PHINMA UPANG COLLEGE OF

URDANETA
Mc Arthur Highway , Urdaneta city, Pangasinan

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

CIE 117
ENGINEERING UTILITIES 2

TITLE: FIRE FIGHTING INSTALLATIONS & EQUIPMENTS

RSW NO : 4

Date Given : November 3, 2020

Date Due : November 8, 2020

Submitted by:
BASCOS, FRANCIS JR G.
(03-1617-05296)

Submitted to:
Arch’t. Maria Teresa Cuares–Velasco, MA EHP
FIRE FIGHTING INSTALLATIONS

Description:  The purpose of this unit is to enable you produce and evaluate detailed designs
for firefighting and fire suppression/protection installations.

Fire fighting systems are referred to as active systems, examples of these are water sprinkler
and spray systems while the measures used to protect materials are known as passive which
will generally consists of a coating of fire resistant insulating material applied to the structure.

Active / passive fire protection

This Technical Measures Document covers active and passive fire protection systems and
refers to relevant codes of practice and standards.

Related Technical Measures Documents are:

 Isolation

 leak / gas detection

 secondary containment

 emergency response / spill control

Introduction

Active fire protection systems such as water sprinkler and spray systems are widely used in the
process industries for protection of storage vessels, process plant, loading installations and
warehouses. The duty of the fire protection system may be to extinguish the fire, control the fire,
or provide exposure protection to prevent domino effects. For some applications foam pourers
or fixed water monitors may be a more appropriate method of delivery than sprays or sprinklers.
Other more specialized systems using inert gases and halogen based gases are used for
flooding enclosed spaces.

Passive fire protection can provide an effective alternative to active systems for protecting
against vessel failure. This generally consists of a coating of fire resistant insulating media
applied to a vessel or steel surface. It is often used where water or other active protection media
supplies are inadequate, such as in remote locations, or where there are difficulties with
handling fire water run-off. Fire walls are another form of passive fire protection that are used to
prevent the spread of fire and the exposure of adjacent equipment to thermal radiation. An
important criterion in deciding which system is most appropriate for fire exposure protection is
the likely duration of the exposure to fire as passive fire protection is only effective for short
duration exposure (1-2 hours).
General principles

The operator should be able to demonstrate that it has an effective and practical plan for the
containment and fighting of fires on its process installations. The following site factors should be
considered in determining whether active and passive fire protection measures are required:

 fire hazard posed by substance;

 toxicity of substances and the smoke produced;

 inventory size;

 frequency of hazardous operations;

 distance to other hazardous installations;

 available access to fight fire;

 fire fighting capability of onsite emergency response team;

 response time of nearest fire brigade;

 resources available to fire brigade.

Design of system

Active fire fighting systems need to be reliable and the design of the system should demonstrate
this. The design of fire fighting systems should conform to specified standards such as BS 5306
Code of practice for extinguishing installation and equipment and Fire Offices Committee
'Tentative rules for medium and high velocity spray systems'.

The location of items such as the foam and water sources should be a safe distance from any
hazardous installation. Critical valving and instrument cabling located on the protected
installation should be capable of withstanding the effects of fire and heat.

The system should be supplied by a secure water supply which should include items such as
backup diesel pumps where appropriate. The design must ensure that the active fire protection
system is not starved of water due to other demands on the water supply system during a fire.

Choice of fire fighting media

The selection of media will depend on the required duty. This may be to extinguish the fire,
control the fire, or provide exposure protection. Types of fire fighting media are:
 Water;
 Foams;
 Inert gases;
 Chemical powders;
 Halons.
Water is not recommended as an extinguishing media for low flash point liquids, but it is used
widely throughout industry for fire control and exposure protection.

Foam is a more effective extinguishing media for low flash point substances and is widely used
against liquid fires. There are various types of foam available, but the most widely used is
protein foam. Alcohol resistant foam is used for application on polar solvents where the foam
stability is affected. Other more specialist foams have been developed to give improved
extinguishing properties such as fluoro-protein and aqueous film forming foams. Foam can be
delivered as low, medium or high expansion depending on the required duty.

Other agents such as inert gases, chemical powders and halogen based gases (Halons) can be
delivered by active fire protection systems, but these tend to be installed where process
equipment is contained within an enclosure such as a gas turbine enclosure. A common use for
these systems is in the protection of switch rooms and control panels. There has been
movement away from the use of Halons over recent years due to their potential effect upon the
ozone layer and other undesirable environmental effects.

Guidance on the selection of fire fighting media is given in BS 5306. Standard Material Safety
Data Sheets should also specify appropriate fire fighting media.

Choice of passive fire protection

For the protection of vessels from fire exposure there are a number of types of passive fire
protection that can be applied.

 mortar based coating

 intumescent coating

 sublimation coating

 mineral fibre matting

 earth mounds

The protective systems based on coatings are normally sprayed onto the surface following
mixing of the required components. A reinforcing glass fiber scrim or steel wire gauze is applied
to prevent cracking and peeling of the coating under fire conditions and to provide additional
strength to resist the impact of high pressure water jets. The fire protective coating is further
protected by a weather protective top layer. The fire resistant performance of the coatings is
dependent on the thickness of the coating. Fiber matting systems consist of fireproof mineral
fiber matting clad with a protective galvanized steel sheet. The protective capability of the
system is provided by the poor heat conductivity of the system.

