKI large
number,;ofwinteflngwildfO'M District. Although the land is privately owned, the
Park Aurhorirics are responsible fo r protecting the
l11crc arc now about 5000 ASS ls, and the Countryside landscape and wildlife, and for planning public
and Rigl1rs of Way Act of2000 has strengthened the recreation such as walking, climbing or gliding.
rules go\·erning the maintenance of ASS!s. The European Commission's Habimts Directive
There arc several other, non-governmental of 1994 requires member states to designate Special
organisations that have set up rese rves and which Areas ofConserv:ition (SACs) to protect some of
help to conserve wildlife and habitats. There arc the most seriously threatened habitats and species
47 Wildlife Trusts in the UK, managing thousands througlmur Europe. The UK has submitted a list
of sires. The Royal Society for the Protection of 340 sires, though many of these arc already
of Birds (RS PB) has 200 sites, the Woodland prorccred areas, such as ASS ls.
Trust looks afi:er over 1100 woods and there Desirable though ASSls, National Parks and SACs
arc abo ut 160 othe r reserves managed by other arc, they represent only rclati\'dy small, isolated
organisations. areas of land. Birds can move free ly from o ne area to
another, but plants and small animals are confined around their coastlines reduced fish stocks, removing
to an isolated habitat so are subject to risks that the food the seabirds relied 011. As the seabird
they cannot escape. If more furmland were managed populations diminished, they deposited less guano
in a way 'friendly' to wildlife, these risks could be and tl1e guano industries fuiled.
reduced. The term ecosystem services can be defined as the
The Farming and Wildlife Advisory Group can benefits people obtain from ecosystems, whether
advise furmers how to manage their land in ways they are natural or managed. Humans are affecting
that encourage wildlife. This includes, for example, ecosystems on a large scale because of the growth in
leaving strips of uncultivated land around the the population (Chapter 19) and changing patterns
margins of fields or planting new hedgerows. Even of consumption. Scientists estimate that around
strips of wild grasses and flowers bern·een fields 40% of the Earth's land surf.tee area is taken over
significantly increase the population of beneficial by some form offurmed land. Crops are grown for
insects. food ( directly, or indirectly through tl1eir use in
Certain areas of furmland have been designated as feeding animals), extraction of drugs (botl1 legal and
Environmental Sensitive Areas (ESAs), and furmers illegal ) and rhe manufucrure of fuel (see details about
are paid a subsidy for managing their land in ways biofuels below). Crop growth has major impacts in
tl1at conserve the environment. ecosystems, causing tl1e extinction of many species
and reducing tl1e gene pool.
Maintaining ecosystem functions In theory, biofuels produced from plant sources
should have a minimal effect on tl1e carbon dioxide
There is a danger of destabilising food chains if concentration in the atmosphere and, tl1erefore, on
a single species in that food chain is removed. global warming. The carbon dioxide released when
For example, in lakes containing pike as the top they are burned derives from the carbon dioxide
predators, overfishing can result in smaller species they absorbed during their photosynthesis. They
of carnivorous fish, such as minnows, increasing in are 'carbon neutral'. However, the harvesting oftl1e
numbers. They eat zooplankton. If rhe minnows crop and the processes of extraction and distillation
eat the majority of the zooplankton population, all produce carbon dioxide. TI1e net effect on
it leaves no herbivores to control algal growth, atmospheric carbon dioxide is questionable. More
which can cause an algal bloom when there are details ofbiofuels are given in Chapter 20.
sufficient nutrients to support this growth. To Also, tl1e clearing of forests to make space for
prevent such an event happening , the ecosystem fuel crops removes a valuable carbon sink and the
needs to be maintained , by controlling the burning that accompanies it produces a great deal
numbers of top predators removed, or by regular of carbon dioxide. In addition, the use ofland for
restocking. growing crops for biofuels reduces tl1e land available
Ecosystems can also become unbalanced if tl1e for gro\\ing food and increases the price of food.
nutrients tl1ey rely on are affected in some way. Currently, the benefit of deriving fuel from plant
Guano is tl1e accumulated droppings of sea birds and material is open to question.
bars. It is extremely rich in nitrogen compounds With all these demands on resources from
and phosphates, so it makes a valuable fertiliser. ecosystems, it is a very complicated process to
In the early 1900s Peru and South Africa both manage tl1em effectively and this makes conservation
de,·eloped guano industries based on sustained -yield programmes invaluable to protect species and their
production from marine birds. However, m·erfishing habitats.
Conservation
Questions 11 What part do micro-organisms (bacteria and protoctista}

Core play in sewage treatment?
1 Thegraphinfigure21.8!.how..thechangeinthenumbers 12 Whatdoyouunderstandby·
ofmitesandspringtailsinthesoilaftertreatingitwithan a biodiversity
insecticide. Miteseatspringtails.Suggestanexplanation b sustainabledevelopment7
for the changes in numbers over the 16-month period. 13 What is the difference between an ASSI and a nature
2 What are the possible dangers of dumping and burying
poisonousc:hemic:alsontheland7 Extended
3 ~fore most water leaves the waterworks, it is exposed for 14 a What pressures lead to destruction of tropical forest?
some time to the poisonous gas, chlorine. What do you b Givethreeimportantreasonsfortryingtopreserve
thinkisthepointofthis7 tropical forests
4 If the concentration of men::ury in Minamata Bay was very 15 In what ways might trees protect the soil on a hillside from
low,whydiditcausesuchseriousillnessinhurnans7 beingwa!.hedaw~bytherain7
5 Explainwhysomerenewableenergysourcesdependon 16 lfafarmerploughsasteeplyslopingfield,inwhatdirection
photosynthesis should the furrows run to help cut down soil erosion?
6 In what w~s does the recycling of materials help to save 17 What is the possible connection between:
energyandconservetheenvironment7 a cuttingdowntreesonhillsidesandllex>dinginthe
7 Explain why some of the alternative and renewable energy valleys.and
sourcesareles.5likelytocausepollutionthancoalandoil. b dear-felling Oogging} in tropical forests and local
8 Whatkindsofhumanactivitycanleadtotheextinctionof dimatechange7
a species? 18 To what extent do tall chimneys on factories reduce
9 How do the roles of CITES and INWF differ? In what atmospheric pollution?
respectsmightth~ractivitiesoverlap7 19 Whatarethoughttobethemaincausesof'acidrain'7
10 Howmightthelcmofaspeciesaffect: 20 Whyarecarbondioxideandmethanecalled
a ourhealth(indirectly} 'greenhouse gases'?
b the prospect of developing neY.t varieties of crop plants
resistant to drought?
Checklist Ha bi tat destructi o n

Food s up ply • There are a number of reasons for habitat destructioo, including:
- increasedareaneededforfood-cropgrowth, livestod::
• Modern technology has resulted in increased food
prod1Ktionandhousing
production.
-theextractionofnaturalresoun::es
• Agriculturalrnachinerycanbeusedonlargerareasoflandto
- marine pollution.
improve efficiency.
• Through altering food webs and fex>d chains, humans can
• Chemicalfertilisersimproveyields
negatively impact on habitats
• lnsecticidesimprovequalityandyield.
• Deforestationisanexampleofhabitatdestruction:itcan
• Herbicides reduce competition with weeds
lead to extinction, soil erosion, flooding and carbon dioxide
• Selectivebreedingimprovesproductionbycropplantsand
build-up in the atmosphere
livestock.
• Theconversionoftropicalforesttoagriculturallandusually
• Monoculturescanhavenegativeimpactsonthe
resultsinfailurebecauseforestsoilsarepoorinnutrients.
environment.
• Intensive farming has resulted in habitat deterioration and • Deforestation has many undesirable effects on the
reduction of wildlife. environment.
• Problems with world food supplies contribute to
difficultiesprovidingenoughfoodforan increasing Po llut io n
human global population. • Wepolluteourlakes,riversandtheseawithindustrial
• Food production in developed countries has increased waste, sewage,crudeoil,rubbish,factorywastesand
faster than the population growth. nuclear fall-out.
• Food production in developing countries has not kept • Useoffertiliserscanresultinwaterpollution.
pace with population growth. • Pesticides kill insects, weeds and fungi that could destroy
• Problemsthatcontributetofamineindudeunequal our crops
distribution of food, drought, flooding and an increasing • Pesticideshelptoincreaseagriculturalproductionbutthey
population. killotherorganismsaswellaspests.
• A pesticide or pollutant that 5tarts off at a low, s.afe level • Weneedtoconservenon-renewableresourcessuchas

canbecomedangerou!.lyconcentratedasitpassesalonga fossil fuels.
food chain. • When supplies of fossil fuels run out or become too expen'>ive,
• Eutrophication of lakes and rivers results from the excessive wewillneedtodevelopalternativesourcesofeoergy.
growth of algae followed by an oxygen shortage when the • Recyclingmetals,paper,glassandplastichelpstoconserve
algae die and decay. thesematerialsandsaveenergy.
• We pollute the air with =ke, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen • Someresourcessuchasforestsandfishstochcanbe
oxides from factories, and carbon monoxide and nitrogen maintained.
oxides from motor vehicles • Sewage can be treated to make the water that it contains
• The acid rain resulting from air pollution leads to poisoning of safe to return to the environment or for human use.
lakes and pos.siblydestructionof trees • Some organisms are becoming endangered or extinct due to
• The extra carbon dioxide from fos'>il fuels might lead to factors such as dimate change, habitat destruction, hunting,
global warming. pollution and introduced species
• Endangeredspeciescanbeconservedbystrategiesthat
• Theprocessofeutrophicationofwaterinvolves: indudemonitoringandprotectingspeciesandhabitats,
- increasedavailabilityofnitrateandotherions education, captive breeding programmes and seed banks.
- increMed growth of producers
• Sustainable development is development providing for
- increased decompo'>ition after death of the producers
-increasedaerobicrespirationbybacteria,r~ltingina the needs of an increasing human population without
reduction in dissolved oxygen harming the environment
• Forestandfishstockscanbesustainedusingstrategies
- thedeathoforgani=requiringdissolvedoxygenin
suc:haseducationandlegalquotas.
water.
• Sustainable development requires the management of
• Non-biodegradable plastics can have detrimental effects
conflicting demands, as well as planning and co-operation
onaquaticandterrestrialecosystems
at local, national and international levels
• Sulfurdioxide,producedbybumingfossilfuels,causes
acid rain. Thiskillsplants,aswellasanimalsinwater • Althoogh extinction is a natural phenomenon, human
activitiesarec.ausingagreatincreaseintheratesofextinction.
systems
• Conservation of species requires international agreements
• Measuresthatmightbetakentoreducesulfurdioxide
and regulations.
pollution and reduce the impact of acid rain include a
• Theseregulationsmayprohibitkillingorcollectingspecies
reductioninuseoffossilfuels.
andpreventtradeinthemortheirproducts.
• Methane and carbon dioxide are building up in the
• Lossofaplantspeciesdeprivesusof{a}apos.siblesource
atmosphere, resultingintheenhancedgreenhouseeffect
ofgenesand(b)apossiblesourceofchemicalsfordrugs.
and climate change.
• Conservingaspeciesbycaptivebreedingisoflittleuse
• Female contraceptive hormones are entering water
unlessitshabitatisalsoconserved
coursesandcancausereducedspermcountinmenand
• TheEarthSummitConferencetriedtoachieve
feminis.ationofaquaticorganisms.
internationalagreementonmeasurestoconservewildlife
andhabitats,andreducepollution.
Conserva ti o n • National Parks, nature reserves, AS Sis and SACs all try to
preservehabitatsbuttheycoveronlyasmallproportionof
• A sustainable resource is one that can be removed from the
thecountryandexistasisolatedcommunities
environmentwithoutitrunningout.
• Incentives exist for farming in a way that is friendy to wildlife.
• Raw materials, such as metal ores, will one day run out
Q Examination questions
Do not write on these pages. Where necessary copy a A vertebrate with scaly skin and no legs could
drawings,tablesorsentences. beeithera _ _ _ on _ _ _ . [2]
b A vertebrate with lungs and hair is a
_ _ _ but ifit has feathers instead of
• Characteristics and hairitisa _ _ _ _ [2]
classification of living [Tota/:4]
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 21 O1 November
organisms 2012)
1 Four of the classes of vertebrates and five possible
descriptions of these classes are shown below. 4 l11e diagram below shows five mammals.
Draw a straight line ro march each class of
vertebrate to its description. [ 4]
desc ription
I bird l bodywilhnaked'il:in,twopaifloflimbs l
Ifish I bodywilhhair, twopair1oflimD1

Im<immal Ibodywilhfeathers, oriepairofwirig; I
Ill'pli~ I bodywilhscales,withlim
1::z~~~scal'jskin,twopairsoflimbs I
[Tota/:4]
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 2 O1 November 2006)
2 a Three characteristics ofliving org.misms and

four possible descriptions are shown below.
Draw a straight line to match each characteristic
roitsdescription. [3]
D (mammalsnotdrawntoscale) E
description
l pumpingairinandolllofthelung1 I a Use the key to identify each of these mammals.
Write the letter for each mammal in
I ~i~ing =individ~als of the gme I the rabk. [4]
I ~p~ii~~(ti~=ic chemka!s for the

1
I tailmorethanhalfthatofbodylength .............. goto2
tail le:s, than half that ofbody length ................ go to 4
i 1tiereleaseolel\l'l'g;from1ugars
2
1earsat1'.'p of head, wi.th thi~kt~il
..... Sriun" can,/iniwris
ear,ats,deofhead,w,thrhmta,l ...................... goto3
b State two other characteristics ofliving
organisms. [2]
nose pointed, nose length longerthanilll
[Tota/:5]
3 nose blunt, nmelength,horterth~:;;~ ...... Sorrxara""''
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology0610 Paper 2 01 June 2006)
[
depth .......... O,rhrio.,omysg/am,/u,
3 Vertebrate animals are grouped into a number of
classes.
Complete the sentences by naming each of the
,·ertebrate classes that are described.
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
Some vertebrates han: wings. If their body is also

