Investigating Expansion Types in an Arabic Text:

A Systemic Perspective
By
Asst. Prof. Dr. Hala Khalid Najim
Dept. of Translation
College of Arts
University of Mosul

Abstract
Systemic Functional Grammar, as presented in Halliday (1994) and
Halliday and Matthiessen (2004), divides expansion into three types:
elaboration, extension and enhancement. This paper examines these
expansion types in an Arabic text of the narrative genre. In this paper, it is
hypothesized that certain types of expansion are frequently used, while
others are not. The aim of this paper is to identify the logico-semantic
relation between Arabic clause complexes in the Arabic text. The paper
also showcases the usefulness of Functional Grammar as a tool for
understanding the Arabic texts, i.e. it shows the connection between
linguistics and literature. The results indicate that this text has a
prominent use of extension-addition type, and other types such as
hypotactic elaboration and cause-effect enhancement are also found in the
text. Finally, exposition, alternation, manner and conditional types are not
found at all in the text.

1
1. Introduction:
Systemic Linguistics is a theory of language centred on the notion
of language function. It was extensively developed, as successive
revisions of the Firthian model, and refined to its present form by M.A.K.
Halliday.
The approach taken for the description and analysis of this paper is
Systemic-Functional Grammar. The analytical approach is mainly taken
from Halliday’s work, in particular the model set out in An Introduction
to Functional Grammar (1994) and Halliday and Matthiessen (2004).
According to Systemic Functional Grammar, the logico-semantic
relation between clauses in clause complexes has two types: expansion
and projection. The expansion which is the concern of this paper, is
divided into three types: elaboration, extension and enhancement;
whereas projection is classified into: locution projection and idea
projection. This paper is centred on the notion of expansion types only,
i.e. the projection type is not used at all in the analysis.
This paper tries to answer questions such as: Do we have expansion
types in Arabic?, if we have, which type will be more frequently used
than others in a text?. Thus, the purpose of such as undertaking is to
investigate expansion types in an Arabic text to see how such relations
are employed. The paper also aims at utilizing Systemic Functional
Grammar as a tool for analyzing the Arabic text. It can be considered an
attempt to prove Eggins’s (1994: 307) statement that “Systemic
linguistics provides a useful theoretical and analytical framework for
exploring and explaining how texts mean”. Not only this, the paper tries
to apply the above statement to Arabic language. Consequently, the
analysis of the clause complexes of the Arabic text becomes the focus of
this paper, particularly the expansion types between such complexes.

2
 The structure of the paper is as follows: Section 1 is an
introduction, Section 2 examines basic notions in clause complexes in
English and Section 3 investigates the expansion relation in English, with
its three types and subtypes. However, Section 4 is a theoretical
background of clause complexes in Arabic, Section 5 deals with
Expansion types and subtypes in Arabic, Section 6 is an analysis of an
Arabic short story with the findings to see how different types of
expansion are used in a text of the narrative genre. Finally, Section 7
illustrates the conclusions.

2. Clause Complexes in English:

Functional grammar, with the focus on ‘language in use’ refers to
the clause, which is the largest unit in the grammatical rank scale, as a
‘constituent unit in the grammar’ (Halliday, 1994: 16). The clauses are
linked together to form clause complexes, or put another way, a clause
complex is two or more clauses logically connected. Halliday argues that
a clause complex is “a head clause together with other clauses that
modify it” (Halliday, 1994: 216). He also assumes that the notion of
‘clause complex’ enables us to account for the functional organization of
sentences.
According to Halliday, clauses in a clause complex are interrelated
in terms of two systems: Interdependency or Taxis and Logical-Semantic
Type. In the type of Interdependency, there is the relation of modifying.
Taxis classifies clause complexes into two types: parataxis and hypotaxis.
(Halliday and Matthiessen, 2004: 373). Parataxis is the logical
interdependency between clauses where the elements are of equal status.
If two clauses are related paratactically, the primary one is initiating (1)
and the secondary one continuing (2), e.g.

3
1. ||| I switched on my radio, || and there was a programme about air
pollution |||
Hypotactic, however, is characterized as a relationship between
clauses, an interdependency relationship in which neither of the clauses is
a constituent part of another (Halliday, 1987: 73). It is the relation
between a dependent element and its dominant (Halliday, 1994: 218). If
two clauses are related hypotactically, the primary is the dominant (α)
and the secondary one dependent (β).
2. ||| Fear of flying is natural | because human beings cannot fly |||
α β
Berry (1975: 96) states that the difference between basic units and
complex ones is that the basic units have multivariate structures while the
complex units have univariate structures. Multivariate structures have
different kinds of relationship between elements, whereas univariate
structures have only one type of relationship between the elements (ibid:
98).
The logico-semantic type specifies clauses complexes which are
linked together in terms of a logico-semantic relationship which is of two
types: expansion and projection (Matthiessen and Halliday, 1997: 19). In
expansion, the secondary clause picks up the message of the primary
clause and expands on it. This can be done in any one of three ways: by
elaborating, by extending, or by enhancing.
The relationship of projection is something different. In projection,
“the secondary clause is projected through the primary one, which
instates it as (a) a locution or (b) an idea (Halliday, 1994: 219). Projection
is joining two clauses or more by considering the clause being projected,
whether it is locution or idea. In locution type, one clause is projected
through another, which presents it as a locution, a construction of
wordings, and in the type of idea, one clause is projected through another,

4
which presents it as an idea (Halliday, 1994: 253). In other words,
locutions are projected verbal events and ideas are projected mental
events (Thompson, 1996: 27). For example:
3. ||| She said: || “I have just came in”. ||| (locution)
"1 2
4. ||| I think || he is very smart. ||| (idea)
α 'β
The relations of expansion will be the topic of the next sections.

3. Expansion as a Type of Logico-Semantic Relations between

English Clause Complexes:
Expansion is one of the two types of logico-semantic relations
between clauses in a clause complex. In expansion, “the secondary
clauses expands the primary one” (ibid: 219).

3.1 Types of Expansion:

According to Halliday, expansion can be classified into three types:
elaboration, extension and enhancement. We shall explore each below.

3.1.1 Elaboration:
In elaboration, the secondary clause elaborates on the meaning of the
initial one. The secondary clause ‘does not introduce a new element into
the picture but rather provides a further characterization of one that is
already there’ (Halliday, 1994: 225). This can be achieved by restating,
clarifying, refining, or adding a descriptive attribute or comment. This
type of relationship involves restating in other words, specifying in
greater detail, exemplification and comment. It is shown through the sign
(=). It involves both parataxis and hypotaxis relations.

5
3.1.1.1 Paratactic Elaboration (1 = 2):
Elaboration is combined with parataxis. In this type of clause
complex, “an initial clause is restated, exemplified or further specified by
another” (Martin et al., 1997: 171). This type of relation is of three
subtypes (Halliday and Matthiessen, 2004: 397):
(i) exposition ‘in other words’
(ii) exemplification ‘for example’
(iii) clarification ‘to be precise’

(i) Exposition:
In exposition, the secondary clause restates the thesis of the
primary one in different words, to present it from another point of view,
or to reinforce the message. For example:
5. ||| I badly need this ||; it is what I want. |||
Conjunctive expressions can be used to make the relationship
explicit such as ‘in other words’, ‘that is to say’, ‘or (rather)’, and ‘i.e.’ in
writing.

