The Scientific

approach and
alternative
approaches to
1
investigation
CHAPTER 2
2 Topics Discussed

 The Hallmarks of Science

 The Building Blocks of Science and
Hypothetico-Deductive Method of
Research
 The Seven Steps of the Hypothetico-
Deductive Method
 Other types of Research
- Case studies
- Action research
3 The definition of research

 Research is an organized, systematic, data-based,

critical, objective, scientific inquiry into a specific
problem that needs a solution.
 Managerial decisions based on the results of scientific
research tend to be effective.
4 What is Meant by a Scientific
Research?
 Scientific research focuses on solving
problems and pursues a step-by-step
logical, organized, and rigorous
method to identify the problems,
gather data, analyze them, and
draw valid conclusions therefrom.
 Thus, scientific research is not based
on hunches, experience, and intuition
(though these may play a part in final
decision making), but a purposive
and rigorous.
5 What is Meant by a Scientific
Research?
 Because of the rigorous way in which the research
done, scientific research enables all those who are
interested in researching about the same or similar
issues to come up with comparable findings when the
data are analyzed.
6 What is Meant by a Scientific
Research?
 Scientific research helps researchers
to state their findings with accuracy
and confidence.
 This helps various other organizations
to apply those solutions when they
encounter similar problems.
 Scientific investigation tends to be
more objective than subjective, and
helps managers to highlight the most
critical factors at the workplace that
need specific attention so as to
avoid, minimize, or solve problems.
7 What is Meant by a Scientific
Research?
 Scientific investigation and
managerial decision making are
integral aspects of effective problem
solving.
 Scientific research applies to both
basic and applied research.
 Applied research may or may not be
generalizable to other organizations,
depending on the extent to which
differences exist in such factors as
size, nature of work, characteristics of
the employees, and structure of the
organization.
8 The Hallmarks of Scientific
Research
 The Hallmarks or main distinguishing
characteristics of scientific research
may be listed as follows:

1. Purposiveness 5. Precision
2. Rigor 6. Objectivity

3. Testability 7. Generalizability

4. Replicability 8. Parsimony
9 The Hallmarks of Scientific
Research
We will explain each of these characteristics in the
context of the following example:
Consider the case of a manager who is interested in
investigating how employees’ commitment to the
organization can be increased.
10 1. Purposiveness

 The manager has started the research

with a definite aim or purpose.
 The focus is on increasing the
commitment of employees to the
organization, as this will be a beneficial
in many ways.
 An increase in employee commitment
will translate into less turnover, less
absenteeism, and increased
performance levels, all of which would
definitely benefit the organization.
11 2. Rigor

 A good theoretical base and a sound methodological

design would add rigor to a purposive study.
 Rigor means carefulness, and the degree of
exactitude in research investigations.
12 In the case of our example of
increasing the commitment of
employees:
 Let us say that the manager of an
organization asks 10 of its employees
to indicate what would increase their
level of commitment to the
organization.
 If the manager depends solely on the
basis of their responses reaches to
several conclusions on how
employee commitment can be
increased, the whole approach to the
investigation would be unscientific.
13 An approach to an
investigation would lack rigor
for
1.
the following reasons:
Incorrect conclusions because they are based
on the responses of just a few employees
(lacks of methodological sophistication).
2. the manner of framing and addressing the
questions could have introduced bias in the
responses (lacks of methodological
sophistication).
3. There might be many other important
influences on organizational commitment that
this small sample did not verbalize during the
interviews, and the researcher would have
failed to include them (lacks of a good
theoretical framework).
Conclusions drawn from an investigation that lacks
a good theoretical framework and
methodological sophistications would be
unscientific.
14 3. Testability

 After taking random selection of employees

of the organization, and the study of
previous research done of the area of
organizational commitment, the researcher
develops certain hypotheses on how
employee commitment can be enhanced.
Then these hypotheses can be tested by
applying certain statistical tests to the data
collected for the purpose.
❖ Scientific research tends itself to testing
logically developed hypotheses to see
whether or not the data support the
hypotheses that are developed.
15 4. Replicability

 The results of the tests of hypotheses should be

supported again and again when the same type of
research is repeated in other similar circumstances.
 If the results are repeated, we will gain confidence in
the scientific nature of our research.
16 5. Precision and Confidence

 Precision refers to the closeness of the findings to

reality based on a sample.
 Precision reflects the degree of accuracy of the results
on the basis of the sample, to what really exists in the
universe.
17 Precision and Confidence

