5.5.

2016

YPALACI

GIM2042 Manufacturing Processes, Gr. 2, T.302

Lecturer; Assoc. Prof.Dr.Yüksel PALACI

Office ; T403
E-mail ; [email protected]

• Book; John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover,

“Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing”
• Chapters:1,10,11,16,18-22,24,30-34
• http://www.bologna.yildiz.edu.tr/index.php?r=course/v
iew&id=1171&aid=35

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FUNDAMENTALS OF WELDING

• Overview of Welding Technology

• The Weld Joint
• Physics of Welding
• Features of a Fusion Welded Joint

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Joining and Assembly Defined

Joining - welding, brazing, soldering, and adhesive

bonding
• These processes form a permanent joint between
parts
Assembly - mechanical methods (usually) of fastening
parts together
• Some of these methods allow for easy disassembly,
while others do not

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Welding

Joining process in which two (or more) parts are

coalesced at their contacting surfaces by application
of heat and/or pressure
 Many welding processes are accomplished by
heat alone, with no pressure applied
 Others by a combination of heat and pressure
 Still others by pressure alone with no external heat
• In some welding processes a filler material is added
to facilitate coalescence

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Why Welding is Important

• Provides a permanent joint

 Welded components become a single entity
• Usually the most economical way to join components
in terms of material usage and fabrication costs
 Mechanical fastening usually requires additional
hardware components (e.g., screws and nuts) and
geometric alterations of the parts assembled
• Not restricted to a factory environment
 Welding can be accomplished "in the field"

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Limitations and Drawbacks of Welding

• Most welding operations are performed manually and

are expensive in terms of labor cost
• Most welding processes utilize high energy and are
inherently dangerous
• Welded joints do not allow for convenient
disassembly
• Welded joints can have quality defects that are
difficult to detect

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Faying Surfaces in Welding

The part surfaces in contact or close proximity that are

being joined

• Welding involves localized coalescence of the two

metallic parts at their faying surfaces
• Welding is usually performed on parts made of the
same metal, but some welding operations can be
used to join dissimilar metals

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Types of Welding Processes

• Some 50 different types of welding processes have

been catalogued by the American Welding Society
(AWS)
• Welding processes can be divided into two major
categories:
 Fusion welding
 Solid state welding

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Fusion Welding

Joining processes that melt the base metals

• In many fusion welding operations, a filler metal is
added to the molten pool to facilitate the process and
provide bulk and added strength to the welded joint
• A fusion welding operation in which no filler metal is
added is called an autogenous weld

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Some Fusion Welding Processes

• Arc welding (AW) – melting of the metals is

accomplished by an electric arc
• Resistance welding (RW) - melting is accomplished
by heat from resistance to an electrical current
between faying surfaces held together under
pressure
• Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW) - melting is accomplished
by an oxyfuel gas such as acetylene

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Solid State Welding

Joining processes in which coalescence results from

application of pressure alone or a combination of
heat and pressure
• If heat is used, temperature is below melting point of
metals being welded
• No filler metal is added in solid state welding

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Some Solid State Welding Processes

• Diffusion welding (DFW) –coalescence is by solid

state fusion between two surfaces held together
under pressure at elevated temperature
• Friction welding (FRW) - coalescence by heat of
friction between two surfaces
• Ultrasonic welding (USW) - coalescence by ultrasonic
oscillating motion in a direction parallel to contacting
surfaces of two parts held together under pressure

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Principal Applications of Welding

• Construction - buildings and bridges

• Piping, pressure vessels, boilers, and storage tanks
• Shipbuilding
• Aircraft and aerospace
• Automotive
• Railroad

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Welder and Fitter in

Production Arc Welding
• Welder - manually controls path or placement of
welding gun
• Often assisted by second worker, called a fitter, who
arranges the parts prior to welding
 Welding fixtures and positioners are used to assist
in this function

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The Safety Issue

• Welding is inherently dangerous to human workers

 High temperatures of molten metals
 In gas welding, fuels (e.g., acetylene) are a fire
hazard
 Many welding processes use electrical power, so
electrical shock is a hazard

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Special Hazards in Arc Welding

• Ultraviolet radiation emitted in arc welding is injurious

to human vision
 Welder must wear a special helmet with a dark
viewing window
 The window filters out dangerous radiation but
renders the welder blind except when arc is struck
• Sparks, spatters of molten metal, smoke, and fumes
add to the risks
 Ventilation must be provided to exhaust
dangerous fumes from fluxes and molten metals

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Automation in Welding

• Because of hazards of manual welding, and to

increase productivity and improve quality, various
forms of mechanization and automation are used
 Machine welding
 Automatic welding
 Robotic welding

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The Weld Joint

The junction of the edges or surfaces of parts that have

been joined by welding
• Two issues about the weld joint:
 Types of joints
 Types of welds used to join the pieces that form
the joints

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Five Types of Joints

1. Butt joint
2. Corner joint
3. Lap joint
4. Tee joint
5. Edge joint

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Butt Joint
Parts lie in same
plane and are
joined at their
edges

Figure 30.2 - Five

basic types of
joints: (a) butt

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Corner Joint
Parts in a corner joint
form a right angle
and are joined at
the corner of the
angle

Figure 30.2 (b) corner

Lap Joint
Consists of two
overlapping parts

Figure 30.2 (c) lap

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Tee Joint
One part is perpendicular
to the other in the
approximate shape of
the letter "T"

Figure 30.2 (d) tee

Edge Joint
Parts in an edge joint
are parallel with at
least one of their
edges in common,
and the joint is made
at the common
edge(s)

Figure 30.2 (e) edge

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Types of Welds

• Each of the preceding joints can be made by welding

• Other joining processes can also be used for some of
the joint types
• There is a difference between joint type and the way
it is welded - the weld type

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Fillet Weld

• Used to fill in the edges of plates created by corner,

lap, and tee joints
• Filler metal used to provide cross-section in
approximate shape of a right triangle
• Most common weld type in arc and oxyfuel welding
• Requires minimum edge preparation

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Fillet Welds

Figure 30.3 - Various forms of fillet welds:

(a) inside single fillet corner joint; (b) outside single fillet corner
joint; (c) double fillet lap joint; and (d) double fillet tee joint
Dashed lines show the original part edges

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Groove Welds

• Usually requires part edges to be shaped into a

groove to facilitate weld penetration
• Edge preparation increases cost of parts fabrication
• The grooved shapes include square, bevel, V, U, and
J, in single or double sides
• Most closely associated with butt joints

