9.

0 Kinematics of rigid bodies—velocity

As explained in the beginning of this book, this study of Dynamics is divided into the study of particle
motion (point masses) and then the study of bodies extended in space or rigid bodies. Each of these is
subdivided into the study kinematics─pure motion without regard to forces involved in causing the
motion or resulting from the motion—and the study of kinetics, where the interplay of forces and
moments and the motion is considered. Thus we are at the third quarter of this study and consider now
the pure motion, without forces, of extended, rigid bodies.

9.1 Rigid bodies vs. particles

Rigid bodies are physical objects that are extended in space. Particles, as we have seen, are point
masses. That is, they are objects whose physical extension in space is unimportant to the analysis at
hand. The size of an object is often not important. For example, the mechanics of the planets in the
solar system revolving around the sun can be analyzed using the simplification that the masses of the
planets and the sun are concentrated at a single point, even though planets and the sun are quite large
bodies. It’s the scale of the overall problem that determines whether or not reducing masses to single
points is possible.

With extended objects it is possible to have two or more points on a body. The figure below shows the
standard 2-D blob that is often used to discuss rigid-body motion. The blob contains two points A and B.
It is possible to look at the motion of A, the motion of B, the motion of A viewed by an observer on B, or
the motion of point B viewed by an observer at A. Since the body is rigid, the straight-line distance
between A and B does not change. That is A does not approach B nor does it recede from B. The same
is true, of course, of B, regarded from the standpoint of A. So an observer standing on A can only see B
going sideways either toward the left or right.

Figure 9.1 – Relative motion of two points on a rigid body

9.2 Types of planar motion

A rigid body undergoes two basic types of motion. It can translate—that is, move without rotating—and
it can rotate. Translation can be movement in a straight line, or it can be movement along a curvilinear
path. What characterizes translation is that a line scored on the surface of a body does not change its
orientation as it moves. The figure below shows two cases of translation—rectilinear translation (along

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 Kinematics of rigid bodies – velocity

a straight-line path) and curvilinear translation. In both cases, the line between points A and B stays
pointed in the same direction as the body moves.

(a) Rectilinear translation (b) Curvilinear translation

Figure 9.2 – (a) Rectilinear and (b) curvilinear translation

The other type of motion is rotation. Pure rotation is rotation about the body’s mass center. In this case
one can say that the body doesn’t go anywhere since the center of mass is stationary. Rotation can also
take place around a fixed point that is not the mass center of the body. This is called fixed-axis rotation.

(a) Pure rotation (b) Fixed-axis rotation

Figure 9.3 – Rotation

A body can also undergo translation + rotation—that is, a combination of both types of motion,
occurring simultaneously, and with no fixed axis of rotation. Rather the point about which the object
rotates changes. This is called general plane motion.

Figure9.4 – General plane motion

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 Kinematics of rigid bodies – velocity

Rotation is what distinguishes rigid-body motion from particle motion. Particles may move in a circular
path about some point, but to talk of the rotation of the particle itself or of its orientation makes no
sense. For a rigid body, it undergoes rotation if any line scribed on it (such as AB above) changes its
orientation. The body may move along a complicated path, as in Figure 9.2(b) above. But if a line
scribed on it does not change its orientation in this motion, there is no rotation involved.

9.3 Relative motion

When studying rigid-body motion, the notion of an observer on a point on a body observing the motion
of another point on the rigid body is useful. Take an observer on point B looking at point A, as shown in
Figure 9.5. Point A neither comes toward B nor does it recede from B, because the body is rigid. The
observer is not aware of his/her own motion. In translation, all points on a body have the same motion.
So to an observer on B regarding A, it seems there is no motion at all. Thus the relative motion between
A and B is 0.

Motion of A to an observer at B Motion of B to an observer at A

Figure 9.5 – Relative velocity

The only motion of A that an observer on B sees is rotation. Since the observer at B is unaware of
his/her own motion, it looks to him/her that the body is rotating about his/her observation point. Every
point on the body looks as if it is rotating about B. To an observer at A, it looks as if the entire body is
rotating about A. Since no point on the rigid body can come toward nor recede from the observer, all
the observer sees is sideways motion—to the left or the right. This is simply a result of the body’s
rotation. Counter-clockwise rotation looks like movement to the left (as shown above); clockwise
rotation looks like movement to the right.

