Quantization of energy

Bohr’s Atomic model

Two Postulates of Bohr’s atomic model
1. Electrons can revolve around the nucleus only in certain permitted orbits for
which the angular momentum of the electron when it revolves around the certain
h
permitted orbit is equal to the integral multiple of . This is known as Bohr’s
2π
quantization condition.
Mathematically it can be expressed as

nh
L=mvr =
2π
where n is an integer = 1 , 2, 3, ……..and is called
principle quantum number.(It indicates the shell no.
like K,L,M etc)
h = plank’s constant
m = mass of electron
v= velocity of electron
2. When electron revolves in permitted orbits they do not radiate energy.
An atom radiates energy only when an electron jumps from a higher
energy state to lower energy state and when it jumps from lower to
higher energy orbits the energy is absorbed.

If E1 and E2 are the energies associated with first and second orbits
respectively, then the frequency f of the radiation emitted is given by
hf = E2 –E1
This is Bohr’s frequency condition.
Bohr’s Theory of hydrogen atom

Bohr assumed that a hydrogen atom consists of proton of positive charge +e

nucleus and single electron of charge -e revolving around it in a circular orb
radius r as shown above. Then the electrostatic force of attraction between
proton and electron is given by
The electrostatics force of attraction between the proton and the election is given by

If m and v be the mass and velocity of the electron in the orbit, then the centripetal
force required by the electron to move in circular orbit of radius ‘r’ is given by

Further, the electrostatic force of attraction between the election and the nucleus
provides the necessary centripetal force .
According to Bohr’s postulate ,

N ow , substituting the value

Now, substituting the value of v2 in equation iii we get,

m n2h2 e2
( )= ( )
r 4 ᴨ2r2m2 4 ᴨε0r 2

n2h2ε0
or, r = ( 2 )……………vi
ᴨme
 Hence, the radius of nth permissible orbit for
hydrogen atom
is given by
n2h2ε0
rn = ( 2 )
ᴨme
h2ε0
rn α n2 as(
ᴨme 2) are all constants
rn α n2
Bohr’s Radius (a0): The radius of inner most orbit in
hydrogen
atom with n=1 is called Bohr’s radius.
From equation vi, we have for n =1,
h2ε0
r=( 2)
ᴨme
Substituting the value of ε0, h, m, and e we get,
a0 = 0.529A0
And in general, rn = 0.529n2A0…………vii
This equations gives the radii of the orbits in Bohr’s model
of the atom.
LAQ. State Bohr’s postulates of Hydrogen atom and use
them to calculate the radius of nth orbit of hydrogen atom.
Velocity of the electron:
The velocity of electron in nth orbit is given as
nh
vn = ( )
2ᴨmrn
Substituting the value of rn from equation vi, we get
nh ᴨme2
vn = ( 2 2 )
2ᴨm n h ε0
1 e2
vn = ………….viii
2 nhε0
This equation shows that as n increases , v decreases. So, t
Electron moves slowly in outer orbits than inner one.
Frequency of electron
The frequency of electron is given as
ω = 2ᴨf
ω
So f =
2ᴨ
vn
= as v = ωr so, ω=v/r
2ᴨrn
1 e2 ᴨme2
= ( )
2 nhε0 2ᴨn h ε0
2 2

me4
( 2 3 3)
4ε 0n h
This is the expression for the frequency of
electron.
Energy of electron in nth orbit
An electron revolving around the nucleus have Kinetic energy. Also, it is
attracted towards the nucleus by electrostatic force of attraction. It has
Potential energy. Therefore, the sum of K.E and P.E gives the total energy
of the electron.
1
The K.E of electron of nth orbit = mvn2
2
But from viii, we have,
1 e2
vn =
2 nhε0
1 1 e 2
So, K.E of electron in nth orbit is = m x ( )2
2 2 nhε0
1 me4
=( )
8 ε0 n h
2 2 2
 1 e2
Also, P.E = -( )
4ᴨ ε0rn

n2h2ε0
Now using rn = ( 2 ) From equn vi, in above
ᴨme
expression, we get

1 e2ᴨme2
= -( )
4ᴨ ε0n h ε0
2 2

1 me4
= -( )
4 ε0 n h
2 2 2
Hence, the total energy of electron = K.E + P.E
1 me4 1 me4
=( ) + (- )
8 ε0 n h
2 2 2 4 ε0 n h
2 2 2
1 me4
= (- )
8 ε0 n h
2 2 2
The negative sign shows that the electron is bounded to the
nucleus.
LAQ. Stating the Bohr’s Postulates, deduce an expression for
the total energy of an electron in nth orbit of hydrogen atom.

