Types of Speech Context

Communicative Competence

Introduction

Communicative competence is a term in linguistics coined by Dell Hymes in 1996 which refers to a language
user’s grammatical knowledge of syntax, morphology, phonology and the like.

Dell Hymes, a sociolinguist helped pioneer the connection between speech and social relations. According to
him, communicative competence refers to what the speaker needs to know in order to be communicatively
competent in a speech community.

In simple language, communicative competence is the knowledge of language and the ability to use such
language appropriately in any given situation or circumstance.

Types of Speech Context

Intrapersonal Communication

Have you ever caught yourself talking alone or engaging in self talk? Sometimes, you do it without really
noticing. You ask yourself questions as if you do not know the answers. This talking to oneself is called intrapersonal
communication. It is a form of “thinking out loud” or what is called “soliloquy” in literature. This form of communication
is often done for the purpose of clarifying ideas or analyzing situation. For example, you are not sure what to do in a
situation, and you ask yourself a question like, “What am I going to?” or, if you have done something and you are not
sure if you did it right, you talk to yourself to analyze your action.

There are different levels involved in intrapersonal communication: internal discourse. Solo vocal discourse, and
solo written communication.

• Internal discourse involves thinking, concentration and analysis, as in the example given above when a person
analyzes situation. Daydreaming is considered under this level.

• Solo vocal communication is speaking aloud to oneself. This maybe in situations where a person rehearses what
he would want to say to another person, or simply to calm himself down when he is angry or to entertain
himself when he is bored.

• Solo written communication is writing one’s thoughts and observations with no intention of having somebody
read what he has written. This includes a diary or a journal.

Interpersonal Communication

is the communication that takes place between two or among more people. This type may be categorized as
personal or impersonal, formal or informal, and direct and indirect.

It is personal when the two people communicating know each other or are interdependent on one another.
Normally, these are people who are close like family and friends who know each other personally well. The impersonal
type is where communicators do not really know each other that well, like acquaintances that they just meet during a
social gathering or event.

It is formal when the communication calls for a more formal way of talking – for example with an employer or
with a person with a high position and in social occasions that call for formality; informal for its opposite.
 Direct communication is the type that calls for the persons communicating to be faced each other, that is why it
is called as a face-to-face communication. Since it’s face to face encounter with another person, the communication is
said to be taking place right at that moment (immediacy) and at a particular place (primacy).

Indirect communication is one that involves two or more persons communicating minus the immediacy and
primacy of the situation. A good example of this type will be two persons writing each other. This is still communication
because there is a sender of the message and a receiver as well. But what is obvious is its difference from direct
communication, because the people involved in the process are not facing each other and the immediacy of the
communication may be suspended if the receiver is not able to respond or give his or her feedback at once.

*Interpersonal communication may also be categorized according to the number of participants. *

1. Dyadic communication is one that involves two people sharing mutual ideas, thoughts, ideals, likes and dislikes.
It is a person to person transaction, and is the most common form of speech. An interview is a dyadic
communication involving two participants – an interviewer and an interviewee.

2. Small group communication involves three or more persons. This would be as simple as a group of friends
talking about the incoming prom night or a research required in one of their subjects in school.

Interpersonal communication has its share of characteristics as follows:

• It involves two or more people

Interpersonal communication involves two or more persons who may be part of a group. You have learned that
in this process, people involved in this type exchange ideas, information, and feelings.

• It is continuous

When a person is with someone even though they are not talking, communication continues because messages
can still be sent through nonverbal signals. For example, you attend a party and is introduced to another guest. You start
exchanging ideas for a few minutes, then there is lull. Would you be able to tell if the person is still interested in talking
to you? Would you be able to observe that in his or her nonverbal cues? Your next move will depend on your
observation, right? That is because even without nonverbal signals, communication continues.

• It needs not to be face-to-face

As what has been discussed in the prior paragraphs, interpersonal communication needs not to be face-to-face
because this type of communication can be mediated or aided by technology like cellphones or computers.