This relative motion takes on the characteristics of rotation about a point. For example the apparent
sideways speed of A to an observer at B depends on the angular speed, , of the body, and the distance
rAB between the two points. With vectors

𝑣⃗𝐴/𝐵 = 𝜔
⃗⃗𝐴𝐵 × 𝑟⃗𝐴/𝐵

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 Kinematics of rigid bodies – velocity

This is a very important relationship in rigid-body kinematics. The subscripts and how to interpret them
must be understood very well. First, “A/B” means “A with respect to B”, that is “the movement of point
A to an observer riding along on B”. This is different than “B/A”. In fact it is its opposite. “B/A” means
that the observer is on A looking at B. If an observer on B looking at A sees A going to his/her left, as
shown above, this means that the body is rotating counter-clockwise. The speed is AB∙rAB , where rAB
just denotes the distance between A and B without specifying a reference point. To an observer on B
looking at the motion of A, this same rotation makes it look as if A is going to the left. Note that two
velocity vectors 𝑣⃗𝐴/𝐵 and 𝑣⃗𝐵/𝐴 have the same speed, AB∙rAB , but they are pointed in opposite
directions.

Note that the subscript of 𝜔 ⃗⃗𝐴𝐵 is simply AB, not A/B nor B/A. This intentional and is a very important
point. A rigid body has only one angular velocity. There is no such thing as 𝜔 ⃗⃗𝐴/𝐵 nor 𝜔⃗⃗𝐵/𝐴 . They make
no sense. The body rotates. End of story. It does not rotate differently depending on a specific
reference point. The subscript “AB” simply denotes the body that points A and B are on. So “AB” means
the same thing as ”BA”, though in an analysis it would be confusing to switch the order of these letters
willy-nilly. In this book, we shall always write these non-observer-referencing subscripts with the letters
in alphabetical order.

So in summary the equation

𝑣⃗𝐴/𝐵 = 𝜔
⃗⃗𝐴𝐵 × 𝑟⃗𝐴/𝐵

must have the following features:

▪ The subscript of 𝑟⃗ must be the same as the subscript of 𝑣⃗ with the same letters in the same
order.
▪ 𝜔
⃗⃗ will have a non-observer-referencing subscript, preferably with the letters in alphabetical
order.

The idea of an observer actually mimics somewhat our behavior as humans. Two experiences in my past
show me how powerful our perspective regarding the outside world is. Nowadays you do not often see
these spinning disks on playgrounds, where kids would get on, and one of them of a grown-up would
spin the disk by hand. If you stood at the center of the disk, you really could convince yourself that your
immediate reference, the disk surface, was not moving, but rather the world was spinning around you.
The second experience I had was during flight training to get my pilot’s license. My young instructor
insisted that we do spin training. The first time we went into a spin, all I saw when looking out of the
front of the airplane was the ground ahead (not a good thing to see for a pilot), and it was spinning
round and round. Terrifying the first time!

But then also a good way to show that our perspective is false is that we sit still and perceive ourselves
not moving, while, unbeknownst to us, we are hurling on a little rock through space at an incredible
speed, the rock itself orbiting its sun at a furious pace, and then us on the rock twisting eastward about
its axis at about 100 mph. Meanwhile to us, it all seems so peaceful and still. That is the ultimate hoax
in Dynamics!

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 Kinematics of rigid bodies – velocity

9.4 Vector approach to rigid-body kinematic analysis of velocities

There are several approaches to analyzing 2-D rigid-body kinematic problems. They can be solved
simply trigonometrically, for example, applying the rules of trigonometry to a mechanism, noting
geometric features of it. Another approach is a more formal, rigid vector approach. This approach is
explained in this section. For beginners in rigid-body motion, it offers a structure that is set and can be
applied to all 2-D kinematic problems involving rigid bodies.

The key to this approach is to pick two points on a rigid body whose velocities are known or are partially
known. In many cases the magnitude of the velocity, the speed, of a point is not known, but it is
constrained to move in a certain direction. Let’s say that there is a rigid body with two points on it, A
and B, about which the velocities are known or partially known. The relative velocity relationship can be
written relating the velocities of these two points.

𝑣⃗𝐵 = 𝑣⃗𝐴 + 𝑣⃗𝐵/𝐴

Note that the subscripts in this equation follow the pattern B-A-B-A. This is always the case. It would be
equally valid to write the A-B-A-B equation, and in most problems it does not matter which one is
written. Both are valid. From this equation, we can expand the term 𝑣⃗𝐴/𝐵 .