Q.Calculate the radius and energy of the electron in 1th orbit in H atom
Where the symbol has the usual meaning
m=…….e=……n=1, h =
Bohr’s Interpretation of the hydrogen Spectrum
If an electron jumps from higher orbit n2 to lower orbit n1, the frequency
f of the radiation emitted is given by,
hf = E2 – E1……i
Where E1 and E2 are the energies of the electron in stationary orbits
1 me4
E1 = (- 8 ε 2n 2h2) and
0 14
1 me
E2 = (- 8 ε 2n 2h2) Using E1 and E2 in equation i, we get
0 42
1 me 1 me4
hf= (- )- (- )
8 ε0 n2 h
2 2 2 8 ε0 n1 h
2 2 2
1 me4 1 me4
=- +
8 ε0 n2 h
2 2 2 8 ε02n12h2
1 me4 1 1
f= ( 2- 2 )
8 ε0 h n1
2 3 n2
Wave Number f
The wave number of a radiation is defined as the reciprocal of its
wavelength in vacuum and gives the number of waves contained in unit
length in vacuum.i.e
1 𝑓 me4 1 1
f= = = ( 2- 2 )
λ 𝑐 8ε0 ch n1
2 3 n2
me4
further, is a constant called Rydberg constant denoted by R.
8ε0 ch
2 3
Substituting m,e,c h and ε0 in SI units, we get the value of R
(9.1 x 10−31) x ( 1.6 x 10−19)4
R=
8x (8.854 x 10−12)2 x (3x108)( 6.62x 10−34)3
= 1.097 x 107m-1.
Hence, the wavenumber is also expressed as,
1 1 1
f = = R( 2 - 2 )
λ n1 n2
P: Find the wavelength of the radiation emitted from hydrogen atom
when an electron jumps from third orbit to second orbit.(Given, ε0=
8.854 x 10−12C2N-1m-2)
Solution:
Given,
ε0= 8.854 x 10−12C2N-1m-2
we know,
h = 6.62x 10-34Js
Mass of electron me=9.1 x 10-31Kg
n1 = 2
n2 = 3
Now, we know from wavenumber expression,
1 1 1
= R( 2 - )
λ n1 n22
1 1
= 1.097 x 10 ( 2 - 2 )
7
2 3
1 1
= 1.097 x 107 ( - )
4 9
 1 1 1
= 1.097 x 107 ( - )
λ 9 4
9−4
= 1.097 x 10 (
7 )
36
5
= 1.097 x 107 ( )
36
= 0.152361 x 107
λ= 6.59 x 10-7m
Spectral series of hydrogen atom:
Spectral series of hydrogen atom:
Spectral series of hydrogen atom:
Spectral line: When electron jumps from higher state to the lower
state ,it emits rariations.The emitted light radiation are called
spectral line.
A group of spectral lines are said to form spectral series if
electrons jump from different excited states to a fixed lower state.
The various spectral series of H are:
1.Lyman series: The spectral series formed when electrons jump
from different higher states n2 = 2, 3, 4, 5… to a fixed lower state
n1 = 1 i.e. ground state in called Lyman series. The wave length of
this series for H – atom is given as:
 1 1 1
f = = R( - )
λ 12 n2 2
1 1
f = = R( 1 - 2 )
λ n2
This series lies in the UV region of the spectrum.

2. Balmier series: The spectral lines of this series correspond to the

transition of an electron from some higher energy state n2 = 3, 4, 5… to a
fixed lower state n1 = 2.
The wavelength of this series for H – atom is given by:
1 1 1
f = = R( - )
λ 22 n22
1 1 1
f = = R( - 2 )
λ 4 n2

The spectral line of this series corresponds to visible region.