Earth mounds are commonly used in the LPG industry, where vessels are either fully or partially
buried in an earth mound. The presence of the earth mound effectively prevents a fire from
developing around the vessel.
Fire walls are sometimes employed in process and storage areas to prevent the spread of fire
and protect adjacent equipment from thermal radiation. These may be an integral part of a
process building or warehouse structure or may consist of a free-standing wall specifically built
for the purpose. Firewalls are normally built of brick, concrete or masonry and the number and
size of openings should be kept to a minimum.

Performance of the protective system

For active fire protection systems required delivery rates and durations for various types of
application are specified in BS 5306. For fire engulfment protection a water rate of 9.81
litres/min/m2 over the exposed vessel surface and its supports is standard. For protection from
lower levels of thermal radiation from fires on adjacent units lower rates of water application are
allowable.

For passive fire protection systems the operator should have supplier or manufacturer
information demonstrating that the fire protective system employed meets defined performance
criteria based on standard tests that replicate the fire conditions likely to be encountered in the
work place. Typically the criteria will be that a protected surface will not reach a certain
temperature in a defined time period during a standard test. The protective system should meet
the requirements of a pool fire test such as that detailed in BS 476 'Fire tests on building
materials and structures' or a jet fire test such as that described in the HSE Technology Report
'Jet Fire resistance for Passive Fire Protection Materials'.

Maintenance requirements

Active fire protection systems require to be well maintained to ensure reliability. In particular
systems using water and water based foam are prone to rust deposits which can block sprinkler
heads and spray nozzles. Procedures should be in place to ensure regular maintenance and
testing of systems. Maintenance contracts are often placed with the supplier of the fire
protection system. Records of these activities should be kept by site operators.

The performance of passive fire protection systems can deteriorate in time due to weathering
and corrosion. Plant operational and maintenance activities may damage or remove the fire
protection. Additionally the protected surface itself can corrode beneath the fire protection.
Procedures should be in place to ensure that both the passive fire protective system and the
protected surface are regularly inspected and repaired as appropriate.

Containment of firewater

Foam and water based active fire protection systems can generate considerable amounts of
effluent with significant potential environmental damage. Where active fire protection systems
are installed the overall design of the facility should cater for the collection of fire fighting
effluents. Operating sites should have effluent disposal plans in place as part of their emergency
plans.
Supporting measures

Where active or passive fire protection is installed, these systems should be supported by
hydrants at suitable locations as specified in BS 5908. Suitable portable fire fighting equipment
should also be located on the plant.

Mortar based fire protection fire protection is commonly used to protect load bearing steel work
from collapse under fire exposure. The application of this to vessel supports and supporting
structures for process equipment is standard where flammable substances are handled in
quantity.

Industry applications

LPG industry

The use of water deluge systems for the protection of bulk LPG storage vessels and loading
bays is standard in the industry for all but the smallest installations. Passive fire protection is
used as an alternative and in particular earth mounding of LPG vessels is an established
practice. Large LPG cylinder compounds covered by canopies are normally provided with either
fixed water monitors or a sprinkler system.

Flammable liquids / solvent bulk storage

Whilst active fire protection is not a standard requirement for vessels containing flammable and
highly flammable liquids, site factors such as inadequate separation distances from other plant
or the proximity of occupied buildings may necessitate the use of active or passive fire
protection to prevent escalation of a fire event. Where protection of remote storage tanks is
required, passive fire protection is commonly used. However, it is not normal practice to protect
storage tanks in locations that do not represent a hazard to people directly or by domino effect.

Process operating units

Both the material handled, the size of the flammable inventory and the local fire fighting
capability will influence the requirement for active fire protection on a process structure. In
particular, where process equipment handling significant quantities of flammable material are
located inside a building and fire fighting access is poor, then fixed fire protection systems
should be provided.

Warehousing

Some significant fires have occurred in chemical warehouses, notably that at Allied Colloids
Limited (21/7/1992). The considerations are much the same as those for process operating
units. For the storage of high hazard materials such as organic peroxides in warehouses, fixed
sprinkler systems using either foam or water should be provided. However, it should be noted
that the effectiveness of sprinkler systems in warehouses may be limited if stocking densities
are high. Particular care is required in designing such systems.
Further details are provided in NFPA 13 :1999 ‘Installation of sprinkler systems’ (which includes
sprinkler related data from over 40 other NFPA documents, including the now withdrawn NFPA
231C 'Rack storage of materials').

Codes of Practice relating to active and passive fire protection

 HS(G)176 The storage of flammable liquids in tanks, HSE, 1998.

This document gives detailed guidance on the design construction operation and
maintenance of installations used for the storage of flammable liquids in fixed tanks
operating at or near atmospheric pressure. It describes the circumstances in which
active fire fighting systems may be appropriate.