𝑣⃗𝐴/𝐵 = 𝜔
⃗⃗𝐴𝐵 × 𝑟⃗𝐴/𝐵

These two equations form the basis of this vector approach and are employed sequentially over and
over as we work our way through the mechanism, applying this equation in stages, to pairs of points on
different components of the mechanism. To show how this is done, let’s look at a classical mechanism
in rigid-body kinematics.

Example 9.1 - Slider-crank mechanism

At right is shown a slider-crank mechanism, which is the basis for

converting linear motion into circular motion in a reciprocating engine or
compressor. The piston B runs vertically up and down in the cylinder.
The link AB is the connecting rod. OA is the crank or crank arm. It rotates
about the fixed crank center at O. For this discussion let’s assume that
OA is constant and is given. The lengths of the links—lOA and lAB—are
also given, as are  and  in this position. We are interested in the
angular velocity of AB and the speed of the piston in this configuration.

We start with what is known ( 𝜔

⃗⃗𝑂𝐴 ) and work our way toward what is
unknown ( 𝑣⃗𝐵 ).

Figure 9.10 – Slider-crank

mechanism
We can get the velocity of A, knowing 𝜔
⃗⃗𝑂𝐴 .

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 Kinematics of rigid bodies – velocity

𝑣⃗𝐴 = 𝜔
⃗⃗𝑂𝐴 × 𝑟⃗𝐴/𝑂

⃗⃗𝑂𝐴 = 𝜔𝑂𝐴 𝑘̂ ), and 𝑟⃗𝐴/𝑂 = 𝑙𝑂𝐴 (cos 𝜃 𝑖̂ + sin 𝜃 𝑗̂) . Thus

The rotational velocity of OA is given ( 𝜔

𝑣⃗𝐴 = 𝜔𝑂𝐴 𝑘̂ × 𝑙𝑂𝐴 (cos 𝜃 𝑖̂ + sin 𝜃 𝑗̂)

We can pull the two scalars out front.

𝑣⃗𝐴 = 𝜔𝑂𝐴 𝑙𝑂𝐴 𝑘̂ × (cos 𝜃 𝑖̂ + sin 𝜃 𝑗̂)

Now we use the methodology explained in section ***.*** to perform the cross product.

𝑣⃗𝐴 = 𝜔𝑂𝐴 𝑙𝑂𝐴 (cos 𝜃 𝑗̂ − sin 𝜃 𝑖̂)

This implies that A points to the left and up, which is certainly what we would expect. Now we turn our
attention to link AB . With 𝑣⃗𝐴 known, we are interested in the velocity of point B . Relate the two
points.

𝑣⃗𝐵 = 𝑣⃗𝐴 + 𝑣⃗𝐵/𝐴

𝑣⃗𝐴/𝐵 = 𝜔
⃗⃗𝐴𝐵 × 𝑟⃗𝐴/𝐵

To an observer on B looking down at A , A looks as if it is moving to the right. Thus the direction of
⃗⃗𝐴𝐵 = 𝜔𝐴𝐵 (−𝑘̂) . 𝑟⃗𝐴/𝐵 = 𝑙𝐴𝐵 (cos 𝜙 𝑖̂ − sin 𝜙 𝑗̂) . Thus
rotation of link AB is clockwise—i.e., 𝜔

𝑣⃗𝐴/𝐵 = 𝜔𝐴𝐵 (−𝑘̂ ) × 𝑙𝐴𝐵 (cos 𝜙 𝑖̂ − sin 𝜙 𝑗̂)

𝑣⃗𝐴/𝐵 = 𝜔𝐴𝐵 𝑙𝐴𝐵 (−𝑘̂) × (cos 𝜙 𝑖̂ − sin 𝜙 𝑗̂) = 𝜔𝐴𝐵 𝑙𝐴𝐵 (cos 𝜙 𝑗̂ + sin 𝜙 𝑖̂)

The piston is moving upward in the cylinder at this point, so 𝑣⃗𝐵 = 𝑣𝐵 𝑗̂ . Putting this all together

𝑣𝐵 𝑗̂ = 𝜔𝑂𝐴 𝑙𝑂𝐴 (cos 𝜃 𝑗̂ − sin 𝜃 𝑖̂) + 𝜔𝐴𝐵 𝑙𝐴𝐵 (cos 𝜙 𝑗̂ + sin 𝜙 𝑖̂)

This single, 2-D vector equation thus yields two scalar equations.

