HQOE 1 Fundamental To Curriculum Full
HQOE 1 Fundamental To Curriculum Full
FUNDAMENTALS OF
CURRICULUM,
INSTRUCTION AND
RESEARCH IN
EDUCATION
John Arul Phillips
Project Directors: Prof. Dr. Mansor Fadzil
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Widad Othman
Open University Malaysia
First Printing,
Copyright @ Open University Malaysia (OUM), Module for Open Entry to Master of
Education
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).
CONTENTS
Introduction
1.1 Definitions of Curriculum
1.2 The Hidden Curriculum
1.3 Curriculum Approaches
1.3.1 Curriculum as Content
1.3.2 Curriculum as Product
1.3.3 Curriculum as Process
1.4 Foundations of Curriculum
1.5 Curriculum Development
1.6 Curriculum as a Discipline
1.7 Curriculum and Instruction
Summary
Key Terms
References
2 X CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO CURRICULUM
X INTRODUCTION
NEWS PAPER HEADLINES
• „Homework should be made more
meaningful‰
• „Students canÊt read properly after 11 years of
schooling‰
• „Students are bored with studying the same
thing each year‰
• „Teachers are unable to complete the syllabuses
because too much time is spent on co-curricular
activities‰
• „Teachers are reluctant to teach beyond what is
in the curriculum, considering it a waste of
time‰
• „Thinking skills of students need to be
developed‰
• „Parents passing the responsibility of educating
their children to teachers‰
• „Sports is being neglected in schools‰
• „Environmental education should be taught‰
You would have probably come across these headlines in newspapers and
magazines. These headlines are an indication of societyÊs concern with what is
going on in schools and in particular the curriculum. It should be remembered
that a curriculum is a contract between society and those in power stating how its
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO CURRICULUM W 3
next generation of young people will be educated. Hence the general public have
a right to question how schools are preparing its next generation of citizens.
As society becomes more educated, more of its members are keen in expressing
their views on various issues regarding what are schools doing and what is
taught in schools. Sometimes it is tempting to ask whether society ever come to a
consensus on what it wants schools to do.
Some sectors of the population are demanding that schools teach for the mastery
of the facts, concepts and principles of a discipline, while others are calling for
reducing content and placing more emphasis on the development of critical and
creative thinking. Still others feel that schools are not paying enough attention
towards developing the character of students. It appears that society is in a state
of confusion not knowing what it wants of its schools. However, what may be
defined as confusion is in reality dynamism because curriculum is a reflection of
our values, choices and perspectives in differing contexts. As society changes so
will the curriculum because it is a reflection of society at a particular point in
time. For example, during colonial times, education in Malaysia was confined to
producing clerks and office assistants for the English administrative system.
Activity 1.1
1. Discuss any 3 headlines listed above that you agree with. Why?
2. Locate and report other concerns about the curriculum that you have
you come across?
4 X CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO CURRICULUM
Summary of Various
Interpretations of
Curriculum
Curriculum is:
Ć that which is taught in school
Ć a set of subjects
Ć content
Ć a programme of studies
Ć a set of materials
Ć sequence of courses
Ć a set of performance objectives
Ć a course of study
Ć everything that goes on within
a school
Ć everything that is planned by
school personnel
Ć that which is taught both inside
and outside of school directed
by the school
Ć a series of experiences
undergone by learners in
school
Ć that which an individual
learner experiences as a result
of schooling
Are you confused with the different definitions? Well, donÊt be! It is not
necessarily a bad thing having numerous definitions of curriculum. The variety of
definitions demonstrates the dynamism of the field because it reflects the
philosophical beliefs, conceptions of human learning, pedagogical strategies,
political experiences and cultural background of the society the curriculum is
planned for (Ornstein and Hunkins, 1998). Though much time may be spent on
defining curriculum, it may be time well spent because it encourages exploration
of many possibilities. One should be aware that if a curriculum is too narrowly
defined there is the tendency and likelihood to omit, ignore or miss relevant
factors related to teaching and learning because they are not part of the written
plan. On the other hand, if they are too broadly defined, it would difficult to
implement because it may be open to different interpretations. This will make the
task of evaluating achievement of the goals and objectives of the programme
more difficult. Despite varying definitions of curriculum, there seems to be a
consensus that it is a statement:
As pointed out by Doll (1992), „every school has a planned, formal acknowledged
curriculum, but there is also has an unplanned informal and hidden one that
must be considered‰ (p.5). The planned, formal curriculum focuses on goals,
objectives, subject matter and organisation of instruction. The unplanned,
informal curriculum deals with socio-psychological interaction among students,
teachers and administrators, especially in relation to their feelings, attitudes and
behaviours
Ć about „the rules of the game‰ in the school canteen, in the playground, in
the corridors of the school and so forth,
Ć the specific relationships between senior and junior students, between male
and female students, cliques of students,
Ć how order is created and maintained in the classroom, the way individual
teachers interpret the behaviour of students, and
Ć the way teachers and principals or headmaster have different expectations
of students based on interpretations of behaviour in class.
8 X CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO CURRICULUM
The hidden curriculum involves learning such things as how to respond to and
cope with authority, how to get on with others, how to pass the time, how deal
with boredom, how to establish priorities and how to conform to the expectations
of teachers and their peers.
It has been suggested that if one adopts the content approach to curriculum, focus
will be on the syllabus and the body of knowledge to be transmitted or 'delivered'
to students using appropriate teaching methods. When curriculum is equated
with content, there is the likelihood to limit instruction to the acquisition of facts,
concepts and principles of the subject matter transmitted.
According to Bobbitt, education should prepare people for life with detailed
attention to what people need to know in order to work and live their lives. Go
out into the world and see for yourselves what society needs („the abilities,
attitudes, habits, appreciations and forms of knowledge that men [women] need‰
according to Bobbitt). Curriculum should not to be the result of 'armchair
speculation' but the result of systematic study of society. The product from the
curriculum is a student equipped with the knowledge, skills and values to
function effectively and efficiently. Ralph Tyler (1949) shares BobbittÊs approach
to curriculum when he said that the real purpose of education is to bring about
significant changes in students' pattern of behaviour [We will examine TylerÊs
view in more detail in Chapter 5]. It is important that any statement of objectives
of the school should be a statement of changes to take place in the students. The
attraction of this way of approaching curriculum is that it is systematic and has
considerable organising power. Central to the approach is the formulation of
behavioural objectives which provide a clear notion of outcomes or desired
products so that content and teaching methods may be organised and the results
evaluated.