 LPGA COP 1 Bulk LPG storage at fixed installations. Part 1 : Design, installation and
operation of vessels located above ground, LP Gas Association, 1998.
This code gives guidance for those involved in the safe practice of storing and handling
of bulk LPG at fixed installations. It gives detailed guidance on the fire protection
measures required at such installations.

 BS 5908 : 1990 Fire precautions in the chemical industries, British Standards Institution.

This code of practice gives wide ranging advice on fire hazards, fire prevention and fire
fighting in a wide range of circumstances relevant to chemical process operations.

 HS(G)71 Chemical warehousing: the storage of packaged dangerous substances, HSE,

1998.
This guidance note gives details on the use of fixed sprinkler systems typical of those
used in chemical warehouses for the suppression of fires.

 CS21 Storage and handling of organic peroxides, HSE, 1991.

This document details the fire protection requirements necessary in the warehousing of
organic peroxides and prescribes the use of fixed sprinkler systems.       

 The chemical release and fire at the Associated Octel Company Limited, HSE, 1996.
This document describes the incident in detail and the HSE’s findings. Paragraph 122
concludes that the fire-resistant intumescent cladding applied to the principal process
vessels proved effective in protecting them from the effect of the fire (see also case
study for Associated Octel Company Limited (1/2/1994)).       

 BS 476 Fire tests on building materials and structures, British Standards Institution.
This standard specifies the time / temperature profile for the testing of fire resistant
materials under fire engulfment conditions for pool fire simulation.       

 'Jet Fire resistance for Passive Fire Protection Materials', HSE Technology Report.
This document describes and evaluates test methodologies for the testing of fire
resistant materials under jet fire conditions.
Fire Extinguishing Systems
Aims and Objectives
At the end of this section you should be able to:
 Explain the types of systems used for fire protection in a building.

Portable
Portable firefight equipment relates to fire extinguishers and fire blankets as they can be carried
easily to the scene of a fire to provide a measure for immediate first action.  The website link
below provides information relating portable equipment.

Fixed Fire Fighting Installations

These are fire-fighting systems which are normally installed within the structure of the building.
They include:

Hose Reels 
Permanent hose reels are installed in accordance with BS EN 671-3: 2000 and provide an
effective fire-fighting facility. They may offer an alternative, or be in addition to, portable fire-
fighting equipment.

Sprinkler Systems 
Sprinkler systems designed to protect life and/or property and may be regarded as a cost-
effective solution for reducing the risks created by fire as they can be very effective in controlling
fires.  A sprinkler system is usually part of a package of fire precautions in a building and may
form an integral part of the fire strategy for the building. 
Sprinkler protection could give additional benefits, such as a reduction in the amount of portable
fire-fighting equipment necessary, and the relaxation of restrictions in the design of buildings.
Guidance on the design and installation of new sprinkler systems and the maintenance are
provided by BS EN 12845 or BS 5306-2. 
Guidance is available from the Fire Safety Advice Centre on domestic and industrial fire
sprinkler system, which can be accessed from the links below.

Wet and Dry Risers

Wet and Dry risers are intended for the use of the Fire Service to provide a readily available
means of delivering considerable quantities of water.
Dry risers are vertical mains fitted into staircase enclosures or other suitable positions,
constructed of 4'' galvanized steel pipe with outlet valves on each floor and an inlet  fitted at
ground level to enable the fire brigade to connect to the water supply.
Wet risers are pipes kept permanently charged with water either from a storage tank (via a
booster pump) or direct from the town's main water supply.
Details of these systems can be found by selecting the website link below.

Foam Inlets
Foam inlets are special inlets usually fitted to provide an efficient way of extinguishing a fire in a
basement or other area of high risk such as plant room. In many respects they look the same as
rising main inlet boxes, but the door should be clearly marked "foam inlet". The risk area should
be kept clear of obstructions to allow the foam to spread into the compartment.

Sprinkler Systems
This is a system containing pipe-work which can be filled with water (wet system) with a
sprinkler which seals the pipe-work.  If the temperature reaches a certain level the glass breaks
and release water in the area of the fire. An alternative system is where the pipe-work is not
filled with water until the sprinkler bulb is broken which then lets water into the system. Further
details can be found on the Residential Sprinkler Associate website below.
Fire Alarms
Aims and Objectives
At the end of this section you should be able to:
 Assess the systems of Fire alarms available.
The purpose of a Fire Alarm Systems is to warn people in a building that there may be a fire and
that the building should be evacuated. They tend to operate by a detector detecting smoke or
heat, or someone operating a break glass unit.  It may also incorporate remote signalling
equipment which would alert the fire brigade via a central station.
Types of Fire Alarm Systems

All Fire Alarm Systems essentially operate on the same principle. If a detector detects smoke or
heat or someone operates a break glass unit (manual break point), then alarm sounders
operate to warn others in the building that there may be a fire and to evacuate. It may also
incorporate remote signaling equipment which would alert the fire brigade via a central station.
Fire Alarm Systems can be broken down into four categories:
 Conventional
 Analogue Addressable
 Addressable
 Wireless systems