Getmonomys glaroolus covered in feathers they are - - -, but if
orya°'aguscunkulm
their body has fur they are - - -·
Vertebrates that do not have feathers, fur or scales
on the outside of their body are - - - · [4]
Talpaeurnp.-xia
{Total:4}
(Cambridge /GCSE Bidogy 0610 Paper 2 O1 NC!v'ember 2009)
b The diagram below shows a young deer feeding
from its mother. 7 Arachnids, crnstaceans, insects and myriapods are
all classified as arthropods.
Scorpions, such as Heterometr11s swammerdami
shown in the diagram below, are arachnids.
State two features , visible in the diagram, that

distinguish mammals from other vertebrates. [2]
pedlpalp
{Total: 6]
a State th ree features , shown by H. swammerdami
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 3 Q 1 November 2006)
and visib le in the diagram above that arachnids
share with other arthropods. [ 3]
5 The table below shows some of the external b The diagram below shows seven species of
features of the five classes of vertebrates.
arachnid.
Complete the table by placing a tick ( .I) to
indicate if each class hasrhe feature. [5]
external scalyskln two palrs
e;rflap or fur ofllm bs
amphibians
reptiles
{Total: 5]
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 21 02 June 2010)
6 Vertebrates can be classified by their external

features. Complete the paragraph by using the
name of a vertebrate class in each space.
Some vertebrates have scales all over their skin.
If they also have nostrils that allow air imo their
lungs and two pairs of legs they are _ _ _ .
' Chararterirtio and classification of living organisms
Et
8 Non-living things, such as a car, often show
charaeteristics similar to those of living organisms.
a State which characteristic of a living org;mism
marches ~eh of the descriptions linked to a car.
(i) burning fuel in the engine to release
energy [ I]
(ii) headlights that switch on automatically
in the darl:. [I]
( iii )filling the car's ran!:. with fuel [I]
( iv)rclcasc: of waste gases [ I]
b Identify one characteristic of living things
6
that is no t carried out by a car. [I]
[Tota/:5]
1
(Cambndge /GCSE 81ology0610 Pape, 21 QI June 2012)
9 Th, d"gr.un below shm~, b,mri,m,, ,;c.,,

and a fungu s
~~
0
Usc,h,k,y roldcaafymhspmcs ,:::: ::I•) 'd/_

kttcr of each species (A to G) m the correct box "5
Key beside the key. One has been done for you [ 4] • •
1 ii} Abdomenwithat~ A~Qdic~~ E

b) Abdomen without i tail 90 to 2
(not to sc~le)
2 i) Legsmuchlonger !han abdomoo goto3
~l'ld ceph~lothofax a Complete the rable to compare the three
b) Legsnotmuchlon ger!han goto 4 organisms shown in the diagram above by
abdomoo.1ndcephalo!horax
using a tick (.I) to indicate if the organi sm
3 ~) 11alrsonlegs ~flidomes!iQ shows the feature, or a cross (1 ) ifit does not.
b) Nohairsonlegs Odielusspinosus The first row has been completed for you . [3]
4 ii} CepNloth<nxor.b:iomen Cheliferlllbemibtm fw 1w, fungus
segmented
b) CepNlothorai:.or.b:iomennot 90105
segmented
5 ii} Abdo!TK:onandcephalotl"Dfax Poedlot~regRS r'""""
= '--t---t---t------,
b) :t::;:!Pphalolhorax 90106 L".::OC""=-'-----'---------'----
b Explain how the fungus shown in the
----'---------"
6 ~) Bodyco.rered in long hairs
diagram above is adapted to obtain
b)BodynotcOYerndinhairs lxodeshex~!i!
itS food. [3]
[Total: 7] c Explain how the fungus spreads to new
(C,ambti:Jge /GC5EBio/ogjOf,10Pape, 31 QI Noverrber 2012) sources of food. [2]
[Tota/:8]
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 31 QI November
2009)
b Stitc and describe the function of two

• Organisation and fc:aturcs of the palisade cell that arc only
maintenance of the fow1d in plant cdls. [4]
c The photograph below shows some red
organism blood cells, which arc animal cells.
1 Five types of animal and plant cells and five
possible li.11Ktions of such cells arc shown below.
Dr.iw one straight line from c:ach rypc of cell to
a li.mction of that cell. [5]
typeolcell
lredbloodcel Iabsorptionolmine~ions
Irooth~rce~ ltra,nsportoloxygen
I white blood cell ] movement of murn1
I xylem l protect~<19~instpathogem I
l ciliatedcell I structur~l mpport (i) Which feature no rmally present in an
animal ce ll is absent from a red
{Tota/:5] blood cell? [1]
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 2 05 June 2009) (ii) State the fw1ction ofa red blood cell and
describe o ne way in which the red blood
2 The diagram shows a cell from the palisade layer of cell is adapted to carry out its function. [2]
akaf.
{Total: 10]
(CarrbridtJelGCSE Biology0610 Pape, 21 OS M:Nember 2012)
3 The diagram below shows two cells.
.1 In the tiblc below tick (/" ) the numbers that

label the three features of the palisade cell cell B
which are also found in animal cells [3]
a (i) State where, in a human , a cell ofrype A
pnisent lnboth anlmal andpla ntcell s would normally be found. [l]
(ii) State where, in a plant, a cell of type B
would be found. [ 1]
b Use only words from the list to complete the
statements about cell B. [5]
air cellulose chloroplasts membrane
mitochondria nucleus starch vacuole
wall cdlsap
Movement in and out of cells
Cell B has a thick layer called the cell You may find it helpful to study Chapter 9 before
..,........... ·~
- - - · This is made of _ _ _ . attempting this question.
The cytoplasm of cell B contains many
., •...
_ _ _ that are used in the process 5 TI1e photomicrograph below is of a human blood
of photosynthesis. The large permanent
_ _ _ is full of _ _ _ and this
' ,.~
••• -:•·· 11•-.
, :.-.,
....... . ..,..,..,.•:,·,.'
~\·I..•....•.• .••...,.,I
helps to maintain the shape of the cell.
. ,...•:...
c TI1e diagram below shows strucmres that produce
urine and excrete it from the body of a mammal.
~ ••ii•••• • •I
(i) Onthediagram,labelandnameoneorgan. [l]

....... ,:•.•:
'.s•..
••• ~ ·-
...........
MagnlflcatlonX800
- •• 11
A
ill
(ii) Use examples from the diagram ro explain
the difference between the terms organ
and organ system. [3] a (i) On the photomicrograph, draw label
(Total: 11] lines and name th ree different types of
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology0610 Paper 21 01 June 2010) blood cell. [3]
(ii) Name two parts of the blood that can
4 a The diagram shows a partly completed diagram pass through the capillary walls. [2]
ofa palisade cell. b (i) Measure tl1e diameter of the blood cell
labelled A. [l]
(ii) TI1e photomicrograph has been
__ ,ell membrane
enlarged by x 800, calculate the
actualsizeofcellA.
Show yo11r working. [2]
(iii)State tl1e function of cell A. [l]
(Total: 9]
(Cambridge /G CSE Biology 0610 Paper 6 03 June 2009)
Complete the diagram to show the other major

components of this cell. • Movement in and out
Label all tl1e components that you have
added to tl1e diagram. [ 4]
of cells
b State precisely where palisade cells are found 1 TI1in slices of dandelion stem were cut and
in a plant. [2] placed into different salr solutions and left for
30 minutes.
(Tota/: 6] Figure 1 shows how these slices were cut. Figure 2
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 2 shows the appearance of these pieces of dandelion
02 November 2009) stem after 30 minutes in the different salt
solutions.
Longltudtn.al
s«tlonsofstem
~mpleA
O.SM s.altsolutlon
Flgure2 ~mple B
a (i) Describe the appearance of the pieces of

dandelion srem in Figure 2. [2]
(ii) Explain what causes the two pieces of
0
dandelion srem to change in the way you 0 2 4 6 8 10121416
have described in a(i). [4] dlstanceofbluelltmusp;aper
.alongtubet,m
b Suggest how you could plan an investigation
to find the concentration of salt solution which The rable shows the results for a third sample, C,
would produce no change from that shown in ofethanoic acid.
the original dandelion stem before being cut in distance of blue ll1mus paper 11me fOf bl ue lltmus
Figure I . [4] along1 ubelm1 paper totwnred/s
[Total: 10}
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 06 QI November
'
1009)
2 a Define diffusio11. [2]

b ll1e diagram below shows an apparatus that was
used to investigate the effect of concentration of
a chemical on the rate of diffusion.
,otton wool 10.aked
,o~ ~<haook•"d Ji' (i) Complete the graph above by plotting the
results shown in the table above. [3]
(ii) State which sample of cthanoic acid, A, B
'01~~~~~~~iiil or C, rook rhe longest time to tra\·cl 8cm
pleceiofd.ampbluelltmus
alongrhe rube. [ 1]
p;aper.atlcmlntervals (iii )Sratc and explain which sample of ethanoic
As erhanoic acid diffused along the rnbc, the acid was the most concentrated. [ 2]
pieces of blue lim1us paper turned red. c Substances can enter and leave cells by either
Two different samples of ethanoic acid, A and diffusion or by osmosis.
B, were used in rhis apparatus. The two samples State two ways in which osmosis differs from
had differenr concentrations. The results are diffusion. [2]
shown in the graph. [Total: /OJ
(Cambridge /GCSE Biolog; 0610 Paper 2 I 03 June 2012)
Biological molecules
3
' g/) 1;','!'i,;:7;';;;,.,dmdbym,nysctcm,,,. [3 l e Biological molecules
to be a form of diffusion. Suggest two 1 TI1e sweet potato, Ipomoea batams, is a different
ways in which diffusion is different from species to the Irish potato, S0/am1m tuberosum.
osmosis. [2]
b (i) Explain how root hair cells use osmosis
to take up water. [2]
(ii) TI1e land on which a cereal crop is
growing is flooded by sea water. Suggest
the effect sea water could have on the
cereal plants. [4]
(Total: 11]
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 2 09 November
2009)
sweet potato
4 The diagram shows an alveolus in which gaseous
exchange takes place.
"'
blood
cells
a (i) Define the term diffusion. [2] lrlshpotato

(ii) State what causes oxygen to diffuse into a (i) Describe one similarity, visible in the photo,
the blood from rhe ah'eoli. [I] between the two species of potato. [I]
(iii) List three features of gaseous exchange (ii) Complete the table to show two
surfaces in animals, such as humans. [3] differences, \'isible in the photo, between
b (i) At high altitudes there is less oxygen in the two species of potato. [2]
the air than at sea level. Suggest how this
might affect the uptake of oxygen in the I d>fteeoc, ' 1•w~, pobw I '"'h po,a,o
ah·eoli. [2]
(ii) In the past some athletes have cheated by _drffereoce2 . .
injecting themselves with extra red blood b Potato crops are grown for their carbohydrate
cells before a major competition. Predict content.
how this increase in red blood cells might Describe how you could safely rest the nvo species
affect their performance. [2] of potato to compare their carbohydrate content.
(Total: 10] testfarstan:h
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 21 test far reducing sugar [8]
09 November 2006) (Total: 11}
2 Catalase is an enzyme that breaks down hydrogen

• Enzymes peroxide into water and m,1'gen.
l Enzymes are used commercially to extract fruit
juices. The use of enzymes increases the volume of 2H2D2---. 2H20 + 02
juice produced. By using small pieces of filter paper soaked in a
An investigation was carried out to determine solution of catalase, it is possible to measure the
the volume of apple juice produced at different enzyme activity.
temperatures. The pieces are placed in a solution of diluted
Mixtures of apple pulp and enzyme were left for hydrogen peroxide in a rest-tube.
15 minutes at different temperatures. The filter paper rises to the surface as oxygen
After 15 minutes, the mixtures were filtered and bubbles are produced.
the juice collected. The time taken for these pieces of filter paper to
The diagram shows the volume of juice collected rise to the surfuceindicatestheactivityofcatalase.
from each mixture.
GBB' hyd,og•• J
cm 3 cm 3
20 20
o peroxide 0 0
" 0
fllterpapersoaked
lncatalase
1o·c 1s·c 2o·c An experiment was carried out to find the effect of
ill 8 8'
pH on the activity of catalase.
Five test-tubes were set up as shown in the
diagram, each with a different pH.
20 20 The same volume and concentration of hydrogen
0 peroxide was used in each test-tube.
10 10
The table shows the results obtained for the
experiment as described.
pH t lmetakenforfll terpape r tor1se/s
a (i) Record the \'olume of juice in each
measuring cylinder in the table. [3] "
temperature/"( volumeofJu lceoollected/cm•
a (i) Plot a line graph to show the time taken

for the filter paper to rise against pH. [4]
(ii) Describe the relationship between pH
and the time taken for the filter paper
(ii) Present the data in a suitable graphical to rise. [2]
form. [5] b Suggest four ways in which this experiment
(iii)Describe the results. [2] could be improved. [4]
b Describe an investigation to show the effect c Suggest how this experiment could be changed
of pH on the activity of the enzyme that is to investigate the effect of temperature on the
usedtoextractapplejuice. [6] activityofcatalase. [6]
[Total: 16] [Total: 16]
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 61 01 November (Cambridge /GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 06 03 November
2010) 2009)
Enzymes
3 a All organisms depend on enzymes. Define An investigation was carried out to study the
the term enzyme and describe the function of effect of pH on catalase, using pieces of potato as
enzymes in living organisms. [3] a source of the enzyme.
b Samples of an amylase enzyme were incubated Oxygen is formed when catalase breaks down
with starch at different temperatures. The rate of hydrogen peroxide, as shown in the equation.
starch digestion in ead1 sample was recorded and
points plotted on the graph shown below. hydrogen peroxide ~ water + oxygen
The rate of reaction can be found by measuring
how long it takes for 10 cm3 oxygen to be
"§ 50 collected.
> b (i) State the independent (input) variable in
;;
~ 40 thisilwestigation. [l]
~ (ii) Suggest two factors that would need to
130 be kept constant in this investigation. [2]
The table shows the results of the investigation,
a
-520 but it is incomplete.
ii pH tl metocollect 10crn• rateofoxyge n
''
.! 10 oxygen/m ln productlon/cm•ml n-•
temperaturerc
(i) Complete this line graph to show the
effect of temperature on rate of digestion
c Calculate the rate of oxygen production
of starch by the amylase enzyme by adding
at pH 8. Show your working. [2]
the most appropriate line to the points. [l]
d Complete the graph by plotting the rate of
(ii) Using your graph estimate the optimum
oxygen production against pH. [ 4]
temperature for this enzyme. [ 1]
(iii)Suggest the rate of starch digestion
at37°C. [l]
(iv) Describe the effect of temperature on
the rate of starch digestion. [2]
(v) 111c enzymes originally incubated at
15 °C and 75 °C did not digest any starch.
TI1ese samples were later incubated at the
optimum temperature.
Predict what resulrs could be expected in
each sample and suggest reasons for your
predictions. [3]
{Total: 11}
4 Catalase is an enzyme found in plant and animal

cells. It has the function of breaking down
hydrogen peroxide, a toxic waste product of
metabolic processes.
a (i) State the term used to describe the
removal of waste products of
metabolism. [l]
(ii) Define the term enzyme. [2]
e (i) Using data from the graph, describe the

changes in the reaction rate between
• Plant nutrition
pH4 and pHS.
(ii) Explain the change in the reaction rate
between pH6 and pHS. [3] rempcrarure.
{Total: 17]
5 a The graph shows the activity of an enzyme

produced by bacteria that live in very hot water.
~
35
~:::~u,oofbo,
shrimp -
pondw,1ter
i'-i"""'"i'"i"•"
0 ,0 wlthlndl(,1tor
~ 2S A I C 0
!-.e 20 pood
!5 15 ="
t ,0
H yd rogencarbo natc indicator (bicarbonate
indicator) changes colour depending on the pH of
gases dissol\"ed in it, as shown below.
' 0 10203040S060708090100110 cor1Centr.it1onofc,1rbondloxld11dlssolved
temper,1turel"C high
Using the information in the graph, describe , ,.

