JAINISM AND BUDDHISM

sixth century
Causes for the Rise of Jainism and Buddhism
 religious unrest in India in the 6th century BC
 complex rituals and sacrifices advocated in the Later Vedic period were not acceptable to the common
people.
 sacrificial ceremonies- too expensive
 Preached non violence which would put an end to war and help facilitate trade
 Common people yearned to return to primitive life because the new forms of property created social
inequalities. Jainism, Buddhism preached a simple ascetic life.
 superstitious beliefs and mantras confused the people
 Upanishads, an alternative highly philosophical in nature not easily understood
 Therefore simple, short and intelligible way to salvation for all people in a language known to them
 This need was fulfilled by the teachings of Buddha and Mahavira.
 social and economic factors also contributed to the rise of these two religions
 rigid caste system prevalent in India
 Kshatriyas had resented the domination of the priestly class. Buddha and Mahavira belonged to
Kshatriya origin.
 growth of trade led to the improvement in the economic conditions of the Vaisyas. they wanted to
enhance their social status but the orthodox Varna system did not allow
 Therefore, they began to extend support to Buddhism and Jainism. merchant class extended the chief
support to these new religions

Jainism
Teachings of Mahavira
three principles of Jainism, also known as Triratnas
- right faith
- right knowledge
- right conduct.
Right faith is the belief in the teachings and wisdom of Mahavira. Right Knowledge is the acceptance of
the theory that there is no God and that the world has been existing without a creator and that all objects
possess a soul. Right conduct refers to the
observance of the five great vows:
- not to injure life
- not to lie
- not to steal
- not to acquire property
Jainism recognosed the existence of gods but placed it lower than jina.
Vardhamana Mahavira- 24th Tirthankara not to lead immoral life. born at Kundagrama near Vaisali.
Kshatriya parents Siddhartha and Trisala. attained the highest spiritual knowledge called Kevala Gnana.
Thereafter, he was called Mahavira and Jina. died at the age of 72 at Pava near Rajagriha.. doctrine of ahimsa.
Mahavira rejected the authority of the Vedas and objected to the Vedic rituals. advocated a very holy and
ethical code of life
Even agriculture was considered sinful causes injury to the earth, worms and animals. doctrine of asceticism
and renunciation carried to extreme lengths. practice of starvation, nudity and other forms of self-torture

Spread of Jainism
Spread of Jainism in Karanatka is attributed to CG Maurya. Mahavira organised the Sangha to spread his
teachings. admitted both men and women. spread rapidly in Western India and Karnataka. Chandragupta
Maurya, Kharavela of Kalinga, Gangas, the Kadambas, the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas patronized Jainism.
famine in the Ganges valley Jain monks led by Bhadrabagu and Chandragupta Maurya came to Sravana
Belgola, South Inda. Those who stayed back in north India were led by a monk named Sthulabahu changed the
code of conduct led to the division of Jainism into two sects Svetambaras (white- clad) and Digambaras
(Sky-clad or Naked).
first Jain Council was convened at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu, the leader of the Digambaras. second Jain
Council was held at Valabhi. final compilation of Jain literature called Twelve Angas was completed in this
council
Contribution of Jainism:
 First serious attempt to mitigate the evils of Varna system.
 Discarded Sanskrit(patronized by Brahamins) and adopted Prakrit  common people.
 Religious literature written in Ardhamagadhi.
 Many regional languages developed out of Prakrit, particularly Sauraseni, out of which Marathi
developed.
 Contributed to the growth of Kannada, in which they wrote extensively
Buddhism
born in 567 B.C. in Lumbini Garden near Kapilavastu.father was Suddodhana of the Sakya clan. At bodhi tree
he got Enlightenment (Nirvana). Since then he became known as the Buddha or ‘the Enlightened One’.
delivered his first sermon at Sarnath near Benares. died at the age of eighty at Kusinagara.. important disciples
of Buddha were Sariputta, Moggallanna, Ananda, Kassapa and Upali

Kings like Prasenajit of Kosala and Bimbisara and Ajatasatru of Magadha accepted his doctrines and became
his disciples.
He did not involve himself in frutless controversy regarding atma and brahman. Said that the world is full of
sorrows and people suffer on account of desires. If desires are controlled, nirvana can be attained.
Recommended ashtangika marg eightfold path for elimination of human misery.
Teachings of Buddha
The Four Noble Truths of Buddha are:
- The world is full of suffering.
- The cause of suffering is desire.
- If desires are get rid off, suffering can be removed.
- This can be done by following the Eightfold Path.