(ii) Exemplification:
In this type, the secondary clause develops the meaning of the
primary one by further specifying it, or giving an example; for example:
6. ||| Have you visited European countries? || have you visited Holland? |||
Typical conjunctive expression can be used here as ‘for example’,
‘for instance’, ‘in particular’, and in writing ‘e.g.’.
(iii) Clarification:
In this type, the secondary clause clarifies the meaning of the
primary one.
7. ||| They used to work over here; || that’s how they met. |||
(Halliday and Matthiessen, 2004: 398)

6
3.1.1.2 Hypotactic Elaboration (α=β):
In a hypotactic elaborating complex clause, the dependent clause
provides some description or comment on the things mentioned in the
primary clause. The dependent clauses may be finite or non-finite.
The secondary clause, here, ‘has the same force as a defining
relative clause of the Wh-type’ (Halliday, 1994: 227). Halliday shows the
difference between defining and non-defining relative clauses in terms of
meaning. He states that ‘in terms of meaning, these clauses do not define
subjects, in the way that a defining clause does’ (ibid.: 227). Let’s have
the following examples:
8. ||| The man whom you talked to was my brother. |||
9. ||| Baghdad, which is the capital of Iraqi, is very nice. |||
In (8), the defining clause ‘whom you talked to’ specifies a particular
person, while the non-defining clause ‘which is the capital of Iraq’ does
not define Baghdad but it just adds further information.
In the hypotactic elaborating clause complex, the dependent clause
refers to the whole primary clause or just to one participant in the primary
clause, for examples:
10.||| She got low marks in maths, || which upset her. |||
11.||| The book which I bought yesterday was interesting. |||
α<<=β>>
The angle brackets are used to indicate enclosure (ibid.).

3.1.2 Extension:
Extension is the second type of expansion. According to Halliday
(1994: 405), “one clause extends the meaning of another by adding
something new to it”. It is of three categories: addition, variation and
alternation. Extension can be paratactic or hypotactic.

7
3.1.2.1 Paratactic Extension (1 + 2):
In paratactic extension, the clauses are linked together by the
conjunctions and, or, nor or but. Paratactic extension includes addition,
variation and alternation.
In paratactic addition, the two clauses are joined through the use of
conjunctions and (positive addition), nor (negative addition) and but
(adversative addition). For examples:
12.||| He plays piano || and his sister plays oboe. ||| (positive addition)
13.||| I could not tell her the truth || nor did I want to. ||| (negative addition)
14.||| It’s my book || but you can take it. ||| (adversative addition)
In paratactic variation, “one clause is presented as being in total or
partial replacement of another” (ibid.: 407). Variation could be
‘replacive’ (instead) and ‘subtractive’ (except). This relation could be
recognized by using the conjunctions instead, but, on the contrary, only.
Consider the following:
15.||| I could not visit her, || but instead I gave her a call. ||| (replacive
relation)
In paratactic alternation, one clause is offered as an alternative to
another. The cohesive conjunctions of this type are: or, alternatively,
conversely, on the other hand, and the pair either or. Examples are:
16.||| Either you stay here, || or you leave. |||

3.1.2.2 Hypotactic Extension (α + β):

Hypotactic extension has the three categories: addition, variation
and alternation. In these clause complexes, the dependent clauses could
be finite or non-finite.
Finite hypotactic extension means “addition with contrast”
(Thompason, 1996: 203). Hypotactic clauses of addition are recognized

8
through the use of conjunctions while, whereas. No negative additive type
of hypotactic extension can be found.
17.||| He felt asleep, || while he was watching TV. |||
In Finite variation, the hypotactic subtractive relation is expressed
with conjunction such as except, that, but (for the fact that) (Halliday and
Matthiessen, 2004: 408):
18.||| I remembered nothing || except that he was bold. |||
The hypotactic clauses of alternation are expressed by the
conditional structure ‘if … not’.
19.||| If he’s not at home, || he must be in his office. |||
As for non-finite hypotactic extending clauses, they have addition
and variation types. The addition could be additive (the clause preceded
by: apart from, besides, with) or adversative (preceded by without). The
variation could either be replacive or subtractive. The replacive is
introduced by instead, whereas the subtractive by other than.
20.||| Besides being afraid, || Jean was totally depressed. ||| (additive)
21.||| He was talking loudly,||without listening to anyone. ||| (adversative)
22.||| Instead of finding solutions to the problem, || he made another
mistake. ||| (replacive)
23.||| I have never known him other than behaving selfishly. |||
(subtractive)

3.1.3 Enhancement:
In enhancement, one clause enhances the meaning of another with
some features of time, place, manner, cause and condition (Halliday,
1985: 211). These are two types of this relationship: paratactic and
hypotactic. The notation (1 X 2) is used for the former, and (α X β) for
the latter.

9
3.1.3.1 Paratactic Enhancement (1 X 2):
The enhancing clause is a coordinated one with a circumstantial
feature expressed either by the conjunctions: then, so, for, yet, still; or a
conjunction group with and: and there, and thus, and so; or by and in
combination with a conjunctive: at that time, till then, in that way
(Halliday and Matthiessen, 2004: 413). There are four types of paratactic
enhancement: temporal, spatial (manner) and causal-conditional.
Temporal relation can be expressed by a conjunction ‘then’ for the
same time or a conjunction group such as ‘and then’ for the later time.
24.||| They spread the cloth on the grass, || and then began unpacking the
picnic things ||| (Downing and Locke, 2002: 291)
25.||| She turned the corner, || and there stood Robin waiting for her. |||
(ibid.)
Manner relation is of means and comparison. A paratactic
enhancing clause of means is introduced by the conjunction group ‘and in
that way, and thus’, while a clause of comparison is expressed by ‘and so,
similarly’.
26.||| Take care of your brother || and in that way you will be the head of
your family. |||
Causal-conditional relation consists of cause-effect and condition.
Cause-effect relation can be introduced by so, and so, for and therefore.
Condition may be positive, negative or concessive. Positive condition is
expressed by and then; and negative condition by otherwise and
concessive condition by still, yet, though and but. Consider:
27.||| He was afraid || so he kept calm. ||| (cause-effect) (1 ^ 2)
28.||| I shall work for three hours on Sunday, || and then I shall complete
the painting. ||| (positive condition) (1 ^ 2)
29.||| I want you to clam down; || otherwise we shall never get out of this
situation. ||| (negative condition) (1 ^ 2)

10
30.||| Though my car is old, || it is still in running order. ||| (concession) (β
^ α)

3.1.3.2 Hypotactic Enhancement (α X β):

Hypotactic enhancement clauses “correspond very closely in
function to adjuncts, specifying aspects of the dominant process such as
the time, reason, condition, etc.” (Thompson, 1996: 204). In other words,
dependent circumstantials associated with enhancement gives the
adverbial clauses of time, place, condition, reason, concession (Downing
and Locke, 2002: 292). They may be either finite or non-finite.
Finite dependent clauses embraces temporal, spatial, manner and
causal-condition. They are introduced by subordinating conjunctions
which could be simple as before, after, and conjunctive groups such as if,
even if, even though, etc. The subordinating conjunctions for the
temporal relation are after, before, until, when:
31.||| When I met him, || he was someone different. |||
Spatial relation is introduced by where, wherever:
32.||| We moved to Baghdad, || where we lived for six years. |||
Clauses of manner are expressed by as, as if, as though:
33.||| He walks, || as if he was a king. |||
The causal-conditional relation consists of cause and condition. Clauses
of cause are introduced by because, since; clauses of condition may be
positive, negative, or concessive. Positive conditional clauses may be
introduced by if, as long as, provided that, negative conditional clauses by
unless; and concessive ones by even if, even though, although and while.
34.||| He won’t come into this house || as long as I’m alive. ||| (positive
condition) (Downing and Locke, 2002: 293)
35.||| You shall not succeed || unless you work harder. ||| (negative
condition)

11
36.||| I shall try to come || even though I doubt I’ll be on time. |||
(concessive)
Non-finite hypotactic enhancing clauses, however, are always
dependent. The relation may either be explicitly or implicitly expressed.
Enhancing relationship are expressed by explicit conjunctions such as
before, while, without, by, etc.; or implicitly by taxposition (Downing
and Locke, 2002: 294 and Halliday and Matthiessen, 2004: 420):
37.||| Look carefully || before crossing the street. ||| (explicit)
38.||| Being a man of ingenuity, || he soon repaired the machine. |||
(implicit) (Quirk and Greenbaum, 1987: 327)

4. Clause Complexes in Arabic:

In Arabic, the clause complex is the highest syntactic unit. It
consists of two or more clauses. It is usually composed of a free clause
preceded or followed by a number of free or dependent clauses. Thus,
Arabic clause complexes can either involve two or more equal clauses
joined by coordination; or involve a free clause and one or more
dependent clauses joined by means of subordination.
free clause free clause
39.||| ‫طبيب || وليلى مهندسة‬
ٌ ‫محمد‬
ٌ ||| (a coordinated clause)

(Mohammed is a doctor and Layla is a woman engineer.)

dependent clause free clause
40.||| ‫زيد || قبل أن يغادر الضيوف‬
ٌ ‫( ||| وصل‬a subordinated clause)

(Zeid arrived before the guests left.)