Conventional Fire Alarm System

In a Conventional Fire Alarm System, a number of call points and detectors are wired to the Fire
Alarm Control Panel in Zones. A Zone is a circuit and typically one would wire a circuit per floor
or fire compartment. The Fire Alarm Control Panel has a number of Zone Lamps. The reason
for having Zones is to give a rough idea as to where a fire has occurred. This is important for the
fire brigade and of course for the building management. The accuracy of knowing where a fire
has started is controlled by the number of Zones a Control Panel has and the number of circuits
that have been wired within the building. The Control Panel is wired to a minimum of two
sounder circuits which could contain bells, electronic sounders or other audible devices. Each
circuit has an end of line device which is used for monitoring purposes.
Addressable Systems
The detection principle of an Addressable System is similar to a Conventional System except
that the Control Panel can determine exactly which detector or call point has initiated the alarm.
The detection circuit is wired as a loop and up to 99 devices may be connected to each loop.
The detectors are essentially Conventional Detectors, with an address built in. The address in
each detector is set by dil switches and the Control Panel is programmed to display the
information required when that particular detector is operated. Additional Field Devices are
available which may be wired to the loop for detection only i.e. it is possible to detect a normally
open contact closing such as sprinkler flow switch, or a normally closed contact opening.
Sounders are wired in a minimum of two sounder circuits exactly as a Conventional System.
Loop Isolation Modules are available for fitting on to the detection loop/loops such that the loop
is sectioned in order to ensure that a short circuit, or one fault will only cause the loss of a
minimal part of the system.
Analogue Addressable Fire Alarm Systems
Analogue Addressable Fire Alarm Systems are often known as Intelligent Fire Alarm Systems.
There are several different types of Analogue Systems available which are determined by the
type of protocol which they use. The bulk of standard Analogue Detectors available are fairly
stupid as the Detectors can only give output signals representing the value of detected
phenomena. It is left up to the Control Unit to decide whether there is a fire, fault, pre-alarm or
other. With a true Intelligent Analogue System each detector effectively incorporates its own
computer which evaluates the environment around it, and communicates to the Control Panel
whether there is a fire, fault or the detector head needs cleaning. Essentially Analogue Systems
are far more complex and incorporate far more facilities than Conventional or Addressable
Systems. Their primary purpose is to help prevent the occurrence of false alarms. With the
Analogue Addressable System, up to 127 input devices i.e.: Smoke Detectors, Call Points, Heat
Detectors, Contact Monitors and other interface devices may be wired to each detection loop. In
addition to the 127 Input Devices, up to 32 Output Devices such as Loop Sounders, Relay
Modules and Sounder Modules may be connected. Analogue Systems are available in 2, 4 and
8 loop versions which means large premises can be monitored from one single panel. Isolator
units should be connected between sections of detectors as described for Addressable
Systems.
Wireless Fire Alarm System
Wireless fire alarm systems are an effective alternative to traditional wired fire alarm systems for
all applications. They utilise secure, licence-free radio communications to interconnect the
sensors and devices (smoke detectors, call-points, etc.) with the controllers. It is a simple
concept, which provides many unique benefits and is a full analogue addressable fire detection
system without the need for cable.
Control of Indicating Panels
Control and indicating equipment performs three principal functions, namely:
 Automatic monitoring and control of circuits external to the equipment, such as fire
detection and fire alarm device circuits and supply of power to these circuits
 Indication of fire signals, fault signals and their location
 Manual control to facilitate actions such as testing, disablement of devices, triggering of
fire signals, silencing of audible fire warnings and resetting the system after a fire signal
Panels are fully specified in British Standards. This requires that circuits are monitored
continuously and that both audible and visual indication is provided for fault and fire alarm
conditions. Further requirements include that alarm sounders may only be silenced manually,
after which the control panel must provide audible and visual signals until the system is reset.
Silencing of alarm sounders must not prevent the alarm being raised in other zones. It should be
noted that the standards require all fault/alarm indicator lamps to be in duplicate or a single
lamp with audible signal of lamp failure. Control and indicating panels may include facilities for
operation of ancillary services such as fixed fire extinguishing, door closing etc.
The equipment should normally be sited in an area of low fire risk and on the ground floor by the
entrance used by the Fire and Rescue Service and preferably viewable from outside of the
building. It should be located in an area common to all building users and where automatic
detection is in use, the Control Panel should be in a protected area. An alarm sounder should
be sited next to the Control Unit, but not too near the telephone position. A suitable zone chart
of the building should normally be installed adjacent to the Control Panel.

