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Nouns & Pronouns: Notes
Nouns & Pronouns: Notes
NOUNS
Countable nouns like chair, idea can be used with a/an, and have plurals.
Uncountable nouns like water, intelligence CANT BE used with a/an, and have no
plurals.
Some English nouns are uncountable, although they may have countable equivalents in
other
languages, e.g. ADVISE ( NOT NORMALY an advise )
countable nouns used like uncountable :: idea , chance, difference, point, reason,
difficulty ,question and change can be used with some, any and much, rather like
uncountables.
NOTES
different meanings/uses Some uncountable nouns can be countable with other
meanings.
He lacks experience. I had one or tlvo strange experiences in Rome last year.
And some uncountable abstract nouns can be used with a/an when their reference is defined.
making countable nouns uncountable Countable nouns can sometimes be used like
uncountables if there is an idea of quantity or mass.
We've got another ten metres of wall to paint.
making uncountable nouns countable With many uncountables, we use particular nouns to mean
'a piece of' or 'a certain amount of
e.g. a bar of soap, a flash of lightning, a stroke of luck, a grain of rice, a piece of research. For other
examples, see dictionary
group nouns In British English, singular words for groups of people and organizations. e.g. team, family,
choir, government ,bank) are often used with plural verbs and pronouns.
My family are furious with me. They think I have let them down
This happens particularly when we are thinking about personal kinds of activity. Compare:
a number of, the majority of etc + plural noun have plural verbs and pronouns.
A number of people have criticised our decision.
Common fixed expressions with and arc often treated like singular nouns.
Toast and marmalade isn't enough for breakfast, in my opinion
singular noun, plural modifying expression When a singular noun is modified by a plural
expression, the verb is normally singular.
people doing/having the same thing To talk about several people each doing or having
the
same thing, we normally use a plural noun for the repeated idea.
The students can use dictionaries. (more natural than ... a dictionary.)
We almost always use plurals after possessives in this case.
Tell the kids to blow their noses. (Nor ...their nose:) Six people lost their lives.
NOTES
After one of the ,., who etc singular and plural verbs are both common.
She’s one of the few women who has/have climbed Everest in winter.
subject and complement If a verb is a long distance from the subject, people
sometimes make it agree with a following complement instead of the subject, but this is
not generally considered correct. Compare:
The most interesting thing on television last weelg in my own opinion, was/were the
tennis championships. (Was is more correct.)
here's etc In informal speech we often use here's, there\ and where\before a plural noun.
Here’s your gloves. There's two policemen outside. Where's those letters?
Revise the basics. A noun + noun phrase is often simply like a single noun which
happens to have two parts. Common short combinations are often written without a
space. Compare:
Iight headlight ceiling light cloth washcloth table cloth
The first noun is often like an object (of a verb or preposition). It is normally singular,
even if it has a plural meaning.
a shoe shop = 'a shop that sells shoes' a toothbrush = 'a brush for teeth'
Remember: the first noun describes the second, not the other way round. A rqce horse
is a kind of horse; a horse race is a kind of race. Chocolate milk is milk; milk chocolate
is chocolate.
noun + noun + noun ... Three or more nouns can be combined. This is often done in
newspaper headlines to save space.
less common combinations: noun + noun not used The noun + noun structure is
mostly used for very common well-known combinations. For less common
combinations, we prefer other structures - for example a preposition phrase. Compare:
the kitchen table (a common kind of table) a table for the prizes (not a prize table)
road signs signs of tiredness (Not tiredness signs)
a love letter a letter from the insurance company
a history book a book about George Washington
NOTES
how much/many We don’t normally use noun + noun in expressions that say how
much/many of something we are talking about.
Note the difference between a beer bottle, a matchbox etc (containers), and a bottle of
beer, a box of matches etc (containers with their contents).
noun + noun or possessive structure We don't normally use noun + noun to talk about
particular people or organisations and their possessions or actions. Instead we use a
possessive structure
my father\ house
the President’s arrival
first noun plural In a few noun + noun combinations, the first noun is plural.
basics: forms Singular possessive nouns end in 's, plural possessives end in s', irregular
plural possessives end in 's.
Ioe and Ann's children the man in the downstairs Jlat s dog
my boss's car (My boss has a car.) Ann's idea (Ann had an idea.)