the dkct of increasing temperature on the
activiry of the enzyme. [3J
,..,_'
lndlator lndk.1tor
pinky red
'" lndk.ltor
purple
Enzymes extracted from bacteria are used in Afi:er 6 hours the colour of the indicator in all four
biological washing powders. rubcs had changed.
b Describe how bacteria arc used to produce a (i) Complete the table to predict rhe colour
enzymes for biological washing powder. [4 J ofrhe indicator after 6 hours. [4]
c Food and blood stains on clothes may colouroflndlcator colou r of lndlator,1fter6hours
cont'.lin proteins and f.us.
Explain how enzymes in biological washing
powders act to remove food and blood stains
from clothes.
d When blood dots, an enzyme is activated to
[4 J "'""""
change a protein from one form into another.
Describe the process of blood dotting. [3J (ii) Suggest the reason for the change in colour
ofthcindicatorineachofrubcsAand D. (4J
{Total: 14]
(Cambn"dge /GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 31 03 June 2009)
b The diagram shows a fifth tube, E, set up at the
same rime and in the same conditions as tubes C
and D.
Suggest and explain the possible colour of the

indicator in tube E after 6 hours. [3]
{Total: 11]
(Cambridge /GCSE Biolor;y 0610 Paper 2 06 June 2009)
Plant nutrition
2 The diagram shows a section through a leaf. 3 A student set up the apparatus shown in the
diagram to in\'estigate the effect of light intensity
on the rate of photosynthesis of a pond plant.
~ stop<lock
mO'lement
of,lr
bubble
a On the diagram, label a stoma, the cuticle
lamp
and a vascular bundle. Use label lines and the
words "stoma', 'article' and 'vascular bundle' on
the diagram. [3]
b (i) TI1e upper layers ofa leaf arc transparent.
Suggest an advantage to a plant of this
feature. [l] The student maintained the temperature
( ii) The cuticle is made of a waxy material. at 20 °C and measured the distance travelled by
Suggesr an advantage to a plant of this the air bubble in the capillary tube for a period
feature. [l ) of 5 minutes on three occasions for each light
(iii)Sratc two fi.mcrions of vascular bundles intensity.
in leaves. [2) T he student's results arc shown in the table.
c Most photosynthesis in plants happens
in leaves. d lstana! of duantt tr~elltd rate of photO'lyntheslsJ
l amp from pond by air bubble/mm mm pe r minute
(i) Name the rwo raw materials needed for
planU=
phorosymhcsis. [2]
(ii ) Photosynthesis produces glucose.
Describe how plants make use of this
glucose. [3]
{Total: 12]
2010) a (i) Explain why the student included the glass
rank and the syringe in the appararns. [2]
(ii) Explain why the air bubble moves down
the capillaryrube. [3]
b (i) Calculate the rate of photosynthesis
when the lamp was 50 mm from the
pond plam. [I]
(ii) Plot the srndcnr's results from the table
on the axes below. Draw an appropriate
line on the graph to show the relationship
bcrwecn distance of the lamp from the
pond plant and the rate of
phorosymhcsis. [2]
a Use letters from the diagram to identify the

structures described. Each letter may be used
once, more than once, or not ar all.
(i) One structure where digestion of protein
occurs.
(ii) One structure where bile is stored.
(iii )Onc structure where peristalsis h:ippcns.
( iv) One structure where starch digestion occurs.
(v) One structure where amino adds arc
absorbed into the blood. [5]
b Srate two functions of each of the srrucmres
labelled C and E on the diagram.
(i) structureC [2]
(ii) structure E [ 2]
[Total: 9]
2011)
c (i) Using the gra ph to help yo u, predict the 2 a (i) State what is meant by the rerm
results that the student would ger if the ba/a11ced diet. [ 3]
lamp was positioned 15 mm and 70 mm (ii) Balanced diets should include fut, fibre,
from the pond plant. [2] mineral salts and viramins. Name two
(ii) Explain why the rare ofphorosymhesis other types of nutrients that should be
decreases as the distance of rhe lamp from present in a balanced diet. [ I]
the pond plant increases. [3] b Suggest and explain the effects on a person
{Tora/: 13] of a diet with:
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology 0610Paper31 Q3 November (i) too little fibre, [2]
1009) (ii) too much animal fat. [2]
c Calcium, a mineral salt, is needed in rhe diet.
• Human nutrition Explain the role ofc:1kium in the body and
the effi:ct of calcium deficiency. [ 3]
1 The diagram shows the human digestive system
and associated organs. {Tora/: 11]
3 The diagram shows three different rypcs of recrh

from a human .
a (i) Name the types of teeth la belled A and B. [2]

(ii) State where in the jaw to0th type C is
found. [I]
b Explain how regular brushing helps to
prevent tooth decay. [3 ]
e Explain the roles of chewing and of enzymes
in d1e process of digestion. [4 ]
{Tora/: 10]
(Cambridge/GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 21 Ql June2010)
Transport in plants
4 a Micronutrients are food materials that are

only needed in very small quantities in the • Transport in plants
human diet. Draw one straight line from each 1 a Phloem and xylem are two types of tissue in plants.
micronutrient to its deficiency symptom. [ 4] The diagram shows a section through a plant
stem, A, and a plant leaf, B.
def ic iency symptom
'=~I=""=m====I I~~m•
'=''I="m='"='===="I Irides
'=""I=m ='"="===="I I"""'
b Explain how iron, in the diet of humans,
is used in the body. [3]
[Total: 7}
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 2
03 November 2009)
(i) Label the phloem (P) and the xylem (X)
5 a Enzyme activity is viral in human digestion. on both A and B on the diagram. Write
Complete the rable by choosing appropriate the letters P and X on both A and B. [2]
words from the list. [6] (ii) Describe two functions of the xylem. [2]
amino acids amylase cellulose b Translocation takes place in the phloem tissue.
futty acids hydrochloric acid lipase (i) State which materials are translocated in
protein srarch the phloem. [2]
(ii) TI1e diagram shows a plant in the sunlight.
TI1e three lines are arrows, with no arrow
heads, showing the translocation of materials
within parts of the plant.
b Maltose is changed into glucose.

(i) Which part of the blood carries glucose? [l]
(ii) Which process, happening in all living cells,
needs a constant supply of glucose? [l]
(iii)Excess glucose is stored. Which
carbohydrate is glucose changed into for
storage? [l]
(iv)Which organ is the main store of this
carbohydrate? [ 1]
(v) Name a hormone that causes glucose to
be released from storage. [l]
[Total: 11} Add arrow heads to each of the three lines
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 2 to show the direction of rranslocation in
04 November 2009) the organs shown. [3]
[Total: 9}
2 An im·estigation of the uptake and loss of water by 4 The photograph is of a root of radish covered in
a plant was carried out over 24 hours. The results many root hairs.
arc shown in the table.
time of day/hows water 11ptakelg water loss/g per
per ho11r ho11r
a (i) TI1c d:ita for w:iter uptake ha\·e been plcxtcd

on the grid below. Plot rhc data for water
Joss on the s:ime grid. La.be) both curves. [4]
a Using the term water potmrial, explain

how water is absorbed into root hairs from
the soil. [3]
A potomcter is a piece of appantus that is used
ro measure water uptake by plants. MoSt of rhe
water taken up by plants replaces warer lost in
transpiration. A student used a potometer to
investigate the effi:ct of wind speed on the nte
of water uptake by a leafy shoo, . As rhe shoot
absorbs water the air bubbk moves upwards. The
0400 0800 1200 1600 2000 2400 srudcnt's apparatus is shown in the diagram.
tlme/hou~
(ii) State the two times at which the uptake
and lossofwarcrwerctbcS.1mc. [l]
b Explain how a decrease in rcmpcrarnrc and
humidity would affect the water loss by this plant.
(i) Temperature [2]
(ii) Humidity [2]
capillary tube
{Tora/:9]
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 21 Q6 November
2011) air bubble
3 a Explainwh.'\tismcantbyrhetermmmspirari,m. [3]
b Describe the cfkcr that two named enviromncmal
fuctors can have on the rate oftr.mspiration. [4]
The student used a fun with five differe nt settings
{Total: 7] and measured the wind speed. The results are
(Cambridge/GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 21Q9June2011) shown in the table.
Transport in animals
wlndspeed/ dtsunc, rate of water a (i) NamerheheanchambersAandB. (2]

meuesp« 1r.1velie.dbylht uptake/lT'JTI ( ii ) Use information shown in the diagram to
HCOnd air bubblt/lT'JTI pl!fmlnute identify rhe type of blood vessel C as either
an anery or a vein. Give a reason for your
choice. [2]
b (i) Stare and explain rwo differences between
rhe come ms of the blood flowing in
vessels C and E. (2]
(ii) Suggest and explain which of the four
b Calculate the r;ite of water uptake at the blood vessels contains blood at the
highesr wind speed and write your answer highest pressure. [2]
in the table. ( 1]
c Describe the effect ofincrcasing wind speed on [Tota/:8]
the r;i1e ofwater uptake. You may use figures (CiJmbridge /GCSE Biology 0610Paper21 08 June 2010)
from the rab[e to support your answer. [2]
d Stare two cnvironmenral fucrors, other than 2 As the heart pumps blood around the human body,
wind speed, that the student should keep a pulse may be felt at certain sites, such as the one
constant during the i,westigation. (2] shown in the diagram.
e Some of the water absorbed by the plants
is not lost in transpit'.ltion. State two other
wa}'s in which water is used. (2]
f Water moves through the xylem to the tops
ofvery tall trees, such as the giant redwoods
of North America. The movement of warer in
rhe xylem is caused by transpiration. Explain
how transpiration is responsible for the
movement ofw:ucr in the xylem. [4]
g Plants that live in ho1, dry environments
show adaptations for survival. State three
struenir:. 1adaprations of these plants. (3]
[Total: 17]
(Cambridge /GCSE 8iology0610 Paper 31 Q4 June 2009)
a (i) Label on the diagram, one other site
• Transport in animals where a pulse may be felt. [1]
1 l11e diagram shows the route taken by blood (ii ) Suggest why it is possible to fed the
around the body. pulse at these sites. (2]
b A srudem coumed the number of pulses felt
in 15 seconds at the sire shown on their wrist.
The srudcnr did rhis three rimes.
The results are recorded in the table.
pul$esper1Sse<onds pu lses per minute
2ndcount
( 1) Complete rhe nght -hand column m the

rabk ro show the number of pulses per
minute for each count and the mean pulses
per minute. (2]
0
(ii) Explain why it is advisable to repeat 3 The diagram shows an external view of the heart.
readings at least three times. [ l]
(iii)State two fuctors that may affect heart
rare. For each fuctor explain its effect on
heart rate. [4]
c Body mass and heart rates for a number of
different mammals are shown in the table.
body mass/kg hea rt rate/beatspe rmlnu te
a A blood clot is stuck at X. Explain what