 In business research, we are not

able to draw “definitive” conclusions
on the basis of the results of data
analysis. The reasons are:
1. We have to base our findings on a
sample that we draw from the
universe. The sample may not
reflect the exact characteristics of
the phenomenon we try to study.
2. Measurement errors and other
problems are bound to introduce
an error in our findings.
18 Precision and Confidence

 We would like to design the research in a manner that

ensures that our findings are as close to reality as
possible, so that we can place reliance or confidence
in the results.
19 Precision and Confidence

 Confidence refers to the probability

that our estimations are correct.
 It is not enough to be precise, but it is
also important that we can
confidently claim that 95% of the time
our results would be true and there is
only a 5% chance of our being
wrong. This is also known as
confidence level.
❖ The greater the precision and
confidence we aim at in our
research, the more scientific is the
investigation and the more useful are
the results.
20 6. objectivity

 The conclusions drawn through the

interpretation of the results of data
analysis should be objective.
 The conclusions should be based on
the facts of the findings derived from
actual data, and not on our own
subjective or emotional values.
❖ The more objective the interpretation
of the data, the more scientific the
research investigation becomes.
21 7. Generalizability

 Generalizability refers to the scope of applicability of

the research findings in one organizational setting to
other settings.
❖ The wider the range of applicability of the solutions
generated by research, the more useful the research
is to the users.
22 8. Parsimony

 Parsimony refers to simplicity in

explaining the phenomena or problems
that occur, and in generating solutions
for the problems.
 Economy in research models is achieved
when we can build into our research
framework a lesser number of variables
that would explain the variance far more
efficiently than a complex set of
variables that would only marginally add
to the variance explained.
23 Parsimony

 Parsimony can be introduced with a good

understanding of the problem and the important
factors that influence it.
 A good conceptual theoretical model can be realized
through interviews with the concerned people, and a
thorough literature review of the previous research
work in the particular problem area.
Deduction and Induction
24

◼ Deductive reasoning: application of

a general theory to a specific case.
◼ Hypothesis testing

◼ Inductive reasoning: a process

where we observe specific
phenomena and on this basis arrive
at general conclusions.
◼ Counting white swans

◼ Both inductive and deductive

processes are often used in 24
25 Example 2.1

 A sales manager might observe that

customers are perhaps not pleased
as they used to be. The manager
may not be certain that this is really
the case but may experience
anxiety and some uneasiness that
customer satisfaction is on the
decline.
 This process of observation or sensing
of the phenomena around us is what
gets most of the research- whether
applied or basic- started.
26 Example 2.1 (cont.)

 The next step is to determine whether there

is a real problem, and if so, how serious it is.
This problem identification calls for some
preliminary data gathering.
 The manager might talk to a few customers
to find out how they feel about the products
and customer service. The manager might
find that the customers like the products but
are upset because many of the times the
product is out of stock, and they perceive
the salesperson as not being helpful.
27 Example 2.1 (cont.)

 From discussions with some of the salespersons, the

manager might discover that the factory does not
supply the goods on time. Salespersons might also
indicate that they try to please the customers by
communicating the delivery dates given to them by
the factory.
28 Example 2.1 (cont.)

 Integration of the information obtained through the

informal and formal interviewing process has helped
the manager to determine that the problem does
exist.
 It also helps the manager to formulate a conceptual
model or theoretical framework of all the factors
contributing to the problem.
29 Example 2.1 (cont.)

 Thus, the following factors contribute to

the problem:
✓ Delays by the factory in delivering goods
✓ The notification of later delivery dates
that are not kept
✓ The promises of the salespersons to the
customers that cannot be fulfilled
All of these factors contribute to
customer dissatisfaction.
30 The hypothetico-Deductive
Method
 The seven steps involved in the hypothetico-
deductive method of research stem from the
building blocks discussed above and listed
below:
1. Identify a broad problem area
2. Define the problem statement
3. Develop hypotheses
4. Determine measures
5. Data collection
6. Data analysis
7. Interpretation of data
31 Identify a broad problem
area
 If the manager notice a drop in sales, incorrect
accounting results, low-yielding investment,
disinterestedness of employees in their work, and the
like, could attract the attention of the manager to do
a research project.
32 Define the problem
statement
• Scientific research starts with a definite aim or
purpose.
• A problem statement states the general objective of
the research.
33 Develop hypotheses