• It is transactional

because each person involved in the process gains something. It can be knowledge, experience, etc.

• It is irreversible

What has transpired during the communication process cannot be taken back or ignored. For example, in a
meeting, a heated argument ensued between participants and they lost control of the situation. They may feel remorse
after and apologize to each other and be friends again, but what happened cannot be changed.

• It involves verbal or nonverbal cues

Communication is not just words but gestures, facial expression, eye contact, body movements and other
nonverbal signals. Nonverbal cues are actually considered powerful, because even without words, they can mean a lot.
 • It is affected by noise

Noise can come from different sources. It can come from the sender himself, the receiver, or the surroundings.
And whatever type of noise there is, it would affect communication.

• It involves feedback

Communication to be complete should involve feedback, be it verbal or nonverbal.

Public Communication

Public communication also known as public speaking is a communication between a speaker and a group of
people called the audience in a structured, deliberate manner. The number of people in the audience may range from a
few, as in a teacher discussing his lessons to his students in a class, to thousands or even millions of listeners as in the
State of the Nation Address (SONA) of the president.

This type of communication makes use of a one-way monologue style and generates a minimal feedback.
Normally, the aim of the speaker in this type of communication is to inform, entertain, persuade or convince, or to
influence the audience to act, or to patronize a product or to avail of a service. The audience in this type of
communication may be invited or not. But if done in private settings, this type of communication is intended for a
particular group of people and therefore the audience are deemed to be invited.

Small Group

Small groups are also known to be task or work who participate in democratic exchange of ideas in a group. The term is
also interchangeably referred to as group dynamics, group interactions and the like. The group’s objective varies
depending on the type of participation called for, which can be classified as private and public. Other types of discussion
groups are:

1. Panel discussion

is the most popular discussion. It is an informal but organized conversation in front of a larger audience. It is an
exchange of thought among several participants of usually about three to four or more. A panel discussion can be used
to discuss topics which are too complex to be taken by just one person, that several people are involved. Usually used in
a meeting, conference or convention.

2. Lecture

a lecture is a single discourse or speech given by an expert before an audience. It is an effective medium of
public discussion meeting used in imparting information to the audience. It is a fifty-to-sixty minute presentation where
the audience is given a chance to participate after the lecture. It is a discussion type because its purpose is to instruct, to
inform or to impart and to provide the audience a clear idea about the topic that needs to be communicated.

3. Forum

Forum like debate is another type of public discussion meeting. It is a participation of the entire group after a
planned program of discussion or lecture has been held and the balance of the time is turned over to the group for
comments, questions, and exchange of ideas.

4. Symposium

a symposium is a meeting or conference for a discussion of a topic, especially one in which the participants form
an audience and make presentations. It is a series of individual presentations which address different aspects of a single
topic, and which is usually followed by questions from the audience. It is from a Latin word which means “drinking
party”, a party where the host served his guests fine wine. Three or four members who are considered authority on a
particular topic are seated in front facing the audience.

5. Debate

Are you familiar with the question, “Which comes first – chicken or egg?” This is a statement that is commonly
used as an example of a debatable issue, where contenders are made to make use of their critical thinking and to
present or cite evidences or proofs that they are right. Debate is an exchange or thoughts or arguments by two opposing
teams. It is a means of encouraging people like students as you, to think critically and to express your views or opinions
about a topic. Just like any other small group discussion type, debate has an objective or goal, and that is for the
opposing teams to persuade or convince the audience that their ideas are right or are more acceptable that the other.

6. Round table

is a form of academic discussion where participants agree on a specific topic to discuss and debate. Each person
is given equal right to participate, as illustrated by the idea of a circular layout referred to in the term round table. It is
similar to a panel discussion, where the audience are seated face-to-face around a table but it is without a larger
audience and a moderator or chairman.