will happen ro the heart muscle cells in the
elephant shaded area. [3]
Copy the mean pulses per minute from the first b List t hree actions people can take to reduce
table into the second table. the risk of having a blood clot in the coronary
(i) Plot the data in a bar chart to show heart arteries. [3]
rareforallsixmammals. [5] (Tota/:6}
~~~~~~~~~~~~- (Cambridge /GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 21 03 November
201 2)
4 a The human circulatory system contains valves.

(i) State the function of these vah'es. [l]
(ii) Complete the table by placing a tick (.I )
against two structures in the human
circulatory system that have valves. [ l]
str ucture ln d rcul atorysystem
capillaries
b Describe how you would measure rhe heart rates

of some students before they start running. [2]
c The bar cl1art ( opposite) shows the results of an
investigation of the heart rates of some students
rabbit dog human horse elephant before and immediately after running. Each
1.0~ 1.5~ S.Okg 60.0kg 1200.0~5000.0kg
student ran the same distance.
(ii) Describe the general rrend shown by this
data plotted on the bar chart. [ l]
d An elephant can live for 70 years, a car for
15 years and a rabbit for 9 years.
Suggest how heart rate and body mass might
affect life expectancy of mammals. [I ]
[Total: 17}
Diseases and immunity
5 1hc: diagram shows a section through the hc:an.
a (i) Name: the h\'O blood vessels, shown on the

diagram, that carry oxygc:nacc:d blood. Il J
(ii) State the: letter that idc:ntific:s the:
tricuspid valve. Il J
(iii)State the: letter that identilic:s a semilunar
students
val\"c:, {I]
(i) State: which student hu the lowest heart b Describe how the: heart forces blood into the:
rate: immediately after running. {I ]
aorta. [3)
(ii ) State: which student hu the: largest change: c (i) Name: the: blood vessel that ddivc:rs blood
in heart rate from bc:forc: to immc:diatdy to the: muscles of the walls of the: atria
aftc:rrunning. [I)
and vc:mriclc:s. [ I)
( iii )Dc:scribc any trc:nds that you can sc:c: in ( ii) Name: the: nvo blood vessels that deliver
the results. {2 ) blood to the liver. [2)
d Explain why heart rate changes whc:n you run. I4 J
{Total: 9}
{Total: 12}
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology0610 Paper 21 QBJune 2011)
2011)
• Diseases and immunity
1 a Many communities treat their sewage: and
release non-polluting water into a local river.
What is meant by the term sewage? [2]
b Sometimes the sewage treatment works cannot
deal with all of the sewage and untreated
material is rc:leasc:d into the ri\'er. Suggc:st the:
likdy effects of rdeasing untreated sewage: into
a river. [4]
{Tota/: 6}
(Cambridge IGC5E Biology0610 Paper 2
Q2 November 2006)
2 The lymphatic system consists of:

• thin -walled lymph vessels that drain tissue fluid
from many organs of the body
• lymph nodes that contain the cells of the
immune system.
The fluid in the lymph vessels is moved in a way
similar to the movement of blood in veins. The
diagram shows part of the lymphatic system.
c (i) Name the type of nuclear division shown

at Pin the diagram. [l]
direction of (ii) Name the molecules labelled Qin the
I lymphflOYI
diagram. [l]
(iii)Describe how bacteria are destroyed by
cell R. [3]
Antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections.
An investigation was carried out into the effect of
prescribing antibiotics on antibiotic resistance in
20 countries. The graph shows the results of this
investigation. Each point represents the result for
a country.
a Suggest how lymph is moved in the lymph

vessels. [2]
b After a meal rich in funy foods, the lymph
leaving the ileum is full of fut droplets.
Explain why there are fut droplets in the
lymph leaving rhe ileum. [2]
Lymph flows through lymph nodes. The diagram
(above right) shows the action of white blood
cells in a lymph node when bacteria are present.
percent.1geofpopulatlon
t.1klngantlblotlcs
d Describe the results shown in the graph.
Credit will be given for using figures from
the graph to support your answer. [3]
e Many different antibiotics are used.

Suggest why some antibiotics are used less
frequently than others. [3]
[Total: 15]
(Cambridge 1G CSE Biology 061 0 Paper 31 Q4 November
2010)
ribcage ls raised diaphragm ls ...
3 a Describe the function of the immune system,

including antibody production and
phagocytosis. [9]
b Outline cl1e problems of organ transplantation
and how they can be overcome. [6]
[Total: 15] pressureofalrlnthelungs
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 3 Q6 November
2003)
atmospheric pressure ls ..................... .

• Gas exchange in thanalrpressurelnthelungs
humans
1 Gaseous exd1ange takes place while air flows in and
our of the lungs. I •"mw~ . . ........... thelungs I
a State three ways in which inspired air is
different from expired air. [3]
~j·g~~;~~·~~~·ha~~~h
b List three features of gaseous exchange
surf.tees that help to make cl1em more I al~r:":~:\~: I
efficient. [3]
[Tota/:6] a Complete the flow chart by writing appropriate
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 21 08 November words in the spaces provided. [ 6]
2009) b The photograph shows part of cl1e epithelium
that lines the trachea.
2 TI1e ribcage and diaphragm are involved in the
breathing mechanism to ventilate cl1e lungs.
TI1e flow chart shows the d1anges that take place
when breathing in.
Explain how the cells labelled A and Bin the

photograph protect the gas exchange system. [ 4]
[Total: 10]
Q3 November 2012)
3 a Define the term aerobic respiration. [2] (ii) Explain the role of yeast in brewing. [2]
During exercise the movement of the ribcage [Total: 10]
enables air to enter the lungs. (Cambridge /GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 21 05 November
b Describe how the ribcage is moved during 2010)
inspiration (breathing in) and explain how
2 a State, using chemical symbols, the equation
this causes air to enter the lungs. [ 4]
for aerobic respiration. [3]
c Explain how the ribcage returns to its resting
A student compared the respiration of
position during expiration (breathing out). [2]
germinating mw1g bean seeds with pea seeds
Some smdents carried out an investigation on a using the apparatus shown in the diagram.
16-year old athlete. The table shows the results
of their im·estigation on the athlete's breathing at
rest and immediately after 20 minutes of running. .,o,,,.,a« h ~
Ventilation rate is the volume of air taken into the
syringe
lungs per minute. oil droplet
Immediately after \ 'T'~"'' :::::~

20mlnutesofrunnlng
I•: l l : , , l • ,I
bag of seeds
soda-II me
averagevolumeofairtakenin The soda-lime absorbs any carbon dioxide
witheac:hbreatWdm•
released by the germinating seeds. TI1e student
venlilation rateidm•perminute
recorded the position of the oil droplet every
d (i) Calculate the ventilation rate of the minute over a period of 6 minutes.
athlete immediately after 20 minutes b State three variables that should be kept
ofnuming. [l ] constant in this investigation. [3]
(ii) Explain why the athlete has a high c TI1e table shows the student's results.
ventilation rate after the exercise has
germlnatlngmungbean germlnatlngpeaseeds
fini shed. [5]
[Total: 14]
~"'
position of position of
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 31 03 November dropleUmm moved/ mm dropleUmm moved/mm
per minute per minute
2010)
• Respiration
1 a (i) State the word equation for aerobic
respiration. [2]
(ii) Complete the table to show three
differences between aerobic respiration
and anaerobic respiration in humans. [3] (i) State which way the droplet moves and
explain your answer. [3]
aerobkresplratlonln anaerobkresplratlonln
(ii ) Stare what happens to the movement of
humans hum ans
the droplet after 3 minutes and suggest
an explanation. [2]
[Total: 11]
b Yeast is used in making some rypes ofbread and 2011)
in brewing.
(i) Explain the role of yeast in bread·making. [3]
Co-ordination and response
(i) Where are excess amino acids broken

• Excretion in humans down? [l]
l a The kidney is an excretory organ. (ii) Which waste chemical is formed from the
Name two other excretory organs in humans breakdown of excess amino acids? [ 1]
and in each case state a substance that the
{Tota/:9]
organ excretes. [ 4]
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology0610 Paper 2 02 June 2009)
b The table shows the amounts of some substlnces
in the blood in the renal artery and in the renal
vein of a healthy person. 3 a Define the term excretion. [3]
b The figure below shows a section through
amou nt In bl ood In renal amount In blood In renal a kidney.
artery(a rbltrary unlts) veln (arbl t rary unlts)
glucose
Suggest what happens in the kidney ro bring

about rhe differences in the composition of
the blood shown in the table. [4]
[Tota/:8}
2010) (i) Using label lines and the letters given, label
the following on a copy of the figure:
2 a \Vhydo most waste pnxiucts of metabolism F where filtration occurs
have to be removed from the body? [ 1] R the renal artery
b The diagram shows the human excretory system. U where urine passes to the bladder [3]
(ii) Describe the process of filtration in the
kidney. [3]
(iii )Name the processes resulting in the
reabsorption of
1 glucose
2 water. [3]
(Total: 12]
2007)
Name the parts that fit each of the following

descriptions. • Co-ordination and
(i) TI1etubethatcarriesurinefromthe response
(ii) ~~;~~n that stores urine.
(iii )TI1e blood vessel that carries blood away
g~ 1 a Define the rerm homeostasis.
b It has been suggested by some scientists that
[2]
from the kidneys. [l] the iris reflex is an example ofhomeostasis.

c Outline how the kidneys remove only waste Describe this reflex and explain why it might be
materials from the blood. [3] considered to be a homeostatic mechanism. [3]
d Excess amino acids cannot be stored in the {Total: 5]
body and have to be broken down. (Cambridge /GCSE Biologj 0610 Paper 21 010 June 2008)
2 a Complete the following paragraph using 4 a The diagram shows the structures involved in a
appropriate words. reflex arc.
Sense organs are composed of groups of
_ _ _ cells that respond to specific
- - - · TI1e sense organs that respond
to chemicals are the _ _ _ and the
[4]
b The eye is a sense organ that focuses light rays
by changing the shapes of its lens. It does this by
conrracting its ciliary muscles.
(i) What links the ciliary muscles ro the lens? [I]
(ii) Describe the change in shape of the lens
when a person looks from a near object to
,hL
adisttntobject. [l] (i) On the diagram label structures A, B, C
c The graph shows changes in the contraction and D. [4]
of the ciliary muscles as a person watches a (ii) Name the two types of tissue in the body
humming bird move from flower to flower while that can act as effectors. [2]
feeding on necttr. b (i) Describe the characteristics of a reflex
action resulting from the activity of
,o,\::r.. structures A, B, C and D
(11) Sttte one example of a reflex action
[2]
[l]
clllary (Total 9]
co~~~~on 4 (Cambridge /GCSE 810/ogy 0610 Paper 21 04June 2011)
1
2
fully 3 5 a ::::~·el~:~~~::1:• ;~:i;~~~;::;muh Tropisms
relaxed (1) Define the termgeotroptsm. [2]
(ii) Suggest the advanttges of geotropic responses
In whicl1 period of time, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5, was the
for a seed germinating in the soil. [ 3]
bird
b State three external conditions necessary
(i) feeding from a flower \·ery near to the
for the germination of a seed in the soil. [3]
person [l]
(ii) flying away from the person [l] (Tota/:8]
(iii)flying towards the person. [l] (Cambridge /GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 21 03 November
2011)
[Total: 9]
3 a Name two sense organs and an environmental

stimulus that each detects. [2]
• Drugs
1 The first diagram shows an organism \V and the
b (i) Tropisms occur in plants. State the
meaning of the term tropism. [2] second diagram shows how the reproduction of
(ii) Complete the ttble abour tropisms in this organism is affected by an antibiotic.
plants. [4] organlsmW
nameoftroplsm effectonplantshoot
gravity
light
[Total:B]
Reproduction
2 TI1e diagram shows the male reproductive system.
)fj)I
@g.
'&2 &2 Q T\o;,mQ
~~
a (i) What type of organism is W most likely
a Using a label line and the letters given, label the
diagram.
(i) G where gametes are formed [l]
to be? [l] (ii) S the sperm duc.t [l]
(ii) State three reasons for your ans,ver. [3] (iii)T where testosterone is formed [l]
b Name the type of reproduction shown by (iv) Uthe urethra [l]
organism W. [l] b Describe two secondary characteristics
Q is the only organism surviving the antibiotic regulated by testosterone. [2]
treatment. c Choose words from the list to complete eacl1
c Suggest an explanation for the survival of of the spaces in the paragraph. Each word may
Q and its offipring. [2] be used once only and some words may nor be
d Explain why patients who are treated with used at all.
antibiotics are always advised to take a complete four diploid double half
course of treatment, rather than stop the haploid meiosis mitosis two
treatment as soon as they feel better. [3] Gametes are formed by the division of a nucleus,
a process called _ _ _ . This process
[Total: 10]
produces a total of _ _ _ cells from the
original cell. Each of these cells has a nucleus
described as being _ _ _ and each
nucleus contains _ _ _ the number
of chromosomes present in the original
• Reproduction nucleus. [4]
1 Choose words from the list to complete each of the (Total: 10]
spaces in the paragraph. (Cambridge /GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 21 08 June 2009)
Each word may be used once only and some words
are not used at all. 3 The diagram shows a section through parts of the
bright dry dull heavy large male reproductive and urinary systems.
light sepals small
sticky style
Flowers of plants that rely on the ,vind to bring
about pollination tend to have _ _ _ petals
that have a _ _ _ colour. TI1eir pollen is
normally _ _ _ ,nd _ _ _ . ln these