Detector Heads
These can be divided into four main types Heat detectors, Smoke detectors, Carbon Monoxide
detectors and Multi sensors detectors.
Heat detectors
Heat sensitive point detectors
Point detectors can again be subdivided to a further two
types.
1. Fixed temperature which will operate when it is exposed to a pre-determined
temperature. Normally fixed temperature detectors employ a fusible alloy element which
must be replaced after the detector has operated. Different temperature rated elements
are available to take account of varying ambient air temperatures.
2. The second type operates on the rate of temperature rise. The rate of rise temperature
detector may also include a fusible element for fixed temperature operation.
Both types are suitable for inclusion in open, closed or line monitored systems.
Linear detectors
These can take the form of a heat sensitive cable which will operate, at a predetermined
temperature, as an open circuit device. Melting of the cable insulation provides a short-circuit
between conductors. After operation the destroyed length of cable must be replaced. Linear
detectors may be used in large areas such as warehouses. Alternative types of linear detector
exist including the heat pneumatic operating on the
rate of rise principle.

Smoke Detectors
There are three basic types operating by ionization, light scattering and light obscuring.
Ionisation
These generally contain two chambers. One is used as a reference to compensate for changes
in ambient temperature, humidity or pressure. The second contains a radioactive source,
usually alpha particle, which ionizes the air passing through the chamber where a current flows
between two electrodes. When any of the products of combustion enters the chamber the
current flow decreases. This drop is used to initiate an alarm.
Light obscuring
In the obscuring type the smoke interferes with a light beam between a light source and photo
cell, the variation in photo cell output being used to initiate an alarm. This type of  detection can
be used to protect large areas with the source and photo cell positioned some distance apart.
Light scattering
The light scattering detector operates on the Tyndall effect, a photo cell and light source are
separated from each other by a darkened chamber such that the light source does not fall on
the photo cell. The passage of smoke into the chamber causes the light from the source to be
scattered and fall on the photo cell, the cell output being used to initiate an alarm.
The light scattering and light obscuring detectors both,  detect visible smoke. The ionization
detector and light scattering detector are normally each a single unit suitable for BESA conduit
box mounting. In some models the smoke detector head is attached to the main body by a
bayonet fixing for easy removal for maintenance or replacement. It should be noted that some
detectors are suitable for two-wire circuits whereas others require three or four wire
connections. Smoke detectors require a continuous power supply. Under quiescent conditions
they draw a current of some 100 micro amps, and under alarm conditions, some 45 milliamps.
This needs to be borne in mind when sizing the power supply. Smoke detectors generally
operate on 24 d.c. Refer to British Standard Codes of Practice and manufacturers literature for
information regarding the positioning of smoke detectors. Detectors are not suitable for
positioning in kitchens, near fireplaces or areas with excessive exhaust fumes, or within 2m of
air supply ducts or diffusers.
Carbon Monoxide detector
CO fire detectors are electronic detectors used to indicate the outbreak of fire by sensing the
level of carbon monoxide in the air. Carbon monoxide, usually known by its chemical formula
CO, is a poisonous gas produced by combustion. They are not the same as CO detectors used
for home safety which are used to protect residents against carbon monoxide produced by
incomplete combustion in appliances such as gas fires or boilers.
CO fire detectors use the same type of sensor but are more sensitive and respond more
quickly.CO detectors have an electrochemical cell, which senses carbon monoxide, but not
smoke or any other combustion products. The cells do not require much power, so the detectors
can be made electrically compatible with ordinary smoke and heat detectors. As fire detectors
they are effective but only for certain types of fire. Deep-seated, smouldering fires produce
carbon monoxide, which can be detected some distance from the seat of the fire. For this type
of fire a CO fire detector will probably operate before a smoke detector. Smoke detectors,
however, will almost always give a better response to a fire that has produced a rising plume of
smoke. CO fire detectors will give a poor response to flaming fires. Because CO fire detectors
work on different principles from smoke detectors, their false alarm behaviour will be different.
For example, they will not be affected by steam, dust, or by most cooking fumes. However,
because of their high sensitivity, they may false alarm from harmless transient levels of CO
produced by gas heaters starting up, or from vehicle exhaust fumes entering through a window.
These events would not affect an optical smoke detector.
As always, the detector must be selected for the application, to achieve the best balance
between fire detection capability and false alarms. There are some known disadvantages of CO
fire detectors. One is that the electrochemical cells at the heart of the detectors have a limited
life typically seven years and that they are not failsafe. The detector might be “dead” with out
this fact being apparent. For this reason a means of checking the CO cell has been
incorporated. Another clear disadvantage is the poor response to many types of fire, especially
life threatening flaming fires.
Multi sensor detector
This detector combines inputs from optical and heat sensors and processes them using a
sophisticated algorithm. When polled by the control panel it returns an analogue count which is
determined by combined responses from both optical and heat sensors. They are designed to
be sensitive to a wide range of fires and may be used in place of an ionisation detector in many
instances.
Operating principles
Signals from the optical smoke chamber and temperature sensor are independent, and
represent the smoke level and air temperature respectively in the vicinity of the detector; the
detector’s micro controller processes both signals. The temperature signal processing extracts
only rate of rise information for combination with the smoke signal. The detector will not respond
to slow increases in temperature but a large sudden change can cause an alarm without
presence of smoke, if sustained for 20 seconds. The processing algorithms in the multi-sensor
incorporate drift compensation.
Manual Call Points

A Break Glass Call Point is a device which enables personnel to raise the alarm by breaking the
frangible element on the fascia. They should be mounted 1.4m from the floor and sited where
they can be easily seen. Manual Call Points should be sited on the floor landings of stairways
and at exits to open air. It should be noted that Call Points should be fitted on the floor side of
an access door to a staircase so the floor of origin is indicated at the Control Panel. Extra points
should be sited, where necessary, so that the greatest travel distance from any point in the
building to the nearest call point does not exceed 30m. A greater number of Call Points may be
needed in high risk areas or if the occupants are likely to be slow in movement. Flameproof call
points are available, also handle operated points for use in areas where broken glass may
cause a hazard.