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Groove Welds

Figure 30.4 - Some groove welds: (a) square groove weld, one side;
(b) single bevel groove weld; (c) single V-groove weld; (d) single
U-groove weld; (e) single J-groove weld; (f) double V-groove
weld for thicker sections. Dashed lines show original part edges

Spot Weld
A small fused section between surfaces of two sheets or
plates
• Used for lap joints
• Most closely associated with resistance welding

Figure 30.6 -
(a) Spot weld

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Physics of Welding

• Fusion is most common means of achieving

coalescence in welding
• To accomplish fusion, a source of high density heat
energy must be supplied to the faying surfaces, so
the resulting temperatures cause localized melting of
base metals (and filler metal, if used)
• For metallurgical reasons, it is desirable to melt the
metal with minimum energy but high heat densities

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Heat Density

Power transferred to work per unit surface area (power

density), W/mm2 (Btu/sec-in2)
• If power density is too low, heat is conducted into
work, so melting never occurs
• If power density too high, localized temperatures
vaporize metal in affected region
• There is a practical range of values for heat density
within which welding can be performed

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Some Comparisons Among

Welding Processes
• Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW) develops large amounts
of heat, but heat density is relatively low because
heat is spread over a large area
 Oxyacetylene gas, the hottest of the OFW fuels,
burns at a top temperature of around 3500C
(6300F)
• Arc welding produces high energy over a smaller
area, resulting in local temperatures of 5500 to
6600C (10,000 to 12,000F)

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Approximate Power Densities for

Several Welding Processes

Welding process W/mm2 (Btu/sec-in2)

Oxyfuel 10 (6)
Arc 50 (30)
Resistance 1,000 (600)
Laser beam 9,000 (5,000)
Electron beam 10,000 (6,000)

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Power Density

Power entering surface divided by corresponding

surface area:
P
PD 
A

where PD = power density, W/mm2 (Btu/sec-in2); P =

power entering surface, W (Btu/sec); and A = surface
area over which energy is entering, mm2 (in2)

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Unit Energy for Melting

Quantity of heat required to melt a unit volume of metal
• Symbolized Um
• It is the sum of:
 Heat to raise temperature of solid metal to melting
point
 Depends on volumetric specific heat
 Heat to transform metal from solid to liquid phase
at melting point
 Depends on heat of fusion

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Two Heat Transfer Mechanisms

in Welding
• Not all of the input energy is used to melt the weld
metal
1. Heat transfer efficiency f1 - actual heat received
by workpiece divided by total heat generated at
source
2. Melting efficiency f2 - proportion of heat received
at work surface used for melting; the rest is
conducted into work metal

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Heat Available for Welding

Hw = f1 f2 H

where Hw = net heat available for welding; f1 = heat

transfer efficiency; f2 = melting efficiency; and H =
total heat generated by welding process

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Heat Transfer Efficiency f1

Proportion of heat received at work surface relative to

total heat generated at source
• Depends on welding process and the capacity to
convert power source (e.g., electrical energy) into
usable heat at work surface
 Oxyfuel gas welding processes are relatively
inefficient
 Arc welding processes are relatively efficient

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Melting Efficiency f2

Proportion of heat received at work surface used for

melting; the rest is conducted into work metal
• Depends on welding process but is also influenced
by thermal properties of metal, joint configuration,
and work thickness
 Metals with high thermal conductivity, such as
aluminum and copper, present a problem in
welding because of the rapid dissipation of heat
away from the heat contact area

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Energy Balance Equation

Hw = Um V

where Hw = net heat energy delivered to operation, J

(Btu); Um = unit energy required to melt the metal,
J/mm3 (Btu/in3); and V = volume of metal melted,
mm3 (in3)

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Typical Fusion Welded Joint

Figure 30.8 - Cross section of a typical fusion welded joint:

(a) principal zones in the joint, and (b) typical grain structure

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Features of A Fusion Welded Joint

Typical fusion weld joint in which filler metal has been

added consists of:
• Fusion zone
• Weld interface
• Heat affected zone (HAZ)
• Unaffected base metal zone

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Heat Affected Zone

Metal has experienced temperatures below melting

point, but high enough to cause microstructural
changes in the solid metal
• Chemical composition same as base metal, but this
region has been heat treated so that its properties
and structure have been altered
 Effect on mechanical properties in HAZ is usually
negative, and it is here that welding failures often
occur

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WELDING PROCESSES

• Arc Welding
• Resistance Welding
• Oxyfuel Gas Welding
• Other Fusion Welding Processes
• Solid State Welding
• Weld Quality
• Weldability
• Design Considerations in Welding

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Two Major Categories of Welding

Processes
• Fusion welding - coalescence is accomplished by
melting the two parts to be joined, in some cases
adding filler metal to the joint
 Examples: arc welding, resistance spot welding,
oxyfuel gas welding
• Solid state welding - heat and/or pressure are used to
achieve coalescence, but no melting of the base
metals occurs and no filler metal is added
 Examples: forge welding, diffusion welding, friction
welding

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Arc Welding (AW)

A fusion welding process in which coalescence of the

metals is achieved by the heat from an electric arc
between an electrode and the work
• Electric energy from the arc produces temperatures ~
10,000 F (5500 C), hot enough to melt any metal
• Most AW processes add filler metal to increase
volume and strength of weld joint
• Same basic process also used in arc cutting

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What is an Electric Arc?