In other word, coordination and subordination are achieved by
conjunctions which are of two major subclasses: coordinating and
subordinating (Khalil, 2010: 319). The coordinating conjunctions link
equal syntactic units, whereas the subordinating conjunctions link units of

12
unequal syntactic units. Consequently, coordinating conjunctions are used
to combine two free clauses into a compound sentence, while
subordinating conjunctions ‘integrate a subordinate clause into a
superordinate clause, creating a complex sentene’ (ibid.).
It should be noted, here, that the coordinated clauses in the clause
complex are divided in terms of their position into primary clause and
secondary one. Functionally, the primary is the initiating clause and the
secondary one is the continuing one.
41.||| ‫||| جاء محمد || وذهب علي‬

(Mohammed came and Ali went.)

Secondary primary (position).
Continuing initiating (function).

5. Expansion as a Type of Logico-Semantic Relations between

Arabic Clause Complexes:
Expansion at the clause complex is achieved by two types of
relationship: paratactic and hypotactic. In paratactic expansion, there are
two or more equal clauses which are joined by coordination, whereas
hypotactic expansion is made by subordination whereby one obligatory
clause (α) is preceded or followed by one or more dependent clauses (β).
In paratactic expansion, the clauses are joined by means of ‫العطف‬
(coordination). In Arabic, coordination means to combine two or more
clauses with each other (Ghayaati, ND: 315 and Cantarino, 1975, III: 7).
There are two types of coordination in Arabic: ‫ عطف بيان‬and ‫عطف نسق‬.
The former is achieved where a coordinator is not used to link clauses,
instead they are juxtaposed to form a clause complex without any
conjunctions (a syndetic coordination) (Ghayaati, ND: 311; Al-Ghalayini,
1980, 3: 242-5; Al-Jurjani, 1982, 2: 927 and Aziz, 1989: 210).

13
42.||| ‫||| أقبل أبو محمد علي‬

(Abu Mohammed Ali came.)

In this example, Abu Mohammed and Ali are coordinated to each other
without any conjunction. They are asyndetic coordination.
Al-Samara’ee (2007: 184) claims that this type of coordination is
ُ
used to clarify what follows. Thus, when I say ‫مررت بأخيك محمد‬ (I passed
by your brother Mohammed), I used the word Mohammed to identify
your brother who is Mohammed and no one else.
Asyndetic coordination is also used to link two or more clauses to
express complementary statements or they show apposition, expalanation,
emphasis, etc. (Cantarino, 1975, 3: 7-11).
43.||| ‫||| الشمس ساطعة || الجو معتدل || كل شيء جميل‬

(The sun is shining, the weather is moderate, everything is beautiful.)

The second type of coordination is called ‫عطف النسق‬, where two or
more clauses are in syndetic relationship, i.e. two or more clauses are
coordinated by coordinating conjunctions such as ‫( الواو‬waw), ‫( الفاء‬faa’),
‫( ثم‬thuma), etc. (Ghayaati, ND: 315; Hasan, ND, 3: 556; Cantarino, 1975,
3: 11 and Hassan, 1995: 197).
44.||| ‫||| وصل خالد || ثم تكلم معي‬

(Khalid arrived then talked to me.)

The conjunctions or ‫ حرف العطف‬as they are called in Arabic are
either separable or inseparable (Wright, 1971. 1: 290-294 and Aziz, 1989:
212-214). The inseparable conjunctions are:
a) ‫و‬
45.||| ‫وذهبت إلى النوم‬
ُ || ‫درست درسي‬
ُ |||

(I studied my lesson and went to bed.)

14
b) ‫ فـ‬which is ‫( حرف ترتيب‬a particle of classification) which indicates that
objects come after one another. It indicates that the continuing clause
comes immediately after the initiating one (Al-Zagagi, 1957: 31 and
Al-Mubarad, 1964, 1: 10).
46.||| ‫||| أكل || فنام‬
(He ate and then slept.)
As for the separable connectives, they are as follows:
a) ‫ثم‬: This connective particle is considered as an adverbial of time. It
indicates a sequential action (Ryding, 2005: 417). It differs from ‫ فـ‬in
that the continuing clause does not immediately follow the initiating
one (Al-Zamakhshari, ND, 2: 197; Al-Ansari, ND, 1: 118-119 and
Aziz, 1989: 212).
47.||| ‫ مهم‬1‫زرت عمي || ثم تباحثنا في موضوع‬
ُ |||
(I visited my uncle and then we discussed an important topic.)

b) ‫لكن‬: It has a connective function when it is preceded by either a

negative clause or a prohibitive clause introduced by ‫( ال الناهية‬the
prohibition Lā) on the condition that it should be preceded by a
singular noun (Al-Samara’ee, 2007: 223), e.g.
48.||| ‫خالد‬
ٌ ‫محمد || لكن‬
ٌ ‫||| ما أقبل‬
(Mohammed didn’t come but Khalid did.)

c) ‫بـل‬: It is a contrastive conjunction which “indicates contrast in semantic

content between two parts of a sentence” (Ryding, 2005: 411). It is
termed adversative ‫ إضــراب‬because it introduced a clause whose
semantic content is different from the main one (Khalil, 2010: 325). It
comes after negative clauses (Ibn Aqil, 1964: 66), e.g.
49.||| ‫||| لم يكمل قراءة القصة || بل شاهد التلفاز‬
(He didn’t complete reading the story but he watched T.V.)

15
d) ‫ال بـل‬: This conjunctive particle consists of the negator ‫ ال‬and the
adversative ‫بل‬. La is used for emphasis (Al-Asterbathi, 1979, 2: 41-
420 and Al-Ansari, ND, 1: 113).
50.||| ‫زيد وعمر‬
ٌ ‫زيد || ال بل وصل‬
ٌ ‫||| جاء‬

(Zeid came, no Zeid and Amr arrived.)

e) ‫أو‬: This coordinator expressed an alternative choice (Al-Zamakhshari,

1948, 3: 100 and Ibn Al-Qayim, ND, 1: 206-207). It can only be used
in affirmative and interrogative clauses (Cantarino, 1975, 3: 49).
51.||| ‫||| تقرأ الرواية || أو تشاهد التلفاز‬
(You read a novel or watch T.V.)

f) ‫أم‬: It is only used in questions to express alternative interrogation (Al-

Mubarrad, 1964, 3: 286 and Aziz, 1989: 213), e.g.
52.||| ‫ بالقطار || أم تبقى هنا‬1‫||| أنسافر‬
(Shall we travel by train or stay here?)

h) ‫ أو‬.. ‫أمــا‬: This correlative coordinator expresses exclusive meaning

(Khalil, 2010: 328).
53.||| ‫||| إما أن تبقى هنا || أو تذهب إلى هناك‬
(Either you stay here or go there.)
As for the second type of expansion, however, it is the hypotactic
one. In hypotactic expression, the clause complex can be achieved by
means of subordination. It is worth noting that the clause complex built
by means of subordination is termed ‫( الجملــة الكــبرى‬the lager sentence)
which consists of two clauses, the subordinate one is called ‫الجملة الصغرىـ‬
(the smaller sentence) (Al-Ansari, ND: 380).
54.||| ‫ الضيوف‬1‫||| وصلنا || حيث ينتظرنا‬
(We arrived where the guests waited for us.)