flowers,the _ _ _ andthe _ __
both tend to be long. [ 6]
(Tota/:6]
a (i) Name the tubes labelled M, N and 0. [3] d The graph shows the changes in the dry mass of a
(ii) Explain the roles of the testes, the prostate broad bean seed in the first 5 days after planting.
gland and the scromm. [4]
,:~
b Humans use a variety of methods of birth
conrrol.
(i) On the diagram, put an X where a
vasectomy could be carried out. [ l]
(ii) Explain one method of birth control,
used by males, that can also protect
against infection by a sexually rransmitted
disease. [2]
(iii)Name one sexually transmitted disease. [l]
[Total: 11]
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 21 03 June 2011) 1 2 3 4 5
tlmeafterplantlngldays
4 Reproduction in humans is an example of sexual Describe and suggest an explanation for the
reproduction. Outline what occurs during: changes that happen to the dry mass of the
a sexualinrercourse [2] seed in the first 5 days after planting. [ 3]
b fertilisation [3]
[Total: 10]
c implantation. [2]
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 21 QSJune 2010)
[Total: 7]
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 21 QB Nov 2011)
6 a Using straiglu lines, match the names of
flower parts with their fimctions. One has
5 The diagram shows an experiment to investigate been completed for you. [4]
the conditions needed for germination. Tubes A,
B, C and Dare at room temperature and tube Eis
in a freezer.
A B C D E
I petal Hattfac:t1insect1lorpollinatioo l
=====
U.~,.u :,,.,a~:::Ll
::::>e=p,=I I produces~lengraim
pratl'{tstl\eHcmerwhen
dry ;,;:,
~I
moist -- -- water ; , ;:, cotton.,;:,
I.mbud
cotton cotton wool
wool wool
room temperature
~
In freezer
I"''" thepolk>nlaodsduring
pollination
a Stare three of tl1e environmental conditions
tl1is experiment is investigating. [ 3] b Describe how the stigmas ofwind -pollinared
b Predict in which two mbes the seeds \\ill flowers differ from the stigmas ofinsect-
germinate. [2] pollinated flowers. Relate tl1ese differenc.es
c Nuclear and cell dhision happen during to the use of wind as the pollinating agent. [3]
germination. c Discuss tl1e implication to a species ofsdf-
(i) Name tl1e type of nuclear division that takes pollination. [3]
place during the growth of a seedling. [I ]
[Total: 10]
(ii) State how tl1e number of cl1romosomes
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 31 QI June 2008)
in each of the new cells compares with
the number of cl1romosomes in the
original cells. [I]
Reproduction
7 TI1e diagram shows the structure of the placenta 8 The diagram shows a human egg cell and a
and pan:s of the fh:al and maternal circulatory human sperm cell.
systems.
8
v
humaneggc11II hum~nspermcell
a ( i ) Complete the table by listing the blood a (i) What is the name gl\·en to the release of
vessels that carry oxygenated blood. eggs from the ovary? [IJ
Use the letters in the diagram to ( ii ) Sperm cells and egg cells arc haploid.
identify the blood vessels. [2) State the meaning of the term IJnploid. [ I )
b Complete the table to compare egg cells
c.-cubiory syJ tffl'I blood vessels that uny with sperm cells. I 4]
,.. OJl~tedblood
(ii) Name structure T and describe what

numbersproduO!d
sptrm ce lls
happens to it after birth. [2)

(iii)TI1c placcnr.1 is adapted fo r the exchange mobility
of substances between the maternal c Three hormones that control the menstrual
blood and the for.1! blood. Describe the cycle arc:
exchanges that occur across the placenta follicle srimul:iring hormone (FSH)
t0 keep the fetusalive and well. [4) lutcinising hormone (LH)
b The placenta secretes the ho rmones oestrogen • oestrogen.
and progcsrerone. Describe the roles of these (i) Name the site of production and release of
hormones during pregnancy. [3) oestrogen. {I]
{Total: 11] (ii) Describe the role of oestrogen in
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology0610 Paper 31 05 June2012) controlling the menstrual cycle. {2)
d Artificial insemination is sometimes used as
a treatment for female infertility. Outline
how artificial insemination is carried out in
humans. {2 )
{Total: 11]
• Inheritance
l Flowers from three red-flowered plants, A, Band
C , ofthesamespecieswereself-pollinated.
a ;::;1;:ti:~~-at is meant by the term
b Seeds were collected from plants A, Band C.
[ ]
2
~ T p;
2 The diagram shows a fumily tree for a condition
known as nail-patella syndrome (NPS ).
o
'"
.
O
femalewlthoutNPS
femalewlthNPS
malewHhout NPS
The seeds were germinated separately and were • male with NPS
allowed to grow and produce flowers. The
colour of these flowers is shown in the table. 8 9
seeds from plant colour of flowers grown from the seeds a (i) State whether NPS is controlled by a
A dominant or a recessive allele.
(ii) Explain which evidence from the fumily tree
confirms your ansv,,er to (i). [3]
b Explain what the chances are for a third child
(i) State the recessive allele for flower of parents 6 and 7 having NPS. You may use a
colour. [l] genetic diagram to help your explanation. [3]
(ii) State which plant, A, B, or C, produced
seeds that were homozygous for flower [Tora/:6}
colour. [l] (Cambridge /GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 21 07 June 2008)
(iii )Suggest how you could make certain that
self.pollination took place in the flowers 3 There is a variation in the shape ofhuman thumbs.
of plants A, Band C. [2] The diagram shows the two forms referred to as
c Complete the genetic diagram to explain how 'straight' and 'hitch hikers'.
two red -flowered plants identical to plant B
could produce both red-flowered and white-
flowered plants. Use the symbols R to represent
the dominant allele and r to represent the
recessive allele. [4]
parent1 parent2
parental phenotypes straight

parental genotypes A survey of thumb shapes was carried out on 197
smdents. The results are shown in the table.
gametes
00 •00 ,"
,-_'_
fy_" _" .._"'stralght'thumbs
="m~bo~•~of="";c'~'"-" _w'_'"_,_"'hltchhlker'thumbs
="m=bo~•=ofc"=
.- "'='"="-w'_
'" ,
offspring genotypes
offspring phenotypes a Describe the results shown in the table. [3]
[Total: 10} b Scientists think that thumb shape is conrrolled
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 21 010 November by a single gene. What evidence is there from
2011) the table to support this idea? [3]
[Tora/: 6}
2010)
Inheritance
4 Complete the sentences by writing the most a Describe one method a scientist could use to
appropriate word in each sp3Cc. Use only words show that zebras shown in the diagram are
from the list below. different species. (l]
~ diploid dorrnoaot gene genotype b Studies have shown that the hotter the
h.ipbd hl!terol)90US homozygous meio~
mito~ phenotype recessiVe
environment, the more stripes zebras h,we.
(i) S~tc the type of variation which would
Wing length in the fruit fly, Drosophila, is
result in different numbers of stripes. [I]
controlled by a singk _ _ _ that has two
(ii ) Study the diagram. Suggest which
lorms, one for long and one for short wings. The
species of zcbr.l li\'cS in 1hc honeSt
sperm and ova of fruit flies arc produced by rhe
environment. [I]
process of _ _ _ _ When fertilisation occurs
c Occasionally, zebras arc born that arc almost
the gametes fuse to form a _ _ _ zygote.
completely black. The change in appearance is
When r,vo long-winged fruit flies were crossed
the result ofmu~tion.
with each other some of the offipringwere short-
(i) State the term that is used to describe rhe
wingcd. TI1c _ _ _ of the rest ofrhc
appearance ofan organism. [I]
offspring was long-winged. The short-winged form
(ii) Define the term m1untio11. (2]
is _ _ _ to the long-winged form and each
d Tsetse flies attack animals wirh short fur,
oftheparentsmusrhavebeen _ __ . [6]
sucking their blood and spreading diseases. The
diagram shows a tsetse fly. This fly is an insect,
{Tota/:6]
belonging to the arthropod group.
2010)
5 The diagram shows three species of zebra.
(i) S~tc o ne fi::amrc, visible in the diagram,

which is common to all arthropods. [I]
( i.i) S~tc two features, visible in the diagram,
which distinguish insects from other
arthropod groups. (2]
e Scientists have discovered that zebras with
more horizontal stripes attract fewer tsetse flies.
(i) Suggest why the stripes on the head
and neck of the zebra would be an
advan~ge when it feeds on rhe grass on
the ground. (2]
(ii) Describe how a species of zebra could
gradually de\·clop more horizontal
stripes. (3]
{Total: 14]
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology0610 Paper 31
Q4 June 2008)
6 The Aowcrsofpca plants, Pinim s11tiv11m, arc phenotyptollffds r;1Uo ofroc..ndto

produced for sexual reproduction. The flowers arc rllhe~pods Wl1nldll!dseeds
naturally self-pollinating, but they can be cross-
pollinated by insects.
a Explain the difference between self-pollination 1 purebred kr
..........
round Wl1nkled
and cross-pollinnion. [2J round'leedsxpurt

bredforwrinklll!d
b Explain the disadv.mtages for plants, such
as P. san·vum, of reproducing sexually. [4] 2 offspring1self-
Pea seeds develop inside ~ pods after pollinated
fertilisation. TI1ey contain starch. A gene controls 3 offspring1xpure
bredforroond
the production of an enzyme involved in the
synthesis of starch grains. lltc allele, R, codes for 4 off~ringlxpure
an enzyme that produces normal srarch grains. bred for winkled
This results in seeds that arc round. l11c alklc, r, suds
docs nor code fo r the enzyme . The starch grains d Complete rhe table by indicating
arc nor formed no rmally. This results in seeds • the type of seeds prese nt in the pods with a
that arc wrinkled. The diagram shows round and tick [.I] or across [.K]
wrinkled pea seeds. • rhe ratio of round to wrinkled seeds. [3]
e Seed shape in peas is an example of
discontinuous variation. Suggest one reason
why seed shape is an example of discontinuous
variation. [I]
Plants have methods ro disperse their seeds over a
roundpea$ol!9d wrlnkledpu§ftd wide area.
f Explain the advantages of having seeds that arc
Pure bred plants arc homozygous for the gene dispersed over a wide area. [3J
concerned. A plam breeder had some pure bred
[Tora/: 14]
pea plants that had grown from round seeds
(Cambridge/GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 31
and some pure bred plants that had grown from
06 November 1011)
wrinkled seeds.
c Srarc rhe gen0typcs o f the pure bred plants
that had grown from round and from
wrinkled seeds. [l]
• Variation and selection
These pure bred plants were cross-pollinated
(cross 1) and the seeds collected. All the
seeds were round. These round seeds
were gcrmin:ued, grown into adult plants
(offspring I ) and self-pollinated (cross 2 ). The
pods on rhe offipring I plants contained both
round and wrinkled seeds. Further crosses
(3 and 4 ) were carried out as shown in the
table.
Organisms and their environment
Afi:er 2 weeks as many of the moths were caught

as possible. The results are shown in the table.
• Organisms and their
wing colour of modi numbtr released number QUghl
environment
1 a The chart shows the flow of some of the energy
through a food chain in an ocean .
a (i) Suggest and explain o ne reason, related

t0 the colour of the bark, for the
difference in num bers of the varieties
of moth caught. (1]
·--~ ~
(ii) Suggest and explain how the results
may have been different if the moths had
been released in a wood where the trees
were blackened with carbon dust from About 1% of the light energy reaching the
air pollution. [2] ocean is convened to chemical energy by the
The table below shows the appearance ph}'toplankron. The phytoplankto n prod uce
and genetic make- up of the different \'arieties sugars, furs and proteins.
ofrhis species. (i) Name the process that changes light
energy to chemical energy. [I]
w ing colour g1n1Ucmak e- up
(ii) Name the chemical in the phytoplankron
~~.sped~ GG;Gg rhar absorbs light energy. [I]
(iii )Cakulare, using information from the
b ( i ) State the appropriate terms fur the table flow chart, how much energy passes from
headings. [2] the phytoplankron to the decomposers. [ I]
( ii) State and explain which wing colo ur is (iv) Name two groups of decomposers. [ 2]
dominam. [2] (v) Calculate, using information from the
c Srate the type of genetic va riation shown by flow chart, the pcrcenngc o f energy passed
these moths. Explain how this variatio n is from the phytoplankron to the primary
inherited. [3] consumers. [2]
d Heterozygous moths were interbred. Use a (vi)About 889' of the energy in the primary
genetic diagnm to predict the proportion consumers does not become part of the
of black-winged moths present in the next secondary consumers. Explain how this
generation. [5] energy is lost from the food chain. [3]
e (i) Name rhe process that can gh·e rise to b The organisms in this food chain fo rm a
different alleles fo r wing colour in a commw1ity in the ocean. This community is
population of moths. [ l] formed of many populations. Explain what is
(ii) Suggest one fucto r which might meant by the term pop11la rio11. [2]
increase the rate of this process. [l ] [Total: 12]
[Total: 17] (Cambridge /GCSE Biology0610 Paper 21 Q6June 2011)
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 31 Q5 June 2007)
2 The diagram shows part of a food web for the a Explain the difference betv,,een a food web
South Atlantic Ocean. and a food chain. [2]
KIiier b From the food web name:
(i) acarnivore
"~1
',r( :::'·\
~,,
(ii) a producer
(iii)a consumer from cl1e 2nd trophic level. [3]
c In some regions, molllltain lions ha,·e been
Adele I hunted and fuce extinction. Suggest how the

coyotes might be affected if the mountain
,,..--•""''\'" ;'''"
, ', ___.->rcrabeater
lion became extinct. [ 3]
[Tota/:8]
'krill__..-- seal
09 November 2012)
r
;lgae
4 The diagram shows a carbon cycle.
a (i) Name cl1e top camivore in this food web. [l]
(ii) Name a member of this food web that
is both a secondary and a tertiary
consumer. [ l]
b Use cl1e information from the food web to
complete cl1e food chain of five organisms.