3.Paschen series: The spectral lines of this series correspond to
the transition of an electron from different higher states n2 = 4,
5,6… to a fixed lower state n1 = 3
Therefore for Paschen series n = 3, n = 4,5,6….. The wavelength
1 2

of this series for

H – atom is given by:
1 1 1
f = = R( 2 - 2 )
λ 3 n2
1 1 1
f= = R( - )
λ 9 n22

Paschen series lies in the infrared region of the spectral and it’s
invisible.
4.Brackett series: The spectral lines of this series corresponds to the
transition of an electron from a different higher states n2 = 4, 5,6… to a fixed
lower state n1 = 4
Therefore, this series n = 4 and n = 5,6,7….The wavelength of this series
1 2

for H – atom is given by:

1 1 1
f = = R( 2 - 2 )
λ 4 n2
1 1 1
f = = R( - 2 )
λ 16 n2
This series also lies in the infrared region of the spectrum.
5.P – fund series: The spectral lines of this series correspond to the
transition of electron from a higher energy state to the orbit having n = 5.
Therefore, for this series, n = 5 and n = 6, 7, 8….The wavelength of this
1 2

series for H – atom is given as:

1 1 1
f = = R( 2 - )
λ 5 n22
1 1 1
f = = R( - )
λ 25 n22
Energy level diagram of H-atom
Energy levels : The energy of an atom is the least (largest negative value) when its
electron is revolving in an orbit closest to the nucleus i.e., the one for which n = 1. For
n = 2, 3, the energy is progressively larger in the outer orbits. The lowest state of the
atom, called the ground state, is that of the lowest energy, with the electron
revolving in the orbit of smallest radius, the Bohr radius, a0.
We know, The energy of electron in nth orbit of Hydrogen atom is,
1 me4
En = (- 8 ε 2n2h2)
0
Using all the constants in above equation, we get,
1 (9.1 x10−31)(1.6 x10−19)4
En = (- 8 (8.854 x10−12) 22n2 (6.625 x10−34)102)
21.76 x10−19
= (- )J But, 1.6 x 10-19J = 1eV, So,
n2
21.76 x10−19
En= (- )
(1.6 x10−19)n2
13.6eV
En= (- )
n2
This equation gives the binding energy of the electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen
atom. The negative sign signifies that the electron is bounded to the nucleus.
For n=1, we get the energy E1 of the ground state
13.6eV
i.e, E1 = (- 2 ) = –13.6 eV.
1
Therefore, the minimum energy required to free the electron
from the ground state of the hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV. It is
called the ionisation energy of the hydrogen atom.

For n=2, we get the energy E2 of the Second orbit

13.6eV 13.6eV
i.e, E2 = (- 2 ) = (- ) = –3.4 eV.
2 4
It is called the energy of first excited state of hydrogen atom.
Similarly, energy of second, third,…..excited states of hydrogen
atom are
 13.6eV 13.6eV
E3 = (- ) = (- ) = –1.5 eV
32 9
13.6eV 13.6eV
E4 = (- 2 ) = (- ) = –0.85 eV
4 16
If n = ∞ then,
13.6eV
E ∞ = (- ) = 0 eV
∞
Excitation energy: The energy required to raise an electron from its
ground state to an excited state is called excitation energy of the
atom.

Note: electron moves inside the atom, but in different energy levels).
The energy required to excite an electron from its ground state n = 1 to
n=2 is called first excitation energy.For Hydrogen atom, its value is
E2 – E1
= -3.4 – (-13.6) eV
= 10.2eV.
This means 10.2eV must be provided to excite an electron from n=1 to
n=2.so,The excitation potential for first excited state of hydrogen atom
is 10.2V
Similarly,the energy required to excite an electron from its ground state n
= 1 to n=3 is called Second excitation energy.For Hydrogen atom, its
value is
E3 – E1
= -1.51 – (-13.6) eV
= 12.09eV
i.e The excitation potential for Second excited state of hydrogen atom
is 12.09V
Excitation Potential:
Excitation Potential of an excited state is the potential difference
through which electron in an atom has to be accelerated so as to excite
It from ground state to the given excited state.