Mary's kindness (Mary has been kind.) The cat's milk (The cat drinks the milk.)
NOTES
Time expressions often use possessive structures.
Possessives are also possible in expressions saying how long something lasts.
at the doctor's etc In some common expressions, the second noun is left out.
I've been at the doctor's (surgery). I'II see you at Pat's (house).
The names of many shops and businesses have this structure, often with no
apostrophe.
the son of the man we met in Borneo RATHERTHAN the man we met in Borneo's son
1.English often uses nouns to refer to actions. These nouns often have the same form
as verbs: for example a swim, a wash, a guess. They are especially common in an
informal style, and are often introduced by general-purpose'verbs like have, take, make,
give, go for, especially when we are talking about casual or unsystematic activity.
animals Pet animals are usually he/him/his or she/her andwho rather than it/its/which.
Can you fnd the cat and put him out? She had an old dog, Susie, who always slept on
her bed.
countries In modern English, countries are most often it(s), though she/her is also
common.
Boats are it(s) for most people, but may be she/her for people who work with them.
I arrived too late for the ferry and missed it. Abandon ship - shei sinking!
Cars and other vehicles are it(s) except for some devoted owners.
The man who sold it to me said it had only done 20,000 miles.
Now that I've put the new engine in, she goes like a bomb.
positions and jobs In modern usage, people often prefer to avoid specifically masculine
or feminine names for positions and jobs.
She has just been elected chair of the committee. (preferred to chairman)
If a would-be tourist wishes to apply for a visa, they should take their passport to the
local consulate
(Simpler than ... he or she should take his or her passport ...)
complements Many nouns, especially abstract nouns, can have complements which
complete their meaning. Preposition structures, infinitives and that-clauses are
common.
There\ no need for you to stay. They had a plan for me to study medicine.
kinds of complement Some nouns can have more than one kind of complement.
the reason for the changes no reason to get angry the reason why I Ieft.
personal pronouns
Revise the basics After be, we normally use object pronouns: me,her etc. I, she etc are
possible, but they are very formal and unusual.
'Hello. It's me.' 'Which is your sister?' 'That's her in the blue dress.'
Me, her etc are also normal in informal short answers and similar structures.
as, than, except, buf (meaning 'except') The grammar is similar after cs and than.
It was me/I that ... After It is/was etc, there are two possibilities.
double subjects and objects It is usual, and considered more polite, to mention
oneself last in a double subject or object.
These uses of l and me etc do not occur in formal writing. Many people feel they are
incorrect in speech (especially l in double objects), though they are common in
standard usage.
NOTES
noun + pronoun In written English and formal speech, one subject is enough: we dont
repeat a noun with a pronoun.
My parents are retired now.
However, structures like this are possible in conversation.
identifying Remember that we use it, this or that when we name people.
'Who\ the woman in red?' 'It's Claire Lewis.
(on the phone) Hi, this is Mike. Isn't that Dr Andrews?
After prepositions, we use personal pronouns unless reflexives are really necessary.
She always takes her dog with her when she goes out.
But He's deeply in love with himself.
NOTES
subjects Each other I One another are not normally used as subjects, but this
sometimes happens in an informal style.
adjective or adverb?
friendly etc A few words ending in -ly are normally adjectives, not adverbs.
Examples:
costly, cowardly, deadly, friendly, likely,lively,lonely, lovely, silly, ugly, unlikely.
She smiled in a friendly way. or She gave a friendly smile. ( NOT she smiled
friendly)
Daily, weekly, monthly, yearly and early canbe both adjectives and adverbs.
adjective complements Adjectives are used after link verbs (e.g. be, seem,
sound,feel), because they describe the subject rather than an action.
This can happen after other verbs, when we describe the subject or
object, not the action. Compare:
He fell awkwardly and twisted his shoulder.
He fell unconscious on the floor.
I painted the wall badly.
I painted the wall white
special cases. Some adjective forms are used informally as adverbs, and some
common adverbs have two forms with different uses
adjectives: order
First, next and last usually come before numbers and few.
the first three weeks (MORE Normal THEN /he three frst weeks)
the first few miles the next six lessons my last two holidays
Note: And is used with adjectives before a noun if we are talking about
difierent parts of something, or if we are saying that something belongs to
different categories.
a green and black dress a national and international problem
After a noun, and is normal before the last of two or more adjectives.