algae ~ - - - - - - - -
[2]
c In cl1e future cl1e extraction of mineral
resources in cl1e Antarctic might occur on a
large scale. This could destroy the breeding
grounds of the Ross seal.
(i) State and explain what effects this might a (i) Name the process represented by
have on the population of Leopard seal. [2] arrow A. [l]
(ii) State and explain what effects cl1is might (ii) Name the process represented by
have on the population offish. [4] arrow E. [l]
b (i) Name one group of organisms
[Total: 10]
responsible for process B. [l]
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 21 09 June 2008) (ii) List two environmental conditions
needed for process B to occur. [2]
3 The diagram shows a food web.
c (i) Which arrow represent:5 photosyncl1esis? [l]
(ii) Complete the word equation for
photosyncl1esis.
- - - •- - - -
oxygen+ _ _ _ [2]
(iii)This process needs a supply of energy.
Name the form of energy needed. [l]
d In an ecosystem the flow of carbon can be
drawn as a cycle but the flow of energy cannot
be dr.i.wn as a cycle. Explain cl1is difference. [3]
[Total: 12]
05 November 2012)
Organisms and their environment
5 1l1e diagram shows the water cycle. (ii ) Name o ne type: of organism chat brings
about decomposition. [ I]
b Over the last few decades, the carbon dioxide
concentration in the atmosphere has been
rising. Suggest how this has happened. [3]
{Total:BJ
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 2 1
07 November 2008)
7 Rabbiis :ire primary consumers. The graph shows

changes in the popul:ition of rabbi is :ifter a small
num ber were released on an island where none had
previously lived.
:i (i) llte arrows labelled P represent evaporation.
Which type of energy is needed for this
process? [ 1]
(ii) State what causes the formation of clouds
atQ. [I]
b (i) \rVhat process is represented by the
arrows labelled ru [I]
( ii) Name three factors th:it could alter the
rate at which process R luppens. [ 3]
c A logging company wanes ro cur down the
forest area.
(i) Suggest what effects this deforestation
might ha\·e on the climate further inland.
Explain your answer. [2]
(ii) Srate two other effects deforestation
could have on the environment. [2]
[Total: 10}
(Cambridge IGCSE Biology 0610 Paper 2 04 June 2009) a Which stage, A, B, C, D or E, shows when the
binhr:m:was
6 :i The diagram shows the carbon cycle. (I) equ:il to the death rate [I]
(ii ) slightly greater d1an the death rate~ [ 1]
b (i) Suggest two fuctors that allowed the
change in the rabbit population during
sr:igc B. [2]
(ii) Suggest two re:isons for the ch:inge in
the rabbit population during sr:ige E. (2]
{Tota/:6}
05 November 2009)
(I) Name the proccs.sc:s that cause the

changes shown by d1e arrows. [4]
8 TI1e graph shows a population growth graph for

a herbivorous insect that has just entered a new
habitat.
nodules of clover
cattle feed
\
(73.2)
~ /.3)
nltrogenfertlllsers
a (i) Which of the four phases, labelled A, B, C

and D, represems the stationary phase and
which the lag phase? [2]
(ii) During which phases will some of this
insect population die? [2]
b (i) State two factors that could affect the rate
of population growth during phase C. [2]
(ii) Suggest how these two factors might
change. Explain how each change would a (i) Name the process in which bacteria convert
affect the rate of population growth. [ 4] atmospheric nitrogen into a form that is
{Total: 10} available to clover plants. [ 1]
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 21 02 November (ii) Name two processes that convert
2010) nitrogen compounds in dead plants
into nitrate ions that can be absorbed
by grass. [2]
9 An agricultural student investigated nutrient cycles
b The total quantity of nitrogen added to the
on a farm where cattle are kept for milk. The farmer
farmer's fields is 120 kg per hectare per year.
grows grass and clover as food for the cattle. Gover Calculate the percentage of this nitrogen that
is a plant that has bacteria in nodules in its roots.
is presem in the milk. Show your working. [2]
The diagram shows the flow of nitrogen on the funn c State two ways in which the nitrogen
as discovered by the student. The figures represent compounds in the cattle's diet are used by
the flow of nitrogen in kg per hectare per year. the animals other than to produce milk. [2]
(A hectare is 10000m2.) d The student found that a large quantity of
the nitrogen compounds made available to
the farmer's fields was not presem in the milk
or in the cattle. Use the information in the
diagram to suggest what is likely to happen to
the nitrogen compounds that are eaten by the
cattle, but are not present in compounds in
the milk or in their bodies. [5]
e The carbon dioxide concentration in the
atmosphere has increased significantly over
tl1e past 150 years. Explain why this has
happened. [2]
[Total: 14}
Biotechnology and genetic engineering
• Biotechnology and b (i) State the time interval over which the
fungus grew at the maximum rate. [ l]
genetic engineering (ii) As the fungus grows in the fermenter,
the nuclei in the fungal hyphae divide.
1 Penicillin is an antibiotic produced by the fungus
State the type of nuclear division that
Pwicil/ium chrysogenum. l11e diagram shows the
occurs during the growth of the fimgus
process used to produce penicillin.
in the fermenter. [l]
(iii) Explain why the growth of the fungus
slows down and stops. [ 3]
c Penicillin is not needed for the growth of P.
chrysogenum.
(i) State the evidence from the graph that
shows that penicillin is not needed for
this growth. [2]
(ii) The people in charge of penicillin
production emptied the fermenter at
160 hours. Use the information in the
graph to suggest why they did not allow
the fermentation to continue for longer. [ l]
d Downstream processing refers to all the
processes that occur to the contents of the
fermenter after it is emptied. This involves
making penicillin into a form that can be
used as medicine. Explain why downstream
processing is necessary. [3]
e Explain why antibiotics, such as penicillin,
a Enzymes in the fimgus are used to make kill bacteria but not viruses. [ 2]
penicillin. Explain why there is a water jacket
around the fermenter and why acids and [Total: 19]
alkalis are added to the fermenter. [ 6] (Cambridge /GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 3 1
~·'".,.:r a
l11e graph shows the mass of fimgus and the yield 04 November 2011)
of penicillin during the fermentation process.
2 l11e chart shows the change in percentage of
disease-causing bacteria that were resistant to the
antibiotic penicillin from 1991 to 1995.
penlclllln
' of bacteria
"'"' '~'"'""' ,s
,'
g'25
penlclllln 10
,
fungus 0
1991 1993 1995
tlmetyeus
a (i) Describe the change in percentage of

bacteria resistant to penicillin bet:v.·een
1991 and 1995. [2]
20 40 60 80 100
1 G
(ii ) Explain how a population of antibiotic-

resistant bacteria can de\·dop. [4 J
• Human influences on
b Although bacteria can cause disease, many ecosystems
species arc useful in processes such as food 1 Deforestation occurs in many parts of the world.
production and maintaining soil fertility. a State t wo reasons why deforcsration is carried
(i) Name o ne type of food produced using out. [2)
bacteria. [ I) b (i) Explain the effects dcforesration can have
(ii) Outline the role ofbacrcria. in on the carbon cycle. [4]
maintaining soil ferti lity. [3) ( ii) Describe two effects dcforesration can
c Bacteria arc also used in generic engineering. have on the soil. [2]
The diagram outlines the process of inserting ( iii ) ForestS arc important and complex
huma.n insulin genes into ba.ctcria. using generic ecosystems. State two likely effects of
engineering. deforestation on the forest ecosystem. [2]
Hum11nce11 1 ONAth
" r e/ld~
Bllcterlum {Total: 10]
ONApl11smld
chromosomes 5
2 The diagram shows an Arctic food web.
lnnucleus lsol11ted o 0
~ pl11smlds6 b
e1-__
1sot11ted
Insulin gene --.........6//
1[6<>-o]
/1,1"---.
ll~o] ~o~]~.~1"D]l[o;"'ij
oflnsulln
Complete the table below by identifying

one of the stages shown in the diagram that
ma.tches each description. [5) a (i) The phytoplankton arc the producers
deKr1pl1onofstage
the plasmids are removed from the

...,. in this food web. Name the proccs.s by
which phytoplankton build up stores of
chemical energy. [I ]
b.:ic:terialceu (ii) Name a secondary consumer in the food
11chromosomelsrell10'Jedfrom11 web above. [I]
heJlthyhum..ncell (iii )Complete the food chain using orga.nisms
plasmids11fl!returnedtotheb.lcteil11lcell shown in the food web.
restrictionendonucleaseenzymelsused phytoplankton-
_ ____ __ _ _ _ _ _ killer
b.Kte~~sare/llloY,ledtoreproduce
in~ femlenter whale [I]
{Total: 15]
b The polar bear has been listed as a.n
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology0610 Paper 31
endangered species. E:i:plain what the term
Q4 November 2006) mda11gertd speeies means. [2 J
Human influences on ecosystems
c Suggest how the loss of the polar bear 5 The bar graph shows crop productivity for a range
from the Arctic ecosystem could affi:ct the of plants but it is incomplete.
population of kilkr whales. [3)
[Tota/: 8}
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology 061 aPaper 21
05 November 2011)
"c
3 Modern technology can be used to increase the & 7.0
yield of crops.
a The use of chemicals, such as fertilisers, ~ 6.0
~
herbicides and pesticides, is one of the
developments used . "§ 5.0
(i) Name n\'O mineral ions commonly
included in fertilisers. (l ] ~
(ii) Explain the dangers to the local ! 4.0
en\'ironmem of the overuse of fertilisers ~
on farmland.
(iii )Suggcst how the use of herbicides can be
(4] ! 3.0
ofbendir ro crop plants. (3] ~

1! 2.0
(iv) Suggest n\'O dangers of using pesticides
on farmland.
b Anificial selection :md genetic engineering can
(2] •
also be used to increase crop yields. Explain
the difference between these two techniques. (2]
o~ts m~tz, rte, pot~toes sug;1r
[Total: 12}
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology 0610 Pape, 21 Q9June 2009) typeolcrop '"'
4 Alter an accident at a nuclear power plant in 1986, a Completcthcgraphusingthelollowingd1ta. (2]
particles containing radio.,cti\·c strontium were productlvltyptr~olgrowlngSNSOfl/gperm'
carried like dust in the atmosphere. l11csc landed world av..-age highest yleld
on gr.i.ssland in many European countries. When
potatoes 2.6
sheep fed on the grass they absorbed the strontium
and used it in a similar way to calcium. b Stare which crop has
a Explain where in the sheep you might (i) the highest average productivity
upccr the radioacti\'e strontium to become (ii) the greatest difference between the
concentrated. (2] average yield and the highest yield. [2]
b Suggest the possible effects of the radiation, c Outline how modem technology could be
gi\'en off by strontium, on cells in the body used ro increase the productivity of a crop
ofrhe sheep. (3] from the average yield to a high yield. (3]
d When rhe yield is measured, dry mass
[Tota/:5]
is always used rather than fresh mass.
Suggest why dry mass is a more reliable
03 November 2008)
measuremenr than fresh mass. [I]
e Maize is ofi:en used to feed cows, which are
grown to provide meat for humans. Explain
why it is more efficient for humans to cat
maize rather than meat from cows that have
been fed on maize. (3]
f (I) Complete the equation for photosynthesis.

6C02+6H1D 1igh,~n~rgy C,sHnO,s+--
[I]
natural
dl~r;teB
, . . 0·":'~. Qj'°"'.'.,,.
80%
,··
73%
··.·,·
(Ii) Describe how leaves are adapted ro trap

light. [2]
(Ui)With reference to water porcmial,
explain how water is absorbed by roots. [3]
(Iv) Explain how photosynthesising cells
obrain carbon dioxide. [2]
,M,ttof.,. • •
human
action ,. &9% 73%
[Total: 19} 98
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology 06 I O Paper 3 I
02 November 2008) key
[lwddenonr;et Or;lcwonr;et
6 TI1e Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) • economic factors [;3 w;r ;nd conflict
collects dara on food supplies worldwide. The a (i) St:1re two types of natural disaster that
FAO classifies the causes of severe food shortages occur suddenly and may lead to severe
as either by natural disasters or as the result of food shorragcs. [2]
human action. Natural disasters arc di\•idcd into (ii) State one type of natural disaster that
those that occur suddenly and those that rake a may take several years to develop. (I]
long time to develop. Human actions arc divided b Use the information in the graph and pie
into those that arc caused by economic f.tctors charts to describe the changes in food
and those that arc caused by wars and other shortages between 198 1 and 2007. [51
conflicts. The graph shows the changes in rhc c Explain how rhe increase in the human
number of severe food shortages between 1981 population may conaibmc to severe food
and 2007. shortages. [31
The quality and quantity offuod available
worldwide has been improved by artificial selection
(sclecti\·e breeding) and genetic engineering.
d Use a named example to outline how artificial
selection is used to impro\·c the quantity or
quality of the food. [4]
e Definethetcrmgmeticrngi,urri,ig. [ IJ
[fora/: 16/
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 31 Q6June 2010)
7 The table shows some information about air

TI1e pie charts show the causes of severe food pollution.
shortages in the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s. polluhnt soun:eofalrpollutant effectofpolluUnton
the environment
combustion offossifuels inal!.fiedgree,nhouse
elfect;indglob.ll w; rmlng
inal!.fiedgreenhouse
elfect ;ind glob;il w; rrni ng
sulfUf combustion of high
di<»:ide sulfUf fuels
nitrogen feftilisers
~""
Human influences on ecosystems
a Complete the table by writing ans,vers in a (i) State one cause of acid rain other than
the spaces. [2] that shown in the diagram. [ l]
b Explain how the increased greenhouse effect (ii) Describe two effects of acid rain on
is thought to lead to global warming. [ 3] forest ecosystems. [2]