An electric arc = discharge of electric current across a

gap in a circuit
• It is sustained by an ionized column of gas (plasma)
through which current flows
• To initiate the arc in AW, electrode is brought into
contact with work and then quickly separated from it
by a short distance

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Arc Welding
• A pool of molten metal is formed near electrode tip
• As electrode is moved along joint, molten weld pool
solidifies in its wake

Figure 31.1 - The basic configuration and electrical circuit of an arc

welding process

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Manual Arc Welding and Arc Time

• Problems with manual welding:

 Weld joint quality
 Productivity
• Arc Time = (time arc is on) divided by (hours worked)
 Also called “arc-on time”
 Typical values:
 Manual welding arc time = 20%
 Machine welding improves arc time to ~ 50%

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Two Basic Types of AW Electrodes

• Consumable – consumed during welding process

 Source of filler metal in arc welding
• Nonconsumable – not consumed during welding
process
 Any filler metal must be added separately

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Consumable Electrodes

• Forms of Consumable Electrodes

 Welding rods (also called sticks) are 9 to 18
inches and 3/8 inch or less in diameter and must
be changed periodically
 Weld wire can be continuously fed from spools
with long lengths of wire, avoiding frequent
interruptions
• In both rod and wire forms, electrode is consumed by
arc and added to weld joint as filler metal

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Nonconsumable Electrodes

• Made of tungsten which resists melting

• Gradually depleted during welding (vaporization is
principal mechanism)
• Any filler metal must be supplied by a separate wire
fed into weld pool

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Arc Shielding

• At high temperatures in AW, metals are chemically

reactive to oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen in air
 Mechanical properties of joint can be seriously
degraded by these reactions
 To protect operation, arc must be shielded from
surrounding air in nearly all AW processes
• Arc shielding is accomplished by:
 Shielding gases such as argon, helium, and CO2
 Flux

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Flux

A substance that prevents formation of oxides and other

contaminants in welding, or dissolves them and
facilitates removal
• Provides protective atmosphere for welding
• Stabilizes arc
• Reduces spattering

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Various Flux Application Methods

• Pouring granular flux onto welding operation

• Stick electrode coated with flux material that melts
during welding to cover operation
• Tubular electrodes in which flux is contained in the
core and released as electrode is consumed

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Power Source in Arc Welding

• Direct current (DC) vs. Alternating current (AC)

 AC machines less expensive to purchase and
operate, but generally restricted to ferrous metals
 DC equipment can be used on all metals and is
generally noted for better arc control

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AW Processes that use

Consumable Electrodes
• Shielded Metal Arc Welding
• Gas Metal Arc Welding
• Flux-Cored Arc Welding
• Electrogas Welding
• Submerged Arc Welding

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Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

Uses a consumable electrode consisting of a filler metal

rod coated with chemicals that provide flux and
shielding
• Sometimes called "stick welding"
• Power supply, connecting cables, and electrode
holder available for a few $thousand

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Figure 31.3 - Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)

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Welding Stick in SMAW

• Composition of filler metal usually close to base

metal
• Coating consists of powdered cellulose mixed with
oxides, carbonates, and other ingredients, held
together by a silicate binder
• Welding stick is clamped in electrode holder
connected to power source
• Disadvantages of stick welding:
 Sticks must be periodically changed
 High current levels may melt coating prematurely

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Figure 31.2 -
Shielded metal arc
welding (stick
welding) performed
by a (human) welder
(photo courtesy of
Hobart Brothers
Company)

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SMAW Applications

• Used for steels, stainless steels, cast irons, and

certain nonferrous alloys
• Not used or rarely used for aluminum and its alloys,
copper alloys, and titanium

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Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

Uses a consumable bare metal wire as electrode and
shielding accomplished by flooding arc with a gas
• Wire is fed continuously and automatically from a
spool through the welding gun
• Shielding gases include inert gases such as argon
and helium for aluminum welding, and active gases
such as CO2 for steel welding
• Bare electrode wire plus shielding gases eliminate
slag covering on weld bead - no need for manual
grinding and cleaning of slag

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31.4 - Gas metal arc welding (GMAW )

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GMAW Advantages over SMAW

• Better arc time because of continuous wire electrode

 Sticks must be periodically changed in SMAW
• Better use of electrode filler metal than SMAW
 The end of the stick cannot be used in SMAW
• Higher deposition rates
• Eliminates problem of slag removal
• Can be readily automated

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Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)

Adaptation of shielded metal arc welding, to overcome

limitations of stick electrodes
• Electrode is a continuous consumable tubing (in
coils) that contains flux and other ingredients (e.g.,
deoxidizers and alloying elements) in its core
• Two versions:
 Self-shielded FCAW - Core includes compounds
that produce shielding gases
 Gas-shielded FCAW - Uses externally applied
shielding gases

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Figure 31.6 - Flux-cored arc welding. The presence or absence of

externally supplied shielding gas distinguishes the two types: (1)
self-shielded, in which core provides ingredients for shielding,
and (2) gas-shielded, which uses external shielding gases

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Electrogas Welding (EGW)

Uses a continuous consumable electrode, either

flux-cored wire or bare wire with externally supplied
shielding gases, and molding shoes to contain molten
metal
• When flux-cored electrode wire is used and no
external gases are supplied, then special case of
self-shielded FCAW
• When a bare electrode wire used with shielding
gases from external source, then special case of
GMAW

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Figure 31.7 - Electrogas welding using flux-cored electrode wire:

(a) front view with molding shoe removed for clarity, and
(b) side view showing molding shoes on both sides

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Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

Uses a continuous, consumable bare wire electrode,

with arc shielding provided by a cover of granular flux
• Electrode wire is fed automatically from a coil
• Flux introduced into joint slightly ahead of arc by
gravity from a hopper, completely submerging
operation, preventing sparks, spatter, and radiation

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Figure 31.8 - Submerged arc welding

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SAW Applications

• Steel fabrication of structural shapes (e.g., I-beams)

• Seams for large diameter pipes, tanks, and pressure
vessels
• Welded components for heavy machinery
• Most steels (except hi C steel)
• Not good for nonferrous metals

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AW Processes that use

Nonconsumable Electrodes
• Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
• Plasma Arc Welding
• Carbon Arc Welding
• Stud Welding

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Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

Uses a nonconsumable tungsten electrode and an inert
gas for arc shielding
• Melting point of tungsten = 3410C (6170F)
• Also called TIG welding (Tungsten Inert Gas welding)
 In Europe, called "WIG welding"
• Used with or without a filler metal
 When used, filler metal is added to weld pool from
separate rod or wire
• Applications: aluminum and stainless steel most
common

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Figure 31.9 - Gas tungsten arc welding

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Advantages and Disadvantages of GTAW

• Advantages:
 High quality welds for suitable applications
 No spatter because no filler metal through arc
 Little or no postweld cleaning because no flux
• Disadvantages:
 Generally slower and more costly than
consumable electrode AW processes

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Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

Special form of GTAW in which a constricted plasma arc

is directed at weld area
• Tungsten electrode is contained in a nozzle that
focuses a high velocity stream of inert gas (argon)
into arc region to form a high velocity, intensely hot
plasma arc stream
• Temperatures in PAW reach 28,000C (50,000F),
due to constriction of arc, producing a plasma jet of
small diameter and very high energy density

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Figure 31.10 - Plasma arc welding (PAW)