In order to measure, things have to be broken down into smaller and smaller
units („numerous, definite and particularise⁄series of experiences which
children and youth must have ‰ according to Bobbitt). The result, as many of you
will have experienced, can be long lists of often trivial skills or competencies. This
can lead to a focus on the parts rather than the whole; on the trivial, rather than
the significant. It can lead to an approach to education and assessment which
resembles a shopping list. When all the items are ticked, the person has passed
the course or has learnt something. The role of overall judgment is somehow
sidelined.
Activity 1.2
The process approach to curriculum treats the learners are not as objects to be
acted upon. They have a say in what is going on in the teaching-learning sessions.
The focus is on interaction and attention shifts from teaching to learning. On the
other hand, the product model, by having a pre-specified plan or programme,
tends to direct attention to teaching. A process approach to curriculum theory
and practice, as argued by Grundy (1987), tends towards making the process of
learning the central concern of the teacher with emphasis on thinking and
meaning-making.
Activity 1.3
1. To what extent do you agree with the problems with the „Curriculum
as Process Approach‰?
2. Do you think the curriculum as process approach would be easier to
implement if there were no centrally controlled or national
examinations?
3. What is the main difference between the curriculum as product and
curriculum as process approachÊ?
[Source: Smith, M. K. (1996, 2000) Curriculum theory and practice, The
Encyclopaedia of Informal Education.www.infed.org/biblio/b-urric.htm.]
Many curriculum development models have been proposed. Generally, most models
involve four phases. First is, curriculum planning which involves decisions about the
philosophy of education and the aims of education. Having decided on the
philosophical beliefs, curriculum goals and objectives are derived which are later
translated into the classroom as desired learning outcomes among students taught.
The second phase is curriculum design which refers to the way curriculum is
conceptualised and involves the selection and organisation of content, and the
selection and organisation of learning experiences or activities. Among the issues
that have to be resolved is deciding Âwhat knowledge is of most worthÊ, Âhow should
the content be organised to maximise learningÊ. The third phase is curriculum
implementation in the classroom setting. It involves getting people to practice the
ideas in the curriculum, providing them with the necessary resources, training and
encouragement. The fourth phase is curriculum evaluation which is determining the
extent to which the efforts in implementing the ideas of the curriculum have been
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO CURRICULUM W 15
The field of curriculum has its set of principles. For example the term
ÂcurriculumÊ itself is a concept describing very complex ideas. In curriculum
planning there are principles such as educational philosophy, curriculum goals
and learning objectives which are applied in developing programmes for school,
universities and training centres. In curriculum design, the principles of scope,
sequence and balance are used in the organisation of content to be taught. The
field of curriculum has its own body of knowledge and skills, though much of it
has been borrowed from a number of pure disciplines. For example, in the
selection of content (What to teach?), curriculum has relied on the principles,
knowledge and skills from psychology, philosophy and sociology. In the
organisation of content, curriculum has drawn from the fields of management
and organisational theory. In the implementation of curriculum, various ideas
from systems theory, organisational behaviour and communication theory have
been used to enhance effectiveness. For example, research in organisational
behaviour has been used to bring about change among teachers, educational
administrators and the community. Has the field of curriculum its own body of
knowledge and skills? Applying the ideas drawn from the different disciplines
and through experimentation it has generated its own body of knowledge and
skills, or at least, new interpretations of principles as applied in the educational
setting.
16 X CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO CURRICULUM
The field of curriculum has its list of theoreticians and practitioners and they
include curriculum planners, professors of curriculum, curriculum developers
and so forth who are termed as curriculum specialists. These specialists are well-
versed in areas relating to curriculum, such as the history and origin of a
curriculum (to know of earlier successes or failure), curriculum planning and
how a particular curriculum is to be implemented in schools successfully. The
specialist is well-informed about how students learn, how teachers react to
change and obstacles to improvement. The curriculum specialist generates new
knowledge by recombining existing programmes, adapting approaches and
constructing new curriculum. [Perhaps, after completing this course you might be
more convinced that curriculum meets the requirement of a discipline or maybe
not!]
Oliva (1982) described curriculum and instruction as two entities. You could have
a situation in which the two entities are apart, called the dualistic model (see
Figure 1.2a). What takes place in the classroom under the direction of the teacher
has little relationship to what is stated in the curriculum plan. Planners ignore
what teachers are doing and vice-versa. The curriculum or the instructional
process may change without affecting one another. This separation will do
serious harm to each other. On other occasions, curriculum and instruction are
mutually interdependent as shown in the concentric model (see Figure 1.2b). In
this model curriculum assumes the superordinate position while instruction is
subordinate; that is, instruction is a subsystem of curriculum which is itself a
subsystem of the whole system of education. This model implies a system that is
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO CURRICULUM W 17
Of all the models, the cyclical model seems to the best alternative as it emphasises
the need for a close working relationship between implementers and planners.
Though curriculum and instruction may be different entities they are
interdependent and cannot function in isolation. It is impossible to plan
everything that happens in the classroom in the curriculum document. It should
be accepted that what is planned on paper may not work exactly because the
numerous factors operating in the classroom are impossible to predetermine. The
constant feedback from the classroom as to what works and what does not work
has to be recycled to curriculum developers so necessary adjustments and
modifications can be made to the curriculum plan. This may explain the need for
pilot-testing a curriculum before it is widely implemented.