Ionization :It is the process of knocking an electron out of the

Atom.
Ionization energy:It is the energy required to knock an electron
Completely out of the atom.
When an electron is raised from n= 1 to n = ∞,electron will be
Completely out of the atom.
Hence, the ionization energy of hydrogen atom is equal to the energy
required to remove electron from n= 1 to n = ∞.
∴ Ionozation energy = E ∞ – E1 = 0– (-13.6) eV
= 13.6eV
Ionization potential:
The minimum accelerating potential required to
remove an electron from its ground state to infinity is called
Ionization potential.
Emission Spectra:
When an excited electron makes transition form excited state
to lower energy levels, then emission spectra is obtained.

How an Emission Spectrum Is Produced

When an atom or molecule absorbs energy, electrons are bumped into a
higher energy state. When the electron drops to a lower energy state,
a photon is released with energy equal to the energy between the two
states.
There are multiple energy states available to an electron, so there are many
possible transitions, leading to the numerous wavelengths that comprise
the emission spectrum. Because each element has a unique emission
spectrum, the spectrum obtained from any hot or energetic body may be
used to analyze its composition.
Emission Spectra are classified into
i. Continous spectra
ii. Line spectra
iii. Band spectra
Absorption spectra:
When electrons are taken from lower energy states to the higher energy states
absorption spectra are Obtained. It is produced when light is passed through cold
gas and the gas absorbs the energy. The absorption series for Balmer series is
shown below
 Limitations of Bohr’s Model of an Atom

•Elliptical orbits are also possible for electrons orbit but Bohr’s model does not tell
why only circular orbit are possible.

•Bohr’s theory could explain the spectra of hydrogen atom but fails to explain the
spectra of multi electron atoms.

•Bohr’s model failed to explain the Zeeman Effect (effect of magnetic field on the
spectra of atoms).

•It also failed to explain the Stark effect (effect of electric field on the spectra of
atoms).

•It violates the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.

Wave Nature of matter
De Broglie Hypothesis:
The de Broglie hypothesis states that particles of matter can behave as both
waves and particles, just like light.

In quantum mechanics, matter is believed to behave both like a particle and a wave at
the sub-microscopic level. The particle behavior of matter is obvious. When you look
at a table, you think of it like a solid, stationary piece of matter with a fixed location.
At this macroscopic scale, this holds true.But when we zoom into the subatomic level,
things begin to get more complicated, and matter doesn't always exhibit the particle
behavior that we expect.

This non-particle behavior of matter was first proposed in 1923, by Louis de Broglie, a
French physicist. In his PhD thesis, he proposed that particles also have wave-like
properties. Although he did not have the ability to test this hypothesis at the
time, he derived an equation to prove it using Einstein's famous mass-energy
relation and the Planck equation.
His hypothesis was based on the following facts
i. In this universe , whole energy is in the form of matter and radiation.so, both these
forms of energy should posses Similar character.
ii. As radiation has dual nature, matter should also posses dual nature.
Deriving the de Broglie Equation
According to Plank’s quantum theory,
The energy of a photon of frequency f is given by
E=hf……………..i
Also, if photon is considered as a particle of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity ‘c’ then
From Einstein’s mass energy relation,
E= mc2……….ii
Since , energy of photon is same in both cases,
hf = mc2……….iii
But,
c= fλ
So, f = c/ λ
Using f in iii we get,
hc
= mc2
λ
h
= mc
λ
Also, we know, momentum of a photon P = mc .so
h
p=
λ

As matter posses dual nature. So,wavelength of the matter of mass m moving with
velocity v is
h
λ=
p
h
i.e λ =
mv
This is called de Broglie relation.
It is also clear from this relation that if the momentum is more,the wavelength will
be short.
In daily life, particle are heavier.Hence De broglie wavelength is not observable.
SAQ. The wavelength of a particle is not observable in daily life. Why?
A: The wavelength of the matter of mass m moving with velocity v is
h
λ=
p
h
i.e λ =
mv
This is called de Broglie relation.
The de Broglie wavelength varies inversly with the mass of a particle. So if we consider
the mass of an electron and mass of a marble we will see that marble has the most
significant mass than an electron. So we can observe the de Broglie wavelength of
electron whereas the de Broglie wavelength of marble is unobservable.
For instance,
If mass of marble m= 66gm moving with velocity v= 1m/s, its de-Broglie wave length is
h
λ=
mv
6.6.x 10−34
λ=
66x10−3
= 10-32m. As it is very small, the wavelength is not observed.
What is the de Broglie wavelength associated with an electron moving with
velocity of 1×107 m/s?