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PAW Advantages and Disadvantages

• Advantages:
 Good arc stability
 Better penetration control than other AW
 High travel speeds
 Excellent weld quality
 Can be used to weld almost any metals
• Disadvantages:
 High equipment cost
 Larger torch size than other AW - tends to restrict
access in some joint configurations

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Resistance Welding (RW)

A group of fusion welding processes that use a

combination of heat and pressure to accomplish
coalescence
• Heat generated by electrical resistance to current
flow at junction to be welded
• Principal RW process = resistance spot welding
(RSW)

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Figure 31.12 - Resistance welding, showing the components in

spot welding, the predominant process in the RW group

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Components in Resistance Spot Welding

• Parts to be welded (usually sheet metal)

• Two opposing electrodes
• Means of applying pressure to squeeze parts
between electrodes
• Power supply from which a controlled current can be
applied for a specified time duration

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Advantages and Drawbacks of RW

• Advantages:
 No filler metal is required
 High production rates are possible
 Lends itself to mechanization and automation
 Operator skill level is lower than for arc welding
 Good repeatability and reliability
• Disadvantages:
 High initial equipment cost
 Limited to lap joints for most RW processes

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Resistance Spot Welding (RSW)

Resistance welding process in which fusion of faying

surfaces of a lap joint is achieved at one location by
opposing electrodes
• Used to join sheet metal parts using a series of spot
welds
• Widely used in mass production of automobiles,
appliances, metal furniture, and other products made
of sheet metal
• A typical car body has ~ 10,000 spot welds
 Annual production of automobiles throughout the
world is measured in tens of millions of units

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Figure 31.13 - (a) Spot welding cycle, (b) plot of squeezing force
& current in cycle (1) parts inserted between electrodes, (2)
electrodes close, force applied, (3) current on, (4) current
turned off, (5) electrodes opened, welded assembly removed
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Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW)

Uses rotating wheel electrodes to produce a series of

overlapping spot welds along lap joint
• RSEW capable of producing air-tight joints
• Applications:
 Gasoline tanks
 Automobile mufflers
 Various other sheet metal containers

Dept. of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering

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Figure 31.15 - Resistance seam welding (RSEW)

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Resistance Projection Welding (RPW)

A resistance welding process in which coalescence

occurs at one or more small contact points on parts
• Contact points determined by design of parts to be
joined, and may consist of projections, embossments,
or localized intersections of parts

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Figure 31.17 - Resistance projection welding (RPW): (1) at start of

operation, contact between parts is at projections; and (2) when
current is applied, weld nuggets similar to those in spot welding
are formed at the projections

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Cross-Wire Welding

Figure 31.18 - (b) cross-wire welding

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Oxyfuel Gas Welding (OFW)

Fusion welding operations that burn various fuels mixed

with oxygen
• OFW employs several types of gases, which is the
primary distinction among the members of this group
• Oxyfuel gas is also used in flame cutting torches to
cut and separate metal plates and other parts
• Most important OFW process is oxyacetylene
welding

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Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW)

Fusion welding performed by a high temperature flame

from combustion of acetylene and oxygen
• Flame is directed by a welding torch
• Filler metal is sometimes added
 Composition must be similar to base metal
 Filler rod often coated with flux to clean surfaces
and prevent oxidation

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Figure 31.21 - A typical oxyacetylene welding operation (OAW)

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Acetylene (C2H2)

• Most popular fuel among OFW group because it is

capable of higher temperatures than any other - up to
3480C (6300F)
• Two stage chemical reaction of acetylene and
oxygen:
 First stage reaction (inner cone of flame):
C2H2 + O2 --> 2CO + H2 + heat
 Second stage reaction (outer envelope):
2CO + H2 + 1.5O2 --> 2CO2 + H2O + heat

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• Maximum temperature reached at tip of inner cone

• Outer envelope spreads out and covers work
surfaces to shield from surrounding atmosphere

Figure 31.22 - The neutral flame from an oxyacetylene torch

indicating temperatures achieved

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Safety Issue in OAW

• Together, acetylene and oxygen are highly flammable

• C2H2 is colorless and odorless
 It is therefore processed to have characteristic
garlic odor

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OAW Safety Issue - continued

• C2H2 is physically unstable at pressures much above

15 lb/in2 (about 1 atm)
 Storage cylinders are packed with porous filler
material (such as asbestos) saturated with
acetone (CH3COCH3)
 Acetone dissolves about 25 times its own volume
of acetylene
• Different screw threads are standard on the C2H2 and
O2 cylinders and hoses to avoid accidental
connection of wrong gases

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Alternative Gases for Oxyfuel Welding

• Methylacetylene-Propadiene (MAPP)
• Hydrogen
• Propylene
• Propane
• Natural Gas

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Other Fusion Welding Processes

FW processes that cannot be classified as arc,

resistance, or oxyfuel welding
• Use unique technologies to develop heat for melting
• Applications are typically unique
• Processes include:
 Electron beam welding
 Laser beam welding
 Electroslag welding
 Thermit welding

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Electron Beam Welding (EBW)

Fusion welding process in which heat for welding is

provided by a highly-focused, high-intensity stream of
electrons impinging against work surface
• Electron beam gun operates at:
 High voltage (e.g., 10 to 150 kV typical) to
accelerate electrons
 Beam currents are low (measured in milliamps)
• Power in EBW not exceptional, but power density is

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EBW Vacuum Chamber

When first developed, EBW had to be carried out in

vacuum chamber to minimize disruption of electron
beam by air molecules
• Serious inconvenience in production
• Pumpdown time can take as long as an hour

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Three Vacuum Levels in EBW

• High-vacuum welding (EBW-HV) – welding done in
same vacuum chamber as beam generation
 Highest quality weld, highest depth-to-width ratio
• Medium-vacuum welding (EBW-MV) – welding done
in separate chamber with partial vacuum
 Vacuum pump-down time reduced
• Non-vacuum welding (EBW-NV) – welding done at or
near atmospheric pressure, with work positioned
close to electron beam generator
 Vacuum divider required to separate work from
beam generator

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EBW Advantages and Disadvantages

• Advantages:
 High-quality welds, deep and/or narrow profiles
 Limited heat affected zone, low thermal distortion
 High welding speeds
 No flux or shielding gases needed
• Disadvantages:
 High equipment cost
 Precise joint preparation and alignment required
 Vacuum chamber required
 Safety concern: EBW generates x-rays

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Laser Beam Welding (LBW)

Fusion welding process in which coalescence is

achieved by energy of a highly concentrated,
coherent light beam focused on joint
• Laser = "light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation"
• LBW normally performed with shielding gases to
prevent oxidation
• Filler metal not usually added
• High power density in small area, so LBW often used
for small parts

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Comparison: LBW vs. EBW

• No vacuum chamber required for LBW

• No x-rays emitted in LBW
• Laser beams can be focused and directed by optical
lenses and mirrors
• LBW is not capable of the deep welds and high
depth-to-width ratios of EBW
 Maximum LBW depth = ~ 19 mm (3/4 in.),
whereas EBW depths = 50 mm (2 in.)