The Eightfold Path consists of right view, right resolve, right speech, right conduct, right livelihood, right effort,
right mindfulness and right concentration
Special Features:
 No recognition of atma
 Won support of lower orders as it attacked varna system
 Women were also admitted to the Sangha.
 Liberal and Democratic.
 Use of Pali, language of people contributed to the spread of Buddhism.
 Three main elements of Buddhism Buddha, Sangha and Dhamma.
 Magadha Kosala and Kausambi monarchies adopted this religion.
 200 yers after Buddha, Asoka adopted Buddhism and made it a world religion.
Spread of Buddhism
Buddha had two kinds of disciples – monks (bhikshus) and lay worshippers (upasikas). The monks were
organized into the Sangha for the purpose of spreading his teachings. There was a special code for nuns
restricting their residence and movement. Sariputta, Moggallana and Ananda were some of the famous monks.
Magadha, Kosala, Kausambi and several republican states of North India embraced this religion. About two
hundred years after the death of Buddha, the famous Mauryan Emperor Asoka embraced Buddhism. Through
his missionary effort Asoka spread Buddhism into West Asia and Ceylon. The first Buddhist Council was held
at Rajagraha under the chairmanship of Mahakasapa immediately after the death of Buddha. The second Buddhist
Council was convened at Vaisali. The third Buddhist Council was held at Pataliputra under the patronage of
Asoka. Moggaliputta Tissa presided over it. final version of Tripitakas was completed in this council. fourth
Buddhist Council was convened in Kashmir by Kanishka under the chairmanship of Vasumitra. Asvagosha
participated in this council. The new school of Buddhism called Mahayana Buddhism came into existence during
this council. Buddhism preached by the Buddha and propagated by Asoka was known as Hinayana. Buddhist
texts are known as the Tripitakas, namely the Sutta, the Vinaya and the Abhidhamma Pitakas. They are written
in the Pali language

Contribution of Buddhism to Indian Culture

 concept of ahimsa was its chief contribution
 contribution to the art and architecture of India was notable. The stupas at Sanchi, Bharhut and Gaya
are wonderful pieces of architecture. Buddhism takes the credit for the chaityas and viharas in different
parts of India
 promoted education through residential universities like those at Taxila, Nalanda and Vikramasila
 language of Pali promoted the spread of Indian culture to other parts of Asia.

Cause of decline of Buddhism

By 12th C, Buddhism extinct in India.
 Became a victim to the evils of Brahminism
 To meet Buddhist challenge, Brahmanas reformed the religion. Stressed the need to protect
cattlewealth and assured women and Sudras admission to heaven. Buddhism on the other got worse,
gradualy Buddhist monks gave up Pali and too to Sanskrit.
 By first C AD, Buddhists practiced idol worship.
 Rich grants to monasteries and monks made the life of monks easy and some of these monasteries like
Nalanda collected revenue .
 For the riches, the monasteries were coveted by Turk Invaders and they killed a number of Buddhist
monks in Nalanda. Some monks managed to escape to Nepal and Tibet.
But, by 12th C Ad, Buddhism was practically gone from India.

THE RISE OF MAGADHA AND ALEXANDER’S INVASION

Buddhist literature Anguttara Nikaya gives a list of sixteen great kingdoms called ‘Sixteen Mahajanapadas’
They were Anga, Magadha, Kasi, Kosala, Vajji, Malla, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru, Panchala, Matsya, Surasena, Asmaka,
Avanti, Gandhara and Kambhoja. in the mid 6th century B.C., only four kingdoms – Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala and
Magadha survived

Vatsa: situated on the banks of the river Yamuna. Its capital was Kausambi near modern Allahabad. Vatsa was
annexed to the Avanti kingdom.

Avanti: capital of Avanti was Ujjain. most important ruler Pradyota patronized Buddhism

Kosala: Ayodhya capital of Kosala. Prasenajit was its famous ruler. His sister was married to Bimbisara. Kasi
was given to her as dowry. Subsequently there was a dispute with Ajatasatru. After the end of the conflict,
Prasenajit married the daughter of Bimbisara. Kosala became part of the Magadha.

Magadha: powerful and prosperous. nerve centre of political activity in north India. geographical and strategic
advantages. strategic position between the upper and lower part of the Gangetic valley fertile soil. iron ores in
the hills near Rajgir and copper and iron deposits near Gaya. location at the centre of the highways of trade.
Rajagriha was the capital of Magadha

Bimbisara
Bimbisara belonged to the Haryanka dynasty. consolidated his position by matrimonial alliances. Married
Kosaladevi, sister of Prasenajit. was given the Kasi region as dowry. Bimbisara married Chellana from Licchavi
family of Vaisali. facilitated the expansion of Magadha northwards to the borders of Nepal
married Khema of the royal house of Madra in central Punjab. defeated Brahmadatta of Anga. friendly relations
with Avanti. Bimbisara was a contemporary of both Vardhamana Mahavira and Gautama Buddha. made numerous
gifts to the Buddhist Sangha.