16
 CIC ‫جملة كبرى‬

‫ جملة صغرى‬β α
‫ الضيوف‬1‫حيث ينتظرنا‬ ‫وصلنا‬

In such clauses, β is always a dependent clause on the α clause. These

two clauses, i.e. (α) and (β) are joined by subordinating conjunctive
particles. They are:

a) ‫ حتى‬hatta (until): It introduced the dependent clause (β) which means

‘to the extent that’ (Cantarino, 1975, 3: 86).
55.||| ‫||| استمر في هذا االتجاه || حتى ترى العالمة‬

(Continue in this direction until you see the sign.)

This particle has also a temporal meaning and it could introduce a clause
of purpose (Khalil, 2010: 328).

b) َّ‫( ألن‬because): This particle introduces the dependent clause which is

always causal:
56.||| ‫ || ألنني كنت منشغلة‬1‫||| لم أسافر‬

(I didn’t travel because I was busy.)

c) ‫أن‬: It is called ‫( أن المصــدرية‬infinitival an) (Wright, 1971, 2: 26 and

Khalil, 2010: 330):
57.||| ‫أريد || أن تأتيني‬
ُ |||
(I want you to come.)

d) The conditional particles ‫ إن‬,‫ إذا‬and ‫( لو‬Wright, 1971, 1: 292; Cantarino,

1975: 297, Aziz, 1989: 224 and Khalil, 2010: 329).

17
i) ‫( إذا‬if): refers to a future action and implies a condition:
58.||| ‫||| إذا اتصلت بها || أعلمني‬

(If you called her, let me know.)

ii) ‫( إن‬if): This particle introduces a dependent conditional clause. It also

denotes a future time:
59.||| ‫||| إن تدرس || تنجح‬

(If you study, you shall succeed.)

iii) ‫( لو‬if): The conditional subordinate clause introduced by ‫ لو‬is a verbal

one, normally with the perfect verb. The main clause is also a verbal
clause, most often introduced by the emphatic particle َ ‫( لـ‬Cantarino,
1975, 3: 320-321):
60.||| ‫||| لو فعلت ذلك || لندمت‬

(If you did that you would be sorry.)

e) Adverbial conjunctions of time and place (Ryding, 2009: 414):

i) ‫( بينما‬while, whereas). This subordinator has the temporal meaning
‘while’ and the contrastive meaning of ‘whereas’:
61.||| ‫ || بينما كان يغادر الضيوف‬1‫||| وصلنا‬

(We arrived while the guests were leaving.)

ii) ‫ بعدما‬،‫( بعد أن‬after)

62.||| ‫||| غادر المدينة || بعد أن (بعد ما) أنهى عمله‬

(He left the town after he finished his job.)

iii) ‫ حينما‬،‫( عندما‬when)

63.||| ‫||| زرناه || عندما (حينما) علمنا بمرضه‬

(We visited him when we knew about his illness.)

18
iv) ‫( حيثما‬where):
64.||| ‫||| جلسنا || حيثما تقابلنا‬

(We sat where we met.)

f) Relative pronoun such as ‫( الذي‬who, which); ‫( التي‬who, which); ‫( من‬he,

who); ‫( ما‬that, which); ‫( أي‬he who); ‫( أية‬she, who) (Wright, 1971, 1:
270). See the following examples:
65.||| ‫||| ال يدري || ما يقول‬

(He doesn’t know what to say.)

66.||| ‫أؤيد || الذي تقوله‬
ُ |||
(I am with what you are saying.)

5.1 Types of Expansion at the Arabic Clause:

Functionally speaking, expansion at the Arabic clause complex is
of three types: elaboration, extension and enhancement.

5.1.1 Elaboration:
In elaboration, the secondary clause elaborates on the meaning of
the primary one by means of restating, specifying by giving specific
information and clarifying. Elaboration could either be paratactic or
hypotactic. The equal sign (=) is used to denote this relation.

5.1.1.1 Paratactic Elaboration (1 = 2):

In this type of clause complex, the secondary clause expands the
meaning of the primary one through exposition, exemplification and
clarification.
In exposition, the secondary clause restates the thesis of the
primary one in different words, presenting it from another point of view

19
and reinforcing its message. The two clauses are coordinated by
coordinators, e.g.
67.||| ً‫حزين جداً || بل إنه ال يتكلم إطالقا‬
ٌ ‫الولد‬
ُ |||
secondary CC primary
(The boy is so sad; he is not speaking at all.)
It is common to find two coordinated clauses without any
coordinated conjunction:
68.||| ‫||| الجو جميل؛ || إنه يوم ربيع دافئ‬

(The weather is nice, it is a warmy spring day.)

In exemplification, the secondary clause expands the meaning
of the primary one by giving examples. Certain expressions can
be used such as ً‫ مثال‬،‫ على ســـبيل المثـــال‬،‫( كمثـــال على ذلـــك‬for example),
‫ على وجه الخصوص‬،‫ باألخص‬،‫خاصة‬، (particularly); and the particle ‫( كأن‬as):
69.||| ‫زرت مدن عراقية جميلة || فأربيل على سبيل المثال مدينة رائعة‬
ُ ‫||| لقد‬

(I have visited beautiful Iraqi cities, Erbil; for example is a

wonderful city.)
In clarification, the secondary clause clarifies the thesis of the
primary one:
70.||| ‫||| كتابك رائع || فلقد تناولت كل القضايا المهمة في مجتمعنا‬

(Your book is awesome, you’ve dealt with all the important issues of
our society.)

5.1.1.2 Hypotactic Elaboration (α = β):

In this type of relation, the secondary clause expresses the meaning
of the primary one by providing specific information. The dependent
clause is introduced by the relative pronouns which show concord with
the item at head with regard to number, gender and case. They are ‫الذي‬

20
(for masculine singular persons), ‫( التي‬for feminine), ‫( اللذان‬for masculine
dual, subjective case) and ‫( اللذين‬for masculine dual, objective and genitive
cases), ‫( اللتان‬for feminine dual, subjective case), ‫( اللتين‬for feminine dual,
objective and genitive cases), ‫( الذين‬for masculine plural) and ‫ الالتي‬،‫الالئي‬
(for feminine plural) all cases (Aziz, 1989: 149), e.g.
71.||| ‫||| رأيت الطالبين || اللذين نجحا في االمتحان‬

(I saw the two students who passed the exam.)

5.1.2 Extension:
In Arabic, the secondary clause expands the meaning of the
primary one by adding some new element, giving an exception to it, and
offering an alternative. It can be paratactic and hypotactic. The symbol
(+) shall be used.

5.1.2.1 Paratactic Extension (1 + 2):

Paratactic extension, in Arabic, is of three types; addition, variation
and alternation. In paratactic addition, there are three types: positive,
negative and adversative. Addition relation can be recognized through the
use of the conjunction ‫( و‬positive), the correlative construction ‫ وال‬... ‫ال‬
(negative), and ‫( لكن‬adversative) (Al-Antaki, 1975: 271).
72.||| ‫محمد التلفاز || وتنظف صفا المنزل‬
ُ ‫( ||| يشاهد‬positive addition)

(Mohammed watches T.V. and Safa cleans the house.)

ٍ ‫( ||| ال تقرأ بصوت‬negative addition)
73.||| ‫عال || وال تزعج اآلخرين‬

(Don’t read loudly and bother others.)

74.||| ‫فقير || لكنه سعيد‬
ٌ ‫فالح‬
ٌ ‫||| إنه‬
(he is a poor farmer but he is happy.)

21
 In paratactic variation, the secondary clause replaces the primary
one totally or partially. The typical conjunctive expressions for total
replacement are ‫( بـــدالً من ذلك‬instead), ‫( بل‬but), (‫( على العكس )بل‬on the
contrary) and the preposition ‫( ِعــوض‬Wright, 1971: 281). The relative
clauses, ‫ ما خال‬،‫( ماعدا‬except) in which the relative pronoun ‫ ما‬functions as
the subject of the verbs ‫( خال‬to pass), ‫( عــدا‬to exceed) are conjunctive
phrases for partial replacement (Cantarino, 1975, 3: 192 and Ghayaati,
ND: 249).
75.||| ‫ || (بل) بدالً من ذلك سافرت بالسيارة‬،‫ بالطائرة‬1‫( ||| لم أسافر‬total replacive)

(I didn’t travel by a plane, but instead I took a car.)