Alarm Sounders
Many types of alarm sounders are available and include:
1. Dome bells – operating mechanism contained within the bell.
2. Bells with operating mechanism external to the bell.
3. Electronic solid state sounders with mono or multi tone output normally in the range of
800 – 1000 Hz.
4. Small sirens operating in the range of 1,200 – 1,700 Hz.
5. Sirens ranging widely in size from 0.17kw to 11kW generally operating in the frequency
range of 400 – 800 Hz.
6. Horns operating in the range of 300 – 400 Hz and either motor or pneumatic operations.
The following figures gives a broad indication of the sound levels of the various alarm sounders.
Also indicated are typical sound levels for various industrial and commercial situations. An alarm
noise level of not less than 5 decibels above ambient should be provided in general areas for
adequate audibility but in sleeping areas a minimum level in the order of 65 decibels and 75
decibels at a bed head to wake sleeping occupants. It should be noted that most dome hells are
intended for use with flush conduit or wiring systems.
For surface wiring or conduit installations surface mounting adaptor boxes are normally
required. Generally bells, electronic sounders and small sirens are available for use with 6, 12,
24 and 48V d.c. Sirens are normally operated at mains voltage, single or three-phase
depending on the motor rating. Outdoor sirens should be fitted with heaters and thermostats to
protect against low temperature conditions. Public address systems may be used for alarms,
and visual signals may be used in special circumstances.

Whisper at three feet = 30dB

Casual conversation at three feet = 65dB
Threshold of pain = 130dB
Power Units
Two power supplies are required i.e. mains and battery and these are normally built into the Fire
Alarm Control Panel. Standby batteries must allow the system to operate without mains for 24
hours longer than the building is likely to be unoccupied and then support the sounders for an
additional half hour. If the mains supply is supported by an emergency generator then six hours
standby plus half an hour alarm load is sufficient. All modern Fire Alarm Systems are 24 volts.
On the medium and larger sized Fire Alarm Systems, the standby batteries will often not fit
within the Control Panel. Where standby batteries are contained within a separate housing, then
this housing must be as close as possible to the main Fire Alarm Control Panel. If the power
supply or battery housing is located more than 10 metres from the main Fire Alarm Control
Panel then serious volt drop problems can arise. Standby batteries are invariably of the sealed
lead acid variety. Use of Nickel Cadmium Batteries is not cost effective and automotive batteries
must not be fitted.
Smoke Extraction
Aims and Objectives
At the end of this section you should be able to:
 Explain how smoke behaves in the event of a fire in a building and suggest ways that
can be utilized to reduce its effects on users.

We learnt previously that the severity of a fire is dependent on the amount of fuel and oxygen.  
I large open buildings the amount of available oxygen is likely to be considerable which means
that it will be difficult to suffocate the fire by cutting off the oxygen supply or sealing off the fire.  
Any smoke produced can spread both vertically and laterally at speeds of up to 5m/s. As warm
air rises the smoke will rise within the enclose space which will start a build-up of smoke.  The
movement of smoke can prevent a danger in itself as it can drive people into the fire as shown
in the illustration of a shopping mall below. The rate at which the space becomes filled with
smoke will depend on the materials being burnt and the geometry of the building. Smoke
contains toxic substances which can asphyxiate and disorientate people within seconds and can
kill them in minutes.                                                                                    

Smoke Control Design Principles

 
The principle of smoke control is to limit the spread of smoke through the building and provide a
means which extracts the smoke and heat from the building. This is done by providing:
Openings or fans at high level to ensure that the smoke and hot gases are removed from the
building.
Barriers to restrict the spread of smoke through the building.  This prevents smoke travelling the
length of a building making it difficult to know where the fire is which can cause people to run
towards the fire.  The use of barriers can restrict the flow of the smoke maintaining a clear
indication of where the fire is situated.  This can be seen in the illustrations of a fire in a
shopping mall below with the barriers.
Inlet ventilators to provide a replacement air supply to balance the smoke being extracted.
Ventilator controls can be linked directly to the main smoke detection system or may be dual
purpose so that they can also be used for normal ventilation.  
 
General Fire Fighting Equipment
Fire fighting systems and equipment vary depending on the age, size, use and type of building
construction. A building may contain some or all of the following features:
 fire extinguishers
 fire hose reels
 fire hydrant systems
 automatic sprinkler systems.