CONTENT
Introduction
2.1 What is Psychology?
2.2 History of Psychology
2.3 Branches of Psychology
2.4 Research Methods in Psychology
2.5 Psychology of Learning and Education
2.6 What is Learning?
Summary
Key Terms
Readings
22 X CHAPTER 2 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
X INTRODUCTION
This chapter traces the origin of psychology as a discipline. You will learn how
psychology, which has its roots in philosophy, plays an important role in
explaining how humans learn, think and behave. Even though psychology is
among the youngest disciplines in the social sciences, it has contributed much
towards understanding human behaviour. However, there is much we do not
know about ourselves and perhaps never will. There is so much variability in our
behaviour depending on our culture, social position, political orientation,
upbringing and more recently; our genetic makeup.
The human being (Homo sapiens) is an unattractive smelly and aggressive creature
that walks upright, grumbling and bellowing. It is one of many species that lives on
this planet and emerges among the worst adapted. Its young is helpless compared to
other species. It has lost most of its bodily hair and what is left is little protection
against the cold. Its eyesight is weaker than that of many other species, and its
sense of smell responds only to the strongest odours. If pursued, it can only run a
very short distance, that also very slowly. It is remarkably unskilled at climbing
trees or digging holes. It cannot live under water and it swims with less grace than
almost any other animal. It is heavy and awkward and cannot fly. It can’t even jump
very high. It is unequipped by nature with weapons either for defence or killing for
food. It is absolutely remarkable and utterly fascinating that the species has
survived at all.
[Source: Adapted from Guy R. Lefrancois, Psychology for Teaching, 1982. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth Publishing Company. p.6]
Yes, it is truly remarkable that we have survived all these years. The humorous
description by Lefrancois is something to think about. How has the physically
inferior human being survived? He has survived because of his God-given
capacity to THINK. This capacity to think has enabled the human being to
overcome his many deficiencies. For example, the human who is not naturally
endowed with weapons invented spears, bows and arrows to hunt animals for
CHAPTER 2 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY W 23
food. Human eyesight is inferior compared to other species and he invented the
telescope. Humans are less strong than many other species and invented the
pulley and lever to lift heavy things. The capacity to think has enhanced our
ability to survive which simply means learning to cope with the world.
Bruner (1964, 1966) sees human survival as a process of amplifying capacities and
reducing inadequacies. Humans began with amplification of motor capabilities
with the invention of simple machines (wheel, pulley) followed by amplification
of sensory capacities with the invention of telescopes, radio and television, and
culminating in the amplification of intellectual capacities with the invention of
theory. Humans used their intellectual capacities to propose concepts, principles,
theories and laws to explain and understand various phenomena in their
environment. Among the many phenomena humans are attempting to unravel
and understand is their own behaviour (and the behaviour of other species). This
gave birth to the discipline called psychology.
• The first is the term scientific which means the study uses a scientific
method. The scientific method proposed by Dewey (1920) comprises
the following steps:
24 X CHAPTER 2 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
Figure 2.1: The scientific method used by the scientist and the psychologist
On the other hand physiology is the study of the human body. Through
observation, early Greek scholars attempted to understand the workings of
the human body.
The experiment, was flawed but the king deserved credit for his idea that
thoughts and language a from the mind and his ambition to test such an idea.
While the experiment failed to support the kingÊs hypothesis, Morton Hunt
(1993) suggested that it did illustrate perhaps the first evidence in written
history that as long as 2,700 years ago there was at least one individual who
had the „highly original notion‰ that mental processes could be systematically
investigated and studied.
• Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), who was PlatoÊs student, disagreed with him on
many points. He argued that the mind and body were NOT separate and
felt that the mind and body were one and the same.
¾ He believed that we could understand the mind by studying the body
and that we relied on observation of concrete objects and actions
rather than on our own thoughts (introspection) to discover truth.
¾ He argued that reality lay only in the concrete world of objects that we
apprehended through our senses.
28 X CHAPTER 2 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
There seems to be consensus among these early philosophers that the mind and
body relationship is important is determining human behaviour. Most
psychologists today agree that the concept of mind and body have merit. But,
more important was to provide empirical evidence to confirm the relationship
between mind and body.
CHAPTER 2 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY W 29
(a) What was the main issue philosophers were concerned about?
• Psychoanalysis
Another early theory in psychology was developed by the Austrian physician,
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Originally trained as a neurologist, Freud became
interested in how psychological factors might contribute to some of his patients'
problems. He became convinced that many of his patients' symptoms had
mental rather than physical explanations. In particular, he believed that early
experiences such as conflicts and traumas had caused such distress for his
patients as children that the memory of them was extremely threatening and
therefore the patients were unable to consciously recall these events.
• Behaviourism
A very different approach to psychology emerged in the early 1900s. The work
of several scholars contributed to the development and growth of this
approach but one of them, the American John B. Watson (1878-1958) was
typically credited as the „father of behaviourism‰. Behaviourism is a theoretical
perspective that is based on the premise that scientific psychology should
study only observable behaviour. In 1913, he published an article that has since
become known as „The Behaviourist Manifesto‰. In it, he argued that
psychology should altogether abandon the study of consciousness (mental
CHAPTER 2 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY W 33
• Cognitivism
The 1960s saw the rejection of behaviourism and the emergence of the
cognitive revolution. The movement was composed of psychologists who
challenged the prevailing behaviourist model of human functioning and
insisted that focus should shift towards studying „interior‰ mental processes.
Using the computer as an analogy, researchers provided important clues and
directions in understanding the human brain ă how it perceives, stores and
organises information and how information is used to make decisions and
solve problems.
A more complete and accurate picture of human behaviour and mental processes
is better understood by integrating these various perspectives. That being said, it
remains true that individual psychologists tend to specialise in and emphasise a
particular theoretical perspective. Because it considers the mental, attitudinal,
motivational and behavioral characteristics of individuals, psychology has many
subdivisions and areas of specialisation and is a more complex field than many
realise. Among the major branches within psychology is shown in Table 1.1. At
times psychologists blend particular combinations of these theoretical
perspectives together. For example, some psychologists are interested in studying
how abnormal behaviour is related to various brain structures. These
psychologists might combine perspectives from physiological psychology and
abnormal psychology. Other psychologists might combine cognitive psychology
and social psychology to study thinking and racial attitudes and call the
perspective social cognition. Still other psychologists might describe themselves
as eclectic in their orientation which means that they draw upon several
theoretical perspectives in their work.