76.||| ‫ات‬11 1 1‫دا أنه قلما يلتقي بنا في االجتماع‬11 1 1‫ || ماع‬،‫دة‬11 1 1‫ورة جي‬11 1 1‫دير القسم بص‬11 1 1‫||| ي‬ (partial
replacive)
(He runs the department well, except he rarely meets us in meetings.)
In paratactic alternation, one clause is represented as alternative to
another. The conjunctive signals in this type are ‫ أو‬and the alternative
construction ‫ أو‬... ‫إما‬. By using ‫أو‬, one alternation should be chosen (Aziz,
1989: 213-214).
77.||| ‫||| علينا التحرك بسرعة || أو سيفوتنا القطار‬

(We have to move fast; otherwise we missed the train.)

5.1.2.2 Hypotactic Extension (α + β):

In Arabic hypotactic extension, the secondary clause extends the
meaning of the primary one by adding some new elements, giving an
exception to it and offering an alternation. In this type, the conjunction
expressions are ‫( بينما‬while), which is an adverbial conjunction of time. It
consists of the adverb ‫ بين‬plus the indefinite relative pronoun ‫ما‬. This
word has a temporal meaning (while), and a contrastive meaning
(whereas) (Ryding, 2005: 414):

22
78.||| ‫||| ألقت الشرطة القبض عليهم || بينما كانوا يهربون‬

(The police arrested them while they were escaping.)

Another type of hypotactic extension is alternation which is
expressed by the conditional structure ‫ إن لم‬،‫ إذا لم‬،‫ إذا مــا‬in which the
dependent clause comes first (Wright, 1971, 2: 9):
79.||| ‫تعمل || ستخسر عملك‬
ْ ‫إن لم‬
ْ |||
(If you don’t do your best, you shall lose your job.)

5.1.3 Enhancement:
In enhancement, the meaning of the primary clause is enhanced by
providing circumstantial features of time, place, cause, reason, condition,
result, etc. The symbol (X) shall be adopted to refer to this relation. This
type could either be paratactic or hypotactic.

5.1.3.1 Paratactic Enhancement (1 X 2):

In this type of relation, the secondary clause enhances the meaning
of the primary one by coordination with circumstantial features. Different
relations can be signaled by different conjunctions.
Temporal relation is signalled by conjunctions and phrases such as
(‫( ثم )من‬then), ‫( في ذلك الوقت‬at that time), ‫( في نفس الوقت‬at the same time),
‫( عندما‬when).
80.||| ‫||| ذهبنا إلى الحديثة || ثم تناولنا الطعام‬

(We went to the garden, then we ate food.)

‫ ثم‬thumma (then) connects clauses, implying succession at an interval
(Wright, 1971, 1: 293 and Ryding, 2009: 292).
81.||| ‫||| سافرنا إلى بغداد || والتقينا بأصدقائنا‬

(We traveled for Baghdad and met our friends.)

23
 Spatial relation is expressed by adverbs of place such as ‫ هنالك‬،‫هناك‬
(there) (Wright, 1971, 1: 288).
82.||| ‫||| ذهب إلى الحفلة || وهنالك قابل فتاته‬

(He went to the party and there he met his girl.)

Manner is of means and comparison. A paratactic enhancing clause

of means is expressed by conjunction groups such as ‫بصــورة مشــابهة‬
(similarly) and ‫( بهذه الطريقة‬and in this way), while ‫( وهكذا‬and this) are used
to refer to a clause of comparison.
83.||| ‫حل المشكلة‬
َ ‫||| تكلم بكل صراحة || وبهذه الطريقة‬

(He talked honestly and in this way he solved the problem.)

84.||| ‫غادر المكتب‬
َ ‫||| أكمل عمله || وهكذا‬
(He completed his job, and thus he left the office.)

Cause-effect relation can be expressed by conjunction phrases ‫ولهذا‬

‫( السبب‬so) and the coordinator ‫( فـ‬Ryding, 2005: 282).
85.||| ‫فحضرت له الطعام‬
1ُ || ً‫||| كان طفلي جائعا‬

(My child was hungry, so I made him food.)

Conditional could be positive, negative and concessive. Positive

condition is introduced by a compound time adverbial ‫( عندئ ٍذ‬in that case)
which consists of the time adverb ‫ عند‬and ‫ ئذ‬idhin expression (ibid.: 416).
ٍ
86.||| ‫وعندئذ ال أعلم ما سيحصل لي‬ || ‫ شك‬1‫||| قد يساورني‬

(I doubt, and then I don’t know what will happen to me.)

Negative condition is expressed by ‫( وإال‬otherwise):
87.||| ‫||| عليك أن تبقى هادئاً || وإ ال سأغادر الغرفة‬

(You have to keep quiet; otherwise I shall leave the room.)

24
 Concessive condition is introduced by exceptive expressions which
include connectives and adverbs with meanings that contrast with
previous propositional content (ibid.: 650). They are ‫ومــــع ذلك‬
َّ ‫( مع‬although).
(nevertheless), ‫إن‬
88.||| ‫||| مع انني أشعر بالتعب || يجب أن أذهب إلى العمل‬

(Though I am tired, I must go to work.)

5.1.3.2 Hypotactic Enhancement:

In Arabic, hypotactic enhancement can be expressed by
subordinating clauses which function as an adverb or conditional clauses
(Cantarino, 1975, 3: 63). These enhancing hypotactic clauses include
temporal, spatial, manner and causal-condition.
Temporal relation is expressed by subordinating conjunctions like
the adverbs of time ‫( بعد‬after), ‫( قبل‬before), ‫( منذ‬since), ‫( حتى‬until), ‫عندما‬
(when) (Ryding, 2005: 414-415).
89.||| ‫||| عندما جئنا إلى هنا || غادر معظم الضيوف‬

(When we came here, most guests left.)

90.||| ‫ الحضور‬1‫انتظرت علياً || حتى انصرف‬
ُ |||

(I waited for Ali until the audience left.)

Spatial relation is introduced by ‫( حيث‬where), ‫( حيثما‬wherever)

which are considered adverbs of place (Wright, 1971, 1: 288 and
Cantarino, 1975, 3: 279).
91.||| ‫||| أذهب معكم || حيث (حيثما) تذهبون‬

(I shall go where (wherever) you are going.)

Clauses of manner are introduced by the preposition ‫ ك‬which has

the meaning of ‫( مثل‬Wright, 1971, 2: 177). They are also expressed by the

25
 َّ (as if it were) which is a particle compound with the particle
separable ‫كأن‬
َّ and the preposition ‫( ك‬ibid., 2: 78).
‫أن‬
92.||| ‫زيد || كأنه رجل بالغ‬
ٌ ‫||| يتكلم‬

(Zeid spoke as if he were an adult.)

َّ is known as ‫ضميرـ الشأن‬
It is to be noted that the pronoun ‫ ــه‬attached to ‫كأن‬
(ibid.: 81).
Arabic clauses of manner are also introduced by ‫( كما‬as), which is
considered an adverbial conjunction of similarity (Ryding, 2005: 416).
93.||| ‫ || أكملوا المهمة‬،‫||| كما أمر النقيب‬

(As commanded by the lieutenant, they completed the mission.)

Arabic clauses of cause are introduced by ‫( ألن‬because), which

ّ and ‫حروفـ التعليل‬
consists of the preposition ِ‫ لـ‬followed by the particle ‫أن‬
(particles of reason) such as ‫ كي‬,ِ‫ لـ‬and ‫( لكي‬Wright, 1971, 1: 293).
94.||| ‫||| ألنه كان صائماً || شعر بتعب شديد‬

(Because he was fast, he felt very tired.)

95.||| ‫عملت بجد || كي يكون كل شيء جاهزاً في أوانه‬
ْ |||

(She worked hard so that everything would be ready in time.)