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Thermit Welding (TW)

FW process in which heat for coalescence is produced

by superheated molten metal from the chemical
reaction of thermite
• Thermite = mixture of Al and Fe3O4 fine powders that
produce an exothermic reaction when ignited
• Also used for incendiary bombs
• Filler metal obtained from liquid metal
• Process used for joining, but has more in common
with casting than welding

Dept. of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering

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Figure 31.25 - Thermit welding: (1) Thermit ignited; (2) crucible

tapped, superheated metal flows into mold; (3) metal solidifies to
produce weld joint

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TW Applications

• Joining of railroad rails

• Repair of cracks in large steel castings and forgings
• Weld surface is often smooth enough that no
finishing is required

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Solid State Welding (SSW)

• Coalescence of part surfaces is achieved by:

 Pressure alone, or
 Heat and pressure
 If both heat and pressure are used, heat by itself is
not sufficient to cause melting of work surfaces
 For some SSW processes, time is also a factor
• Filler metal is not added
• Each SSW process has its own way of creating a
bond at the faying surfaces

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Success Factors in SSW

• Essential factors for a successful solid state weld are

that the two faying surfaces must be:
 Very clean
 In very close physical contact with each other to
permit atomic bonding

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SSW Advantages over

Fusion Welding Processes
• If no melting, then no heat affected zone, so metal
around joint retains original properties
• Many SSW processes produce welded joints that
bond the entire contact interface between two parts
rather than at distinct spots or seams
• Some SSW processes can be used to bond
dissimilar metals, without concerns about relative
melting points, thermal expansions, and other
problems that arise in FW

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Solid State Welding Processes

• Forge welding
• Cold welding
• Roll welding
• Hot pressure welding
• Diffusion welding
• Explosion welding
• Friction welding
• Ultrasonic welding

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Forge Welding

Welding process in which components to be joined are

heated to hot working temperature range and then
forged together by hammering or similar means
• Historic significance in development of manufacturing
technology
 Process dates from about 1000 B.C., when
blacksmiths learned to weld two pieces of metal
• Of minor commercial importance today except for its
variants

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Cold Welding (CW)

SSW process done by applying high pressure between

clean contacting surfaces at room temperature
• Cleaning usually done by degreasing and wire
brushing immediately before joining
• No heat is applied, but deformation raises work
temperature
• At least one of the metals, preferably both, must be
very ductile
 Soft aluminum and copper are suited to CW
• Applications: making electrical connections

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Roll Welding (ROW)

SSW process in which pressure sufficient to cause

coalescence is applied by means of rolls, either with
or without external heat
• A variation of either forge welding or cold welding,
depending on whether heating of workparts is done
prior to process
 If no external heat, called cold roll welding
 If heat is supplied, hot roll welding

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Roll Welding

Figure 31.26 - Roll welding (ROW)

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Roll Welding Applications

• Cladding stainless steel to mild or low alloy steel for

corrosion resistance
• Bimetallic strips for measuring temperature
• "Sandwich" coins for U.S mint

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Diffusion Welding (DFW)

SSW process that uses heat and pressure, usually in a

controlled atmosphere, with sufficient time for
diffusion and coalescence to occur
• Temperatures  0.5 Tm
• Plastic deformation at surfaces is minimal
• Primary coalescence mechanism is solid state
diffusion
• Limitation: time required for diffusion can range from
seconds to hours

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DFW Applications:

• Joining of high-strength and refractory metals in

aerospace and nuclear industries
• Can be used to join both similar and dissimilar metals
• For joining dissimilar metals, a filler layer of different
metal is often sandwiched between base metals to
promote diffusion

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Explosion Welding (EXW)

SSW process in which rapid coalescence of two

metallic surfaces is caused by the energy of a
detonated explosive
• No filler metal used
• No external heat applied
• No diffusion occurs - time is too short
• Bonding is metallurgical, combined with mechanical
interlocking that results from a rippled or wavy
interface between the metals

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Explosive Welding
Commonly used to bond two dissimilar metals, in
particular to clad one metal on top of a base metal
over large areas

Figure 31.27 - Explosive welding (EXW): (1) setup in the parallel

configuration, and (2) during detonation of the explosive charge

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Friction Welding (FRW)

SSW process in which coalescence is achieved by

frictional heat combined with pressure
• When properly carried out, no melting occurs at
faying surfaces
• No filler metal, flux, or shielding gases normally used
• Process yields a narrow HAZ
• Can be used to join dissimilar metals
• Widely used commercial process, amenable to
automation and mass production

Dept. of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering

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Figure 31.28 - Friction welding (FRW): (1) rotating part, no contact;

(2) parts brought into contact to generate friction heat; (3) rotation
stopped and axial pressure applied; and (4) weld created

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Two Types of Friction Welding

1. Continuous-drive friction welding
 One part is driven at constant rpm against
stationary part to cause friction heat at interface
 At proper hot working temperature, rotation is
stopped and parts are forced together
2. Inertia friction welding
 Rotating part is connected to flywheel, which is
brought up to predetermined speed
 Flywheel is disengaged from drive, and parts are
forced together

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Applications and Limitations

of Friction Welding
• Applications:
 Shafts and tubular parts
 Industries: automotive, aircraft, farm equipment,
petroleum and natural gas
• Limitations:
 At least one of the parts must be rotational
 Flash must usually be removed
 Upsetting reduces the part lengths (which must be
taken into consideration in product design)

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Ultrasonic Welding (USW)

SSW process in which two components are held

together, and oscillatory shear stresses of ultrasonic
frequency applied to interface cause coalescence
• Oscillatory motion breaks down any surface films to
allow intimate contact and strong metallurgical
bonding between surfaces
• Although heating of surfaces occurs, temperatures
are well below Tm
• No filler metals, fluxes, or shielding gases
• Generally limited to lap joints on soft materials such
as aluminum and copper