The key in doing research in psychology is science. Science is a way of asking and
answering questions through careful observation and rigorous analysis.
Psychological science attempts to describe and explain human nature. To achieve
its goals, psychology uses a number of methods such as experiments,
observation, surveys, correlational methods and case histories.
(a) EXPERIMENTS
The experimental method is used by psychologists inside the laboratory as
well as outside. Experiments take place in laboratories because the
researcher is able to carefully control conditions and take measurements
accurately using various kinds of instruments such as computers. However,
it is not essential for all psychological problems to be brought into the
laboratory for study. To show the effects of certain treatments and
procedures in real-world settings, experiments are conducted outside the
laboratory.
on the posttest may not be attributed to the treatment but due to the
influence of other factors. Therefore, it is necessary to control for the
influence of these outside factors or variables in order to attain internal
validity.
(c) SURVEY
Some problems are difficult to study by direct observation may be studied
through the use of survey questionnaires or interviews. What is a survey?
Survey research involves selecting a small or large population and stuying
samples chosen from that population to discover the relative incidence,
distribution and interrelations of sociological and psychological variables. It
is a method of obtaining information about a population from a sample of
individuals. Surveys can provide a quick, inexpensive and accurate means
of obtaining information from a large group of people. If you want to know
CHAPTER 2 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY W 39
Case histories may also be based on a longitudinal study. This type of study
follows an individual or group of individuals over an extended period of
time, with observations made at periodic intervals. The advantage of a
longitudinal study is that it does not depend on the memories of those
interviewed at a later date.
principle that Âif such-and-such works for this ailment, it is likely to work again.
The cure rate by bomohs might not differ from that of your friendly
neighbourhood general practitioner. Yet, society regards the medical practitioner
as a professional and the bomoh as not. What, then, is the difference between a
profession and a craft or trade? According to Telfer and Rees (1975), a profession
requires a licence to practise. It requires intensive education in the theoretical
knowledge that gives validity to the skills and expertise required to practise.
Teacher as a Theorist
Perhaps, you may realise that some of your beliefs about student learning are
confirmed while others may be myths. For example, you may assume that low
achievers are not ÂintelligentÊ when in fact they lack skills in learning from text
material. Some of our common sense beliefs about student learning may not be
accurate in light of what we know about theory and research governing human
learning. For example, we may think that it is all right to ÂstreamÊ students
according to ability, when in fact it can prove destructive when low achievers are
grouped together for the rest of their schooling years.
As you proceed through this course, many of your personal beliefs and theories
about the teaching-learning process may find support, while others may be
proven less accurate. This awareness will help you develop a more accurate
CHAPTER 2 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY W 43
guide for your professional development (Tan, Parson, Hinson & Sardo-Brown,
2001).
Teacher as a Practitioner-Researcher
You would be concerned being treated by a doctor who is not aware of the latest
research in medicine. Imagine the consequences of a doctor prescribing a
pharmaceutical product that has since been banned in the United States!
Similarly, as a teacher, your students and society expect you to be well-informed
about developments in human learning and their application in the classroom.
The material in this course provides a source of practical ideas that may be used
to enhance teaching or training. The scientific information you acquire about
human learning can be applied in specific ways to improve teaching. You may
have been a teacher for many years and it is likely that you may approach your
profession differently after having been exposed to the concepts, principles and
theories of human learning. Some of this scientific information you may already
be familiar with, while others may be new to you. With this store of information,
you may be encouraged to analyse your present practice, particularly its
strengths and weaknesses.
The principles, suggestions and examples are intended to help you think about
how you can apply psychology to teaching. The rich source of ideas may
encourage you to re-examine your teaching and find ways and means of
improving what you do in the classroom. Hopefully, the information provided
will encourage you to see the classroom and education in general differently. It is
possible that you may have been preoccupied with some aspects of teaching and
have ignored other facets of instruction.
Effective teachers are reflective teachers. Reflective teachers know what they are
doing, why they choose to do it and review the effectiveness of what they have
done. It is possible that some teachers may be motivated to try out some of the
strategies in the classroom. To systematically tryout strategies in the classroom,
the method of action research is suggested. Action research is a systematic
method of data collection by the teacher. For example, you employ the techniques
of action research to try out the effectiveness of a particular method of teaching
mathematics.
You will notice that statements 1, 2 and 3 imply that learning is the acquisition of
a body of knowledge or content. It is like going to the supermarket, when you go
out to buy knowledge and it becomes your property. This has been referred to as
the product of learning. Statements 4 and 5 define learning as something the
learner does with the information. This has been referred to as the process of
learning.
Activity 2.1
(a) What is the difference between the product and process of learning?
• This capacity to think has enabled the human being to overcome its many
deficiencies.
• The mind is constantly changing and it is pointless to look for the building
blocks of experience. Functionalism suggests that focus should be on how
and why an organism does something.
CONTENT
Introduction
3.1 History of Educational Assessment
3.2 National Assessment in Malaysia
3.3 Tests Measurement, Evaluation and Assessment
3.4 Why Do We Assess?
3.5 Types of Assessment
3.6 Trends in Assessment
Summary
Key Terms
References
50 X CHAPTER 3 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT
X INTRODUCTION
This chapter discusses the differences between testing, measurement, evaluation
and assessment as well as the purposes of assessment. Also explored is the
difference between formative and summative assessment as well as the difference
between criterion and norm-referenced tests. Finally, recent trends in assessment
are discussed.
Before examining assessment in detail, let us go back in history to see how the
measurement of human abilities all began. Early evidence of educational testing
was conducted in China, called the Imperial Examination system or keju system.
It originated during the Han Dynasty around 115 AD and was introduced during
the Sui Dynasty around 600 AD. The examination was fully implemented across
the nation during the Song Dynasty (960 ă 1279) and continued to be adopted
throughout the reign of the Ming and Qing dynasties. However, during the last
few years of the Qing Dynasty, the examination was abolished in 1905. The
examination system was conducted over 1300 years.
expanded to cover the "Five Studies", namely; military strategy, civil law, revenue
& taxation, agriculture and geography, and the Confucian classics. These
examinations are regarded by many historians as the first standardised tests
based on merit.