As for clauses of condition, just like those of paratactic

enhancement, they can be positive, negative and concessive. Positive
ْ and ‫إذا‬:
condition is expressed by the particles ‫إن‬
96.||| ‫||| إن تدرس || تنجح‬

(If you study, you shall succeed.)

In addition, the conditional clause may be introduced by ‫ لو‬and its
compounds ‫ لوال‬،‫لوما‬. The main clause following the subordinate clause is
a verbal with the verb in the perfect tense, mostly introduced by the
emphatic particle َ ‫( لـ‬Wright, 1971: 294 and Cantarino, 1975, 3: 320).

26
97.||| ‫||| لو ذهبت إلى هناك لقابلته‬

(If you went there, you would meet him.)

The concessive relation is different from the condition that the
conditional clauses which express the validity of the main clause is
confined to the actual fulfilment of the condition, whereas the concessive
clauses do not limit the validity of the main clause but they present a new
aspect. The concessive particles are ‫ لو‬and ‫إن‬.
98.||| ً‫ || ولو كان خبزاً وزيتونا‬1‫||| استطيب طعامي‬

(I would find my food delicious, even if it were just bread and olives.)
(Cantarino, 1975, 3: 331)

Concession is also expressed by expressions such as ‫ على‬،‫ رغم‬،‫بالرغم‬

‫( الرغم‬in spite of) which introduce first clauses, and ‫( وإن‬even if, even
though). The word ‫ رغم‬is a noun which can be used alone or which goes
into construct relationship (Ryding, 2009: 654-655).
99.||| ‫ || إال أنه فاز بالجائزة األولى‬،‫||| على الرغم من أنه دخل المنافسة للتسلية‬

(Although he had only entered the contest for fun, he wont first
prize.)
As for the phrase ‫وإن‬, however, it consists of the conjunction, wa
and the conditional marker ‫( إن‬ibid.: 655).
100. ||| ‫ || وإ ن كانت مزعجة في بعض األوقات‬1‫||| إنني احترمها‬

(I respect her even if she was annoying at sometimes.)

6. Data Analysis and Discussion:

In this section, we shall try to analyze the Arabic short story “
‫“ ”المحفظة‬The Wallet” in terms of expansion. This text is taken from a
collection of short stories, entitled “‫“ ”الــوداع األخــير‬The Last Farewell”

27
compiled by Najwa Hassan. Also, we shall focus on the relation of
expansion among clauses in clause complexes in the text, and specifically
within expansion types into extension, elaboration and enhancement. In
other words, the clause complexes of the other type of logical relations,
which is projection, which is not the focus of this paper, will be excluded
in the analysis.
It should be noted here that the text consists of (47) clause
complexes and (106) clauses. The ordinal numbers are put at the
beginning of each clause complex, in the analysis, to represent the clause
complexes, whereas the cardinal numbers of clauses in the complexes are
put in brackets.
As shown in the data, all the three types of expansion, viz.
elaboration, extension and enhancement are found but with different
frequencies. The highest frequent use of expansion type is extension, with
(34) clause complexes (72.34%), while the other two types are less
frequent, with (7) clause complexes for elaboration accounting for
(14.89%) and (6) clause complexes occupying (12.77%) for enhancement
type.
Put it in detail, it has been shown that within extension, the most
dominant subtype is addition with (33) clause complexes, accounting for
(97%), while variation is a very rare subtype, with only one complex
(3%). It is important to say, here, that addition type is highly realized by
positive addition, with (28) clause complexes in the text numbered (1, 2,
5, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 19, 23, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38,
41, 43, 44, 46 and 47). Adversative addition is also found in the text with
only (4) complexes numbered (10, 27, 33 and 42), accounting for
(11.77%).
Negative addition, however, is rarely illustrated in the data, with
one complex number (25), occupying (2.94%).

28
(25) ||| ‫||| ألم تقل أنها عانقت يدك منذ عشرين سنة || ولم تبدلها نظر لجودة جلدها‬

(Haven’t you said that it was on your hand for twenty year and you
didn’t change it for the good quality of its leather.)
As shown in (25) above, the negative addition in the Arabic clause
complex is made by the use of the coordinate negatives ‫ ولم‬... ‫لم‬.
It is also seen that the clause complexes, with positive addition are
joined through syndetic or asyndetic coordination. Consider clause
complexes numbered (9and 11) in the data below:
(9) ||| ‫ || ُي ّقيم عملها‬،‫يدون مالحظاته‬
ّ ||| (asyndetic coordination)
(He is writing down his notes, and assessing her job.)
(11) ||| ‫ للرحيل‬1‫( ||| أنهى مهمتهُ || واستعد‬syndetic coordination)

(He finished his mission and got ready for leaving.)

As shown in the text (9), asyndetic coordination is realized without any
conjunctions, while syndetic coordination is illustrated through the use of

the radicle (‫ )و‬as in the text (11).

Moreover, syndetic coordination is found to be the most frequent

use, with (16) clause complexes (57.14%), while asyndetic coordination
is used with (12) complexes (42.86%).
Adversative addition, however, is realized in complexes numbered
(10, 27, 33 and 42) with the use of ‫ لكن‬and ‫( بل‬but):
(10) ||| ‫ || لكنها سرعان ما ردمته‬1‫||| حفر أسلوبه في الحديث نفقاً سريا بين فمه وقلبها‬
(His style in conversation dig a secret tunnel between his mouth
and heart, but she hastily buried it with.)
Variation type is illustrated in clause complex number (29) through
the use of the phrase (‫)عوضا ً عن‬:


The numbers of the texts are those used in the appendixes.

29
(29) ||| ‫ في السيارة || ألقتها جانب الرصيف‬1‫ عن وضع المحفظة قربها‬1ً‫||| وعوضا‬

(Instead of putting the wallet beside her, she dropped it on the

side of the street.)
Finally, alternation type, within extension cannot be found in the
text.
As for elaboration, hypotactic elaboration is the most frequent use
in this text, with (5) clause complexes (71.42%), while paratactic
elaboration is rarely realized by the two subtypes, exemplification and
clarification, with only the complex for each (14.29%). Hypotactic
elaboration is realized by the relative clauses in complexes numbered (17,
18, 23, 39 and 40).
(17) ||| ‫ الشهر القادم‬1‫ العالمي للذرة || والذي سينعقد في نيويورك‬1‫||| لحضوري المؤتمر‬

(For attending the International Conference of Atom which will be

held in New York next month.)
Examples of other subtypes of elaboration, which are
exemplification and clarification, are also found in the text numbered (20)
and (14) respectively.
(14) ||| ‫( ||| فقد محفظتي || محفظتي الصغيرة‬clarification)

(I lost my wallet, my small one.)

(20) ||| ‫||| أدون عليها عناوين مهمة جداً خارج القطر في معظم دول العالم التي أرتادها‬

(exemplification)
(On which I write down the very important addresses outside the
country, in most of the world countries I go to.)
Exposition subtype, however, is not found in the text.
Regarding enhancement, it has been found that causal type is the
most dominant type with (4) complexes (66.66%). This type is indicated
by particles such as ‫ كي‬and ‫( فاء السببية‬in order to) in texts (3, 8, 21 and 45):

30
(3) ||| ‫ || كي يغلق الصمامات‬1‫||| تحفز فؤادها‬

(Her heart moved to close the valves.)