He was like a winter’S day: short, dark and dirty
position of adjectives
Most adjectives can go either before a noun or after a link verb like be,
seem, look. But some usually only go in one of these places.
mainly before nouns elder and eldest, old (= 'having lasted a long time'),
little (especially in British English) and live (='not dead'). Compare:
.
my elder sister is a piIot 'She’s three years older than me.
She's a very old friend. (Nor THE same as She's very old. She might be quite
young.)
He is mere child.
It was a total failure.
WeII and ill are most common after link verbs. Compare:
But we can split expressions beginning with diferent, similar, the same, next,Iast, first,
second etc, dfficult, easy and comparatives and superlatives'
different ideas from yours the next train to arrive an easy problem to solve
NOTES
fixed phrases In a few fixed phrases (mostly titles) the adjective
follows the noun.
Secretary General court martial (= 'military court') Poet
Laureate
President Elect Attorney General God
Almighty!
Note also the order in six feet tall, two years old etc; something
nice, nothing new etc'
When we use –ing forms as adjectives, they are called' present participles
We can also use past participles (e.g. closed, broken) as adjectives. (The
names 'present' and 'past' participle are misleading; the forms have no
particular time reference.)
I imagined that I was a falling leaf. Will you glue this broken chair?
Note the word order in these compound adjectives when the participle has
an object.
The difference between the two structures is not always clear, and it is
often necessary to consult a good dictionary to see how particular past
participles are used.
NOTES
the problems discussed etc Not all past participles can be used as
adjectives. But note the common use of a past participle after a noun.
Some active past participles are only used in compounds, or after be.
Examples
the young the old the rich the poor the sick the disabled the blind the deaf
the mentally ill the homeless the unemployed the dead
These expressions are plural the blind means 'blind people in general'.
Compare:
Perhaps the deaf have more problems in mainstream education than the blind.
Some blind people have guide dogs
I read to the blind woman upstairs most evenings.
I was at school with a blind boy.
We can't use all adjectives like this: we don’t say the selfish or the mean,.
The structure is also used with nationality words ending in -ch, -sh and -
ese.
The Irish have a great musical tradition.
but The Brazilians speak Portuguese.
Note: A very few singular adjectives are used without nouns to talk about
individuals.
The body of the deceased (= 'the dead person') was found in the river'
The accused refused to answer questions.
Smith and jewell jointly received the prize, though in fact the former did the majority of
the work and the latter contributed very little.
critical of the plan. anxious to succeed sure that she was right
-ing forms Prepositional complements may include -ing forms.
kinds of complement Some adjectives can have more than one kind of
complement.
happy about the decision happy to be home
proud of being Scottish proud to know you ready for breakfast ready to stop
He’s too old to change. Andy’s not good enough to play in goal.
I'm ready for Mr Ellis to give me his report. This is too heavy for one person to lift.
Adverb position depends on the tlpe of adverb, and some adverbs can go in
more than one position.Usage in this area is complicated; general
tendencies are as follows. For fuller information, consult a comprehensive
reference grammar or usage guide.
Expressions that say how, where and when most often go at the end;
usually in that order.
They played brilliantly in Coventry on Saturday.
Pam works in London on Wednesdays
We do not normally put these adverbs between a verb and its object.
You speak japanese very well.
Let's discuss the budget now.
NOTES
- before one-word verbs - after the first auxiliary in more complex verbs
- after am, are, is, was and were even if these are not auxiliaries.
withnot Adverbs can come before or after not, depending on the meaning.
Compare:
I don't really like her. (mild dislike) I really don't like her. (strong dislike)
She does not always welcome visitors. He’s probably not at home.
emphatic position These adverbs can often be put earlier when verbs are
emphasised.
He has certainly forgotten. (normal) He certainly HAS forgotten (emphatic)
NOTES
Sometimes I wonder what it! all about. Occasionally we have a weekend at home.
This is not possible with always and never except in imperatives.
He always forgets.
Adverbs never normally separate the verb from the object.
We ofien speak Spanish at home.
companson: as ... as
adverbs with as .. . as We can use various adverbial expressions before as .