 The network of associations between the problem and

the variables that affect it is identified.
 A scientific hypothesis must meet two requirements:
1. The hypothesis must be testable
2. The hypothesis must be falsifiable (we can only prove
our hypotheses until they are disproved).
34 Determine measures

 The variables in the theoretical

framework should be measurable in
some way.
 Some variables can not be measure
quantitatively, such as unresponsive
employees, we need to
operationalize this variable.
 Measurement of variables is
discussed in Chs. 6 and 7.
35 Data collection

 Data with respect to each variable in the hypothesis

need to be obtained.
 There are two types of data:
- Quantitatative data
- Qualitative data
36 Data Analysis

 In this step, the data gathered are statistically

analyzed to see if the hypotheses that were
generated have been supported.
 Analyses of both quantitative and qualitative data
can be done to determine if certain relations are
important.
37 Data Analysis

 Qualitative data refer to information

gathered through interviews and
observations. These data usually for
objects than can not be physically
measured, like feelings and attitudes.
 Quantitative data refer to information
gathered about objects that can be
physically measured. The researcher
could obtain these data through the
company records, government
statistics, or any formal records.
38 Interpretation of data

 Now we must decide whether our hypotheses are

supported or not by interpreting the meaning of the
results or the data analysis.
 Based on these results, the researcher would make
recommendations in order to solve the problem in
hand.
39 Example 2.2 of the
Application of the
Hypothetico-Deductive
 Observation of the CIO Dilemma
Method
The Chief Information Officer (CIO) of a firm observes
that the newly installed Management Information
System (MIS) is not being used by middle managers as
much as was originally expected.
“There is surely a problem here,” the CIO exclaims.
40 Example 2.2 (cont.)

 Information Gathering through Informal Interviews

- Talking to some of the middle-level managers, the CIO
finds that many of them have very little idea as to
what MIS is all about, what kinds of information it could
provide, and how to access it and utilize the
information.
41 Example 2.2 (cont.)

 Obtaining More Information through

Literature Survey
- The CIO immediately uses the Internet to
explore further information on the lack of use
of MIS in organizations.
- The search indicates that many middle-level
managers are not familiar with operating
personal computers.
- Lack of knowledge about what MIS offers is
also found to be another main reason why
some managers do not use it.
42 Example 2.2 (cont.)

 Formulating a Theory
- based on all this information, the CIO develops a
theory incorporating all the relevant factors
contributing to the lack of access to the MIS by
managers in the organization.
43 Example 2.2 (cont.)

 Hypothesizing
From such a theory, the CIO generates various
hypotheses for testing, one among them being:
- Knowledge of the usefulness of MIS would help
managers to put it to greater use.
44 Example 2.2 (cont.)

 Data Collection
The CIO then develops a short questionnaire
on the various factors theorized to influence
the use of the MIS by managers, such as:
- The extent of knowledge of what MIS is
- What kinds of information MIS provides
- How to gain access to the information
- The level of comfort felt by managers in
using computers in general
- How often managers have used the MIS in
the preceding 3 months.
45 Example 2.2 (cont.)

Data Analysis
The CIO then analyzes the data obtained through the
questionnaire to see what factors prevent the
managers from using the system.
46 Example 2.2 (cont.)

 Interpretation of data

Based on the results, the manager

deduces or concludes that managers
do not use MIS owing to certain factors.
• These deductions help the CIO to take
necessary actions to solve the problem,
which might include, among other
things:
- Organizing seminars for training
managers on the use of computers, and
- MIS and its usefulness.
47 Other Types of Research

 Case studies, and

 Action research
Are sometimes used to study certain types of issues.
48 Case Studies

 Case studies involve in-depth analyses of similar

situations in other organizations, where the nature and
definition of the problem is the same as experienced
in the current situation.
 If a particular hypothesis has not been supported even
in a single other case study, the researcher could
ignore that hypothesis.
49 Case Studies

 Case studies are not often undertaken in

organizations because:
1. It is very seldom to find similar problems happened
in an organizations of the same size and same type
of setting.
2. Many companies prefer to guard their problems
and their data.
50 Action Research

 Action research is sometimes undertaken by

consultants who want to initiate change processes in
organizations.
 Action research methodology is most appropriate
while effecting planned changes.
51 Action Research

 The researcher begins with a problem

that is already identified, and gathers
relevant data to provide a tentative
problem solution.
 This solution is then implemented, with
the knowledge that there may be
unintended consequences following
such implementation.
 The effects are then evaluated, defined,
and diagnosed, and the research
continues on an ongoing basis until the
problem is fully resolved.