(8) ||| 1ً‫ الرضا عالئم فوق قسمات وجهه || فيزيدها تألقاً وحنانا‬1‫||| ينتشر‬

(Satisfaction appears to mark the features of his face, making it

brighter and kinder.)
Temporal and spatial types are also realized with only one complex

for each (16.67%). Temporal type is realized by adverbs such as ‫دما‬11 ‫عن‬
(when) as in text (4):
(4) ||| ‫ شالل‬1‫ في أعماق األمل || صوت تدفق‬1ً‫||| عندما حمل األثير عبر اآللة الخرساء صوتا‬

(When the air carried through a mute instrument a voice in the

depth of hope, a voice of waterfall.)
However, spatial type is illustrated by the adverb ‫( بعد‬behind):

(31) ||| ‫ في محطة وقود‬1‫ || وقف‬،ً‫||| وبعد مسافة مائة وخمسين كيلومترا‬

(After a distance of 150 kms, he stopped at a fuel station. )

Other types such as manner and conditional types are not disclosed
in this short story.
The findings of the analysis are presented in the tables below.
Table (1): Types of Expansion in the Short Story “‫”المحفظة‬

Types of Expansion Number of Occurrence Percentage

Elaboration 7 14.89%
Extension 34 72.34%
Enhancement 6 12.77%
47 100%

Table (2): Types and Subtypes of Expansion in the Short Story “

‫”المحفظة‬
Types and Subtypes of Expansion Number of Percentage

31
 Occurrence
Exposition 0 0%
Exemplification 1 14.29%
Elaboration Clarification 1 14.29%
Hypotactic 5 71.42%
7 100% total
Addition 33 97%
Variation 1 3%
Extension
Alternation 0 0%
34 100% total
Temporal 1 16.67%
Spatial 1 16.67%
Cause-effect 4 66.66%
Enhancement
Manner 0 0%
Condition 0 0%
6 100% total
47 100%

5. Conclusions:
All the logico-semantic relations except the locution have been

investigated in the texts taken from the Arabic short story ‘‫‘ ’المحفظة‬The
Wallet”. The expansion types and its subtypes in a total of (47) clause
complexes have been thoroughly examined. As shown by the analysis of
the text, it can be said that the extension type, and specifically addition
subtype is the dominant one used in the text. This can be due to the fact
that the genre of this text is narrative. One of the features of narratives is
that the writer tries to give information. That is why we find so many
examples of Arabic syndetic coordination in the text because the writer
wants to make the job easy for the readers by telling them events
explicitly. Notwithstanding, other types have also been found in the text
such as hypotactic elaboration and cause-effect enhancement type.
Hypotactic elaboration is chiefly realized through the use of relative
pronouns which are used to identify the persons or things about which the

32
writer talks in a clearer way. Furthermore, the high use of cause-effect
relation indicates that since the text is a short story, it is made to tell
things, i.e. the writer does not want the readers to stay long and deduce
things by themselves. Furthermore, the results show that exposition,
alternation, manner and conditional types are not found in the text.
Finally, these findings will contribute towards an understanding of how a
linguistic tool, and mainly the expansion types, are used to clarify some
features of the text.

33
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34
Halliday, M. A. K. (1985). An Introduction to Functional Grammar (1st
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_______________ (1987). “Spoken and Written Modes of Meaning” In:
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_______________ (1994). An Introduction to Functional Grammar (2nd
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Halliday, M. A. K. and Matthiessen, C. (2004). An Introduction to
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35
 ‫‪Appendix: The Corpus of Data‬‬

‫‪st‬ثوان من الصمت (‪ || )2‬لحظات من الحلم(‪||| 1 ||| )1‬‬

‫‪(Extension) (Positive addition) 2 + 1‬‬
‫‪nd‬أوقدت الذكريات (‪ || )4‬ألهبت الحنايا‪||| 2 ||| )3(،‬‬
‫‪(Positive addition) 2 + 1‬‬
‫‪rd‬كي يوقف الدماء (‪ || )7‬كي يغلق الصمت (‪ || )6‬تحفز فؤادها(‪||| 3 ||| )5‬‬
‫)‪(Cause and effect)  x (Cause and effect  x ‬‬
‫‪th‬صوت تدفق شالل (‪ || )9‬عندما حمل األثير عبر اآللة الخرساء صوتاً من أعماق األمل(‪||| 4 1||| )8‬‬
‫‪ x (temporal) ‬‬

‫‪th‬فمأل المكان (‪ || )11‬عبير انداح من األسالك(‪||| 5 ||| )10‬‬

‫‪(Extension) (Positive addition) 2 + 1‬‬
‫‪th‬وبخر بحرارته عشر سنوات (‪ || )13‬ابتلع الزمن‪||| 6 ||| )12(،‬‬
‫‪(Positive addition) 2 + 1‬‬
‫)‪ 7th ||| (14‬يفتح الدفاتر‪ )15( || ،‬يقلب األوراق‪ )16( || ،‬يضع اإلشارات || (‪ )17‬ويهز رأسه‬
‫إعجاباً‪ )18( || ،‬ويقلب شفتيه مدحاً |||‬
‫‪(Positive addition) 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1‬‬
‫‪th‬فيزيدها تألقاً وحناناً‪ || )20( 1‬ينتشر الرضا عالئم فوق‪ 1‬قسمات وجهه(‪||| 8 ||| )19‬‬
‫‪(Cause and effect)  x ‬‬

‫‪ُth‬يقيم عملها (‪ُ || )22‬يدون مالحظاته‪||| 9 ||| )21(،‬‬

‫‪(Positive addition) 2 + 1‬‬
‫‪th‬لكنها سرعان ما ردمته (‪ || )24‬حفر أسلوبه في الحديث نفقاً سري بنى فمه وقلبها‪||| 10 ||| )23(،‬‬
‫‪(Adversative addition) 2 + 1‬‬
‫‪th‬واستعد للرحيل (‪ || )26‬أنهى مهمته(‪||| 11 ||| )25‬‬
‫‪(Positive addition) 2 + 1‬‬
‫‪th‬ودع الجميع (‪ || )28‬جمع رواتبه وتعويضاته مع مهماته في دوائر‪ 1‬أخرى(‪||| 12 ||| )27‬‬

‫‪36‬‬
‫‪(Positive addition) 2 + 1‬‬
‫‪th‬دخل عليهم (‪ || )30‬عاد إلى الدائرة(‪||| 13 ||| )29‬‬
‫‪(Positive addition) 2 + 1‬‬
‫‪th‬محفظتي الصغيرة (‪ || )32‬فقدت محفظتي(‪||| 14 ||| )31‬‬
‫‪(Elaboration) (Clarification) 2 = 1‬‬
‫‪th‬بطاقة شخصية لدخولي‪ 1‬جامعة السوربون (‪ || )34‬فيها هويتي‪||| 15 ||| )33(،‬‬
‫‪(Positive addition) 2 + 1‬‬
‫)‪ 16th ||| (35‬بطاقة دائمة الش‪11‬تراكي‪ 1‬في الم‪11‬ؤتمرات العلمية واالقتص‪11‬ادية في جامع‪11‬ات مص‪11‬ر‪|| ،‬‬
‫(‪ )36‬رخصة قيادة عالمية وأخرى محلية‪ )37( || ،‬بطاقة دعوى شخصية |||‬
‫‪(Extension) (Positive addition) 3 + (Positive addition) 2 + 1‬‬
‫)‪ 17th ||| (38‬لحض ‪11‬وري الم ‪11‬ؤتمر الع ‪11‬المي لل ‪11‬ذرة‪ )39( || ،‬وال ‪11‬ذي س ‪11‬ينعقد في نيوي ‪11‬ورك الش ‪11‬هر‬
‫القادم |||‬
‫‪(Elaboration)  = ‬‬

‫)‪ 18th ||| (40‬شيك بمبلغ خمسين ألف ليرة‪ )41( || ،‬المبلغ الذي قبضته أمس |||‬
‫‪(Elaboration)  = ‬‬

‫)‪ 19th ||| (42‬دفتري‪ 1‬هواتف‪ )43( || ،‬وإ لى ما هنالك من بطاقات‪ 1‬صغيرة |||‬
‫‪(Extension) (Positive addition) 2 + 1‬‬
‫أدون عليها عن‪11‬اوين مهمة ج‪11‬داً خ‪11‬ارج القط‪11‬ر‪ )45( || ،‬في معظم دول الع‪11‬الم ال‪11‬تي‬
‫)‪ّ 20 ||| (44‬‬
‫‪th‬‬

‫ارتادها |||‬
‫‪(Elaboration) (Exemplification) 2 + 1‬‬
‫)‪ 21th ||| (46‬كان لهيب الحادثة يأكل حواف كلماته‪ )47( || ،‬فيطفئه برشفة من الماء |||‬
‫‪(Enhancement) (Cause-effect)  x ‬‬

