Buddhist mindfulness practices

in contemporary psychology:
A paradox of incompatibility and harmony
MALCOLM HUXTER

While Buddhism and science share a common foundation of empiricism, significant differences
remain between them. MALCOLM HUXTER explores these differences through a consideration of
how the Buddhist concept and practice of mindfulness has been incorporated into contemporary
psychology. Many Buddhists share a concern about a reductionist approach to mindfulness and
its separation from wisdom and ethics. This separation of mindfulness from its historical, social and
theoretical contexts shows the rift between Buddhism and contemporary mind sciences. Clinical
utility is limited when definitions of mindfulness do not include remembering and discernment,
as the failure to remember lessons from the past, and to develop future direction, renders the
role of wisdom meaningless. Without ethics, mindfulness can be reduced to a commodity, and a
palliative technique to ‘feel better’ that does not address the underlying causes of suffering. This
paper draws on a clinical example to explore how the ancient teachings of the Buddha can be
integrated harmoniously within the contemporary clinical setting.

H is Holiness the Dalai Lama,

demonstrates an ability to bring
the perspectives of both Buddhism
be adapted more effectively to the
contemporary clinical setting. This
paper will explore, with a clinical
is to say that Buddhism is a first
person discourse, while contemporary
psychology, like other sciences, is
and science into the cause of reducing example, how the ancient teachings a third person discourse. Science
human suffering. However, while of the Buddha can be integrated assumes a radical difference between
Buddhism and science share a common harmoniously within the contemporary the objective and the subjective. Only
foundation of empiricism, significant clinical setting. objective data are valued. The objective
differences remain between them. is seen as reliable, even ‘true’, while
Incompatibilities
Buddhism is largely concerned with the subjective is regarded as unreliable,
what cannot be measured or quantified, The Buddha’s path of psychological even false. For the Buddha, the data of
and immeasurability is incompatible freedom begins with ethics, which psychological investigation is one’s own
with science. Another difference provides the foundation for the experience. While he recognised the
between these two traditions can be cultivation of attention (meditation) distinction between the subjective and
seen in the way mindfulness, a core that leads to wisdom. Wisdom the objective, for him they are equally
Buddhist concept and practice, has plays a central role. It is found in valid and productive of truth or illusion,
been incorporated into contemporary the culmination of the path of for both are simply manifestations of
psychology. Buddhism and psychology psychological freedom, and in whatever experience (Kearney, 2007).
both have the reduction of human directs our journey throughout a A Buddhist approach towards
suffering as a priority, and both are life lived with freedom. The basis of freedom from suffering entails
flexible enough to adapt to each other. contemporary psychology, in contrast, changing unhelpful behaviours
Nonetheless, it is important to clarify is scientific materialism, where only into helpful ones, assisted by the
some aspects of the Buddha’s approach objective, measurable and repeatable unification of attention to make
to psychology so that Buddhist data are valued. consciousness itself serviceable
practices, such as mindfulness, can Another way to make this contrast (Wallace, 2006). With attention that