Types of Speech Style

Introduction

A style is the set of linguistic variants that a person uses and that has specific social meanings. It is the choice of
words that a person can use or apply in different situations. Being able to identify what style you are using when you
communicate is essential in making sure that you are able to achieve your goal of sending your message and of being
understood. The style that you use will not only help you get on with people but also accomplish what you want to do.
At the same time, you have learned that having good communication skills will save you the trouble of being
misinterpreted or judged. If you don’t get misinterpreted by the people you talk with, there will be zero conflict. And the
result of the zero conflict is a good relationship with your family, friends and other people.

There are several speech styles as follows:

1. Intimate Style

This type of style is used among intimate members of the family or friends. In this style, there is no need of long
sentences or to be watchful of one’s grammar because doing so will just bring distraction to the intimacy of this style. It
entirely excludes public information. In this style, the speaker assumes that the listener knows more or less what is being
talked about, that it need not use more words. In short, this style is so abbreviated and uses minimal verbal
communication. For example, a husband and a wife conversation, family sharing ideas, very close friends sharing
secrets, etc.

2. Casual style
 Casual style is also known as informal communication style. This type is typically used in sharing personal
conversations with family members and friends. This is a type of relaxed or normal conversation and makes use of
colloquial words. The inclusion of slang words is also a characteristic of this style. The objective of this style is to give or
share information without having to give more background information. For example, a person sees a friend and says,
“Hi dude. How you’ve been?” In this example, the use of colloquial and slang are present.

Examples: phone calls, everyday conversation with friends, chats, etc.

3. Consultative style

This style is considered the most operational among other styles. This style is less planned because the
communication will depend on the responses or feedback of the people communicating. Since this style is spontaneous,
the sentences used tend to be shorter as in phrases and the people tend to repeat some unnecessary words for
confirmation. More so, the use of wrong diction is also committed in this style, being less planned. Group discussions
make use of this style.

Examples: regular classroom discussions, doctor-patient, guidance counselor-student, etc.

4. Formal style

Formal style makes use of careful and standard speech because this is the style one adapts when in formal
meetings and events. It makes use of low tempo speech, carefully chosen words, and technical vocabulary. Unlike
consultative style, the formal style does not repeat unnecessary words because it is planned.

Examples: announcements, SONA, welcome address, etc.

5. Frozen style

The frozen style is the most formal style that is used in formal events or ceremonies. If formal style makes use of
carefully chosen words, this style makes use of “very” carefully chosen words and words, phrases or sentences that are
fixed in form. It is also referred to as oratorical style. Examples of this style are statements used in parliamentary
proceedings like, “I respectfully nominate Mr. Mendoza”, “Yes your honor” and “The table is now open for the
nomination of (position).”

Examples: Pledges, anthems, marriage ceremonies, laws, etc.

Speech-Act Theory

Speech-act theory was introduced in 1975 by Oxford philosopher J.L. Austin in "How to Do Things With
Words"  and further developed by American philosopher J.R. Searle. It considers three levels or components of
utterances: locutionary acts (the making of a meaningful statement, saying something that a hearer understands),
illocutionary acts (saying something with a purpose, such as to inform), and perlocutionary acts (saying something that
causes someone to act). Illocutionary speech acts can also be broken down into different families, grouped together by
their intent of usage.

Speech Acts

 Locutionary – act of simply uttering a sentence from a language. (physical utterance or the utterance itself)

 Illocutionary – this is what the speaker does in uttering a sentence includes stating, requesting, questioning,
promising, apologizing, and the like. (intention or desire of the speaker)

 Perlocutionary act – refers to the effect to the listener also called as hears response.

Locutionary Act

When a speaker says, “It’s hot in here!”

That is the literal meaning. That is the utterance itself. Thus, it is a locutionary act.

Illocutionary Act

the intention of the speaker in delivering an utterance. That includes promising, refusing, apologizing, stating,
requesting, and the like.

In the example: “It’s hot in here!”