‫)‪ 22th ||| (48‬وزفير رئته مخضل برذاذ جرحه || (‪ )49‬التي أدمعت العيون |||‬
‫‪(Elaboration)  = ‬‬

‫)‪ 23th ||| (50‬وقد لفه بأصابعه‪ )51( || ،‬ولفح هيجره حنايا فؤاده |||‬
‫‪(Extension) (Positive addition) 2 + 1‬‬

‫‪37‬‬
 ‫)‪ 24th ||| (52‬والخجل يربط لسانها‪ )53( || ،‬وشفافيه حشها اإلنساني يغلق كلمات سؤالها |||‬
‫‪(Positive addition) 2 + 1‬‬
‫)‪ 25th ||| (54‬لم تقل بأنها ع‪11‬انقت ي‪11‬دك منذ عش‪11‬رين س‪11‬نة‪ )55( || ،‬ولم تب‪11‬دلها نظ‪11‬راً لج‪11‬ودة جل‪11‬دها‬
‫|||‬
‫‪(Extension) (Negative addition) 2 + 1‬‬
‫هز رأسه تأكيداً‪ )57( || ،‬وتنفس زفيراً |||‬
‫)‪ّ 26 ||| (56‬‬
‫‪th‬‬

‫‪(Extension) (Positive addition) 2 + 1‬‬

‫)‪ 27th ||| (58‬وتابع‪ )59( || ،‬لكنني لست مسؤوالً‪ 1‬عن إضاعتها |||‬
‫‪(Extension) (Adversative addition) 2 + 1‬‬
‫حملت ابنتي الصغيرة في يد وعربة نومها وحقيبة كبيرة في اليد األخرى‪)59( || ،‬‬
‫ُ‬ ‫)‪28th ||| (60‬‬
‫تلفت‪ )61( || ،‬وسرعان ما تلقفتها زوجتي‪ 1‬المصون بكلتي يديها |||‬
‫ثم ُ‬
‫‪(Positive addition) 3 + (Positive addition) 2 + 1‬‬
‫)‪ 29th ||| (62‬وعوضاً من وضع المحفظة قربها‪ 1‬في السيارة‪ )63( ||،‬ألقتها جانب الرصيف‪||| 1‬‬
‫‪2 + (Extension) (Variation) 1‬‬
‫)‪ 30th ||| (64‬ألقتها جانب الرصيف‪ )65( || ،‬وركبت السيارة |||‬
‫‪(Extension) (Positive addition) 2 + 1‬‬
‫)‪ 31th ||| (66‬وبعد مسافة مائة وخمسين كيلومتراً‪ )67( || ،‬وقفت في محطة وقود‪||| 1‬‬
‫‪(Enhancement)  x (Spatial) ‬‬

‫)‪ 32th ||| (68‬عدت أدراجي إلى المدينة‪ )69( || ،‬ووقفت أمام المنزل |||‬
‫‪(Extension) (Positive addition) 2 + 1‬‬
‫أفتش‪ )71( ||| ،‬أسأ ُل‪ )72( || ،‬ولكن دون جدوى |||‬
‫أبحث‪ُ )69( || ،‬‬
‫ُ‬ ‫)‪33th ||| (70‬‬
‫‪(Positive addition) 2 + 1‬‬
‫)‪(Extension) (Adversative addition) 4 + (Positive addition) 3 + (Extension‬‬
‫)‪ 34th ||| (73‬أقوم بإجراء التبليغ لقسم الشرطة عن هويتي الشخص‪11‬ية‪ )74( || ،‬وأعلنت عن دفع‬
‫المال |||‬
‫‪(Extension) (Positive addition) 2 + 1‬‬

‫‪38‬‬
‫)‪ 35th ||| (75‬ك‪11‬انت تص‪11‬غي إليه بكل جوارحه‪11‬ا‪ )76( || 1،‬وص‪11‬رير‪ 1‬أس‪11‬نانه يقطع ني‪11‬اط قلبه‪11‬ا‪( || ،‬‬
‫‪ )77‬ويوهج خيوط‪ 1‬الغيرة في أحشائها‪||| ،‬‬
‫‪(Extension) (Positive addition) 3 + (Extension) (Positive addition) 2 + 1‬‬
‫)‪ 36th ||| (78‬معجم لكل العملي‪1‬ات الحس‪1‬ابية واالقتص‪1‬ادية || (‪ )79‬مرجع لكل الق‪1‬وانين والدس‪1‬اتير‪1‬‬
‫والبالغات واالجتهادات‪||| 1‬‬
‫‪(Extension) (Positive addition) 2 + 1‬‬
‫)‪ 37th ||| (80‬كانت الحادثة كالحكايات الخرافية‪ )81( || ،‬وهي أشبه بحوادث |||‬
‫‪(Extension) (Positive addition) 2 + 1‬‬
‫)‪ 38th ||| (82‬ودع الجميع‪ )83( || ،‬ومضى |||‬
‫‪(Extension) (Positive addition) 2 + 1‬‬
‫)‪ 39th ||| (84‬يحمل بين أضلعه صورة دافئة لعينين‪ )85( || ،‬شيعتاه مألى بالدموع |||‬
‫‪(Elaboration)  = ‬‬

‫)‪ 40th ||| (86‬حمل نبض‪1 1 1‬اً قلبها || (‪ )87‬يت ‪11 1‬دفق‪ 1‬حنان‪1 1 1‬اً بكل نفس || (‪ )88‬يخ ‪11 1‬رج من ص ‪11 1‬درها‪1‬‬
‫ممزوجاً |||‬
‫‪(Elaboration)  ‬‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫)‪ 41th ||| (89‬وضع الجميع أح‪11‬داث المحفظة || (‪ )90‬منهم من ابتلعها || (‪ )91‬ومنهم‪ 1‬من ك‪11‬ذبها‬
‫|||‬
‫‪(Extension) (Positive addition) 3 + (Extension) (Positive addition) 2 + 1‬‬
‫ِ‬
‫يمض || (‪)95‬‬ ‫)‪ 42th ||| (92‬ضعيف أمام زوجته || (‪ )93‬بل عكس ذلك مضى || (‪ )94‬لكنه لم‬
‫بل حفر اسمه على جدار قلبها وبين ثنايا أضلعها |||‬
‫‪(Extension) (Adversative) 3 + (Extension) (Adversative) 2 + 1‬‬
‫‪(Extension) (Adversative addition) 4 +‬‬
‫)‪ 43th ||| (96‬ذابت مالمحه || (‪ )97‬وبقيت بصماته دامغة على المحفظة |||‬
‫‪(Extension) (Positive addition) 2 + 1‬‬
‫)‪ 44th ||| (98‬أيقظ صوته المخملي دموع األلم عليه‪ )99( || ،‬وأجج صدق المودة |||‬
‫‪(Extension) (Positive addition) 2 + 1‬‬

‫‪39‬‬
‫)‪ 45th ||| (100‬داعب نغم كلماته أس‪11 1‬الك فؤادها‪ )101( || 1‬ف‪11 1‬أورقت‪ 1‬نبض‪11 1‬ات رس‪11 1‬مه في طع‪11 1‬ام‬
‫الفؤاد || وتعثرت في سيرها الدماء |||‬
‫‪(Enhancement) (Cause-effect)  x ‬‬
‫‪(Positive addition)  +‬‬

‫)‪ 46th ||| (102‬وتمنى‪ 1‬كل منهما || (‪ )103‬أن يبزغ األخير في سمائه قمراً |||‬
‫‪(Positive addition) 2 + 1‬‬
‫)‪ 47th ||| (104‬يبدد ظلمة ليله‪ )105( || ،‬ونبعاً يروي جفاف حياته || (‪ )106‬وشمس ال تع‪11‬رف‬
‫األفول |||‬
‫‪(Positive addition) 3 + (Positive addition) 2 + 1‬‬

‫‪40‬‬