𝑖̂ : 0 = −𝜔𝑂𝐴 𝑙𝑂𝐴 sin 𝜃 + 𝜔𝐴𝐵 𝑙𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜙

𝑗̂ : 𝑣𝐵 = 𝜔𝑂𝐴 𝑙𝑂𝐴 cos 𝜃 + 𝜔𝐴𝐵 𝑙𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜙

There are two unknowns in these two equations, AB and vB , which are the two unknowns sought.
Note that the 𝑖̂-equation simply states the fact that the 𝑖̂-component of 𝑣⃗𝐴 as calculated from the
rotational motion of OA is the same as the 𝑖̂-component of 𝑣⃗𝐴 as calculated from the rotational motion
of AB .

9.5 Rigid-body velocity analysis using velocity diagrams

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 Kinematics of rigid bodies – velocity

A more intuitive, graphical approach is available for this analysis too. It uses velocity diagrams and the
fact that no two points on a rigid body can approach or get further away from each other. The body is
rigid after all.

Example 9.2 ─ Slider-crank mechanism via velocity diagram

At left is shown a stick figure of the slider-crank

mechanism. Again, OA is given as well as the
dimensions of the links and the angles  and , as in
Example 9.1 The right-hand drawing is of link AB, the
link whose motion is unknown. 𝑣⃗𝐴 is found as before.
With 𝑣⃗𝐴 known, it is possible through trigonometry to
find AB and vB. Here’s how.

Since link AB is rigid, points A and B must have the same

component of velocity along the link. We can resolve 𝑣⃗𝐴
and 𝑣⃗𝐵 into components parallel (∥) and perpendicular
(⊥)to the link.
Figure 9.11 – Slider-crank velocity diagram

It must be so that

𝑣⃗𝐴∥ = 𝑣⃗𝐵∥

We can write the trigonometric relationships as illustrated in the figure.

1.  is the original angle given for OA

2. 𝜓 = 90° − 𝜃
3. This angle is  because it’s the opposite interior angle of 2
4.  is the original angle given for AB
5. This is the same  between the horizontal and AB
6. 𝛽 = 90° − 𝜙

Thus  and  can be found. Knowing vA

𝑣𝐴∥ = 𝑣𝐵∥

𝑣𝐴 cos(𝜙 − 𝜓) = 𝑣𝐵 cos(𝛽)

𝑣𝐴 cos (𝜙 − 𝜓)
𝑣𝐵 =
cos(𝛽)

With vB , we can find 𝑣𝐵⊥ . If you were standing on A looking at B , B would look as if it were going to
the right. But you would have velocity 𝑣𝐴⊥ to the left. So the apparent sideways speed of B viewed
from A would be 𝑣𝐴⊥ + 𝑣𝐵⊥ to the right. Thus

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 Kinematics of rigid bodies – velocity
𝑣𝐴⊥ +𝑣𝐵⊥
𝜔𝐴𝐵 = clockwise
𝑙𝐴𝐵

This last equation is derived from the well-known relationship for relative velocities

𝑣⃗𝐴/𝐵 = 𝜔
⃗⃗𝐴𝐵 × 𝑟⃗𝐴/𝐵

Other approaches are shown in the figure below. Thes shows two possible velocity diagrams that can be
used to find 𝑣⃗𝐵 and 𝑣⃗𝐵/𝐴 from 𝑣⃗𝐴 .

Figure 9.12 – Velocity diagrams for slider-crank mechanism

In the left-hand diagram, 𝑣⃗𝐴 is drawn, as well as a line through its tail that is along AB. This allows and
𝑣⃗𝐵 are placed tail to tail. This allows 𝑣⃗𝐴∥ to be projected onto that line. Of course 𝑣⃗𝐴∥ = 𝑣⃗𝐵∥ . We then
draw a vertical line through the tail of 𝑣⃗𝐴 , since this is the direction of 𝑣⃗𝐵 . This allows us to draw 𝑣⃗𝐵 ,
since 𝑣⃗𝐵∥ is just its projection. We can then draw a line perpendicular to the direction of AB through the
tail of 𝑣⃗𝐴 . This allows us to project 𝑣⃗𝐴⊥ and 𝑣⃗𝐵⊥ onto this line. With this diagram we can do the
trigonometry as follows.