.. as and not as/so . . . as.
just as happy nearly as big not nearly as/so intelligent not quite as/so cheap
nothing like as/so interesting every bit as good almost as bad
almost exactly as cold half as wide twice as long three times as heavy
NOTES
Some others can also have -er and -esf, especially those ending with
unstressed syllables.
narrow - narrower - narrowest simple - simpler - simplest
clever - cleverer - cleverest quiet - quieter – quietest
With adjectives ending in -ing, -ful, -ed and -/ess, and some others, the
structure wilh more and most is the usual or only possibility.
tiring - more tiring - most tiring hopeful - more hopeful - most hopful
Note:
One-syllable adjectives sometimes have more ard most: for example, when
a comparative is not followed directly by than.
The road's getting steadily steeper / more steep.
And when we say that one description is more accurate than another, we
use more.
It’s more red than orange.
Most is sometimes used in a formal style with long or short adjectives to
mean 'veryl
That's most kind of you.
Real, right, wrong and like always have more and most.
You couldn't be more fight He’s more like his mother than his father.
Comparative adverbs normally have more and most, except for one-syllable
adverbs like fast, soon, and early.
more slowly but faster, sooner, earlier
the ... the We use this structure with comparatives to say that things
change or vary together. Note the word order (in both halves): the +
comparative + subject + verb.
The older I get, the happier I am.
The more dangerous it is, the more I like it.
The more money he makes, the more he spends. The more I study, the less I learn.
the faster of the two When a group has only two members, we sometimes
use a comparative with a superlative meaning.
Both cars perform well, but the XG2SL is the faster of the two.
Some people feel that a superlative is incorrect in this case.
Note: all the etc with comparatives In some fixed expressions, all the +
comparative means 'even more because of that
'We can stay an extra three days.' 'All the better.'
'Susie isn't eating this evening.' 'Good. All the more for us.'
Any the, none the and so much the are used in similar ways.
I listened to every thing he said, but ended up none the wiser.
'Jake doesn't want to go on holiday with us.' 'So much the worse for him.'
And we dont use the when we are contrasting somebody or something with
him/her/itself in other situations. Compare:
He’s the nicest of my three uncles. He's nicest when he's had a few drinks. )
England is most beautiful in spring.
To say how much better, older, bigger, more etc, we can use for example
much, far, very much, any, no, rather, a little, even, a bit (informal), a lot
(informal), lots, (informal).
jamie is much/far older than me. Greek is very much more difficult than Spanish.
We'll need rather more money than that. Can you speak a bit more slowly?
Today’s even hotter than yesterday. This car uses a lot less petrol than the old one.
Is your mother any better? I'll be no longer than five minutes.
We've had far fewer accidents since they lowered the speed limit.
Before superlatives, we can use for example much, by far, quite (meaning
'absolutely'), almost, practically, nearly and easily.
This is much the most expensive of them all. She’s by far the youngest.
He\ quite the most stupid man I've ever met l'm nearly the oldest in the firm.
This is easily the worst film I've seen in my life
.
Note also very + superlative.
Their house is the very nicest in the street. 300g of your very best butter, please.
However, much is normal in affirmative sentences after so, too and as.
She's caused so much trouble. Those kids get too much money.
You can take as much as you want.
much as adverb As an adverb, much is also unusual in affirmative
sentences. Compare:
I didn't enjoy the film much. How much do you worry about the future?
We walked a lot when we were on holiday.
Note that very much never normally separates the verb from the object.
We very much appreciate your help. or We appreciate your help very much.
such and so
such an idiot such a long way such good food such boring lectures
so long a wait etc In a formal style, we can use so before adjective + a/an
+ noun.
I was not expecting so long a wait. (Less formal: . .. such a long wait.)
The same structure is possible with as, too and how.
They gave us as nice a time as they could. It was too difficult a question'
How big a budget does your department need?
This structure is only possible with noun phrases beginning a/an.
(NOT so perfect performance or too cold soup OR how regular support)
like and as
similarity: like or as We can use both words to say that things are similar.
Like is a preposition, used before a noun or pronoun.
The whole experience was like a dream. They're not like us.
As is a conjunction, used before subject + verb or a prepositional
expression.
They left as they came, without a word. ln Britain, as in many countries, ...