Ans: From de Broglie wavelength equation

We have,
h
λ=
mv
Where,
h = plank constant (6.626 × 10-34Js)
mass of electron = 9.1 × 10-31kg
Then from above relation,

6.626 ×10−34
λ=
9.1 × 10−31×(1 × 107)
= .72 × 10-10m
De Broglie wavelength of an electron
Consider an electron of mass m and charge e to be accelerated through
Potential difference of V volts.
Let v be the velocity gained by it. According to work energy principle,
Work done (eV in joules) on the electron must be equal to the gain of Kinetic energy
½ mv2 of the electron.
So,
eV = ½ mv2

√(2eV
V=
m

Now, from de- Broglie equation,

h
λ= √(2eV
m m
h
λ=
√2𝑚𝑒𝑉
Q. A cricket ball is moving with a speed of 120 km/hr. What would be its de-Broglie
wavelength if its mass is 400 gm. HSEB 2074.
Solution:
Given,
Speed of cricket ball, v = 120 km/hr
120000
= m/s
60 x 60
100
= m/s
3
Mass of cricket ball, m = 400 g = 0.4 kg
Planck's constant, h = 6.62 x 10-34Js
de-Broglie Wavelength, λ = ?
We have,
h
λ=
mv
6.6.x10−34
λ=
0.4x100
= 4.96 x 10-35m.
Hence, de-Broglie Wavelength is 4.96x 10-35m.
Q: Obtain the de Broglie wavelength of a neutron of kinetic energy 150
eV. (Given mass of neutron. Mass of neutron= 1.675 x 10-27kg)
[HSEB 2066)
Given,
KE of neuron = 150 eV = 150 x 1.6x 10-19 J
Mass of neutron, mn = 1.675 x 10-27Kg
Planck's contestant, h = 6.62 x 10-34 Js
de-Broglie wavelength, = ?
We have,
KE = ½ mv2

√(2eV
V=
m
2x150 x 1.6x10 −19
V = √(
1.675x10−27
= 1.69 x 105m/s
 h
Also,λ =
mv
6.6.x10−34
λ=
0.4x100
= 4.96 x 10-35m.
Hence, de-Broglie Wavelength is 4.96x 10-35m.
h
λ=
1.675x10−27 x 1.69x105
= 2.33x 10-12 m
:. de-Broglie wavelength of neuron is 2.33 x 10-12m.
P:Calculate the wavelength of an electron which has been accelerated
through a potential difference of 200 V. Take mass of the electron as 9.1x
10-31 kg and Plank's constant as 6.6x 10-34 Js.
Solution:
Given,
Accelerating voltage (V) = 200V
Wave length (λ) =?
We have,
h
λ=
√2𝑚𝑒𝑉
6.6 x10−34
λ=
√2𝑥9.1x 10−31𝑥1.6 x 10−19𝑥200
=8.6 x 10-11 m
Aa

P:A hydrogen atom is in ground state. What is the quantum number to

which it will be excited absorbing a photon of energy 12.75 eV.
Solution:
Energy of absorption (∆E) = 12.75 eV
Quantum number n = ?
We know, The energy of hydrogen atom in nth state,
En= −13.6 eV .. (i)
n2
Then, the energy gap between nth state and the ground state of hydrogen
atom s, ∆E = En- E1
Here, ∆E =12.75 eV and
E1 = -13.6 eV
Then, 12.75 = En - (-13.6)
or, En = 12.75 -13.6
= - 0.85 eV
Also, from (i),
En= −13.6 eV
2
n
-0.85 =-13.6 eV
n2
2 =13.6 eV
n
0.85
2
n = 16
n2=4
Hence, the quantum number is 4.
Heisenberg’s Uncerainity Principle