The imperial examinations were virtually the only path for common people to
enjoy a privileged life if they passed (obviously competition was extremely
fierce). Passing the exams became the ultimate goal of schooling. Most candidates
tended to study only for the exams' sake, rather than thoroughly understanding
all the material. Students tended to memorise just enough to pass the exams and
many could not put their knowledge to practical use. It has been acknowledged
by Western scholars today that China's imperial examination system exerted
direct influence on the modern civil service examination system in the West.
Francis Galton
The study of human abilities began with the work of Sir
Francis Galton (1822-1911) who was the first to apply
statistical methods to the measurement of human
differences and heredity. He introduced the use of
questionnaires and surveys for collecting data on human
abilities and competencies. Galton was fascinated with the
work of Charles Darwin (his half-cousin) and his book, The
Origin of Species. In his own book Hereditary Genius (1869)
he argued that human mental abilities and personality traits
are essentially inherited. He coined the term „eugenics‰ and
in which he called for methods of improving the biological
make-up of the human species through selective
parenthood. He went to the extent to suggest that it was
Francis Galton possible to produce a race of highly gifted people by the
1822-1911 process of selective breeding; He also advocated restricting
people who were weak and Âfeeble-mindedÊ (Irvine, 1986)
from reproducing.
52 X CHAPTER 3 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT
Alfred Binet
In 1904, the French Ministry of Public
Instruction commissioned psychologist,
Alfred Binet to find a method to differentiate
between children who were intellectually
normal and those who were not. The
purpose was to put the Âless normalÊ
children into special schools where they
would receive more individual attention.
Also, it would lessen the disruption they
caused in the education of intellectually
normal children. In 1905 he produced the
Binet-Simon scale (with Theodore Simon).
The test required subjects to perform 30
short tasks requiring subjects to; name parts
of the body, compare lengths and weights,
count coins, assess which of several faces is Figure 3.2: A child performing the
'prettier', name objects in a picture, digit bead-stringing task which is part
span (the number of digits a person can of the Binet-Simon tests of 1905
recall after being shown a long list), word
definition and filling in the missing words in
sentences.
The underlying assumption was that all these tasks involved basic processes of
reasoning. The tests were arranged in increasing difficulty. Each level of tests
matched a specific developmental level - i.e. all tests at a given level were capable
of being solved by any normal child in that specific age-group. This was a turning
point in psychology: A new type of test had been produced in which the average
level of performance was the criterion. In 1908 the test was revised and then
again in 1911. The test results proved to be correlated with other criteria (e.g.
results of school examinations, assessments of teachers, etc.). Binet is celebrated
in history as the man who created the first 'intelligence test' in the form as we
know them today. He is commonly known as the „father‰ of IQ testing.
CHAPTER 3 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT W 53
Lewis Terman
Lewis Terman (1877-1956) of Stanford
University decided to use Binet's test in
the United States. He found that the
Paris-developed age norms did not
work very well for Californian school
children. So he revised the test: adapted
some items, added other items,
established new age norms, and
extended the upper age limit to
"superior adults". This became the
Stanford-Binet revision in 1916. In this
revision the Intelligence quotient first
appeared. The Intelligence Quotient or
IQ was a score meant to quantify
intellectual functioning to allow Figure 3.3: Stanford-Binet materials
comparison among individuals. To arrive (1937) which shows the test materials
at an IQ score, Terman relied on a for younger children
formula expressing the relation between
an individualÊs mental age and chronological age developed in 1912 in Germany
by Wilhelm Stern in 1912. This formula works fairly well for children but not for
adults (Thomson, 1968)
World War I
The US army at the beginning of
WWI was faced with the problem
of assessing the intelligence of
great numbers of recruits in order
to screen, classify, and assign
them to suitable tasks. The
Stanford-Binet test required a
highly trained person for
individual administration and
proved time consuming and
costly for large-scale use. So,
when the US entered WWI in
1917 a committee was appointed
by the American Psychological
Association (APA) to consider
ways that psychology might assist the conduct of the war. The head of APA
Robert Yerkes headed a committee to develop a group intelligence test. He
assembled a staff of psychologists; and Lewis Terman was one of them. The
Army Alpha and Army Beta tests were developed. The Beta was a version of the
54 X CHAPTER 3 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT
After the war, industry, business and education saw potential value of
psychological testing. In 1926, the Army Alpha test was modified to become the
first well-known Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) used in the selection of students
for college or university entry.
Activity 3.1
Charles Spearman
Up to now, the approaches to intelligence had been very pragmatic - i.e. tests
were developed for particular needs. However, another approach to
understanding intelligence, involved analysing data that was already collected. In
1927, Spearman analysed the scores on various intelligence tests and using 'factor
analysis' argued that, people who do well on some intelligence tests also do well
on a variety of intellectual tasks such as vocabulary, mathematical and spatial
abilities. And if people did poorly on an intelligence test, then they also tended to
do poorly on other intellectual tests. He observed correlations among
performance on a variety of intellectual tasks and proposed, a 'two-factor' theory
of intelligence which consisted of:
This implies that if a person performs well on a test that is highly saturated with
„g‰ that it likely that the person will also perform well on another test that is
highly saturated with „g‰. Thus, the most important information to have about a
personÊs intellectual ability is an estimate of his or her „g‰. For example, scores on
CHAPTER 3 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT W 55
The main thrust of Spearman's analysis was this idea of a general intellectual
capacity. This formed a major theoretical platform for many subsequent
approaches to intelligence. It might be also noted, however, that Spearman was
perhaps excessively enthusiastic about g. For example, he advocated restricting
voting rights to people whose g exceeded a certain level, and he was a eugenicist
(eugenics comes from the Greek "eugenes" meaning well-born) - arguing that
only people with a certain level of g should be allowed to have offspring. "g" was
controversial then as now.