Note the common expressions as I said, as you know, as you see, as usual,
as before. In informal speech (but less often in writing), many people use
like as a conjunction.
Nobody knows him like I do. Like I said, everything\ OK.
Also in informal speech, like is now commonly used to mean 'as if.
She was eating fudge like her life depended on it.
jobs and functions: as We use as, not like, to talk about jobs, functions and
roles.
I'm working as a driver. (Nor ... like a drive) Don't use your plate as an
ashtray.
Compare: As your boss, I must congratulate you. (I am your boss.)
Like your boss, I must congratulate you. (We both congratulate you.)
channel; on telegram
t.me/sanctum_english
facebook: https://www.facebook.com/sanctumenglish
Day 1
10. Identifying, nurturing and (a)/ developing
an employee’s talent is (b)/ among the most
important task (c)/ of Human Resource
Development department. (d)/ NE
Error Spotting
1. Noun, 11. All this financial institution (a)/ should be
2. Pronoun, registered with (b)/ Reserve Bank of India to
3. Adjective, make sure (c)/ that they function properly.
4. Adverb (d)/ NE
Find out the error in each of the following 12. Each business activities (a)/ provides
sentences, if any, if there is no error ,your employment (b)/ to people who would (c)/
answer is no error. otherwise be unemployed. (d)/ NE
1. You know it well that your success in life 13. After a complaint was filed, (a)/ police teams
depends not on my advice but on somebody was given the photograph (b)/ of the
else. No error. accused from the CCTV footage (c)/
recorded at the hotel. (d)/ NE
2. The life of the rich is not in many ways as
peaceful as that of the poor’s. No error. 14. The government has signed (a)/ a
memorandum of understanding with (b)/
3. The teacher said to us that one ought to the company to set up (c)/ a plant in the
work hard in order to attain one goal. No state. (d)/ NE
error.
15. In the forthcoming elections (a)/ every man
and woman (b)/ must vote for the candidate
4. He did not know even the name of scientist (c)/ of their choice. (d)/ No error (e)
who discovered the laws of the earth
gravitational force. No error. 16. If you absent from (a)/ college your name
likely (b)/ to be struck off the rolls. (c)/ No
error
5. It is very (a) / difficult to chase (b) / a huge
score (c) / in the second inning (d) / No 17. One should make (a)/ his best efforts if (b)/
error (e). one wishes to achieve (c)/ success in this
organisation. (d)/ No error (e)
6. In spite of having received (a)/ all the 18. The principal decided to (a)/ sanction any
necessary data (b)/ he did not take any money (b)/ that was required for (c)/
decision (c)/ because of extraneous reasons. completing the project (d)/ No error (e)/
(d)/ NE
19. The working capacity of a man (a)/ can be
7. The neglect of women (a)/ costs the world measured with its potentiality (b)/ and
(b)/ a great deal both in (c)/ economic and attitude at the same time, (c)/ we cannot
in social terms. (d)/ NE ignore the importance of age. (d)/ No error
(e)
8. The success of the project (a)/ depends on
how (b)/ much efforts each (c)/ team 20. As compared with (a)/ last year, the
member puts in. (d)/ No Error production (b)/ of this factory (c)/ is not
satisfactory. (d)/ No error (e)
9. On a number of occasions, (a)/ we had
noticed that (b)/ those two employees (c)/ 21. In a democratic society each (a)/ voter has a
were often in a state of confused. (d)/ No (b)/ responsibility to cast their vote (c)/ in
Error the election process. (d)/ No error (e)
23. Whenever is the matter (a)/ I shall do this 35. He has in (a)/ his possession a (b)/ price
work, (b)/ because I have to expose (c)/ my collection of very old coins (c)/ and some
working capacity at any cost. (d)/ No error ancient paintings. (d)/ No error. (e)
(e) 36. All renew licences may (a)/ be collected from
(b)/ the cashier’s counter after (c)/ paying
24. We think education, health (a)/ experience the fees. (d)/ No error
and those sorts of things (b)/ are generally 37. All said and done (a)/ it is the basic values
the main benefits for (c)/ modern tour and that (b)/ are most importance and (c)/ help
travel. (d)/ No error (e) you in the long run. (d)/ No error (e)/
38. We have been trying (a)/ to eradicate