c The graph shows changes in the emissions of b Describe two different ways to reduce
sulfitr dioxide in Europe between 1880 and 2004. pollution so that there is less acid rain. [2]
The chart shows tl1e pH ranges tl1at some
animals that live in lakes can tolerate.
example, 7.0 6.5 6.0 5.5 5.0 4.5
per<h
frogs
amphlbj an, oalamanden
<rayfhh
mayfly ~ Nae
blacHly~Na.e
c State one feature of molluscs that is not a

feature of crustaceans. [l]
(i) Use the information in the graph to describe d Using the information in the chart
the changes in the emissions of sulfirr dioxide (i) name an animal that could be found in
in Europe between 1880 and 2004. [4] alakewithapHof4.0 [l]
(ii) Describe the effects of acid rain on the (ii) name the animals that are most
environment. [3] sensitive to a decrease in pH [ l]
(iii) Outline the methods that have been used (iii)suggest why some animals cannot
to reduce tl1e emissions ofsulfur dioxide. [3]
tolerate living in water of pH as
lowas4.0. [2]
[Total: 15]
[Total: 10]
(Cambridge /GCSE Bio1ogy0610 Paper 31 QS November
2012)
(Cambridge /GCSE Biology 0610 Paper 31 Q4 June 2010)
8 Acid rain is a serious environmental problem in

some areas of the world. Lakes in Canada, Norway
and Scotland are higl1ly acidic. as a result of acid
rain. The diagram shows a cause of acid rain.
,-"~'"""'
and factories
"''°"'"'"""
rele.isesulfur
dioxide r.ilnbecomes.icldl
ha,
Answers to numerical questions
2 Organisation and maintenance 6 Plant nutrition 11 Gas exchange in humans
of the organism 3 b (i) 1.4 3 d (i) 70
5 b (i) 5+/- 0.Smm C (i) 6.0----7.0 12Respiration
(ii) 5/800 - 0.00625 or 0---0.6 14 a (i) 8616.2 kJ
6.25 X lQ-3 19 a 1 tonne of wheat per hectare
(ii) 49.248 kJ
5 Enzymes mn
b 1.8 tonnes of wheat per 19 Organisms and their
1 a(i)
r.,.=m=,,=.,~
.,,~.,= ,m~,~of7J,i="
-cT,~01= beet.ire extra environment
1 a (iii) 12 OOOkJ
col lected/cm• 8 Transport in plants (y) 8000/lOQQQQ X 100
4 b 20.0 - 8 (%)
9 Transport in animals 9 b 28.8/120 X 100 - 24 (%)
2 b (i) calculation x 4 for rare
per minute (72 , 76, 68 )
mean calculated: 72
3 b (ii) 55 ( 0 C) if point to point
curve (+/- half square )
(iii) 24 or 25 (+/- half
square )
4 C 0.57
Index
A classification 6, 7-8, 11 - 15 biological washing powders
abioticfactors 301-2 transport in 124-39 307,308
absorption 95, 97, 103-5 antenatalcare237 biomass 290,291
accommodation of the eye 188, 189 anthers222,224,225,258,259 biosphere 298
acidrain330,331 antibiotics 205--7 biotechnology 305
acquiredcharacteristics270 bacterial resistance to 205--6,281, biotic factors 30 1-2
activatedsludgeprocess336-7 314 birdsB,14-15
active immunity 149 production 305, 309-10 birth238-9
activesites43,61 antibodies 53, 149,151 birthcontrol 243-4
active transport 48-9, 116 antigens53, 149 bisexuality221
adaptation 274-8, 281 anus97 bladder177
flowering plants 225-6 aorta 126,1 33,134 blindspot186,187,189-90
leaves80-1 aqueous humour 186, 187 blood 124, 136--7
adaptivefeatures274,277 arachnids7, 12 circulatory system 3 1, 32, 125-35,
adenine54,56,252 archaea6 138-9
adipose tissue 91 Areasof5pecia1Scientificlnterest clotting 137-8
adolescence241 (ASS1s) 343 concentration of 41,175
adrenalglands191 arteries 124,132, 134 gaseous exchange and 156,1 57
adrenalineB0,174,180,191-2 arterioles 124,132,134-5 inplacenta240
adrenal medulla 191 arthropods 7, 11- 12 red blood cells 29,3 1,93,94, 136
adrin318 artificialinsemination(AI) 244 white blood cells 53,136,137,149
adventitious roots 16, 114 artificial propagation 217-18 blood groups 264,272
aerobic respiration 156, 165-9 artificial selection 280-2 blood pressure 128,130, 133-4
agricultural machinery 316 asexual reproduction 19,213- 19,254, blood sugar 194, 196
agriculture 258 blood vessels 124, 132-5
energytransferin290-1 assimilation 95,97,105,175 blubber 289
intensification of 3 16- 18 atheroma 127,128 Blymphocytes 150
reproductionin217,219,220 ATP 168 bodytemperature 13
world issues 88-9,293,299,300 atria125,129 control of 45,135, 193--4, 195,
AIDS(acquiredimmunedeficiency atrioventricularvalves129 196--7
syndrome) 245-6,297,298 autoimmune diseases 152 botulism 146
air auxin199-201 brain182,194,195
breathing and 158,159,163 bread306
pollution 330-4 B
breastfeedingBB,151,240-1
alcohol208-9,237-8,240 back-crosses264
breathing156,158,161-3
alimentary canal 96-8 bacteria
exerciseand158,160-1
alleles259,260-5,272-3 antibioticresistance205-6,281,314
breedingincaptivity339
alveoli 157 biotechnologyand 305,3 13- 14
'breedingtrue'26 1
amino acids 53, 73,81,92, 105,1 75 in decomposition 291-2,293,294
bronchi 157
ammonium nitrate 82 mutations in 205-6,273,281
bronchioles 157
amnion 237 innitrogen cycle294,295
bronchitis 209
amniotic fluid 237 pathogenic 142
buccalcavity101
amoebic dysentery 148 reproduction19,213
bulbs216
amphibia 8, 13-14, 15 structure 18
by-passsurgery 131
amylase 61,307 bacteriocidalantibiotics 309
anabolic steroids 21 1- 12 bacteriostaticantibiotics309
anabolism/anabolic reactions 60, balanceddiets86,87,91 cacti277
61,171 basallayer192 calcium 93
anaemia 93,94 basal metabolism 87,171 calculus 100
anaerobic respiration 169-7 1 'thebends'37 callus2 18
anatomy 3-4 bicuspid valves 129 camels 274-5
angina88,128 bile102 cancer209,2 11 ,272-3
angioplasty131 bilirubin136,174 capillaries 124, 132-3, 134
animal cells binomial system of naming 2-3 capsids 19
cell division 254 biochemical oxygen demand capsomeres 19
osmosis in 40-1,44-5 (BOD) 329 carbohydrates5 1-2,55
structure24-5,27,29 biodiversity 287,324 indiet91,92
animals biofuels 305-6,335 in photosynthesis 66
asexual reproduction 218 biogas 335,337 carboncycle292-3
Index
carbon dioxide cuttings217

intheatm05phere 322,328,332-4 dadistics 5 cytopl.um 25,27,41
inthecarboncyde 292-3 dassification systems 2-5, 20 cytosine 54,56,252
in exhaled air 159,160,163 dimate
from rMpiration 36-7, 293 D
change 328, 332-4, 338
in photosynthe1is 37, 68-9, 7 1, 72, DOT 324-5
deforestation and 323
74, 75,292 deamin at ion 97,175,294
dtnortats 197-8
carbon monoxide 209,2 10,330 death r,te 293-9
clones 218
'carbon neutral' 335 dotting of blood 137-8 decomposers 285,291-2,293
carcinogens 209 co-dominance 264 decomposition 293,294
carnivores 285 'cold-blooded' 13, 166, 195 decomprestionsickness 37
carpels 221,222 defecationseeegestion
coleoptile 201
catabolismlcatabolicreactions 60, collectingducts176 deforestation 89,293,306,316, 322-4
61,171 colon97,103 dehydration 148
catalase62 colostrum 241 dehydrogenase 61
catalysts59 colourblindness265 denaturation 54,62
catalytic converters 332 combustion 293 dendrites181
cell bodies 181 communities 297,298 denitrifyingbact e ria295
cell division 25~.213,254-5 compensation point 74 dentaldecay(caries)99-100
seealsomeiosis;mitosis competition 279,298,301 dentine99
cell membrane 25,27,40,43,48 compoundeyes 11 dermis 192
cells concentration diabetes151 -2, 196
movementintofoutof 36-49 of the blood 41,175 dialysis37,43,177-8,179
specialisation29-31,254 diffusion and 36 diaphragm 157,161
structure24-9 osm05isand 47-8 diarrhoea 45,97-8
synthesi5/conversion in 53, 66, concentrationgradient37,38,39, dichotomous keys 21-2
72-4 48-9 dicotyledons10, 17
cellsap26 condensation 294 di eldrin3 18
cellularrespiration 165 cones 188 diet86-95,128
cellulose51,52,59,91 conjunctiva 186,187 balanced 86,87, 91
cellwall 26,27,4 1,51,52,254 cons.et"Vation 334-44 diffusion 36-40, 116
cement 99 constipation 90 diffusion gudient - concentration
central nervous 5ystem 31, 32, 180, consumers 285 gr~ient
181-5, 190,210 continuous variation 27 1,272 di9(!rtion 93, 95, 97, 98-103
centromere 250 contraception 2434, 245, 334 di~stive enzymes 96
cervix233 contraceptive pills 2434, 334 di~rtive system 33, 96..a, 100-5
Chain, Ermt 207 contractile vacuoles 44 diploid nuc leus 253
chemical di~stion 95, 97, 100-3 controlled diffusion 38,48 diploid number 220,258
chemicalfertili$ers 44,82, 317 controls 60, 67, 69, 168-9 directevidence172
chemical waste 326 co-ordination 180,190 disaccharides51
children, dietary requirements 88 copulation 233,234, 235-6 discontinuous variation 270-1,272
chlorophyll26,67,68,72 corms216 disease142,296
chloroplasts26,27,29,72,78,80,254 cornea186, 187 coronary heart disease 88, 127-9,
cholera 98 coronaryarteries 126 130-1,209- 10
cholesterol 90,128 coronary heart disease 88, 127-9, defencesagainst148-51,163
choroid 186, 187 130-1,209-10 sexuallytransmittedinfections 143,
chromatids 250,256 coronary thrombosis 128 245-6
chromosomes 25,250-1,256 corpuslute um 242 transmission 143-8
function of 257 cortex(kidneys) 175 'division of labour' 29-30
number of 220,253 corte~ (plants) 113 DNA
chronic obstructive pulmonary cotyledons227,228,23 1 in classification 4-5
disorder(COPO) 209 crenatedcells45 geneticengineeringand313-14
chyme 100 Crick,Francis56,57 structure54-5,56-7,252
ciliary body 186,187,188 critical pH 99 see also chromosomes; genes
ci1iarymu5Cte 187,188 cross-breeding 220-1 dominant alleles 259,260-1, 272
ciliated cells 30,148,163 cross-pollination 230-1, 264 dopamine 210
circular musde 188 crown 99 dormancy 228
,,._.
circulatory system 31,32, 125-35, crurtacea7,1 1,12
cutide{arthropods) 11
dorwol root 184
double circulation 125
cirrhosis 208 cutide{leaves) n,78,79 Down'i iyndrome 272, 273
Index
droplet infection 148 excretion 1, SS, 174-9 needfor66,86

drugs205 exercise sources and sinks 112,121,122
medicinal 205-7 effectonbreathing158,160-1 supply of 296,300, 316-20
misused 44-5,207-12,238 effectonheartlpulserate127,130, world issues 88-9,319-20
dry weight 84 131-2 food chains 285,290,298
ducts96 heartdiseaseand129,130 food pyramids 285-6
duodenum 97,101,103 respiration and 169,170 food tests 57-8
extinction 337-8,342 foodwebs 285,286-7
extracellular enzymes 61,306 foramenovale 129-30
ecosystems 297-8, 344
eyes186-90 foreignspecies289,319
effectors181
forests89,293,306,316,322-4,
egestion 95,97, 103
340-1
egg cells F-1 generation 220-1, 261-2,266
fossilfuels292,293,320,334
animal/human 31,220,232-3, 'factoryfarming' 319,329
fossils292,337
234-5,236,239 faeces103
fovea187,188,189
plant 220 Fallopiantubes233
Franklin,Rosalind56,57
ejaculation 234,236 family planning 243-4,299
electrocardiogram(ECG) 127 fraternaltwins238
Farming and Wildlife Advisory Group
fruits223,231-2
embryonicstemcells 257-8 (FWAG) 320,344
fungi6,17-18
embryos fats52-3,SS
asexual reproduction 213-14
human 233,236-7 indiet90,91,92,105
decomposition and 293,297
plant 231-2 emulsification 102
pathogenic 142,147
emphysema 209 testfor57,58
emulsificationoffats 102 fattyacids52,90,100,104 G
enamel 99 female reproductive system Galen 138-9
endangeredspecies337-9 233,234 gallbladder97
endemic diseases 151 fermentation 169,305-6 gametes 219,226,255,258
endocrine glands 174,180,190 fermenters 313 seealsoeggcells;sperm
endocrine system 180,190 ferns9,16-17 ganglion184
energy fertilisation219,226,258 gaseous exchange
alternativesources334 flowering plants 226,231 in humans 156-63
from food 87,95, 165 human reproduction 232-3, inplants74-S
from sunlight 284-5,289-90 236,260 gastricjuice101,103
kinetic37 fertilisers44,76,82,317,327 gene mutation 272-3,281
pyramids of 291 fertilitydrugs244 genera2
in respiration 165, 166-7, 168,169 fertilityrate299 genes250,252,257,272
transfers of 289-91 fetus236 expression of 253,257
enterokinase103 fibre90,91,93 gene-splicing313
enzymes 25,53,59-60 fibrousrootsystems 114 geneticcode252
indigestion 100-1, 103 filaments222 geneticengineering282,305,310-14
pH and 60-1, 62,63-4, 103 fish8,13,15,124 genetics250,254
production 306-7 fishstocks340-2 geneticvariations270,272
rate of reactions 60-4, 194 fission 213 genotypes 259,261-3
in respiration 165-6, 168, fitness277,279 geotropismseegravitropism
169,170 flaccid44,119 germination 168,227-30
temperature and 60,62,63 flagella18 gestation period 238
epidermis(plants) 38, 78, 79,111 Fleming,SirAlexander 206-7,309 gingivitis100
epidermis(skin) 192 Florey,Howard 207 glands96
epididymis 234 flowering plants 10, 17 globalwarming 328,332-4,338
epiglottis 101,157 adaptations 225--6 glomeruli 176
epithelial cells 49,102 reproduction17,215-18,220 glucagon 196
epithelium structurell0,221-4 glucose51,91,100,105
digestivesystem 96,104,105 follicles235 in the blood 194,196
respiratory system 156,157 follicle-stimulating hormone inplants72
erectiletissue234 (FSH) 191,242 testfor57,58
eubacteria6 food gluten306
eukarya6 classes90-3 glycerol 52,100,104
eutrophication 319,327-9 energy from 87, 95,165 glycogen 51, 52,180,196
evaporation 294 geneticallymodified 89,310-11, GM crops/food 89,310-11, 312,314
evolution 279,281 312,314 gobletcells 163
Index
gonads 255 images 187,188,189 structure73,77-81,110

gravitropism 197-201 immunity 149,151 waterlossfrom 118-19
greenhouse effect 328,332-4 implantation 236 see a/so plants
grey matter 183 impulses 181-2, 185 leguminous plants 294,295
growth 1,254 incomplete dominance 265 lens186,187
inplants199-201 indirectevidence172 life expectancy 297,298
growth substances 199-201 infant mortality 297 light
guanine54,56,252 inflorescences 223-4 effectoneyes 187-8
guardcells77,78,79-80 ingestion95,97,101 germination 228
gullet97,101 inheritance250,259-65,270 photosynthesis and 68,69-71,
gum disease 100 of sex 250-1 73-4,75
gums 99 inheritedcharacteristics270 plant growth and 200-1
H innate immunity 149 transpiration and 120-1
habitats 298 inoculation see vaccination light microscope 33-4
conservation of 340,342-4 insecticides310,318,324-5 lightning295
destruction of 320-4 insect-pollinated flowers 222,223, lignin78,111
Habitats Directive 343 224,225-6 limiting factors 75-6
haemoglobin 31,93,94, 136,252 insects7,11-12 population growth and 301-2
haemolysis44 insulin190,191,196,252,310,313, Linnaeus,Carl20
half-life325 314 lipase102,107,307
handlens33 intercostalmuscles 157,161 lipids52-3,91
haploid nucleus 253 internalrespiration158,165 liver97,102,174,175,193,208
haploid number 220,255,258 internodes 110 longitudinal sections 24,26,
Harvey.William 139 intestines49 111,112
heart125-7,129-30,131 intoxication208 low density lipoproteins (LDLs) 90