26 PSYCHOTHERAPY IN AUSTRALIA • VOL 18 NO 2 • FEBRUARY 2012

is refined and workable, the nature 2006). In contrast, one contemporary for healing psychological imbalance.
of consciousness can be observed Buddhist application of mindfulness Now, in the 21st century, the
directly and investigated so that it is: ‘to remember to pay attention to what therapeutic potential of mindfulness
can be understood, transformed and is occurring in one’s immediate experience is being recognised and validated by
liberated from tendencies that cause with care and discernment’ (Ven. Bhikkhu contemporary psychologists, and it has
suffering. Contemporary psychology is Bodhi, cited in Shapiro 2009, p. 556). become a popular therapeutic tool in
also interested in changing unhelpful From a Buddhist perspective, clinical psychology.
behaviours to those that are more mindfulness is more than just ‘ being Although dozens of different
functional and less inclined to cause aware in the moment’, as it includes mindfulness-based programs have
suffering. This tradition excels in recollection, non-forgetfulness and emerged in the last two decades,
understanding psychopathology and discernment. Mindfulness can only some of the most popular approaches
the use of cognitive, affective and occur here now, in this moment. We include Mindfulness-Based Stress
behavioural strategies, as well as the can, however, mindfully recollect Reduction (MBSR) (Kabatt-Zinn,
therapeutic relationship, in order to the past, so that we can learn from 1990), Dialectical Behavior Therapy
reduce suffering. While interested in our experience and build wisdom. (DBT) (Linehan, 1993), Acceptance
the transformation of consciousness, Mindfulness can also involve and Commitment Therapy (ACT)
its understanding of consciousness and remembering to do something in (Hayes, Strosadhl & Wilson, 1999),
the technologies of transformation are the future, such as remembering the and Mindfulness-Based Cognitive
rudimentary and materialistic. purpose of what one is doing, and Therapy (MBCT), (Segal, Williams
and Teasdale, 2002). Hayes (2004)
For the Buddha, the data of psychological coined these approaches ‘third wave’ or
third generation therapies because, he
investigation is one’s own experience. claimed, they carry forward first from
Behavioural Therapy (BT), and then
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT),
For the most part, contemporary not forgetting the suitability and in their theoretical underpinnings and
psychology sees consciousness as an timeliness of what is being done. With therapeutic outcomes.
emergent property of the brain, and mindfulness, we track change through Baer (2003; 2006), without
seeks to understand consciousness experience and this helps to develop providing details about Buddhist
by observing changes in objective understanding. psychology, described several
behaviours and the brain. For Psychological disorders such as psychological mechanisms found
Buddha, consciousness itself is central. anxiety and depression are aspects in these therapies that explain
Consciousness is not seen as solely of human suffering that can be the therapeutic effectiveness of
dependent on the brain, but as an addressed effectively by psychological mindfulness. These include:
interdependent continuum that can intervention. Mindfulness is one tool • exposure, where reactive patterns
be directly known. Consciousness can in that project. Over two millennia ago are not reinforced, but allowed to
awaken to itself. Like contemporary the Buddha taught in the Satipatthana extinguish;
psychology, Buddhism seeks to Sutta (Nanamoli & Bodhi, 1995) that • cognitive change, where
monitor changes in consciousness mindfulness is an essential component mindfulness helps to develop
by assessing changes in observable
behaviours, but it also seeks the
transformation of consciousness
through direct experience.
Mindfulness
Created by an English Pali scholar,
the term ‘mindfulness’ appeared
in the English language in 1881.
Mindfulness was translated from
the Pali word sati, which literally
means ‘memory’. Sati is the act of
remembering the present; keeping
the present in mind. Its opposite is
forgetfulness, and the oblivion that
characterises forgetfulness. While
there is no consensus about the
operational definition of mindfulness
in contemporary psychology, most see
it as some form of non-judgmental bare
attention or awareness (Baer, 2003;
Illustration: © Savina Hopkins, 2012 www.savinahopkins.com.