Dept. of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering

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Figure 31.29 - Ultrasonic welding (USW):

(a) general setup for a lap joint; and (b) close-up of weld area

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USW Applications

• Wire terminations and splicing in electrical and

electronics industry (eliminates need for soldering)
• Assembly of aluminum sheet metal panels
• Welding of tubes to sheets in solar panels
• Small parts assembly tasks in automotive industry

Dept. of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering

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Weld Quality
Concerned with obtaining an acceptable weld joint that
is strong and absent of defects, and the methods of
inspecting and testing the joint to assure its quality
• Topics covered:
 Residual stresses and distortion
 Welding defects
 Inspection and testing methods

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Residual Stresses and Distortion

• Rapid heating and cooling in localized regions during

FW result in thermal expansion and contraction which
cause residual stresses in weldment
• These stresses, in turn, cause distortion and warpage
• Situation in welding is complicated because:
 Heating is very localized
 Melting of base metals occurs in these regions
 Location of heating and melting is in motion (at
least in AW)

Dept. of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering

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Techniques to Minimize Warpage

• Welding fixtures to physically restrain parts in welding

• Heat sinks to rapidly remove heat to reduce distortion
• Tack welding at multiple points along joint to create a
rigid structure prior to continuous seam welding
• Selection of welding conditions (speed, amount of
filler metal used, etc.) to reduce warpage
• Preheating base parts to reduce thermal stresses
• Stress relief heat treatment of the welded assembly
• Proper design of weldment

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Welding Defects

• Cracks
• Cavities
• Solid inclusions
• Imperfect shape or unacceptable contour
• Incomplete fusion
• Miscellaneous defects

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Welding Cracks

Fracture-type interruptions either in weld or in base

metal adjacent to weld
• Serious defect because it is a discontinuity in the
metal that causes significant reduction in strength
• Caused by embrittlement or low ductility of weld
and/or base metal combined with high restraint
during contraction
• In general, this defect must be repaired

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Figure 31.31 - Various forms of welding cracks

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Cavities

Two defect types, similar to defects found in castings:

1. Porosity - small voids in weld metal formed by
gases entrapped during solidification
• Caused by inclusion of atmospheric gases,
sulfur in weld metal, or surface contaminants
2. Shrinkage voids - cavities formed by shrinkage
during solidification

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Solid Inclusions

• Solid inclusions - nonmetallic material entrapped in

weld metal
• Most common form is slag inclusions generated
during AW processes that use flux
 Instead of floating to top of weld pool, globules of
slag become encased during solidification
• Another form of inclusion is metallic oxides that form
during welding of certain metals such as aluminum,
which normally has a surface coating of Al2O3

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Incomplete Fusion
• Also known as lack of fusion, it is simply a weld bead
in which fusion has not occurred throughout entire
cross-section of joint

Figure 31.32 - Several forms of incomplete fusion

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Weld Profile in AW
• Weld joint should have a certain desired profile to
maximize strength and avoid incomplete fusion and
lack of penetration

Figure 31.33 - (a) Desired weld profile for single V-groove weld joint

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Weld Defects in AW

Figure 31.33 - Same joint but with several weld defects: (b)
undercut, in which a portion of the base metal part is melted
away; (c) underfill, a depression in the weld below the level of
the adjacent base metal surface; and (d) overlap, in which the
weld metal spills beyond the joint onto the surface of the base
part but no fusion occurs

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Inspection and Testing Methods

• Visual inspection
• Nondestructive evaluation
• Destructive testing

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Visual Inspection
• Most widely used welding inspection method
• Human inspector visually examines weldment for:
 Conformance to dimensional specifications
 Warpage
 Cracks, cavities, incomplete fusion, and other
surface defects
• Limitations:
 Only surface defects are detectable
 Internal defects cannot be discovered
 Welding inspector must also determine if
additional tests are warranted

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Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE) Tests

• Ultrasonic testing - high frequency sound waves
directed through specimen, so discontinuities (cracks,
inclusions) detected by losses in sound transmission
• Radiographic testing - x-rays or gamma radiation to
provide photographic film record of any internal flaws
• Dye-penetrant and fluorescent-penetrant tests -
methods for detecting small defects such as cracks
and cavities that are open to surface
• Magnetic particle testing – (ferromagnetic materials)
iron filings sprinkled on surface reveal subsurface
defects by distorting magnetic field in part

Dept. of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering

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Destructive Testing

Tests in which weld is destroyed either during testing or

to prepare test specimen
• Mechanical tests - purpose is similar to conventional
testing methods such as tensile tests, shear tests, etc
 Difference is that test specimen is weld joint
• Metallurgical tests involve preparation of metallurgical
specimens (e.g., photomicrographs) of weldment to
examine metallic structure, defects, extent and
condition of heat affected zone, and similar
phenomena

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Weldability

Capacity of a metal or combination of metals to be

welded into a suitably designed structure, and for the
resulting weld joint(s) to possess the required
metallurgical properties to perform satisfactorily in
intended service
• Good weldability characterized by:
 Ease with which welding process is accomplished
 Absence of weld defects
 Acceptable strength, ductility, and toughness in
welded joint

Dept. of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering

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Weldability Factors – Welding Process

• Some metals or metal combinations can be readily

welded by one process but are difficult to weld by
others
 Example: stainless steel readily welded by most
AW and RW processes, but difficult to weld by
OFW

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Weldability Factors –
Base Metal Properties
• Melting point, thermal conductivity, and coefficient of
thermal expansion
 Some metals melt too easily; e.g., aluminum
 Metals with high thermal conductivity transfer heat
away from weld, which causes problems; e.g., Cu
 High thermal expansion and contraction in metal
causes distortion problems in welded assembly
 Dissimilar metals pose problems in welding when
their physical and/or mechanical properties are
substantially different

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Other Factors Affecting Weldability

• Filler metal
 Must be compatible with base metal(s)
 In general, elements mixed in liquid state that form
a solid solution upon solidification will not cause a
problem
• Surface conditions
 Moisture can result in porosity in fusion zone
 Oxides and other solid films on metal surfaces can
prevent adequate contact and fusion

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Design Considerations in Welding