Ajatasatru
remarkable for his military conquests. fought against Kosala and Vaisali. Won Lichchavis of Vaisali war lasted for
sixteen years. at this time that Ajatasatru realized the strategic importance of Pataligrama (future Pataliputra)
fortified it to serve as a convenient base of operations against Vaisali. Buddhists and Jains both claim that Ajatasatru
was a follower of their religion. But it is generally believed that in the beginning he was a follower of Jainism and
subsequently embraced Buddhism. He is said to have met Gautama Buddha depicted in the sculptures of
Barhut. also instrumental in convening the First Buddhist Council at Rajagriha. immediate successor of
Ajatasatru was Udayin. Udayin’s successors were weak rulers and hence Magadha was captured by Saisunaga

Nanadas
Nandas conquests went beyond the boundaries of the Gangetic basin. Mahapadma Nanda uprooted the kshatriya
dynasties in north India assumed the title ekarat. Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga refers to
the conquest of Kalinga by the Nandas.. The last Nanda ruler was Dhana Nanda enormous wealth of the Nandas
is also referred to in the Tamil Sangam work Ahananuru by the poet Mamulanar.. oppressive way of tax
collection by Dhana Nanda was resented by the people. Taking advantage of this, Chandragupta Maurya and
Kautilya initiated a popular movement against the Nanda rule. during this time that Alexander invaded India.

PERSIAN AND GREEK INVASIONS

Cyrus (558 – 530 B.C)

captured the Gandhara region.

Darius I

Xerxes
Effects of the Persian Invasion
growth of Indo-Iranian commerce. prepared the ground for Alexander’s invasion. use of the Kharoshti
script, a form of Iranian writing became popular in northwestern India. Asoka’s edicts were written in that
script. influence of Persian art on the art of the Mauryas. particularly the monolithic pillars of Asoka
Alexander’s Invasion of India (327-325 B.C.)
Political Condition: number of small kingdoms in northwestern India. Ambhi of Taxilla, Abhisara and Porus
who ruled region between the rivers of Jhelum and Chenab. never come together against common enemy.
Causes of the Invasion
Alexander aimed at further conquest eastwards and wanted to recover the lost Persian Satrapy of India
wealth of India attracted Alexander. his interest in geographical enquiry and love of natural history urged him to
undertake an invasion of India. He believed that on the eastern side of India there was the continuation of the
sea. So, he thought that by conquering India, he would also conquer the eastern boundary of the world.
Battle of Hydaspes
Alexander crossed the Hindukush Mountains spent months in fighting with the tribes.
Effects of Alexander’s invasion
 immediate effect of Alexander’s invasion was political unification of north India under the Mauryas.
 system of small independent states came to an end
 paved the way for direct contact between India and Greece.
 increased the existing facilities for trade between India and West Asia

THE MAURYAN EMPIRE

foundation of the Mauryan Empire. For the first time, the political unity was achieved in India
Literary Sources
Kautilya’s Arthasastra. Kautilya, a contemporary of Chandragupta Maurya called ‘Indian Machiavelli’
Arthasastra contains 15 books and 180 chapters divided into three parts: the first deals with the king and
his council and the departments of government; the second with civil and criminal law; and the third with
diplomacy and war. Visakadatta’s Mudrarakshasa is a drama in Sanskrit written during the Gupta period
describes how Chandragupta with the assistance of Kautilya overthrew the Nandas and socio-economic condition
under the Mauryas.
Megasthenes’ Indica gives details about the Mauryan administration, particularly the administration of the
capital city of Pataliputra and also the military organization. the Puranas and the Buddhist literature such as
Jatakas provide information on the Mauryas. Ceylonese Chronicles Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa throw light on
the role Asoka in spreading Buddhism in Sri Lanka
Edicts of Asoka
first deciphered by James Princep. written in Pali language. Prakrit was used Brahmi script. northwestern India
Asokan inscriptions were found in Karoshti. Edicts of Asoka deal with Asoka’s Dhamma and also instructions
given to his officials. XIII Rock Edict gives details about his war with Kalinga. The Pillar Edict VII gives a
summary of his efforts to promote the Dhamma

POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE MAURYAS

Chandragupta Maurya (322 – 298 B.C.)
founder of the Mauryan Empire. captured Pataliputra from the last ruler of the Nanda dynasty, Dhanananda.
assisted by Kautilya or Vishnugupta marched against Selukas Niketar Alexander’s General got defeated.
Selukas Niketar ceded the trans-Indus territories – namely Aria, Arakosia and Gedrosia. gave his daughter in
marriage to the Mauryan prince. Chandragupta embraced Jainism. Gave throne in favour of his son Bindusara.
went to Sravana Belgola starved himself to death.
Bindusara (298 – 273 B.C.)
Bindusara called by the Greeks as “Amitragatha” meaning slayer of enemies. Mauryan Empire under Bindusara
extended up to Mysore. Bindusara received Deimachus as ambassador from the Syrian king Antiochus I Bindusara
supported the Ajivikas, a religious sect. Bindusara appointed his son Asoka as the governor of Ujjain.
Asoka the Great (273 – 232 B.C.)
As Governor of Ujjain suppressed a revolt in Taxila. interval of four years between Asoka’s accession to the
throne (273 B.C.) and his actual coronation (269 B.C.). Ceylonese Chronicles, Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa
state that Asoka captured power after killing his ninety nine brothers. most important event of Asoka’s reign was
his victorious war with Kalinga in 261 B. effects of the war were described by Asoka himself in the Rock edict
XIII. Asoka embraced Buddhism under the influence of Buddhist monk, Upagupta
Asoka and Buddhism
his conversion to Buddhism was gradual. Asoka became a Sakya Upasaka (lay dsicple) and two and a half
years later, a Bikshu (monk). gave up hunting, visited Bodh-Gaya. appointed special officers called Dharma
Mahamatras to speed up the progress of Dhamma. sent a mission to Sri Lanka under his son Mahendra and
daughter Sangamitra who planted there the branch of the original Bodhi tree. convened the Third Buddhist
Council at Pataliputra to strengthen the Sangha. presided over by Moggaliputta Tissa
Extent of Asoka’s Empire
southernmost kingdoms – Cholas, Pandyas, Satyaputras and Keralaputras remained outside the Mauryan
Empire. According to Rajatarangini, Kashmir was a part of the Mauryan Empire. Nepal
was also within the Mauryan empire. northwestern frontier was already demarcated by Chandragupta
Maurya.
Asoka’s Dhamma
Asoka embraced Buddhism. his policy of Dhamma broad way of life, a code of conduct and a set of
principles. concept of non-violence and other similar ideas of Asoka’s Dhamma are identical with the teachings
of Buddha
Estimate of Asoka
example in history for his benevolent administration and also for following the policy of non-aggression even
after his victory in the war. His central ideal was to promote the welfare of humanity.
Asoka’s death followed by the division of the Mauryan Empire into two parts – western and eastern. western
part was ruled by Kunala son of Asoka. eastern part by Dasaratha, one of the grand sons of Asoka. last
Mauryan king was Brihatratha, who was assassinated by Pushyamitra Sunga.
Mauryan Administration
Central Government systems like republics and oligarchies that were prevalent in the pre-Mauryan India had
collapsed. Kautilya political theorist supported the monarchial form of government not royal absolutism.
advocated that the king should take the advice of his ministry. Therefore, a council of ministers called
Mantriparishad assisted the king consisted of Purohita, Mahamantri, Senapati and Yuvaraja. civil servants
called Amatyas to look after the day-to-day administration. method of selection of Amatyas was elaborately
given by Kautilya. Asoka appointed Dhamma Mahamatras to supervise the spread of Dhamma. Revenue
Department Samharta in charge of the collection of all revenues of the empire.
Army Mauryan army well organized under the Senapati. Mauryan army consisted infantry, cavalry elephants
thousand chariots. Navy and Transport and Supply wings Each wing was under Adyakshas or
Superintendents. Megasthenes mentions six boards of five members each to control the six wings of the military.
Department of Commerce and Industry through its officers called Adyak controlled weights and measures,
levied custom duties and regulated foreign trade. Judicial and Police Departments
both civil and criminal courts. The chief justice called Dharmathikarin.. subordinate courts under Amatyas.
Torture was employed to extract truth. Both Kautilya and Asokan Edicts mention about jails and jail officials.
Census regular during the Mauryan period taken by municipal officials to track the movement of population. data
collected were cross checked by the spies. Provincial and Local Administration: Mauryan Empire was divided
into four provinces with their capitals at Taxila, Ujjain, Suvarnagiri and Kalinga. provincial governors
responsible the maintenance of law and order and collection of taxes for the empire. district
administration under Rajukas, assisted by Yuktas or subordinate officials. Village administration of Gramani
official superior was called Gopa Arthasastra. full chapter on the role of Nagarika or city superintendent. chief
duty to maintain law and order

Mauryan Art and Architecture

Monuments of wood. therefore perished. use of stone started from the time of Asoka artistic remains of the
Mauryan period can be seen in the following heads:
Pillars with inscriptions found Delhi, Allahabad, Rummindai, Sanchi and Saranath.. tops were crowned with
figures of animals like lion, elephant and bull. Saranath pillar with four lions standing back to back is the most
magnificent
Stupas Asoka built a number of stupas. best example is the famous Sanchi stupa originally built with
bricks but later enlarged after the time of Asoka
Caves presented to the Ajivikas by Asoka and his son Dasaratha. interior walls are polished like mirror.
meant to be residences of monks. Caves at Barabar hills near Bodh Gaya
Causes for the Decline of the Mauryas
Traditional approach attributes the decline to Asoka’s policies and his weak successors.the inadequate political
and economic institutions to sustain such a vast empire
Asoka’s pro-Buddhist policies antagonized the Brahmins.
multiple causes for the decline of the Mauryan empire such as:
weak successors, partition of empire and administrative abuses after Asoka’s reign. combination of these
factors speeded up the breakup of the Mauryan empire and facilitated Pushyamitra Sunga to drive away the
Mauryan power and establish the Sunga dynasty.
POST-MAURYAN INDIA
After Asoka, provinces started declaring their independence northwest slipped out of the control of the Mauryas.
a series of foreign invasions. Kalinga declared its independence. in the further south the Satavahanas
established their independent rule. Mauryan rule was confined to the Gangetic valley. was soon replaced by the
Sunga dynasty.