PSYCHOTHERAPY IN AUSTRALIA • VOL 18 NO 2 • FEBRUARY 2012 27

 meta-cognitive insight, i.e., 1. contemplation of body, including as a ‘religion’, its use comes under
thoughts are seen as ‘just thoughts’ posture, actions, physical the general policy of psychological
and not facts to be believed; sensations and breath; services and associations regarding the
• de-fusing the literal meaning 2. contemplation of feeling, or the separation of religion and therapy.
of verbal constructions from actual hedonic qualities of pleasantness, When I teach mindfulness to
reality; unpleasantness or neither; patients of public health services I
• facilitating change with 3. contemplation of ‘heart-mind’, am bound by my employer’s secular
acceptance; including moods, emotions and policies to not talk about the Buddha’s
• enhancing relaxation; states of mind; psychology. While it can be difficult to
• helping self-management 4. contemplation of ‘dharmas’— talk about a practice without honouring
and impulse control. phenomena, including emotional, the source of the knowledge, this
mental and behavioural patterns, does not present a clinical problem. A
A Buddhist approach
analysed as helpful or unhelpful. patient need not know the theoretical
At the core of the Buddha’s The therapeutic functions of framework of a practice in order to
teachings are four realities that mindfulness include: realise its benefits. However, I have
describe a pair of cause-effect • short-circuiting habitual cyclic had colleagues in different services face
relationships: suffering and its causes, reactions; disciplinary panels because they have
and freedom from suffering and its • development of insight or mentioned the word ‘Buddha’ to their
causes. These ariya saccani are usually wisdom, which provides broader patients.
translated as the ‘noble truths’. The perspectives on situations and I have been a Buddhist for over
cause-effect relationships evident with counters distorted views; thirty-five years and a psychologist for
the four noble truths can be applied to • acting as reciprocal inhibition, more than twenty years. I am invited
psychological disorders and described e.g., worry and confusion are regularly to teach about the therapeutic
from a psychological perspective: incompatible with mindfulness applications of mindfulness by
1. there are presenting problems or and wisdom; individual therapists and organisations.
disorders; • serving as an ally to other Unfortunately, prejudice exists.
2. there are causative factors for the healing qualities, such While I have been invited to teach
arising of these problems, and for as curious investigation, therapists about mindfulness, I have
their maintenance; energetic enthusiasm, serenity, been requested by individuals and
3. it is possible to be free from these concentration, joy, equanimity, organisations not to mention the
problems, or at least reduce the compassion, and loving-kindness; teachings of the Buddha. When I have
severity of their symptoms; • protecting a person from acting conducted workshops it has sometimes
4. there are healing pathways that mindlessly and unskilfully. been difficult to secure a venue because
include human relationships based the venue’s policy excludes any support
on positive warm regard, empathy Reciprocal rejection
of Eastern religions. At other times,
and genuineness, and treatments While many contemporary I have requested college endorsement
using cognitive, behavioural and psychologists appreciate the teachings for workshops about the clinical
affective strategies that address the of the Buddha, and use Buddhist applications of mindfulness, but have
causative and maintaining factors meditation practices personally and been rejected on the assumption by the
of these problems. professionally, they reject the Buddha’s endorsement committee that I will be
The fourth reality is the ‘eightfold psychology as a valid framework for teaching ‘Buddhism’. Complaints have
path’, which represents the path of clinical presentations. The Buddha’s occasionally been lodged when I have
freedom. The eight factors on this psychology lies outside the framework provided a framework in workshops
path are divided into three basic of scientific materialism, and is seen based on ethics, meditation and
categories, all of which are related by mind scientists as pre-scientific wisdom, and have said that this is the
interdependently (see Figure 1). and regarded as of little value for Buddha’s path.
From a Buddhist perspective, the progress of clinical psychology The discomfort of the paradigm
mindfulness as a therapeutic factor (e.g., Hayes, 2002a; 2002b). Clinical clash is mutual. Many Buddhists
cannot be separated from its context, psychology is based on scientifically appreciate the advances contemporary
analysed in the Satipatthana Sutta in validated evidence-based practices, psychology has made in the reduction
terms of four applications: and since Buddhism is classified of human suffering, yet feel unease
about a reductionist approach to
u Wisdom u mindfulness. Their primary concern is
u 1. View or understanding u the degeneration of the integrity of the
2. Intention or aspiration
Meditation Lifestyle or ethics
3. Speech
eight-fold path and the separation of
6. Energy or effort
7. Mindfulness 4. Action mindfulness from wisdom and ethics—
8. Concentration on unification
u u
5. Livelihood
something that Alan Wallace (2005)
calls a ‘ dumbing down’ of the profound
teachings of the Buddha. This trend
Figure 1. The eight factors of the eight-fold path of separating mindfulness and related