David Weschler
David Weschler (1896-1981) observed the scores obtained by children and came
to the conclusion that intelligence was not entirely fixed. He noted that as
children grew older, the variance in their scores diminished. He suspected this
might be due to environmental factors. Wechsler administered the Stanford-Binet
tests to army recruits and recognised that the test questions were not
appropriately assessing soldiers' abilities. He felt that that the Stanford-Binet
scales were too verbally loaded and so he designed an instrument with sub-tests
to measure both verbal and nonverbal abilities largely borrowing from many
other tests, such as the US Army Alpha test. In
in everyday practice, we make use of them knowingly or not. Wechsler noted that
some of these factors are drive, persistence, will, and preservation, or in some
instances, to aspects of temperament that pertain to interests and achievement.
Leon Thurstone
Leon Thurstone (1887-1955) accepted Spearman's notion of the „g‰ factor but he
found no conclusive evidence for „g‰. He identified 7 'primary mental abilities'
which the judged to be more important in explaining human competence. These
were:
World War II
The U.S. Army Personal Research Office was responsible for the development,
construction, validation and standardisation of all personnel screening test and
interview techniques for the Army. The Army General Classification Test is the
best-known product of the Office. Among other tests developed were mental
alertness tests for the WomenÊs Army Corps, aptitude tests for specialised
training, performance tests and trade knowledge tests.
Raymond Cattell
Raymond Cattell (1905 ă 1998) was also significantly involved in early attempts at
psychological measurement] suggested that there are two related but distinct
components of g:
Fluid intelligence decreases with age and crystallised intelligence increases with
age. Thus mathematicians and scientists, who need fluid intelligence, produce
their best work in thier 20s and 30s; whereas those in the field of history,
philosophy and literature produce their best work in their 40s, 50s and beyond as
they have accumulated more knowledge. Interestingly, poets, who depend more
on fluid than crystallised intelligence, produce their best work earlier than prose
authors: this has been observed in all cultures, languages and throughout history.
Guilford
Guilford (1967-1988) parted company from the majority of factorial theorists by
refusing to acknowledge the existence of any general factor at all. Instead, he
proposed that intelligence comprises 180 elementary abilities. The 180 elementary
abilities are made up of a combination of three dimensions which he calls:
Due largely to the practical implications of such a model, Guilford's theory has
not significantly influenced psychological testing of intelligence.
Primary School
• 1964 ă The Standard VI Entrance Examination to secondary schools was
abolished.
• 1967 ă The Standard V Assessment Test was introduced and was later
abolished.
• 1973 ă The Standard III Diagnostic Test was introduced and was later
abolished.
• In the 1980s the Primary School Assessment Examination (UPSR) was
introduced which is taken by all Year 6 students before proceeding to
secondary school.
• In the 1980s The First Level Assessment (PTS) was introduced to measure
the ability of academically superior students to allow them to move from
Year 3 to Year 5 which was later abolished.
Secondary School
• The Lower Certificate Examination was introduced (SRP) which was
conducted at the end of Year 3 in secondary school. It was changed to
Lower Secondary Assessment (PMR).
• In the last year of secondary school students sit for the Malaysian Certificate
of Education (SPM).
• Students wishing to enter university complete two years of post-secondary
school and sit for the Malaysian Higher Certificate of Education (STPM)
examination.
60 X CHAPTER 3 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT
• Tests: Most people are familiar with tests because all of us at some time in
our lives have taken some test. In school, tests are given to measure our
academic aptitude and indirectly to evaluate whether we have gained from
teaching by the teacher. In the
workplace, tests are conducted to select
persons for specific jobs, tests are used
as the basis for promotion in the job
and tests are used to encourage re-
learning. Physicians, lawyers, insurance
consultants, real-estate agents,
engineers, civil servants and many
other professions are required to take
tests to demonstrate their competence
in specific areas and in some cases to be
licensed to practice their profession or
trade. Throughout their professional careers, teachers, counsellors, school
administrators are required to give, score and interpret a wide variety of
tests. For example, school administrators rate the performance of individual
teachers, and school counsellors record the performance of their clients. It is
possible that a teacher may construct, administer and mark thousands of
tests during their career! According to the joint committee of the American
Psychological Association (APA), the American Educational Research
Association (AERA) and National Council on Measurement in Education
(NCME), a the test may be thought of as a set of tasks or questions intended
to elicit particular types of behaviours when presented under standardised
conditions and to yield score that have desirable psychometric properties
(1974). While most people know what is a test many have difficulty
differentiating between measurement, evaluation and assessment. Some
have argued that they are similar!
CHAPTER 3 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT W 61
• Assessment and Evaluation: The literature has used the terms ÂassessmentÊ
and ÂevaluationÊ in education as two different concepts and also used the
two terms interchangeably, i.e. they are similar. For example, some authors
used the term Âformative evaluationÊ while
other use the term Âformative assessmentÊ.
We will use the two terms interchangeably
because there is too much overlap in the
interpretations of the two concepts.
Generally, assessment is viewed as the
process of collecting information with the
purpose of making decisions about students.
We may collect information using various
tests, observations of students and
interviews. Rowntree (1974) views
assessment as a human encounter in which
one person interacts with another directly or
indirectly with the purpose of obtaining and
62 X CHAPTER 3 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT
The above could be the reason educators give when asked about the purpose of
assessment. In the context of education, assessment is performed to gain an
understanding of an individualÊs strengths and weaknesses in order to make
appropriate educational decisions. The best educational decisions are based on
information, usually better decisions are based on more information (Salvia and
Ysseldyke, 1995). Based on the reasons for assessment provided by Harlen (1978)
and Deale (1975), two main reasons may be identified (see Figure 3.5):
With regards the learner, assessment is aimed at providing information that will
help make decisions concerning remediation, enrichment, selection,
exceptionality, progress and certification. With regards teaching, assessment
provides information regarding achievement of objectives, the effectiveness of
teaching methods and learning materials.
To help LEARNING
ASSESSMENT
To improve TEACHING
A) TO HELP LEARNING
(i) Diagnosis
Diagnostic evaluation or assessment is
performed at the beginning of a lesson or unit
for a particular subject area to assess studentsÊ
readiness and backrground for what is about
to be taught. This pre-instuctional assessment
is done when you decide that you need
information on a student, group of students or
a whole class before you can proceed with the
most effective instruction. For example, you
could administer a Reading Test to Year One
students to assess their reading level. Based on
the information, you may want to assign weak
readers for special intervention or remedial action. Alternatively, the tests might
reveal that some students are reading at an extremely high level and you might
want to recommend that they be assigned to an enrichment programme (see
Figure 3.2).