Sungas: founder Pushyamitra Sunga, fought a campaign against Kharavela of Kalinga who invaded north
India. Pushyamitra follower of Brahmanism. performed two asvamedha sacrifices. Buddhist sources refer him
as a persecutor of Buddhism. patronised Buddhist art. During his reign Buddhist monuments at Bharhut and
Sanchi were renovated. death of Pushyamitra, his son Agnimitra became the ruler. last Sunga ruler was
Devabhuti, who was murdered by his minister Vasudeva Kanva, the founder of the Kanva dynasty. After the
fall of the Kanvas, history of Magatha was a blank until the establishment of the Gupta dynasty. Sungas was
important, they defended the Gangetic valley from foreign invasions. Sungas revived Brahmanism and horse sacrifice.
promoted the growth of Vaishnavism and the Sanskrit language
Satavahanas: In the Deccan, the Satavahanas established their independent rule after Mauryas. were also
known as commander-in-chief under the Mauryas as the Andhras. challenge to the Sunga rule to protect
north India against the invasions of the Bactrian Greeks from the northwest. Greeks occupied
Pataliputra for sometime.
Pushyamitra succeeded in regaining Nasik and Nanaghad inscriptions throw much light on the reign of
Gautamiputra Satakarni founder of the Satavahana dynasty was Simuka. succeeded by Krishna. third king was
Sri Satakarni. He conquered western Malwa and Berar. performed asvamedha sacrifices. seventeenth king of
the Satavahana dynasty was Hala. Hala became famous for his book Gathasaptasati, also called Sattasai. The
greatest ruler of the Satavahana dynasty was Gautamiputra Satakarni. His achievements were recorded in the
Nasik inscription by his mother Gautami Balasri. Gautamiputra Satakarni captured the whole of Deccan.
patronized Brahmanism. gave donations to Buddhists. Gautamiputra Satakarni succeeded by
Vashishtaputra Pulamayi extended the Satavahana power up to the mouth of the Krishna river. issued coins on
which the image of ships was inscribed reveal the. naval power and maritime trade of the Satavahanas. last
great ruler of Satavahanas was Yajna Sri Satakarni.
Economic Condition
remarkable progress in the fields of trade and industry. Merchants organized guilds to increase their activities.
Silver coins called Karshapanas were used for trade. The greatest port of the Satavahanas was Kalyani on the
west Deccan. Gandakasela and Ganjam on the east coast were the other important seaports
Cultural Contributions
Satavahanas patronized Buddhism and Brahmanism. built chaityas and viharas. Vashishtaputra Pulamayi repaired
the old Amaravathi stupa. architecture in Nagarjunakonda was also notable.
patronized the Prakrit language and literature. Hala’s Sattasai is an excellent piece of Prakrit literature.
Foreign Invasions of Northwest India
Bactrians, Greek ruler of Bactria invaded Afghanistan and Punjab and occupied them sent two of his
commanders, Appolodotus and Menander for further conquests made attempts to capture Pataliputra. But
stopped by the army of Vasumitra, the grandson of Pushyamitra Sunga. Menander was also known as Milinda and
the capital of his kingdom was Sakala (Sialcot). much interest in Buddhism . A Greek ambassador Heliodorus
became a Vaishnavite and erected the Garuda Pillar at Besnagar. Greek influence in India lasted for more than a
century after the death Menander.
Sakas
Sakas or the Scythians attacked Bactria and Parthia. captured them from the Greek rulers. Sakas gradually
extended their rule over northwestern India. two different groups of Sakas Northern Satraps ruling from
Taxila. Western satraps ruling over Maharashtra.. founder the Saka rule in India
was Maues. His son and successor was Azes I considered to be the founder of the Vikrama era.

Sakas rulers of Taxila were overthrown by the Parthians

Kanishka’s Conquests
Accession included Afghanistan, Gandhara, Sind and Punjab. Magadha, Pataliputra and Bodh Gaya
According to Kalhana, Kanishka invaded Kashmir and occupied it. Coins are found in many places like
Mathura, Sravasti, Kausambi and Benares. Kushanas branch of Yuchi tribe original home was central Asia.
first came to Bactria displacing the Sakas gradually moved to the Kabul valley and seized the Gandhara
region. founder of the Kushana dynasty Kujula Kadphises or Kadphises I. fought against the
Chinese.
Kanishka and Chinese Invasions:
During the first expedition he was defeated by the Chinese general Pancho. Kanishka annexed the territories of
Kashgar, Yarkand and Khotan into his empire. empire of Kanishka extending from Gandhara in the west to
Benares in the east from Kashmir in the north to Malwa in the south. capital was Purushapura or Peshawar.
Issued coins in his name. issued gold coins with high-sounding titles like the ‘Lord of the Whole World’