1. Draw  on the diagram

2. 𝜓 = 90° − 𝜃
3.  is the original angle given for AB
4. 𝛽 = 90° − 𝜙
5. An inspection of the right angles in the figure shows that this angle is  also

From this, it can be seen that

𝑣𝐴∥ = 𝑣𝐴 cos (𝜙 − 𝜓)
𝑣𝐴∥
𝑣𝐵 =
cos (𝛽)

𝑣⃗𝐴⊥ = 𝑣𝐴 sin (𝜙 − 𝜓) , 𝑣⃗𝐴⊥ = 𝑣𝐵 sin (𝛽)

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 Kinematics of rigid bodies – velocity
𝑣𝐴⊥ +𝑣𝐵⊥
𝜔𝐴𝐵 = clockwise
𝑙𝐴𝐵

In the diagram on the right, a different approach is taken. It is based on the equation

𝑣⃗𝐵/𝐴 = 𝑣⃗𝐵 − 𝑣⃗𝐴

The only vector known at the outset is 𝑣⃗𝐴 . −𝑣⃗𝐴 is drawn. A vertical line is drawn through its head,
which represents the direction of 𝑣⃗𝐵 . The direction of link AB is drawn, as well as a line perpendicular
to this direction. 𝑣⃗𝐵/𝐴 must lie on this perpendicular line, since point A doesn’t approach or get farther
away from point B. With the vertical line and the line perpendicular to AB , it is possible to find the
vectors 𝑣⃗𝐵 and 𝑣⃗𝐵/𝐴 , after doing a little angle trigonometry. That follows as

1. Draw  on the diagram

2. 𝜓 = 90° − 𝜃 , since 𝜃 + 90° + 𝜓 = 180°
3.  is the original angle given for AB
4. 𝛽 = 90° − 𝜙
5. An inspection of the right angles in the figure shows that this angle is  also

From this diagram

cos(𝜓)
𝑣𝐵/𝐴 cos(𝛽) = 𝑣𝐴 cos(𝜓) , 𝑣𝐵/𝐴 = 𝑣𝐴
cos(𝛽)

𝑣𝐵/𝐴
𝜔𝐴𝐵 =
𝑙𝐴𝐵

𝑣𝐵 = 𝑣𝐴 sin(𝜓) + 𝑣𝐵/𝐴sin (𝛽)

There are certainly other diagrams, akin to these, that could be drawn to represent the equation relating
𝑣⃗𝐴 and 𝑣⃗𝐵 . These are just some possibilities.

As can be seen, this approach is more hands-on and graphical. It can be implemented in multiple ways.
It involves more trigonometry too. It also requires a different approach with each mechanism, because
each mechanism’s geometry is different. Both approaches—the vector approach and the graphical
approach—have their advantages and disadvantages. Which to use is up to the dynamicist. Both work.
A mixture of the two is also useful.

9.6 Instantaneous center

Since a body has just one rotational speed at any point in time, there has to be a point about which the
body is rotating at any instant of time. This point is stationary at that point in time, but it can change in
the course of time. This seemingly contradictory statement can be understood by referring to the rolling
wheel as an example. At any given point in time, the contact point between the wheel and the ground is
not moving. It is stationary, but only for that quick instant of time, when it makes contact with the
ground. Thus the contact point on the rim of the wheel is the point about which the entire wheel is

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 Kinematics of rigid bodies – velocity

rotating, but only for an instant. This contact point moves along the ground with the wheel as it rolls.
But its velocity is always instantaneously 0.

This is a property of rotation. At any point in time, a body is rotating about an instantaneous center, as
described for the wheel above. This is sometimes shortened to instant center or simply i.c. For the
wheel the instant center is on the body. But there is no need actually for the instantaneous center to be
on the body. Figure 9.3(b) is an example of a body rotating about a point external to it. In 9.3(b), point
O is actually a fixed axis of rotation, where the body moves in a circular path about O. In this case, the
instant center is the permanent center. That is, it does not change in time. A pendulum is another
example of this. Its pivot point is its permanent center of rotation and, thus, also its instant center, since
at every instant, the pendulum is swinging about this pivot point. Many machines have rotating parts
whose center of rotation is permanent.