The uncertainty principle implies that it is in general not

possible to predict the value of a quantity with arbitrary
certainty, even if all initial conditions are specified
Introduced first in 1927 by the German physicist Werner
Heisenberg
Statement
The uncertainty principle states that the more precisely the position of
some particle is determined, the less precisely its momentum can be
predicted from initial conditions, and vice versa.
i.e the momentum and position of a particle cannot be determined
simultaneously to any desired degree of accuracy.
If a cordinate x has an uncertainity ∆𝒙 and if the corresponding
momentum p has an uncertainity ∆𝒑, then uncertainities are found to
be related in general as,
 ∆𝑥. ∆𝑝

This is Heisenberg’s Uncertainity Principle for position and momentum.

P:If an electron position can be measured to an accuracy of 10-9 m.

How accurately can its velocity be measured? (me = 9.1 * 10-31 kg.)
Solution:
Given,
∆𝑥 = 10-9m
∆𝑣 = ?
We know,
me = 9.1 x 10-31kg
h = 6.6 x 10-34Js
Now, From uncertainty principle; we can write,

ℎ
∆𝑥. ∆𝑝 =
4ᴨ
ℎ
∆𝑥. m∆𝑣 =
4ᴨ
ℎ
∆𝑣 =
4ᴨ.∆𝑥. m
6.6 x10−34
∆𝑣 =
4ᴨ.10−9x 9.1 x10−31
∆v= 0.57 x 105m/s
Hence, it's velocity can be measured to an accuracy of 0.57 x
105m/s
LASER
The laser is a light source that produces a beam of highly coherent and monochromatic
light. The word laser stands for Iight amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation. The first laser was built in 1960.
Some terms
1.Stimulated or induced absorption:

If the atom is initially in the lower state E1, it can be raised to E2 by absorbing a photon
of energy
E2 - E1 = hf.
This process is called induced absorption. Einstein postulated that the induced absorptio
transition rate was proportional to the number of atoms with electrons in the lower st
and to the density of radiation energy incident on these atoms.
 (2) Metastable state: Normally, the excited atoms can stay in the excited state only
for 10-8 seconds However, in some energy states, these excited atoms remain for a long
time i.e. 10-3 seconds before jumping to the ground state. This energy state is called
metastable state.
(3) Spontaneous emission:

If an atom is excited, it can not stay longer time in the excited state. The atom in the
excited state goes to the ground state by emitting a photon. If the atom is initially in
the excited state E2, it can drop to E1 by emitting a photon of energy
E2 - E1 = hf. This kind of emission of photon is known as spontaneous emission.
NOTE: The photons emitted in spontaneous emission process constitute ordinary incoherent light. Incoherent light is a
beam of photons with frequent and random changes of phase between them. In other words, the photons emitted in
the spontaneous emission process do not flow exactly in the same direction of incident photons
 In such a case
(i) there is no phase relationship between photons
(ii) the photons can move in any random direction.

The transition rate for spontaneous emission is proportional to the number of atoms
with electrons in the upper state (i.e. excited state E2).
(4) Stimulated or Induced Emission:

If the incident photon forces the excited atom (having energy State E2) to move the
ground state E1 by emitting the photon of energy hf = E2 - E1 the emitted photon has
same energy as that of incident photon and they are in the same phase and they move
in the same direction as the incident photons. This type of emission is called
stimulated emission or induced emission. A beam of light obtained from such a source
is highly intense, monochromatic, unidirectional and coherent.
In stimulated emission, two photons are emitted (one additional photon
is emitted), one is due to the incident photon and another one is due to the
energy release of excited electron. Thus, two photons are emitted.
The stimulated emission process is very fast compared to the spontaneous
emission process.

All the emitted photons in stimulated emission have the same energy, same
frequency and are in phase. Therefore, all photons in the stimulated
emission travel in the same direction.