Kanishka
most important ruler of the Kushana dynasty. founder of the Saka era. great conqueror. patron of
religion and art.
Kanishka and Buddhism: Kanishka embraced Buddhism. However, his coins exhibit the images of not only
Buddha but also Greek and Hindu gods. reflects the Kanishka’s toleration. Mahayana Buddhism came into
vogue. Buddha came to be worshipped with flowers, garments, perfumes and lamps. image worship and rituals
developed in Mahayana Buddhism. He sent missionaries to Central Asia and China. Buddhist chaityas and
viharas were built. He patronised Buddhist scholars like Vasumitra, Asvagosha and Nagarjuna. He convened the
Fourth Buddhist Council at the Kundalavana monastery near Srinagar. under the presidentship of Vasumitra.
Council prepared an authoritative commentary on the Tripitakas and the Mahayana doctrine was given final
shape
 Asvagosh the author of Buddhacharita.
 famous physician of ancient India Charaka was also patronized by him

Gandhara Art
Gandhara school of art around Peshawar in northwestern India. best of the Gandhara sculpture during the first
and second centuries A.D. originated during the reign of Indo-Greek rulers. real patrons
ere the Sakas and the Kushanas, particularly Kanishka. Gandhara art was a blend of Indian and Graeco-
Roman element. Gandhara sculpture found in Taxila, Peshawar. Gandhara school made sculptures of the
Buddha in various sizes, shapes and postures. depict Buddha’s birth, his renunciation and his preaching. salient
features of Gandhara art
 Moulding human body in a realistic manner
 attention to physical features like muscles, moustache and curtly hair.
 Thick drapery with large and bold fold lines
 Rich carving, elaborate ornamentation and symbolic expressions.
 main theme new form of Buddhism – Mahayanism
 evolution of an image of Buddha

number of monasteries were also built. Ruins of about fifteen monasteries were found in and around Peshawar
and Rawalpindi. Buddhist stupas during this period had Graeco-Roman impact.
height of the stupa was raised and ornamentation was added to the structure of the stupa

Mathura School of Art

developed at Mathura first century A.D.. developed on indigenous lines. exhibit the spiritual feeling in his
face. largely absent in the Gandhara school. carved out the images of Siva and Vishnu along with their consorts
Parvathi and Lakshmi. female figures of yakshinis and apsaras of the Mathura school were beautifully carved.

Successors of Kanishka and end of Kushana Rule. Huvishka was the son of Kanishka. Mathura became an
important city under his rule. he was also a patron of Buddhism. last important Kushana ruler was Vasudeva.
worshipper of Siva.
GUPTA AGE
source materials include literary, epigraphical and anumismatic sources. Puranas throw light on the royal
genealogy of the Gupta king. Contemporary literary works Devichandraguptam and the
Mudhrakshasam by Visakadatta. Chinese traveler Fahien during the reign of Chandragupta II has left a
valuable account. Inscriptions like the Meherauli Iron Pillar Inscription and the Allahabad Pillar inscription.
most important source for the reign of Samudragupta is the The most important source for the reign of
Samudragupta is the Allahabad Pillar inscription. This inscription is engraved on an Asokan pillar. It is
written in classical Sanskrit, using the Nagari script. It consists of 33 lines composed by Harisena. It describes
the circumstances of Samudragupta’s accession, his military campaigns in north India and the Deccan.
Coins issued by Gupta Kings legends and figures
Chandragupta I (320 – 330 A.D.)
founder of the Gupta dynasty was Sri Gupta. succeeded by Ghatotkacha.These two were called Maharajas.
next ruler was Chandragupta I. he was the first to be called Maharajadhiraja  title indicates his
extensive conquests. strengthened his position by a matrimonial alliance with the Licchavis. Meherauli Iron
Pillar inscription mentions his extensive conquests
Samudragupta
Allahabad Pillar inscription provides a detailed account of his reign. It refers to three stages in his military
campaign:
1. Against some rulers of North India
2. His famous Dakshinapatha expedition against South Indian rulers
3. A second campaign against some other rulers of North India.
In the first campaign Samudragupta defeated Achyuta and Nagasena. , Samudragupta had gained complete
mastery over the upper Gangetic valley. Then Samudragupta marched against the South Indian monarchs..
Samudragupta’s policy in South India was different. He did not destroy and annex those kingdoms. Instead, he
defeated the rulers but gave them back their kingdoms. He only insisted on them to acknowledge his suzerainty.
The third stage of Samudragupta’s campaign was to eliminate his remaining north Indian rivals. He fought
against nine kings, uprooted them and annexed their territories. Most of these rulers were members of the Naga
family, then ruling over different parts of north India. After these military victories, Samudragupta performed
the asvamedha sacrifice. He issued gold and silver coins with the legend ‘restorer of the asvamedha’. It is
because of his military achievements, he was called Indian Napolean.
Extant of Samudragupta’s Empire
upper Gangetic valley, the greater part of modern UP. portion of central India and the southwestern part of
Bengal. In the south tributary states. Saka and Kushana principalities on the west and northwest. east coast of
the Deccan as far as the Pallava Kingdom
Estimate of Samudragupta
Allahabad Pillar calls him Kaviraja because of his ability in composing verses. image depicting him with Veena
is found in the coins issued by him proof of his proficiency and interest in music. patron of many poets and
scholars one of whom was Harisena. follower of Vaishnavism. evinced keen interest in Buddhism. patron of
the great Buddhist scholar Vasubandu.