• Design for welding - product should be designed from

the start as a welded assembly, and not as a casting
or forging or other formed shape
• Minimum parts - welded assemblies should consist of
fewest number of parts possible
 Example: usually more cost efficient to perform
simple bending operations on a part than to weld
an assembly from flat plates and sheets

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Arc Welding Design Guidelines

• Good fit-up of parts - to maintain dimensional control

and minimize distortion
 Machining is sometimes required to achieve
satisfactory fit-up
• Assembly must provide access to allow welding gun
to reach welding area
• Design of assembly should allow flat welding to be
performed as much as possible, since this is fastest
and most convenient welding position

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Arc Welding Positions

• Flat welding is best position
• Overhead welding is the most difficult

Figure 31.35 - Welding positions (defined here for groove welds):

(a) flat, (b) horizontal, (c) vertical, and (d) overhead

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Resistance Spot Welding

Design Guidelines
• Low-carbon sheet steel up to 0.125 (3.2 mm) is ideal
metal for RSW
• Additional strength and stiffness can be obtained in
large flat sheet metal components by:
 Spot welding reinforcing parts into them, or
 Forming flanges and embossments into them
• Spot welded assembly must provide access for
electrodes to reach welding area
• Sufficient overlap of sheet metal parts is required for
electrode tip to make proper contact in RSW

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BRAZING, SOLDERING, AND

ADHESIVE BONDING
• Brazing
• Soldering
• Adhesive Bonding

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Overview of Brazing and Soldering

• Both use filler metals to permanently join metal parts,
but there is no melting of base metals
• When to use brazing or soldering instead of fusion
welding:
 Metals have poor weldability
 Dissimilar metals are to be joined
 Intense heat of welding may damage components
being joined
 Geometry of joint does not lend itself to welding
 High strength is not required

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Overview of Adhesive Bonding

• Uses forces of attachment between a filler material

and two closely-spaced surfaces to bond the parts
 Filler material in adhesive bonding is not metallic
 Joining process can be carried out at room
temperature or only modestly above

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Brazing

Joining process in which a filler metal is melted and

distributed by capillary action between faying
surfaces of metal parts being joined
• No melting of base metals occurs
 Only the filler melts
• Filler metal Tm greater than 450C (840F) but less
than Tm of base metal(s) to be joined

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Strength of Brazed Joint

• If joint is properly designed and brazing operation is

properly performed, solidified joint will be stronger
than filler metal out of which it was formed
• Why?
 Small part clearances used in brazing
 Metallurgical bonding that occurs between base
and filler metals
 Geometric constrictions imposed on joint by base
parts

Dept. of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering

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Advantages of Brazing
Compared to Welding
• Any metals can be joined, including dissimilar metals
• Can be performed quickly and consistently, permitting
high production rates
• Multiple joints can be brazed simultaneously
• In general, less heat and power required than FW
• Problems with HAZ in base metal near joint are
reduced
• Joint areas that are inaccessible by many welding
processes can be brazed, since capillary action
draws molten filler metal into joint

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Disadvantages and Limitations of Brazing

• Joint strength is generally less than a welded joint

• Joint strength is likely to be less than the base metals
• High service temperatures may weaken a brazed
joint
• Color of brazing metal may not match color of base
metal parts, a possible aesthetic disadvantage

Dept. of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering

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Brazing Applications

• Automotive (e.g., joining tubes and pipes)

• Electrical equipment (e.g., joining wires and cables)
• Cutting tools (e.g., brazing cemented carbide inserts
to shanks)
• Jewelry-making
• Chemical process industry, plumbing and heating
contractors join metal pipes and tubes by brazing
• Repair and maintenance work

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Brazed Joints

• Butt and lap joints common, however, the geometry is

usually adapted for brazing
• Lap joints are more widely used, since they provide
larger interface area between parts
• Filler metal in a brazed lap joint is bonded to base
parts throughout entire interface area, rather than
only at edges

Dept. of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering

Figure 32.1 - (a) Conventional butt joint, and adaptations of the butt joint
for brazing: (b) scarf joint, (c) stepped butt joint, (d) increased
cross-section of the part at the joint

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Figure 32.2 - (a) Conventional lap joint, and adaptations of the lap joint for
brazing: (b) cylindrical parts, (c) sandwiched parts, and (d) use of sleeve to
convert butt joint into lap joint.

YPALACI

Some Filler Metals for Brazing

Base metal(s) Filler metal(s)
Aluminum Aluminum and silicon
Nickel-copper alloy Copper
Copper Copper and phosphorous
Steel, cast iron Copper and zinc
Stainless steel Gold and silver

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Desirable Brazing Metal Characteristics

• Melting temperature is compatible with base metal

• Low surface tension in liquid phase for good
wettability
• High fluidity for penetration into interface
• Capable of being brazed into a joint of adequate
strength for application
• Avoid chemical and physical interactions with base
metal (e.g., galvanic reaction)

Dept. of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering

YPALACI

Figure 32.4 - Several techniques for applying filler metal in brazing:

(a) torch and filler rod. Sequence: (1) before, and (2) after

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Figure 32.4 - Several techniques for applying filler metal in

brazing: (b) ring of filler metal at entrance of gap
Sequence: (1) before, and (2) after

YPALACI

Brazing Fluxes

• Similar purpose as in welding; they dissolve, combine

with, and otherwise inhibit formation of oxides and
other unwanted byproducts in brazing process
• Characteristics of a good flux include:
 Low melting temperature
 Low viscosity so it can be displaced by filler metal
 Facilitates wetting
 Protects joint until solidification of filler metal

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YPALACI

Brazing Processes Distinguished

by Heating Sources
• Torch Brazing - torch directs flame against work in
vicinity of joint
• Furnace Brazing - furnace supplies heat for brazing.
• Induction Brazing – heating by electrical resistance to
high-frequency current induced in work
• Resistance Brazing - heating by resistance to flow of
electrical current through parts
• Dip Brazing - either molten salt bath or molten metal
bath
• Infrared Brazing - uses high-intensity infrared lamp

Dept. of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering

YPALACI

Soldering
Joining process in which a filler metal with Tm less than
or equal to 450C (840F) is melted and distributed by
capillary action between faying surfaces of metal
parts being joined
• No melting of base metals, but filler metal wets and
combines with base metal to form metallurgical bond
• Details of soldering similar to brazing, and many of
the same heating methods are used
• Filler metal called solder
• Most closely associated with electrical and
electronics assembly (wire soldering)