The utterance could mean that the speaker’s intention is for the hearer/listener to turn on the aircon.

Perlocutionary Act

this is the effect or the result of the utterance to the hearer or listener.

Let’s go back to our example: “It’s hot in here!”

What is the perlocutionary effect or act? It could be that:

The hearer might turn on the aircon. Or

The hearer might open the windows so fresh air will come in.
To conclude,

Example of speech act:

Speaker: It’s hot in here!

LOCUTIONARY ILLOCUTIONARY PERLOCUTIONARY

WHAT WE SAY WHAT WE MEAN WHEN WE SAY IT WHAT WE ACCOMPLISH BY SAYING

It’s hot in here! The speaker wants the listener to The listener might turn on the aircon
turn on the aircon or open the or open the windows.
windows. (requesting)

The literal meaning or the utterance The intention of the speaker with Refers to speech act that has an
itself. his/her utterance. effect on the feelings, thoughts or
actions of the listener.

Note that, that, the action will always

Classification of Illocutionary Acts

Searle (1969) identified five illocutionary acts.

- are description, classification, explanation, description.

Examples:

• Rev. Fr. John Christian U. Young is the president of FSUU.

• All men are mortal.

• Philippines consists of about 7,641 islands.

2. Directives
- These are statements that attempt to make the other person’s actions fit the propositional content. The
speaker tries to get the listener to do something. This is not the same with assertive that deals with true or false
statements but it is either to be followed or unfollowed.

Examples:

• Joshua, please stop playing mobile legends. (commanding)

• Please vote for me. (requesting)

Other examples are when ordering, commanding, requesting, insisting, suggesting, begging.
3. Commissives
- these are statements which commit the speaker to a course of action as described by the propositional
content. The speaker commits himself to a future course of action, e.g. promising, guaranteeing, offering, etc.

Examples:

• From now on, I will stop playing Mobile Legends.

• Mom, I’ll arrive at 3:00 pm.

4. Expressives
- these are statements that express the sincerity condition of the speech act.” The speakers express their
feelings, e.g. apologizing, welcoming, sympathizing, thanking, etc.

Examples:

• Thank you for buying this for me.

• Welcome back to class!

• I’m sorry I wasn’t able to update you.

5. Declaratives
- these are statements that attempt to change the world by “representing it as having been changed.” The
speakers utterance brings about a new external situation, e.g. christening, marrying, resigning, declaring war, etc.

Examples:

• I now pronounce you husband and wife.

• I hereby declare a total lockdown in Mindanao.

In selecting the appropriate speech act strategy and the forms for realizing it, we have to consider some factors
such as the social status and occupation; personal factors – age and gender; culture; situation; and the role and status in
the interaction.

In summary, according to Austin’s theory of speech act, utterances have three kinds of meanings: propositional
or locutionary which is the literal meaning of an utterance; illocutionary which is the particular intention making the
utterance; perlocutionary force which is the production of a particular effect to the addressee.
Types of Communication Strategy

NTRODUCTION
 
                    Do you believe that great communicators motivate us to act, inspire us to do better,
stimulate us to work hard, arouse us to excel and encourage us to dream? Yes, some of our
communicators became leaders or are still leaders in their own time like Abraham Lincoln, Martin
Luther King Jr., Franklin D. Roosevelt, Mathama Gandhi and Barrack Obama. Of course, we have our
former Ferdinand Marcos and Benigno Aquino Sr. who were also famous for their excellent
interlocutors. These well-known personalities we truly admire for their exemplary performance in their
field of endeavors and for their being great communicators.
                    We practically communicate almost every second and every minute and when it comes
to communicating, there are effective and ineffective ways to go about it. There are factors that affect
how we communicate and one of these factors are our know-how when it comes to effective
strategies in communication. Certainly, the way we communicate affects the way people respond to
us, the kind of friends we have and the types of work that we do. This lesson will discuss the types of
communication strategy such as: nomination, restriction, turn-taking, topic control, topic shifting,
repair, and termination.
                   To start the discussion, imagine your teacher talking the script below. This will give you
an idea on the different types of communication strategy.