Fire extinguishers
Fire extinguishers are provided for a 'first attack' fire fighting measure, generally undertaken by
the occupants of the building before the fire service arrives. It is important that occupants are
familiar with which extinguisher type to use on which fire.
Most fires start as a small fire and may be extinguished if the correct type and amount of
extinguishing agent is applied whilst the fire is small and controllable.
The principle fire extinguisher types currently available include:
Extinguishing Agent     Principle Use
Water wood and paper fires - not electrical
Foam flammable liquid fires - not electrical
Carbon dioxide electrical fires
Dry Chemical flammable liquids and electrical fires
Wet chemical fat fires - not electrical
Special Purpose various (eg metal fires)
Fire extinguisher locations must be clearly identified. Extinguishers are colour coded according
to the extinguishing agent.
It is the policy of the Community Safety and Resilience Department that fire extinguishers be
logically grouped at exits from the building, so that occupants first go to the exit and then return
to fight the fire, knowing that a safe exit lies behind them, away from the fire. In some instances
this will be at odds with the prescriptive requirements of Australian Standard AS2444 Portable
fire extinguishers and fire blankets - Selection and location, which simply specifies a distance of
travel to a fire extinguisher rather than their location in relation to escape paths. Blind
compliance with the standard has the potential to place the fire between the occupant and the
safe escape path.

Fire hose reels

Fire hose reels are provided for use by occupants as a 'first attack' fire fighting measure but
may,in some instances, also be used by firefighters.
When stowing a fire hose reel, it is important to first attach the nozzle end to the hose reel valve,
then close the hose reel valve, then open the nozzle to relieve any pressure in the wound hose,
then close the nozzle. This achieves two principle objectives:
 A depressurised hose and hose reel seal will last longer than if permanently pressurised.
 When the hose reel is next used, the operator will be forced to turn on the isolating
valve, thus charging the hose reel with pressurised water supply, before being able to
drag the hose to the fire. A potential danger exists if the operator reaches the fire and
finds no water is available because the hose reel valve is still closed.
Because hose reels are generally located next to an exit, in an emergency it is possible to reach
a safe place simply by following the hose.
In South Australia, a unique floor mounted swivel hose guide is often employed which lays the
hose at floor level, prior to being dragged by the operator. In practice for a single person, this
makes withdrawal of the hose much easier than does the traditional high level swinging arm
hose guide.
Fire hydrant systems

Fire hydrant systems are installed in buildings to help firefighters quickly attack the fire.
Essentially, a hydrant system is a water reticulation system used to transport water in order to
limit the amount of hose that firefighters have to lay, thus speeding up the fire fighting process.
Fire hydrants are for the sole use of trained firefighters (which includes factory fire fighting
teams). Because of the high pressures available serious injury can occur if untrained persons
attempt to operate the equipment connected to such installations.
Fire hydrant systems sometimes include ancillary parts essential to their effective operation
such as pumps, tanks and fire service booster connections. These systems must be maintained
and regularly tested if they are to be effective when needed.
The placement of such equipment needs to closely interface with fire service operational
procedure; simply complying with deemed to satisfy code provisions is a potential recipe for
disaster. For any advice regarding these systems, old or new, please ask the intended users;
contact the Community Safety and Resilience Department.
Automatic Sprinkler Systems
Time is essential in the control of fire. Automatic sprinkler systems are one of the most reliable
methods available for controlling fires. Today's automatic fire sprinkler systems offer state of the
art protection of life and property from the effects of fire.

Sprinkler heads are now available which are twenty times more sensitive to fire than they were
ten years ago.
A sprinkler head is really an automatic (open once only) tap. The sprinkler head is connected to
a pressurised water system. When the fire heats up the sprinkler head, it opens at a pre-set
temperature, thus allowing pressurised water to be sprayed both down onto the fire and also up
to cool the hot smoky layer and the building structure above the fire. This spray also wets
combustible material in the vicinity of the fire, making it difficult to ignite, thereby slowing down
or preventing fire spread and growth.
When a sprinkler head operates, the water pressure in the system drops, activating an alarm
which often automatically calls the fire service via a telephone connection.
Some people say sprinklers cause a lot of water damage. As has been explained, only those
sprinkler heads heated by the fire operate; all sprinklers in a building do not operate at once.
Usually non-fire water damage only occurs if the occupants carelessly damage the system.
Firefighters use much more water than a sprinkler system. The combined damage from a fire
and the water used by firefighters dramatically exceeds that likely from a properly installed
sprinkler system.
Types of Sprinkler System
Sprinkler systems from different manufacturers (in the UK) are all very similar, as they are all
are designed to meet Loss Prevention Council (LPC) rules (now available from BRE
Certification) and also British Standard BS 5306 Fire Extinguishing Installations and Equipment
on Premises. However, there are some different types of system depending on the nature of the
risk to be protected.
 Wet Pipe System: all the pipework is kept permanently full of water, right up to the
sprinkler head. This type of system is standard in most buildings, and has the fastest
response in terms of applying water to a fire. It should not be used in areas where there
is a risk of freezing temperatures.