(ii) Exceptionality
Assessment is also conducted to make decisions on exceptionality. Based on the
information obtained from assessment, teachers may make decisions as to
whether a particular student needs to be assigned to a class with exceptional
children. Exceptional students are students who are physically, mentally,
emotionally or behaviourally different from the normal population. For example,
based on assessment information a child may be discovered to be dyslexic and
may be assigned for special treatment or a student who has been diagnosed to be
learning disabled may be assigned for special education.
(iii) Certification
Certification is perhaps the most important reason
for assessment. For example, the Penilaian
Menengah Rendah and the Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia
are examinations aimed at providing students with a
certificate. The marks obtained are converted into
letter grades signifying performance in different
subject areas and used as a basis for comparison
between students. The certificate obtained is further
used in selecting students either for further studies,
scholarships or jobs.
CHAPTER 3 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT W 65
Types of Decisions
Help Learning: Questions to be Answered
Diagnosis for remedial Should the student be sent for remedial classes so
action that difficulty in learning can be overcome?
Diagnosis for Should the student be provided with enrichment
enrichment activities?
Exceptionality Does the student have special learning needs that
require special education assistance?
Selection Should the student be streamed to X or Y?
Progress To what extent is the student making progress
toward specific instructional goals?
Communication to How is the child doing in school and how can
Parents parents help?
Certification What is the strength and weakness in the overall
performance of a student in specific areas assessed?
Administration & • How is the school performing in comparison
Counselling with other schools?
• Why students should be referred for
counselling?
Improve Teaching: Questions to be Answered
Objectives Were the desired learning outcomes achieved?
Teaching Method Were the teaching methods employed effective?
Prior Knowledge Did students have the relevant prior knowledge?
Teaching Materials Were the teaching materials used effective?
Teacher Differences Were particular teachers more effective than
others?
(iv) Placement
Besides certification, assessment is conducted for purposed of placement.
Students are endowed with varying abilities and one of the task of the school is to
place them according to their aptitude and interest. For example, performance in
the Penilaian Menengah Rendah is used as the basis for placing students in the
arts or science stream. Assessment is also used to stream students according to
academic performance. It has been the tradition that the ÂAÊ and ÂBÊ class will
consist of high achievers based on the end of semester examinations or end of
year examinations. Placement tests have even been used in pre-schools to stream
children according their literacy levels! The practice of place students according
to academic achievement has been debated for decades with some educationists
arguing against it and others supporting its merits.
Activity 3.2
„Streaming according to academic abilities should be discouraged in
Malaysian schools‰. Discuss
B) TO IMPROVE TEACHING
Activity 3.3
To what extent have you used assessment data to review your teaching-
learning strategies?
Assessment can be done at various times throughout the school year and a
comprehensive assessment plan will include both formative and summative
assessment. The point at which assessment occurs and the aim of assessing
distinguishes these two categories of assessment.
Method Paper & pencil tests, observations, Paper & pencil tests, oral tests
quizzes, exercises, practical administered to the group
sessions administered to the group
and individually
Easing up on Exams
Putrajaya: Reducing the number of Among the measures proposed are:
examination subject and having a • Reduce the number of subjects in
semester system are among the public examinations
major changes being planned to • Emphasising skills and abilities rather
make the education system more than focusing on content and
holistic and less focussed on achievement
academic achievement. • Encouraging personal development
Education Minister, Datuk through subjects like Art and Physical
Seri Hishamumuddin Tun Hussein Education
said that these measures were in line
• Improving teaching-learning methods
with the GovernmentÊs aim to
by encouraging more project-based
reform the countryÊs education
assignments
system. „We do not intend to
abolish public or school-level
He said that emphasis should be on
examinations totally, but we
individual accomplishments rather than
recognise that the present
the schoolÊs performance in public
assessment system needs to be
examinations and also highlighting the
looked at‰, he said.
individualÊs co-curricular achievements.
Activity 3.4
(a) To what extent do you agree with the measures proposed by the
Ministry of Education to reduce the exam-oriented education system?
In the last two decades, major changes have occurred in assessment practices in
many part of the world. Brown, Bull and Pendlebury (1997) identified the
following trends happening in educational assessment:
• The imperial examinations were virtually the only path for common people
to enjoy a privileged life if they passed.
• Galton argued that human mental abilities and personality traits are
essentially inherited.
• In 1905 Alfred Binet produced the Binet-Simon scale (with Theodore Simon)
which required subjects to perform 30 short reasoning tasks.
• Lewis Terman revised the Binet-Simon test by adapting some items, adding
other items and establishing new age norms, and extended the upper age
limit to "superior adults". This became the Stanford-Binet revision in 1916.
CONTENT
4.1 What is Educational Research?
4.2 Methods of Acquiring Knowledge
4.3 Research Defined
4.4 Characteristics of Research
4.5 The Research Process
4.5.1 Generating Research Ideas
4.5.2 Formulate the Research Problem
4.5.3 Develop Hypotheses or Research Questions
4.5.4 Design Study to Test Hypotheses or Research Questions
4.5.5 Collect Data
4.5.6 Analyse and Interpret Data
4.5.7 Communicate Results
4.6 Constructs and Variables
Summary
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
References
76 X CHAPTER 4 THE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH PROCESS
Activity 4.1
Beliefs Intuition
Experience Science
• Beliefs: These are all superstitious beliefs people hold on to as though they
are fact. For example, wear your a lucky shirt when making deals which
you strongly believe will bring you good fortune.
Activity 4.2
• Scientific • Controlled
• Systematic process • Theory, hypotheses
• Inquiry or Investigation • Presumed relations
• Discover • Natural phenomena
The purpose of using the scientific method is to enable the researcher to describe
(the relations between factors); to predict (given what is known we can we
predict what might happen); to control (when certain variables are manipulated,
does it lead to a particular condition), and to explain (can a theory be formulated
to explain the phenomena being investigated).