Types of Communication Strategy

Communicative Competence

Types of Communication Strategy

An effective communicator engages in an appropriate exchange of information. He does not only feel a need to
receive information, but also provide information at the appropriate level. To successfully and productively accomplish
this, he must be communicatively competent. Communicative competence is attained when the person recognizes the
importance of understanding the speech context, speech style, speech act and communicative strategy being utilized in
a particular communication situation.

1. Nomination
 The first communication strategy that we have to be familiar with is nomination. When engaging in a
conversation we normally propose or suggest a topic or issue that we want to talk about. When we do
this we are nominating a topic or subject for discussion. The following are several expressions that will
help you do this:
• Let’s talk/discuss about __________. What do you think?
• We could always talk/discuss __________.
• Talking/discussing __________ is one idea.
2. Restriction
 The second strategy that we must know when we communicate with others is restriction. This refers to
limiting the topic or subject in conversation. This sometimes happens when the person wants to focus on
a certain aspect of the issue under deliberation or when time to discuss is very short. Here are some
phrases that you can use:
• Let us focus on __________.
• Why not concentrate on __________?
• Could we just focus on __________?

3. Turn-taking
Another strategy that we must be cognizant of in order to become an effective communicators is turn-
taking. This refers to conventions in which participants allow appropriate opportunities for others to talk
or the manner in which an orderly conversation normally takes place. A turn is the time when speaker is
talking and turn-taking is the skill of knowing when to start and finish a turn in a conversation. It is an
important tool in oral communication. For example, one way that a speaker signals a finished turn is to
drop the pitch or volume of his voice at the end of an utterance.
 4. Topic Control
 Is one communication strategy that we have to master if we want to be a good communicator. It means
regulating or manipulating the topic on conversation and how long we want the other person may talk.
When we want to elicit specific information from a conversation, we need to be in control of what is
said and when. Here are some tips on how you can do this:
1. Control answering of questions. Do not answer all the questions ask by the person you are conversing
with.
2. Initiate new topics. Introduce a new topic for discussion.
3. 3. Manage the process. Know how and what to control when communicating.
4. Handle the small talk. Small talks can lead to big talks. Always remember to start at the beginning.

Some useful expressions to control the conversation

• Let’s not talk about it, instead let’s talk __________.

• It would be a good idea if we talk __________ than __________.

• I know, but ….

5. Topic Shifting
 This strategy refers to changing the subject in a conversation because the person involved in the conversation
do not find the current topic interesting. It means that in a conversation they do not only talk about one topic
from the beginning until the end, but they shift or change from one topic to another. This topic may be related
to the previous topic or it may be a new one. Several expressions in changing the topic in conversation are:

• By the way, … Talking about __________ is better.

• To follow up, … Incidentally, …

• Going back to … It’s better that we discuss about …

Aside from these expressions, topic shift may be signaled by silence, long pauses, short utterances, etc.
6. Repair
 The term repair in the linguistic sense was introduced by Victoria Fromkin in her article “The Non-
Anomalous Nature of Anomalous Utterances” published in Language, March 1971.
 In conversation, repair means the correction by the speaker of a misunderstood utterance, either through
self-initiated repair, or corrected by others. Some expressions or phrases you can use are:
• I mean …
• What I mean is that …
• Rather, __________.
7. Termination
This last communication strategy refers to ending the conversation. If some people find it difficult to begin a
conversation and others find problems to keep it going, it can be more challenging to close a conversation so you
can either move to another topic or move away to talk with someone else.

Terminating a conversation can be interpreted by other people as bad manners. You will even wonder if interrupting
or walking away from somebody might give an idea that you are rude. Undeniably, if you are able to skillfully master
this strategy, you will leave them with a very good impression. Here are some expressions and forms that you can
use in closing a conversation.