Example 9.3 - Instant center of helicopter rotor

Another interesting example of an instant center is the rotor of a helicopter. The figure below shows a
helicopter in normal flight forward at a velocity of vO. On the right the helicopter is shown from above
with the rotor athwart the fuselage, perpendicular to the direction of flight. Shown also are the
velocities of points along the rotor relative to the rotor axis at O. The velocity of a point C is shown,
again relative to point O. The total velocity at C is

Figure 9.10 – Helicopter in flight

The total velocity at C is

𝑣⃗𝐶 = 𝑣⃗𝑂 + 𝑣⃗𝐶/𝑂

But as illustrated, 𝑣⃗𝐶/𝑂 = −𝑣⃗𝑂 , so 𝑣⃗𝐶 = 0 . So at this instant, when the rotor is athwart the helicopter
fuselage, there is a point to the right of the fuselage along the rotor that is the instant center of the
rotor. This point travels along with the helicopter, always at a distance rOC to the right of the helicopter
at the speed vO. If the forward speed of the helicopter increases, this point moves outward along the

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 Kinematics of rigid bodies – velocity

rotor to a point where the aft speed relative to the rotor axis is equal to the forward speed of the
helicopter. At hover, when vO = 0, O is the instant (and permanent) center of rotation of the rotor.

Now for the rotor to generate lift, it has to be moving relative to the air. This means that the rotor at
point C is generating no lift. Indeed, we can modify the drawing of the helicopter rotor to show the
absolute velocity of points along the rotor. These velocities are thus relative to the air through which
the helicopter is moving.

Figure 9.11 – Absolute velocities of helicopter rotor athwart fuselage

Notice that the velocities of points along the rotor to the left of the fuselage are greater than the
velocities of points on the right rotor blade. Lift is proportional to the speed of the rotor through air.
Because of this, the left rotor blade is generating more lift than the right rotor blade. This makes the
helicopter want to roll to the right. Solving this problem was one of the major challenges in the
development of helicopter aeronautics.

Example 9.4 – Slider-crank instant centers

In Figure 9.12 we see a slider-crank mechanism in a certain pose. Link 2 is rotating about the fixed pivot
O, and the piston is travelling downward. IC2 is thus permanently at point O. Thus, the directions of 𝑣⃗𝐴
and 𝑣⃗𝐵 are known. Also vA can be determined from the given  2 . From 𝑣⃗𝐴 and 𝑣⃗𝐵 we draw
perpendiculars. Their intersection point is the instant center of link 3. From the figure we can tell that
the rotation direction of link 3 is clockwise. Also vA > vB , because point A is further from IC3 than is point
B. From the geometry and vA we can calculate  3 , and with  3 we can calculate vB .

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 Kinematics of rigid bodies – velocity

Figure 9.12 – Instant centers of a slider-crank mechanism

Example 9.5 – Four-bar instant centers

Figure 9.13 shows a four-bar mechanism in a specific pose, with the drive link 2 rotating counter-
clockwise, the connector link (3) the follower link (4) following the drive link around. In this pose, link 4
is at a right angle to link 3. The instant centers of this mechanism can be located: Obviously link 2
rotates about the fixed pivot at O, and link 4 rotates about the fixed pivot at C. Those two are then the
ICs 12 and 14. Because of the rotation about these fixed pivots, the directions of the velocities of points
A and B are known. To locate the instant center of link 3, formally 13, we draw perpendiculars to these
two known velocity directions. Their intersection point is the point about which link 3 is rotating at this
instant of time. From the location of this instant center, we can see that in this pose, link 3 is rotating
clockwise. We can also see that vA > vB , because point A is further from IC3 than point B is. Recall that v
= ·r , and  is just the rotational velocity of link 3.

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 Kinematics of rigid bodies – velocity

Figure 9.13 - Four-bar mechanism’s instant centers

Thus, to solve this problem, to find 𝑣⃗𝐵 , 𝜔

⃗⃗4 , and 𝜔
⃗⃗3 , one first finds 𝑣⃗𝐴 from 𝜔
⃗⃗2 . Then one locates IC3
from the geometry. With IC3 , one can then calculate  3 since rA/IC3 is known. With vB , one can solve for
4.

Problems

*. Let the rotor of the helicopter described in Example 9.*** be aligned with the longitudinal axis of
the helicopter, so that point A is forward of the helicopter and B is aft of point O.

a. What is the instant center of the rotor in this position?

b. How does the instant center of the rotor move—i.e., what path does it take—as the rotor goes
through a revolution?

*. Where is the instant center of a wheel that is slipping on a car that is still moving forward along an
icy surface?

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