25. After toiling very hard over a long (a)/ period poverty (b)/ but our efforts have got (c)/
project, my friend found (b)/ he had hardly only limit success. (d)/ No error (e)
made (c)/ no profit at all. (d)/ No error (e) 39. No station on (a)/ this sector of the railway
(b)/ is as modern and clean (c)/ as this
26. One of his greatest contributions (a)/ to station is. (d)/ No error (e)
social reform (b)/ was their movement for 40. After he had read the two first chapters (a)/
(c)/ eradication of child marriages. (d)/ No of the novel (b)/ he felt like reading (c)/ the
error (e) novel at one sitting. (d)/ No error
41. Although he is my bosom friend, (a)/ I
27. India began (a)/ his nuclear energy (b)/ cannot ask him for (b)/ money without any
programme during (c)/ the late fifties (d)/ (c)/ vividly reason. (d)/ No error
No error 42. The girl sang (a)/ few songs (b)/ to entertain
the guests (c)/ but the guests were not
28. Meetings were held with unions (a)/ to pleased. (d)/ No error
tackle indiscipline, (b)/ and with customers 43. He realised that (a)/ he had committed a
(d)/ to understand its needs. (d)/ No error mistake (b)/ in accepting a packet (c)/ from
(e) an unidentify person. (d)/ No error
44. The pirated (a)/ technology has not only
29. These firms which (a)/ are the main (b)/ created (b)/ strategic dangers but also
suppliers of electronic (c)/ components in damaged (c)/ economy interests. (d)/ No
India. (d)/ No error (e) error
45. Louis Armstrong was (a)/ one of the most
30. Senior citizens prefer (a)/ banks which (b)/ influence (b)/ and believed (c)/ of all jazz
branches are located (c)/ near their homes. artists. (d)/ No error
(d)/ No error (e) 46. The famous orator President Roosevelt (a)/
was in power (b)/ longest than (c)/ anybody
31. These companies have been asked (a)/ to else. (d)/ No error
furnish their financial details (b)/ and 47. I am absolute confident (a)/ that we are
information about (c)/ it board members. going (b)/ to move forward (c)/ strongly. (d)/
(d)/ No error NE
48. Your machine would not have (a)/ given you
32. Road developers unable to (a)/ finish their so much trouble (b)/ if you had (c)/
projects (b)/ on time will not be (c)/ maintained it proper. (d)/ NE
awarded new ones. (d)/ No error (e) 49. I wrote yesterday a letter (a)/ with the view
to (b)/ reminding her of her (c)/ selection in
33. Each one of (a)/ us goes to (b)/ purchase our team. (d)/ NE
items for (c)/ our own use. (d)/ No error (e) 50. You will fail (a)/ in the examination (b)/
unless you (c)/ work hardly. (d)/ NE
6. No Error So
That of last year.
7. No Error Because here
We’re comparing production of this year
8. How much effort with last year.
Effort is used as abstract noun here.
So remove the s.
21. C. His vote
9. In a state of confusion
Correct noun is confusion Antecedent is Each voter
For Each, we’ll use singular pronoun
10. C. most important tasks
Read the sentence without which and you’ll Past participle as adjective
understand that there is no need of a relative
pronoun here. Remember
3rd form and ing form of a verb can be used
30. B. Whose Branches as an adjective and These forms are called
participles
Possessive case will be used.
And remember how the three forms of who 39. A. No other station
are used. When we compare then this is the right
Who = he structure.
Whom – him
Whose – his 40. A. First two chapters
Or Remember
Structure = cardinal + ordinal + Noun
Of which branches is also possible
Examples
31. D. Their Board Members - First three players
- Last five boys
Antecedent is companies
41. D. Vivid reason
So plural pronoun
Adjective + Noun
Adverb + Adjective + Noun
32. A. Road developers who are unable
Here first structure is used
Read the sentence well and you will realize
that there should be a relative pronoun Vividly = adverb, vivid = adjective
Adjective + noun
Past participle + Noun
Economy = noun
Economic = adjective
Remember
From economy, we can make two adjective
1. economic = related to economy
2. economical = to spend less, frugal
Make sure you use the right adjective. Here in
this sentence, it’s related to economy. So
economic is right adjective
Comparative degree
Confident = adjective
Adverb + adjective
Absolutely = adverb
48. D. Properly