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YPALACI

Advantages and Disadvantages

of Soldering
• Advantages:
 Lower energy input than brazing or fusion welding
 Variety of heating methods available
 Good electrical and thermal conductivity in joint
 Easy to repair and rework
• Disadvantages:
 Low joint strength unless reinforced by
mechanically means
 Possible weakening or melting of joint in elevated
temperature service

Dept. of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering

YPALACI

Solders
Usually alloys of tin (Sn) and lead (Pb). Both metals
have low Tm
• Lead is poisonous and its percentage is minimized in
most solders
• Tin is chemically active at soldering temperatures and
promotes wetting action for successful joining
• In soldering copper, intermetallic compounds of
copper and tin are formed which strengthen bond
• Silver and antimony also sometimes used in
soldering alloys

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Figure 32.8 - Techniques for securing the joint by mechanical

means prior to soldering in electrical connections: (a) crimped
lead wire on PC board; (b) plated through-hole on PC board to
maximize solder contact surface; (c) hooked wire on flat
terminal; and (d) twisted wires

YPALACI

Soldering Fluxes - Functions

• Be molten at soldering temperatures

• Remove oxide films and tarnish from base part
surfaces
• Prevent oxidation during heating
• Promote wetting of faying surfaces
• Be readily displaced by molten solder during process
• Leave residue that is non-corrosive and
nonconductive

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YPALACI

Soldering Methods

• Many soldering methods same as for brazing, except

less heat and lower temperatures are required
• Additional methods:
 Hand soldering – manually operated soldering gun
 Wave soldering – soldering of multiple lead wires
in printed circuit cards
 Reflow soldering –used for surface mount
components on printed circuit cards

Dept. of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering

Figure 32.9 - Wave soldering, in which molten solder is delivered

up through a narrow slot onto the underside of a printed circuit
board to connect the component lead wires

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Adhesive Bonding

Joining process in which a filler material is used to hold

two (or more) closely-spaced parts together by
surface attachment
• Used in a wide range of bonding and sealing
applications for joining similar and dissimilar
materials such as metals, plastics, ceramics, wood,
paper, and cardboard
• Considered a growth area because of opportunities
for increased applications

Dept. of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering

YPALACI

Terminology in Adhesive Bonding

• Adhesive = filler material, nonmetallic, usually a

polymer
• Adherends = parts being joined
• Structural adhesives – of greatest interest in
engineering, capable of forming strong, permanent
joints between strong, rigid adherends

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YPALACI

Curing in Adhesive Bonding

Process by which physical properties of the adhesive

are changed from liquid to solid, usually by chemical
reaction, to accomplish surface attachment of parts
• Curing often motivated by heat and/or a catalyst
 If heat is used, temperatures are relatively low
• Curing takes time - a disadvantage in manufacturing
• Pressure sometimes applied between parts to
activate bonding process

Dept. of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering

YPALACI

Joint Strength
• Depends on strength of:
 Adhesive
 Attachment between adhesive and adherends
• Strength of attachment involves several mechanisms:
 Chemical bonding – adhesive and adherend form
a primary chemical bond upon curing
 Physical interactions - secondary bonding forces
between atoms of opposing surfaces
 Mechanical interlocking - roughness of adherend
causes hardened adhesive to become entangled
or trapped in its microscopic surface asperities

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YPALACI

Joint Design

• Adhesive joints are not as strong as welded, brazed,

or soldered joints
• Joint contact area should be maximized
• Adhesive joints are strongest in shear and tension
 Joints should be designed so applied stresses are
of these types
• Adhesive bonded joints are weakest in cleavage or
peeling
 Joints should be designed to avoid these types of
stresses

Dept. of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering

Figure 32.10 - Types of stresses that must be considered in

adhesive bonded joints: (a) tension, (b) shear,
(c) cleavage, and (d) peeling

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Figure 32.11 - Some joint designs for adhesive bonding:

(a) through (d) butt joints; (e) through (f) T-joints;
(b) and (g) through (j) corner joints

YPALACI

Adhesive Types

• Natural adhesives - derived from natural sources,

including gums, starch, dextrin, soya flour, collagen
 Low-stress applications: cardboard cartons,
furniture, bookbinding; or large areas: plywood
• Inorganic - based principally on sodium silicate and
magnesium oxychloride
 Low cost, low strength
• Synthetic adhesives - various thermoplastic and
thermosetting polymers

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YPALACI

Synthetic Adhesives
• Most important category in manufacturing
• Synthetic adhesives cured by various mechanisms,
including:
 Mixing catalyst or reactive ingredient with polymer
prior to applying
 Heating to initiate chemical reaction
 Radiation curing, such as ultraviolet light
 Curing by evaporation of water from liquid or paste
 Application as films or pressure-sensitive coatings
on surface of one of adherends

Dept. of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering

YPALACI

Applications of Adhesives

• Automotive, aircraft, building products, shipbuilding

• Packaging industries
• Footwear
• Furniture
• Bookbinding
• Electrical and electronics

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Surface Preparation
• For adhesive bonding to succeed, part surfaces must
be extremely clean
• Bond strength depends on degree of adhesion
between adhesive and adherend, and this depends
on cleanliness of surface
• For metals, solvent wiping often used for cleaning,
and abrading surface by sandblasting improves
adhesion
• For nonmetallic parts, some type of solvent cleaning
generally used, and surfaces are sometimes
mechanically abraded or chemically etched to
increase roughness

Dept. of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering

YPALACI

Application Methods

• Manual brushing and rolling

• Silk screening
• Flowing, using manually operated dispensers
• Spraying
• Automatic applicators
• Roll coating

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Figure 32.13 - Adhesive

is dispensed by a
manually controlled
dispenser to bond
parts during
assembly (courtesy
EFD, Inc.)

YPALACI

Advantages of Adhesive Bonding

• Applicable to a wide variety of materials

• Bonding occurs over entire surface area of joint
• Low temperature curing avoids damage to parts
being joined
• Sealing as well as bonding
• Joint design is often simplified, e.g., two flat surfaces
can be joined without providing special part features
such as screw holes

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YPALACI

Limitations of Adhesive Bonding

• Joints generally not as strong as other joining

methods
• Adhesive must be compatible with materials being
joined
• Service temperatures are limited
• Cleanliness and surface preparation prior to
application of adhesive are important
• Curing times can impose a limit on production rates
• Inspection of bonded joint is difficult

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