28 PSYCHOTHERAPY IN AUSTRALIA • VOL 18 NO 2 • FEBRUARY 2012

practices from their historical, social
and theoretical contexts shows the rift
between Buddhism and contemporary
mind sciences.
Unfortunately, the dislodging
of mindfulness from its Buddhist
context may detract from the depth
and breadth of its clinical utility. For
example, with no reference to the
teachings of the Buddha it is difficult
to meaningfully explain and utilise the
fourth application of mindfulness.
With no clear theoretical connection
to ‘right effort’ it can be difficult
to inspire in patients the need to
exercise courageous energy in the face
of difficulty. With no explanation
of ‘right intention’ it is awkward to
seamlessly connect mindfulness with
the therapeutically powerful practices
of ‘loving-kindness’ and ‘compassion’. 2. refraining from taking that which of ethical direction, determined by
When a term such as ‘karma’ (which is not freely offered; the cultivation of the wholesome and
translates as ‘action’) is misunderstood 3. refraining from false and harmful helpful, and relinquishment of the
as ‘cosmic fate’ and rejected because speech; unwholesome and unhelpful.
of its connection to Buddhism, then 4. refraining from harmful sexual Although ethical directions are
the realistic therapeutic consideration conduct; usually implicit in psychological
that actions have consequences may be 5. refraining from [unnecessary] use interventions, including the third
minimised and overlooked. of intoxicants that cloud the mind. wave therapies, they are often hidden
When definitions of mindfulness do Some ACT therapists criticise and are rarely, if ever, specifically
not include mention of remembering the clinical worth of the teachings of mentioned. The scientific practitioner
and discernment, the link to wisdom the Buddha stating that it imposes seems not to put much emphasis on
becomes clouded, as the failure to prescriptive rules on its followers. The the ethical quality of their patient’s
remember lessons from the past and choice to act ethically is, however, behaviour. When a prominent
our direction for the future renders the
role of wisdom meaningless.
Moreover, when ethics is not …the dislodging of mindfulness from its
considered as important in the teaching
of mindfulness, then mindfulness Buddhist context may detract from the
can be reduced to a commodity and a
palliative technique to feel a bit better depth and breadth of its clinical utility.
without addressing the underlying
causes of suffering (Dawson & based on an individual’s own maturing American psychologist was asked at
Turnbull, 2006). wisdom, and not another’s values. For a workshop on Positive Psychology
Ethics and wisdom the Buddha, the foundation of ethics why he did not include ethics as a
is the choice between the kusala, or component of a program for young
The foundation of the Buddha’s ‘wholesome’ (what is conducive toward people, he responded by saying the
eight-fold path is ethics, or a one’s welfare and happiness over time), approach needed to be ‘value free’
wholesome lifestyle. In traditional and the akusala, or ‘unwholesome’ for it to be scientifically credible
Buddhist settings, before training in (what is conducive toward one’s harm (Seligman, 2008). For the Buddhist
meditation is provided, trainees are and suffering over time) (Kearney, therapist, sidestepping the importance
asked to commit to five principles of 2009). For the Buddha, the practice of ethical behaviour from the client’s
living. These principles, also called of ethics arises from the imperative of clinical picture is an odd state of
‘precepts’, can be proactive in the sense choice: every intentional action is the affairs. Especially as one of the basics
of actively doing something of benefit product of our choice. The concepts of human development is gaining a
or, as a minimum, avoiding acts of of the wholesome and unwholesome sense of what is right and wrong—the
harm. The Buddha recommended five provide the framework for the choices ability to know what leads to the well-
trainings as essential foundations for we must make. Our choices are either being for oneself and others and how
meditation: in accordance with our valued life to avoid harm. Furthermore, acting
1. refraining from [unnecessarily] directions, or they are not. The eight- on important life directions with
killing living things; fold path is characterised by a sense values clarification are often a major