heartattacks88,130 intracellularenzymes61,306 lungcancer209,211
hepatitisBvaccine 312 invertebrates 7 lungs156-8,159-60,161-3,174,195
herbicides 311,318,325 invitrofertilisation244-5 lupin flowers 223-4
herbivores 285 involuntaryactions185 luteinisinghormone(LH) 191,242
heredity250,265-7 iris186,187,188 lymph 133,135
see also inheritance iron 93,94, 136 lymphaticsystem 103,135
hermaphrodites 221 isotonic drinks 45 lymphnodes 135
heroin 185,207,210,240 IWC(lnternationalWhaling lymphocytes 53,135,136,137,149,
heterozygosity259,261 Committee) 339 150,246
HIV(humanimmunodeficiency lysozyme 149,186
virus)143,240,245-6 Jenner.Edward 152 M
homeostasis 192-7 'junk DNA' 272 magnesium 81
homiothermy 13,165,195 magnification 33-4
homologous chromosomes 253, 258 K
malaria 143-4,151,273,297
homozygosity 259,261 karyotypes 250,251
malereproductivesystem 233-4
hormones 180,190 kidneys37,49,174,175-7,194
malnutrition 88
growth and 199 kidneytransplants178-9
maltase 103
in humans 190-2,241-2,244,245 kineticenergy37
maltose 100,103
performance-enhancing 211-12 'knee-jerk'reflex182-3
mammals8,15
pollution by 334 kwashiorkor 94
sex hormones 191,241-2,244,245 L marasmus 94
horticulture, propagation in 217,219 lactase308-9 marine pollution 321-2
houseflies 147 lactation see breastfeeding marramgrass 278
human population 296-7,298-300 lacteals103,104 mastication 98
human reproductive system 233-4 lacticacid170 mating 235-6
hydrochloric acid 101,103 lactoseintolerance308 mechanical digestion 95,97,98-100
hydrophytes278 lamina 77 medulla 175
hydroponics82,342 largeintestine103 meiosis 219,251,255,258-9
hypocotyl 227,228 lateral buds 110 melanin 192
hypothalamus 194,195
leaching295 memorycells 150
hypotheses 66, 171-2 'leanburn'engines332 Mendel.Gregor 265-7
I leaves menopause 242
identical twins 238 adaptation 80-1 menstrual cycle 241-2
ileum 97,103,104-5 photosynthesis in 73,80-1 menstrual period 242
Index
mesophyll 77, 78,80 0 peripheral nervous system 181

metabolism 170-1 obesity 90 peristalsis96--7,101
micro-organisms293 oesophagus97,101 pesticides310,31S-19,324
seealsobacteria;fungi oestrogen 191,240,241,245 petals221-2
micropyle 231,232 oil pollution 320,321,322,326,327 pH
microvilli 38,104 optic nerve 186 critical99
midrib 77,78 optimum pH 60 enzymes and 60-1,62, 63-4, 103
minerals oral rehydration therapy 148 phagocytes53,135,136,137
indiet92-3 organelles25 phagocytosis 137,149
inplants37,73,81-4,115-16,295 organisms 1,6,33 pharynx101
mining 320-1 organs31 phenotypes259,261-3
mitochondria 27,49,168,254 organ systems 31,32 phenotypicvariations270
mitosis 19,254-5,256-7,258--9 osmoregulation 175 phloem 78,111,113, 121-2
MMRvaccine 150 osmosis40--8,115,119 phosphorus 73
monocotyledons 10, 17,231-2 osteo-malacia 93,94 photomicrographs 24
monoculture 317-18 ovaries photorespiration 75
monohybrid inheritance 259--65 flowering plants 222-3 photosynthesis 66-7, 292
monosaccharides 51 human 191,233,235,258 chemical equation 67,71
morphology 3-4 overfishing288-9 limitingfactors75-6
motor impulses 181 over-harvesting287-8 process 71-2
motor neurones 181,182 oviducts233,234 rate of 69--71, 75-6
mouth 97,101,103 ovulation234-5 phototropism 197-201
movement 1 ovules220,222,258 physicaldigestion97,100
mRNA 252-3 oxidation165 pinetrees277
MRS GREN mnemonic 1 oxygen pith113
mucus96,148,163 inbreathing159,163 pituitarygland191,242
mutagens 271 from photosynthesis 37,69, 74 placenta237,239,240
mutation 205-6,271,272-3, 281 ingermination 228,229 plant cells
myriapods 7,12 in respiration 36, 166-7 active transport 4S-9, 116
oxygen debt 170 cell division 254-5
oxyhaemoglobin 136,158 osmosis41,43--4
narcotics207--8
natural selection 279--80,282 oxytocin239
ozonelayer332 plants
negativefeedback134,195 asexual reproduction 215--18
nephrons176 p classification 4, 6,9-10, 16--18
nerve cells see neurones 'pacemaker' 130 gaseous exchange in 74-5
nervefibres 181 palisademesophyllcells 26, 30, 77, 78, growth 199--201
nerves181,182 79,80 minerals in 37,73,81-4,115-16,295
nervoussystemseecentralnervous pancreas96,97,102,191 photosynthesis see photosynthesis
system pancreatic amylase 102,103 propagation 215-18
neurones 30,181,182 pancreaticjuice102 respiration 72, 74-5
nicotine 209-10,240 pandemics 296 sexual reproduction 221-31
nitrates73,81,116,294,295 partially permeable membranes 40, structure110-14
nitrification 294 43,48 translocation121-2
nitrifyingbacteria294 passive immunity 151 transpiration116--21,294
nitrogen37,73 Pasteur,Louis152-3 tropicresponses 197-201
nitrogencycle294-5 pathogens 53,142 water in 43-4,55,114-15,116--19
nitrogenfixation294 see also disease plaque100
nitrogenouswasteproducts 174 pectinase307-8 plasma 55,137,150,177
nitrogen oxides 331,332 pelvis175 plasmids 305,313
nodes 110 penicillin205,207,309--10 plasmolysis 45,46--7
non-disjunction 273 penis234,235 plastics330
non-renewable resources 335 peppered moths 280 plastids26,51
NPKfertilisers 82 pepsin102,107 platelets136,137
nuclear fall-out 325-6 pepsinogen 103 pleuralfluid162
nuclei25--6,27 peptidase103 pleural membrane 162
nucleotides54,252 peptides 100 plumule 227,228
nutritionl performance-enhancing poikilothermy 13,166,195
human 86-95 hormones 211-12 polar bears 275
plant 66--84 peridontitis100 pollen 222,223
Index
pollensacs 222 relayneurones181

pollen tubes 226,231 renalartery133,134,175,176 semi-lunarvalves 129
pollination 220,221,222,223, renal capsules 176 seminal vesicle 234
224-6,231 renal tubules 175,176 senseorgans 186--90
pollution 321-2,324-34 renalvein133,134,175,176 sensitivityl
polymers 51 renewable resources 335 sensory impulses 181
polysaccharides 51 repair254 sensory neurones 181,182
populations 296,298--9 replacement 254 sepals222
population growth 296-7, 299-302 replication256 septum 125,129
potassium nitrate 82 reproduction sewage disposal 305,327,329,335-7
potometers 116--18 asexual19,213-19,254,258 sex cells see gametes
precipitation294 in humans 232-41 sex chromosomes 250-1,265
predators/predation285,296,302 sexual219-41,254 sex-linkedcharacteristics265
pregnancy88,208,236--8 reptiles8,14,15 sexually transmitted infections 143,
primaryconsumers 285,290 respirationl,165 245--6
producers 285 aerobic156,165--9 sexual reproduction 219-41,254
products 61 anaerobic 169-71 in humans 232-41
progesterone 240,242,245 effect of temperature 168,171 inplants221-31
prokaryotes 6, 18- 19,27 energyand165,166--7,168,169 shivering194
propagation 215--18 inplants72,74-5 shoots 24,31, 110
prophylactics 144,151 respiratorysurfaces156 growth 200-1
prostategland 234 respirometers 166,167 tropic responses 19S-9
protease 61,101,102,307 restriction enzymes 313 shuntvessels135
proteins 53-4, SS, 175 retina186,187,188 sickle-cell anaemia 265,273
indiet87-8,91-2 rhizomes 16,215--16,217 sieve tubes/plates 77, 78,111,113
digestion of 102-3 ribosomes 6,27,252 sigmoid population growth curves 301
manufacture 252-3 rickets93,94-S single circulation 124
testfor57,58 rods188 sink,food112,121,122
protoctista 6, 19 rootcap 113 size of specimens 33-4
protophyta 19 root hair cells 29,30,44 skin174,192-3,195,196-7
protozoa 19 root hairs 113-14, 115 slimecapsules 18
ptyalinseesalivaryamylase root nodules 294,295 small intestine 102,103
puberty241 roots(plant) 16,110, 113-14 smallpox 151,152,299
pulmonary artery 126,133,134 tropic responses 197-8, 199 smoking 128,209-10,211,237-8
pulmonarycirculation 125 roots(teeth) 99 soil erosion 322,323
pulmonary vein 125,133,134 rootstocks 215,216 somatic cells 250,256
pulpcavity99 roughendoplasmicreticulum(ER) source,offood 112,121,122
pulse/pulserate126,127,131-2 6,27 Special Areas of Conservation
Punnettsquare262,263 rubella238,240 (SACs) 343
pupil186,187,188 species2
pyloricsphincter101
s spermcells 31,220,232-3,234,235,
saliva101 236,239
pyramids of biomass 290,291
salivaryamylase 101,103,105-6 sperm duct 234
pyramids of energy 291
salivaryglands96,97,181 sphincter177
pyramidsofnumbers 286,287
Sa/mone//afoodpoisoning 144-6 spinalcord183-4
R salts see minerals spinalreflexes184
radial muscle 188 saturatedfattyacids90 spongymesophyll 78, 79,80
radicle197-8,227 scavengers285,293 sporangia 16--17
Ray,John20 sclera186,187 stains24
receptacles223 scrotum 233,234 stamens 221,222
receptors186 scurvy88 starch51
recessivealleles259,260-1,272,273 secondary consumers 285,290,298 indiet91
recombinant DNA 313 secondarysexualcharacteristics241 enzymesand 100-1,103,105-7
rectum 97,103 seed banks 340 inplants67-8,72
recycling seeds223,231-2 testfor57,58
in ecosystems 291-2 selection 279-80 starvation88
wastematerials335,336 selection pressures 280 stemcells254,257-8
red blood cells 29,31,93,94, 136 selectivebreeding280-2,319 stems 110- 11,112
reflex actions 182,184 selectivereabsorption 177 stem tubers 216--17
reflexarcs182-3,184 self-pollination 230,264
Index
stethoscopes 126 tinea('ringworm') 142,147 venacava125,133,134

stigma 222 tissueculture217-18 ventilation156,158,161-3
stimulus 182,186 tissuefluid41,133,138,193,195 ventral root 184
stolons215,216 tissuerespiration158,165 ventricles125,129
stomach 97,101-2,103 tissues31,32 venules124,132
stomata 76,77,78,79-80,120 Tlymphocytes 150 Venusflytraps 275-6
streptomycin 205,309 tomato fish project 340,341-2 vertebrates3-4,8,13-15
structural proteins 53 toxins142,149,150 vessels111,113
style222 toxoids 150 villi49,102,104,105
substrates61 traceelements73 viruses6,19,142,206
sucrose 90,91 trachea157 vitamins 53,92
sugar90,91,103 translocation 121-2 vitamin A 88,89,311,314
see also glucose transmissible diseases 142 vitaminC 53,57,88,93
sulfanilamides 206 transpiration 116-21,294 vitamin D 93, 94,104
sulfates73 transversesections24,26,112 vitreous humour 186,187
sulfur73 tricuspidvalves129 voluntary actions 185
sulfurdioxide330,331 trophiclevels290 vulva233
sunlight284-5,289-90 tropisms 197-201
superphosphates 82 trypsin102
w
surface area 'warm-blooded' 13,165,195
trypsinogen 103
diffusionand37-8,38-9 wastedisposal 147,326-7
turgid43
gaseousexchangeand 156 water 53,55
turgorpressure43-4,45-6,115,119
survivalvalue280 contamination 146
twins 238
suspensory ligaments 186,187 germination and 228,229
Type 1 diabetes 151-2, 196
sustainable development 340,341-2 inhuman bodies 93,175
sustainableresources334 u osmosis40-8
swallowing 101 ultrafiltration 177 plant adaptations to 278
sweating 45,174,194 umbilical cord 237,239,240 inplants43--4,55,114-15,
sympatheticnervoussystem 192 unsaturatedfattyacids90 116-19
synapses184,185,210 uracil252
synthesis53,66,72-4 urbanisation 320 watercultures82
systemic circulation 125 urea174,294 water cycle 294
water potential 43-5,47
urethra177 Watson,James56,57
taproots 114 uricacid174 weaning 241
target organs 190,192 urine174,177 weedkillers 201
tearglands186,187 uterus233,236-7 whaling 28S-9,339
teeth98-100 white blood cells 53,136,137,149
temperature V white matter 183
body 13,45, 135, 193-4, 195, 196-7 vaccination149,150
Whittaker five-kingdom scheme 6
diffusionand38,39 vacuole26,27,41,254
Wilkins.Maurice 56,57
enzymesand 60,62,63 vagina233,235-6
wilting 41,44, 119,120
germination 228,229-30 valves
wind-pollinated flowers 222,223,
photosynthesis and 71, 75, 76 intheheart124,126,127,129
224-6
respiration and 168,171 inveins124,133
WorldO,arterforNature 321
transpirationand121 variables 169,230
The World Ethicof5ustainability 321
terminal buds 110 variation2,220,270-1,272
tertiary consumers 285 vascularbundles78,79,00,111,112,115 X
testa227,232 vasoconstriction135,196-7 xerophytes 277
test-crosses264 vasodilation 196-7,208 xylem vessels 30,77,78,111,113,114,
testes191,233--4,258 vectors(disease) 143 115,121
testosterone 191,211,241 vegetarian/vegandiets87--8
three-domain scheme 6 vegetative propagation 215-18
yeast170,171,306
thrombus 127--8 vehicleemissions 330,331,332
thymine 54,56,252 veins z
thyroid gland 190-1 human 124,132,133,134 zona pellucida 235
thyroxine 190-1 inplantsseevascularbundles zygotes220,226,232-3,236,254
A lso available
.
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Biology

® ]GCSE is the registeral trademark of Cambridge International &.uninations

2 Organisation and maintenance of the organism 24

3 Movement in and out of cells 36

8 Transport in plants 110

10 Diseases and immunity 142

11 Gas exchange in humans 156

13 Excretion in humans 174

14 Co-ordination and response 180

19 Organisms and their environment 284

20 Biotechnology and genetic engineering 305

21 Human influences on ecosystems 316

Examination questions 347

Artwork and text acknowledgements

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The five.kirigdom classification scheme

• Characteristics of living Key defi nitions

a species are al most identical in their anatomy,

Flgure 1.1 Turdusmeru/aa Rgure1 .2 AgelaiusphoenicetJ5 <1

The scientific name of the London Plane is Pia um us

Orang-utan Chlmp; nzee

Flgure 1.6 Cla1sificationofprim.ite1.based onDNAevideoce

• Features of organisms • Extension work

lipid ), cytoplasm and ribosomes and do nor

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Flgure1.11 Toeplantkingdom; seed-bearingplants

The an imal kingdom Crustacea

Insects differ from crustacea in having wings, only

Flgure 1.1 5 Extemalfeatures ofamyr iapod(~2.5)

Tab le 1.1 Keyfeature1ofthefourcla1sesofarthropods

Figure 1.20 The main features ol a pigeon (~0.1 4)

mid blooded; rnldblooded; rnklblooded; wa rm blooded; warm blooded;

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The Prokaryote kingdom

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Ce ll s tructure and organ isation Levels of organ isat ion

Ribosomes,roughERandmitochondria Size of spec imens

Cakulatiom of magnification using micrometres

Thin slices of this kind are called sections. lfyou

It is fairly easy to cut sections through plant

In plant cells it may be seen to be f!o,,ing about. The

Plant cells 2 Most mature plant cells have a large, fluid-filled

Flgure2.6 P.ili1adecellsfrom aleaf

Plant cells differ from animal cells in several ways.

When srndied at much higher magnifications with

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