Chandragupta II
Samudragupta was succeeded by CG-II. extended the Gupta Empire by a judicious combination of diplomacy
and warfare. matrimonial alliances married a Naga princess of central India. gave his daughter in marriage to
the Vakataka prince Rudrasena II. The political importance of this marriage lies in the fact that the Vakatakas
occupied a geographically strategic position in the Deccan alliance served a useful in his campaign in western
India against the Sakas.
Successors of Chandragupta II Kumaragupta was the son and successor of Chandragupta II. He issued a
number of coins and his inscriptions are found all over the Gupta empire. he laid the foundation of the Nalanda
University. tribe called the ‘Pushyamitras’ defeated the Gupta army. A branch of the Huns from Central Asia
made attempts to cross the Hindukush mountains and invade India. his successor Skandagupta faced the Hun
invasion. fought successfully and saved the empire. Gupta power totally disappeared due to the Hun invasions
and later by the rise of Yasodharman in Malwa
Gupta Administration
Gupta kings assumed titles like Paramabhattaraka, Maharajadhiraja, Parameswara, Samrat and Chakravartin.
Assisted by a council consisting of a chief minister, a Senapati or commander- in-chief high official called
Sandivigraha probably minister for foreign affairs. king maintained contact with the provincial administration
through Kumaramatyas and Ayuktas. Provinces in the Gupta Empire were known as Bhuktis provincial
governors as Uparikas. Bhuktis were subdivided into Vishyas or districts governed by Vishyapatis. Nagara
Sreshtis looking after the city administration
Social Life
during the Gupta period caste system became rigid. Practice of untouchability had slowly begun. Fahien
mentions that Chandalas were segregated. position of women had also become miserable. The practice of
Swyamvara was given up and the Manusmriti suggested the early marriage for girls.. Brahmanism reigned
supreme . It had two branches - Vaishnavism and Saivism. Most of the Gupta kings were Vaishnavaites.
performed Aswamedha sacrifices. Religious literature like the Puranas was composed during this period. the
neglect of Buddhism and Jainism. But a few Buddhist scholars like Vasubandhu were patronized by Gupta
kings. In western and southern India Jainism flourished. The great Jain Council was held at Valabhi during this
period and the Jain Canon of the Swetambras was written.
Art and Architecture
Nagara and Dravidian styles of art evolved during this period. most of the architecture of this period had been
lost due to foreign invasions like that of Huns. temple at Deogarh near Jhansi and the sculptures in the temple at
Garhwas near Allahabad specimen of the Gupta art. was no influence of Gandhara style. Buddha statue
unearthed at Saranath was unique piece of Gupta art, Bhitari monolithic pillar of Skandagupta. Metallurgy had
also made a wonderful progress during the Gupta period
gigantic copper statue of Buddha, originally found at Sultanganj now kept at Birmingham museum, was about
seven and a half feet height and nearly a ton weight. The Delhi Iron pillar of the Gupta period  free from rust
though completely exposed to sun and rain. paintings of the Gupta period are seen at Bagh caves near Gwalior.
mural paintings of Ajantha illustrate the life of the Buddha as depicted in the Jataka stories. paintings at Sigiriya
in Sri Lanka were highly influenced by the Ajantha style
Gupta coinage
Samudragupta issued eight types of gold coins. The figures inscribed on them are illustrative of the skill and
greatness of Gupta numismatic art.. Chandragupta II and his successors had also issued gold, silver and copper
coins of different varieties
Literature
Sanskrit language became prominent. Nagari script had evolved from the Brahmi script. Samudragupta
patronized a number of scholars including Harisena court of Chandragupta II was adorned by the celebrated
Navratnas. Kalidasa remain the foremost. His master-piece Shakuntala.. wrote two other plays - the
Malavikagnimitra and Vikramorvasiya. two well-known epics are Raghuvamsa and Kumarasambhava.
Ritusamhara and Meghaduta are his two lyrics. Visakadatta author of two Sanskrit dramas, Mudrarakshasa
and Devichandraguptam
Sudraka- book Mrichchakatika rich in humour and pathos. Bharavi’s Kritarjuniya conflict between Arjuna
and Siva. Dandin author of Kavyadarsa and Dasakumaracharita. Vasavadatta written by Subhandhu.
Panchatantra stories composed by Vishnusarma during the Gupta period. Buddhist author Amarasimha
compiled a lexicon called Amarakosa. Puranas in their present form were composed during this period. eighteen
Puranas. most important Bhagavatha, Vishnu, Vayu and Matsya Puranas. Gupta period witnessed brilliant
activity in mathematics, astronomy, astrology and medicine. Aryabhatta mathematician and astronomer
Aryabhatiya. Aryabhatta was the first to declare that the earth was spherical in shape and that it rotates on its
own axis. these views were rejected by later astronomers like Varahamihira and Brahmagupta.. Varahamihira
composed Pancha Siddhantika, the five astronomical systems. His work Brihadsamhita is a great work in
Sanskrit literature deals with a variety of subjects like astronomy, astrology, geography, architecture, weather,
animals, marriage and omens. Brihadjataka is considered to be a standard work on astrology. Vagbhata last of
the great medical trio of ancient India. other two scholars Charaka and Susruta lived before the Gupta age.
Vagbhata was the author Ashtangasamgraha (Summary of the eight branches of medicine).