PSYCHOTHERAPY IN AUSTRALIA • VOL 18 NO 2 • FEBRUARY 2012 29

component of many therapies, and stabilise her mind. Based on our Jessi returned a week later to say
such as ACT. good therapeutic relationship, and that she was feeling much better. She
From a Buddhist perspective, once her thoughts and emotions were said that she had reflected on our
the ethical direction of a therapy is relatively calm and clear, we engaged discussion about ethics, a term I felt no
fundamental to its practice. When in discussion about the events and her hesitation using, and decided to follow
ethical direction is dismissed as responses. Without making mention through with some suggestions. She
unimportant, many valuable clinical of Buddhism or using alienating had managed to avoid alcohol, for some
opportunities are missed. For a language, we were able to discuss the nights at least. She said that she had
Buddhist therapist, treatment devoid principle of karma—that actions have also apologised to her female friend,
of an emphasis on ethics and wisdom consequences. These discussions were and made the resolve to work on the
lacks meaning. Understanding the not shrouded in religious dogma, but five trainings of happiness. Jessi was
causes of suffering and freedom practical and reflective, highlighting responsive to our intervention because
necessarily involves wholesome the facts that when Jessi acted in it was practical and made sense.
intentions. Actions based on wise particular ways there were natural Though I had in my mind the eight-
intentions are ethical, and ethics consequences. fold path, I did not impose a dogma
provide the composure necessary As a form of mindfulness, or moralising opinions. Rather, we
for the cultivation of quiescence objectively remembering the past, Jessi collaboratively explored the experience
and insight, which is meditation. could piece together the unfolding of of confusion and anguish that led
Meditation is one cause of wisdom, and events and gain understanding. This to this bind, and some strategies for
the eight-fold path is an overarching process was not particularly Buddhist, freedom. Of course, Jessi was not cured
framework for all that is therapeutic. or contrived as a specific therapy. It of all her problems, and there was a
Case example was simply a therapeutic conversation likelihood that she would relapse into
and Jessi was responsive to these destructive cycles. Nonetheless, on
Jessi is a 32-year old woman who, discussions about her life because they the positive side, Jessi had a taste of a
over the years, has accrued a variety were relevant and meaningful. We also ‘healing pathway’ and the relative well-
of mental health diagnoses including discussed the concept of ‘wisdom’ as being this provides. With such a taste,
‘schizo-affective disorder’, ‘borderline including the discernment to choose it is also possible that she may be more
personality disorder’ and ‘posttraumatic the helpful over the unhelpful. Though inclined to act wisely in the future.
stress disorder’. I have seen her on I do not generally use terms such as
occasions over these years for short- Harmony
‘karma’ or even ‘Buddhism’, I find the
term counselling, and we have good term ‘wisdom’ is universally accepted Despite their theoretical
rapport. as a wholesome quality worthy of incompatibilities, we find a cross-
One day she presented distressed cultivating. fertilization between Buddhism and
and confused. She was entangled Finally, we were able to talk about contemporary psychology. Practitioners
and tormented by guilty ruminative actions that would be in accordance from both sides are willing to explore
thoughts. Knowing her history, I with what Jessi could see as wise concepts and viewpoints that may
could see that with the increased stress decisions and meaningful directions, be beyond the boundaries of their
she was beginning to spiral into a such as cultivating warm and usual paradigm. The University of
psychotic episode. She said that she supportive interpersonal relationships. Oxford, for example, offers masters
had increased her abuse of alcohol I suggested, without making any degrees in MBCT and these programs
and on one drunken night there were reference to the five Buddhist precepts, include instruction in aspects of
claims by others that she had sexually that she experiment with five trainings Buddhist psychology and philosophy
molested a close female friend, who for happiness, as a way to clarify her (Woods, 2009). Many MBSR/MBCT
is married. She could not remember confused relationship boundaries leaders are Buddhists, or regularly
the event because she was drunk, (i.e., avoidance of harmful sexual attend Buddhist meditation retreats.
but the thought of sexually abusing a conduct) and support mental clarity so Buddhists are increasingly using ideas
friend was abhorrent to her. She was she would know what was conducive and strategies from ACT because this
also confused about whether or not to her well-being (i.e., avoidance of approach is very practical in clinical
she should actively follow her urges to intoxicants that cloud the mind). settings. Many ACT therapists and
develop a sexual relationship with this As another mindfulness exercise, authors have also attended Buddhist
woman. I suggested that she prospectively meditation retreats, write about
After Jessi had told me what was remember to be attentive to her urges mindfulness meditation as originating
important for her, I invited her to do a to drink alcohol and her aspirations for from Buddhism, make reference to
relaxation exercise where I suggested long-term happiness and interpersonal Buddhist teachers and use Buddhist
she pay attention to the sensations harmony. The implications of these terminology to explain ACT ideas and
in her feet as we walked to-and-fro suggestions were that she would approaches (e.g., Forsyth & Eifert,
in the consultation room. In this remember to act in ways that were 2007; Walser & Westrup, 2007).
way, she could disentangle from her suitable, timely, and in line with her It is possible to integrate and
ruminative thoughts by focusing on valued life directions. use the best from both perspectives
something neutral, and thereby settle without contradiction. As a clinical

30 PSYCHOTHERAPY IN AUSTRALIA • VOL 18 NO 2 • FEBRUARY 2012

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mutual yearning to find freedom from
long insight meditation retreat. original draft and Dr B. Alan Wallace for
suffering. According to Wallace and
feedback on other drafts.
Hodel (2008), His Holiness the Dalai
Lama, states:
‘At its best, science is motivated by a
quest for understanding to help lead us
to greater flourishing and happiness …; AUTHOR NOTES
this kind of science can be described as
wisdom grounded in, and tempered by, MALCOLM HUXTER B.A. Hons. (Psych.) M.Psych. (Clin.)
compassion. Similarly, spirituality is a M.A.P.S practices as a clinical psychologist in Lismore, NSW. He
human journey in our internal resources, incorporates mindfulness based practices into his clinical practice,
with the aim of understanding who we
and offers groups, workshops and professional training.
are in the deepest sense and of discovering
how to live according to the highest possible Comments: [email protected]
ideal. This too is the union of wisdom and
compassion’ (p. 200). For more information visit www.malhuxter.com

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