 Dry Pipe (Pre-action) System: intended for use in cold stores or similar premises where
the temperatures are maintained below or close to the freezing point of water. The
pipework is kept charged with compressed air to hold the water back below the control
valve.
  Alternate System: used where temperatures vary seasonally. The system is kept “wet”
during the summer period for the fastest response, and “dry”, ie charged with
compressed air, during the winter to avoid freezing.
 Pre-action System: used in areas where the consequences of accidental discharge, due
to mechanical damage, are considered unacceptable, eg rooms containing electronic
data processing or electrical equipment.
 Deluge Systems: used to protect certain special risks, where there is a possibility that an
intense fire will develop very rapidly, eg oil-filled transformer equipment. Deluge systems
(sometimes also called “fogging” or “drencher” systems) are usually used to protect
relatively small, external risks.
Water Mist Systems
Water mist systems have been developed with the aim of extinguishing fires using the absolute
minimum amount of water.
The key to the success of water mist is ability of small water droplets to suppress or control a
fire extremely efficiently. A traditional sprinkler system removes the heat element of the triangle
while water mist removes both the heat and oxygen elements of the triangle. It achieves this by
dispersing water through specially designed nozzles at low, medium or high pressure.
Generally, as system pressure increases, the water droplet size decreases. This, in turn,
significantly increases the total surface area of the unit and so leads to production of a greater
volume of steam, removing more energy from the fire, which generates the steam.
Further information can be found in BS 8489-1:2016 Fixed Fire Protection Systems. Industrial
and Commercial Watermist Systems. Code of Practice for Design and Installation.
Water Fog Systems

High pressure water spray projector systems, primarily designed for the protection of oil filled
transformers, are sometimes referred to as water fog systems. However, these are actually
drencher systems and should be designed in accordance with rules governed by the
conventional sprinkler technology on which they are based.
Gaseous Systems
Gaseous fire extinguishing systems work by replacing the normal atmospheric gases, which
support combustion, with a gas, or mixture of gases which do not support combustion. These
are sometimes also referred to as “clean agent” systems, as they do little or no damage to the
property around them in comparison to water or foam.
Gaseous extinguishing media have been used for a long time to protect specialised
applications, such as computer suites, control rooms and areas with critical electrical
equipment, or are used to protect electronic data processing equipment. These systems are
generally automatic and linked to detectors causing the gaseous agent to be released when fire
is detected. They rely upon the gas being contained in the fire compartment to ensure that
sufficient concentration of the agent is available to effectively extinguish the fire. Rooms
therefore need to be sealed and have controlled ventilation.
Foam Systems
Foam systems are mainly used for the protection of large flammable liquid risks, such as oil
storage tanks. Foam may be applied in two ways.
1. Self-contained systems: these have their own foam and consist of foam-making
equipment, foam supplies and pipes connected to outlets. They may be designed to
operate automatically by the incorporation of detection systems, and may also give an
alarm.
2. Systems to which the fire brigade connect foam-making equipment: in these systems,
the foam-making equipment is replaced by an inlet sited on the outside of the premises
at street level.
Low expansion foam is suitable for flammable liquid fires where the liquid is immiscible (ie does
not mix) with water. The rate of application of the foaming solution per unit area determines the
time required to control and extinguish the fire. Low expansion foam has good water retention,
heat resistance and gives long-term stability, but does have limited volume and fill capability.
High and medium expansion foam is made by the aeration of an aqueous solution of a synthetic
foaming agent to the appropriate expansion. Medium foam is used for “low level” applications
where a blanket formation is required, while high expansion foam is used when a volume
performance is required (eg in basements or cable tunnels).
High expansion foam is typically used in confined spaces, eg in some warehouses, tunnels,
aircraft hangers and in some specialist applications involving flammable gases.
Dry Powder
In these systems, the powder is kept in a pressurised container or is connected to a gas cylinder
with a system of pipework leading to outlets. Dry powder systems are used to extinguish fires in:
 solid combustibles
 flammable liquids
 gases
 flammable metals.
Dry powders need suitable flow and anti-caking additives in fixed systems. Although not
normally toxic, they can cause loss of visibility and breathing difficulties. Therefore, evacuation
of the protected area is desirable before the system is activated.
Dry powders should not be used for electronic protection or tightly-packed combustibles such as
record vaults.
 FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT
Firefighting Equipment is the main firefighter equipment used to extinguish fires, including fire
fighting hose, portable fire pumps, fire hose reels, fire monitors and fire fighting nozzles. At Fire
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SOURCES AND REFERENCES:

http://constructionsite-learning-resources.org/fire_fighting_installations_63.html

https://www.firesafe.org.uk/fire-alarms/

https://www.mfs.sa.gov.au/community-safety/commercial/building-fire-safety/fire-fighting-systems-
and-equipment-in-buildings/

https://app.croneri.co.uk/topics/fire-fighting-equipment/indepth

https://www.fireproductsearch.com/firefighting-equipment/

https://www.google.com/search?
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