Where does one find research problems in education? They are all around you!
There are abundant research problems or unresolved issues everywhere. Look at
the 14 year old who says, „I hate history‰. Do you know why? Do you want to
know why? In fact, whatever that arouses your interest for which there are as yet
no answers or are inconclusive have the potential of being a research problem.
Often one starts with a rather general, diffuse and even confused notion of the
problem. Do not worry, this is the nature and complexity of research process. It is
the first step towards becoming a mature researcher. The following steps are to
help you get a research problem (see Figure 4.2).
82 X CHAPTER 4 THE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH PROCESS
2. Formulate 1. GENERATING
Research RESEARCH
Problem IDEAS
7. Communicate
3. Develop a Results
Hypothesis
• Step 1: Identify a Broad Problem in Your Area that is of interest to you and
related to your professional goals. You should build a sizable knowledge in
your area of interest that is for the long term. For example, you may be
interested in how young children learn mathematics, how to get teenagers
interested in science, how to enhance the teaching of moral education, how
to improve training in the corporate sector using e-Learning, the
relationship between headmastersÊ leadership style and teacher morale, and
so forth.
Your car will not start. You put forward the hypothesis that
"the car that does not start because there is no petrol". You check
the fuel gauge to either reject or accept the hypothesis. If you
find there is petrol, you reject the hypothesis.
Next, you hypothesise that "the car did not start because
the spark plugs are dirty". You check the spark plugs to
determine if they are dirty and accept or reject the hypothesis
accordingly.
Hence, hypotheses or research questions have to be clearly stated and you should
be prepared to defend or support your choice of hypotheses or research
questions. For example, you hypothesise that „Students taught science using a
problem-based approach will more creative‰. You are seeking to confirm
empirically that the problem-based approach in science teaching will enhance
creativity of learners.
Activity 4.4
The following are research problems taken from the research literature.
Study them carefully and construct one or two hypotheses or research
questions based on them.
Hence, the decision on which methodology to use will depend on the research
problem and the research questions or hypotheses. It is not good practice to
decide on a methodology and than work on the research questions. You have to
be able to state clearly what you intend to study and then decide on an
appropriate methodology. If you are clear about your research problem and
research questions, you will find it easy get assistance from your supervisor and
other students in designing a study to find answers to your research questions.
Activity 4.5
You have stopped at a junction because the lights had just turned red. But,
on your left a motorcyclist and a car beat the lights. You are most annoyed.
Being a good social scientist, you ask yourself why people beat traffic
lights. If you were to convert the problem into a hypothesis, which of the
following would be the best hypothesis? Explain your answer.
(a) Some people beat traffic lights more frequently than others.
(b) People who beat traffic lights are a danger to themselves and other
road users.
(c) Beating traffic lights is common in crowded cities.
(d) Road users are more likely to beat traffic lights when traffic is light
than if traffic is heavy.
Activity 4.6
There are many ways of classifying variables but in educational research, the two
most common methods of classification are as follows:
Put it another way, the DV is the variable predicted to, whereas the
independent variable is predicted from. The DV is the presumed effect,
which varies with changes or variation in the independent variable.
INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT
VARIABLE (IV) VARIABLE (DV)
Discussion
Academic
Teaching
Performance
Method
Lecture
For example, when you state in your study that you are studying 'excellent
principals, you should be able to explain what 'excellent' means. Once the
behaviours of an excellent principal have been identified the operational
definition will be unique to your study (see Figure 4.4).
However, it should be borne in mind that in education not all variables are
directly observable. For example, we cannot really observe learning,
memory, reasoning, and so forth. Though they cannot be observed they can
be measured to see their traces. With enough indirect evidence, researchers
can make a convincing case for the existence of these invisible variables
(Mitchell and Jolley, 1988). For example, though we cannot observe learning
directly, we can see its effect on performance, i.e. we can operationally
define learning as an increase in performance. Thus, if we see students
improve their performance after practicing a task, we conclude that learning
has occurred. Similarly, we can provide operational definitions for such
intangible variables such as self-esteem, racial stereotype, attitudes and so
forth.
Operational Definition
The person:
• listens to teachers
Excellent • looks after the welfare of teachers
Principal • acknowledges effort
• consults teachers
• motivates teachers
1. What is a variable?
2. What is the difference between an Independent Variable and
Dependent Variable? Give specific examples.
3. Why do you need to define variables operationally?
Indicator of Engaged
Variable Indicator Definition
Learning
Learner involved in setting goals, choosing tasks; has
Responsible for big picture of learning and next steps in mind
learning Learner actively develops repertoire of
Vision of Strategic thinking/learning strategies
Learning Energized by Learner is not dependent on rewards from others; has a
learning passion for learning
Collaborative Learner develops new ideas and understanding in
conversations and work with others
• The word research has been used in many different ways and sometimes
rather loosely giving rise to confusion and sometimes with the intention to
deceive.
• There are six ways in acquiring knowledge and they are; through our
beliefs, intuition, authority, empiricism, rationalism and science.
CHAPTER 4 THE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH PROCESS W 93
• The seven steps of the educational research process is a useful guide for
beginning researchers to follow.
Research Variables
− continuous variable
− categorical variable
− independent variable
− dependent variable
Educational Research
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
2. Suggest how you will go about finding a research problem that you
propose to investigate.
4. [Go to OUMÊs Digital Library and click on ÂProQuestÊ which has a good
collection of journals in education]
5. List the current thinking on research in your area of interest.
Books
(a) Mitchell, M. and Jolley, J. Research Design Explained (1988). New York:
Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Chapter 2: Generating the research hypothesis.
14-36.
Internet Resources
(b) Defining the research problem. Andrea Chan, Language and Learning Unit,
1998. http://www2.fhs.usyd.edu.au/well/knowbase/defresp.htm
(c) The Research Question Outline. Mary Mikijanis and Dee Thom
http://kancrn.kckps.k12.ks.us/guide/question.html
96 X CHAPTER 4 THE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH PROCESS