HARSHAVARDHANA (606 – 647 A.D.)

The decline of the Gupta Empire period of political disorder beginning of the seventh century A.
Harshvardhana succeeded in establishing a larger kingdom in north India. chief sources Harshacharita written
by Bana Travel accounts of Hiuen Tsang. dramas written by Harsha, namely Ratnavali, Nagananda and
Priyardarsika. Madhuben plate inscription and the Sonpat inscription Banskhera inscription contains the
signature of Harsha.
Early Life of Harsha
founder of the family of Harsha Pushyabhuti. Pushyabhutis were the feudatories of the Guptas called
themselves Vardhanas. first important king of Pushyabhuti dynasty Prabhakaravardhan capital was
Thaneswar, north of Delhi. assumed the title Maharajadhiraja and Paramabhattaraka his elder son
Rajyavardhana face problems. His sister, Rajyasri had married the Maukhari ruler called Grihavarman. Sasanka,
the ruler of Bengal had killed Grihavarman. Rajyavardhana was treacherously murdered by Sasanka. Harsha
now succeeded his brother at Thaneswar
Harsha’s Military Conquests
first expedition, Harsha drove out Sasanka from Kanauj. made Kanauj his new capital. fought against
Dhuruvasena II of Valabhi. Led a campaign Western Chalukya ruler Pulakesin II.accounts of Hiuen Tsang and
the inscriptions of Pulakesin II provide the details of this campaign. Harsha with an ambition to extend his
kingdom south of the Narmada marched against the Chalukya ruler, But the Aihole inscription of Pulakesin II
mentions defeat of Harsha by Pulakesin, who after this achievement assumed the title Paramesvara. Hiuen
Tsang’s accounts also confirm the victory of Pulakesin.
Harsha led another campaign against Sindh. Nepal had accepted Harsha’s overlordship. Harsha established his
control over Kashmir. maintained cordial relations with Bhaskaravarman, the ruler of Assam. last military
campaignagainst the kingdom of Kalinga in Orissa established his hold over the whole of north India, modern
Rajasthan, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa. peripheral states such as Kashmir, Sind, Valabhi and
Kamarupa acknowledged his sovereignty.
Harsha and Buddhism
early life, Harsha was a devout Saiva. later he became an ardent Hinayana Buddhist. Hiuen Tsang converted
him to Mahayana Buddhism. He erected thousands of stupas and established travellers’ rests all over his
kingdom. erected monasteries at the sacred places of Buddhists.
Kanauj Assembly-> organized a religious assembly at Kanauj to honour the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang.
invited representatives of all religious sects. Hiuen Tsang explained the values of Mahayana doctrine and
established its superiority over others
Allahabad Conference-> Hiuen Tsang mentions in his account about the conference held at Allahabad, known
as Prayag
Harsha’s Administration
organized on the same lines as the Guptas. Harsha’s army consisted of the traditional four divisions – foot,
horse, chariot and elephant. maintenance of public records was the salient feature of Harsha’s administration.
archive of the Harsha period was known as nilopitu
Society and Economy under Harsha
Bana and Hiuen Tsang portray the social life in the times of Harsha. fourfold division of the society – Brahmin,
Kshatriya, Vysya and Sudra – was prevalent. Hiuen Tsang mentions that the Sudras practiced agriculture.
position of women was not satisfactory. institution of Swyamvara (the choice of choosing her husband) had
declined. Remarriage of widows was not permitted. dowry had also become common. sati was also prevalent.
three ways of disposal of the dead – cremation, water burial and exposure in the woods.
Cultural Progress
mostly followed the Gupta style. brick temple of Lakshmana at Sirpur. Banabhatta  Besides Harshacharita,
wrote Kadambari. Other literary figures in Harsha’s court were Matanga Divakara and the famous Barthrihari,
Harsha himself authored three plays - Ratnavali, Priyadarsika and Nagananda. ghatikas’, or colleges emerged.
ghatikas’, provided Brahmanical education. medium of instruction was Sanskrit. Entry to upper castes or
‘dvijas’ (twice born).
Chinese travelers mentioned Hinayana University of Valabhi and the Mahayana University of Nalanda. term
Nalanda means “giver of knowledge founded by Kumaragupta I. patronised by Harsha. Though it was a
Mahayana University, taught Vedas, Hinayana doctrine, Sankhya and Yoga philosophies. general subjects like
logic, grammar, astronomy, medicine and art were in the syllabus. attracted students not only from different
parts of India but from different countries of the east. Professors were called panditas.