The number of photons emitted in the stimulated emission depends on the

number of electrons in the higher energy level or excited state and the
incident light intensity.
It can be written as:
The principle of laser:
Let us consider an assembly of atoms of some kind . If we somehow raise
the atoms of the metastable level and let a light of frequency ‘f’ fall upon
them, there will be more induced emission from the metastable level than
that of induced absorption by the lower level. As a result an amplification of
the original light is obtained. This is the principle of laser.
Population inversion:

Let N and N be the number of atoms lying in the ground state E and E respectively.
1 2 1 2

Under ordinary condition of thermal equilibrium the number of atoms in the higher energy
state is considerably smaller than that of the number of atoms in the lower energy state
i.e N < N .In such a situation if a light of frequency f =E2−E1/h is incident on a large
2 1

collection of such atoms,the atoms are excited due to absorption of photons and raise to
the excited state E so that there are more atoms in higher energy state than that in
2

the lower energy state E i.e. N > N .

1 2 1

This phenomenon of having more number of atoms in the excited state than in the
ground state is called population inversion.
The process by which population inversion is carried out is called optical pumping.
Optical pumping
It is a method of achieving population inversion.
For this atom which have three energy states.
1.E1 is a ground state,
2.E2 in metastable state and
3.E3 is excited state.
The atoms in the E1 state are pumped into E3 stated by photon of energy hf = E3 – E1 by
stimulated absorption. E3 is shortly lived state and E3 to E1 transition is prohibited. Since,
N3> N2 cannot be achieved, so simulated emission results from E3 to E2 transition. Thus,
the atoms in the atoms in the E3 state then go to the E2 state either by simultaneous
emission or by non radioactive transition in which the energy E3 – E2 is converted into
vibration energy of the atom forming the substance. Since E2 is metastable state, atoms
can remain in this state for comparatively longer time. As a result, population inversion
(i.e. N2> N1) takes place. Now, the atoms in E2 state are bombarded by a photon of
energy hf = E2 – E1 to cause them to a stimulated emission of radiation of energy hf in
the direction of incident photon. As a result a highly intense coherent and unidirectional
beam of radiation comes. The beam is called laser beam.
Characteristics of Laser
Laser light has four unique characteristics that
differentiate it from ordinary light: these are
•Coherence
•Directionality
•Monochromatic
•High intensity
Coherence
Directionality
Helium-Neon laser
Definition
Helium-Neon laser is a type of gas laser in which a mixture of helium and
neon gas is used as a gain medium. Helium-Neon laser is also known as
He-Ne laser.

The helium-neon laser operates at a wavelength of 632.8 nanometers (nm),

in the red portion of the visible spectrum.
Helium-neon laser construction
The helium-neon laser consists of three essential components:
•Pump source (high voltage power supply)
•Gain medium (laser glass tube or discharge glass tube)
•Resonating cavity
Construction:

It consist of a long and narrow discharge tube about 0.5m long and
5mm in diameter, fill with the mixture of Helium neon gas in the ratio
of 5:1 at the total pressure of 1rorr((≈ 133.32 Pa)which forms the
leaser medium. Two electrodes P and Q fitted to the discharge tube
as shown in figure. The two mirrors which forms a resonant cavity.
The mirror M is fully reflecting whereas N is partially reflecting so,
allow the laser beam to pass out of it.
Working:
The energy of 2s energy level of He is 20.61 eV and the
energy of 5s energy level of Ne is 20.66 eV. Similarly, the
energy of 3p energy level of Ne is 18.70 eV. The state 2s of
He is long lived state.
When electricity is passed through the gas, the He atoms
are excited to 2s level. When the excited He atoms collide
the Ne atoms, their energy is transferred into the Ne
atoms. The excited Ne atoms in the 5s energy level
undergo stimulated transition to 3p level giving rise to
laser light
We have, E2-E1 =hf
20.66− 18.7 3x 108
=
6.625x 10−34 λ
6.625x10−34 x 3x108
λ=
1.9 x1.6 X10−19
= 632nm
wavelength 632.8 nm. The transition from 3p to
3s in Ne is spontaneous and that from 3s to 2p is
non-radiative.
Application:
The laser has wide range of application.
1.The laser is used in holography.
2.The laser is used in piercing sharp holes in
metals.
3.It is used in scientific research.
4.It is used in medical treatment.