metals

Article
Heat Input Influence on the Fatigue Life of Welds
from Steel S460MC
Jaromir Moravec * , Jiri Sobotka, Pavel Solfronk and Robin Thakral
Department of Engineering Technology, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Liberec,
Studentská 1402/2, 46117 Liberec, Czech Republic; [email protected] (J.S.); [email protected] (P.S.);
[email protected] (R.T.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +420-485-353-341




Received: 13 September 2020; Accepted: 24 September 2020; Published: 25 September 2020


Abstract: Fine-grained steels belong to the progressive materials, which are increasingly used in the
production of welded structures subjected to both static and dynamic loads. These are unalloyed or
microalloyed steels hardened mainly by the grain-boundary strengthening mechanism. Such steels
require specific welding procedures, especially in terms of the heat input value. At present, there are
studies of the welding influence on the change of thermomechanically processed steels’ mechanical
properties, however mainly under static loading. The paper is therefore focused on the assessment of
the welding effect under dynamic loading of welded joints. In the experimental part was determined
the influence of five different heat input values on the change of weld fatigue life. As a result, there is
both determination of five S-N curves for the double-sided fillet welds from the thermomechanically
processed fine-grained steel S460MC and the quantification of the main influences reducing the
fatigue life of the joint.

Keywords: heat input; welding; fatigue life; fine-grained steel S460MC; S-N curves

1. Introduction
In today’s modern and innovative times, more and more demands are placed on industrially
used materials. In addition to that, materials are often required to fulfil conflicting properties, such as,
e.g., to have high yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, and simultaneously also good ductility,
formability, or weldability. At the same time, high attention is paid as well to the price of these materials,
which increases with the amount of used alloying elements. Therefore, newly developed materials
use a grain-boundary strengthening and belong to the group of so-called HSLA (High Strength Low
Alloy) steels. These are usually microalloyed fine-grained steels that are alloyed by very low contents
of elements such as, e.g., V, Ti, and Nb. Such elements form fine carbides, nitrides, or carbonitrides and
contribute to the grain refinement and strengthening of the matrix [1,2]. It also has a secondary effect
in increased values of the yield strength and ultimate tensile strength, but there is also lower values
of transient temperature and brittle fracture properties [3,4]. Moreover, despite all of the advantages
mentioned above, these steels also keep their price low, because they are derived from the prices of
conventional carbon steels due to the low amount of alloying elements.
Although many people think of HSLA steels primarily as high-strength steels, typically with
yield strengths highly exceeding 550 MPa, micro-alloyed steels are very popular and often used in the
production of structures having yield strength below 550 MPa. Among these can be found, for example,
thermomechanically processed steels of the S355MC, S420MC, and S460MC types. As a reason why
these steels gradually substitute the common structural steels (e.g., type S355J2), there is their better
cold formability and constant technological processability given by stronger demands to meet their
chemical composition.

Metals 2020, 10, 1288; doi:10.3390/met10101288 www.mdpi.com/journal/metals

Metals 2020, 10, 1288 2 of 14

Generally, HSLA steels reveal good weldability, but the amount of heat input into the weld should
be limited and should not exceed 15 kJ·cm−1 . In the case of high-strength steels, it is recommended
to further reduce such heat input value. As a reason for that, there is the intensive grain coarsening
in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) at temperatures over 1100 ◦ C. These are temperatures at which occurs
dissolving of the fine precipitates that stabilize grain boundaries and structure. Such an issue is quite
a closely monitored topic that confirms also a great number of published articles dealing with the grain
coarsening intensity [2,4,5], changes in strength and brittle-fracture properties [4,6,7], or structural
changes that occur in the heat-affected zone—HAZ [8,9]. However, not many papers are devoted to
the influence of welding on changes in the fatigue life of welded joints for HSLA steels with a yield
strength lower than 550 MPa [10], despite the fact that these materials and welded structures are used
very often—for example, in land transportation [11] (i.e., in areas of quite intense dynamic loading).
Nevertheless, more works are devoted to welded joints of high-strength materials [12–14] and again
despite the fact that the notch effect arising from the weld geometry reduces its fatigue life to the level
of welded joints with lower values of yield strength.
Most works dealing with the fatigue tests of HSLA steel welded joints [12,15] use for fatigue
tests either butt welds or flat specimens to which a temperature cycle is applied. This is a little bit
strange, because most dynamically loaded structural units used in the field of land transportation
contain mainly fillet welds, despite their lower static and dynamic load capacity. Other works then
deal, e.g., with the influence of load cycle asymmetry—stress ratio R [16] or fatigue life prediction
using the energy approach [13].
The aim of the research described in the following sections, was to point out that there have not
been almost any papers published dealing with the welded joints from steel S460MC. Thus, the aim
was to assess the heat input influence on the fatigue life of fillet welded joints that are structurally
designed to match the joints commonly used in industrial production. As a result, complete S-N curves
were obtained at stress amplitudes corresponding to the range of loading cycles from 104 up to 107 .
Most authors studying the HSLA steel welds’ fatigue life usually focus on the butt welds from the
high-strength steels. If they deal with the fillet welds, there are performed fatigue tests at selected
stress amplitudes within the loading cycles from 105 up to 2 × 106 [17], and for the remaining stress
amplitudes are just used an approximation of the fatigue curves or there are used cruciform welds at
testing [18,19]. These welds are due to their symmetry of four fillet welds more suitable in light of our
own testing. However, they are completely unsuitable from the welding point of view, especially for
the fine-grained steels. In addition to that, very important is also knowledge about mutual proportion
among the yield strength, fatigue limit of the base material σc(BM) , and fatigue limit of the fillet welded
joint σc(W) from steel S460MC and its comparison with the (ultra) high-strength steels, presented by
other authors.

2. Tested Material and Experimental Methods

The major aim of the experimental part was to determine the influence of heat input from welding
on the fatigue life of welded joints. In the case of arc welding methods, heat input value is given by the
process parameters (welding current, voltage, welding speed, etc.) and therefore has a strong influence
on the weld pool geometry as well as on the size and structure of HAZ. Changes that occur in HAZ of
welds have a significant effect on the mechanical properties of our own welded joint, as well as on the
magnitude of the Charpy impact energy KV2 [4,6,9].
Nevertheless, studies on how these changes are affecting the fatigue life of S460MC fine-grained
steel fillet joints have not been published anywhere. In addition to that, this steel is very often used for
structures subjected to both static and dynamic loading. As examples there can be mentioned truss
structures of bridges, building cranes, axle parts of cars and trucks, or, e.g., various components of
rail vehicles.
Used steel S460MC is a fine-grained, thermomechanically processed structural steel with
a ferritic-pearlitic structure, as shown in Figure 1. It has a low content of carbon and elements
Metals 2020, 10, 1288 3 of 14

Metals
such as2020,
S 10,
andx FOR PEER
P, and REVIEW good
exhibits 3 of 14
weldability. Chemical composition of the tested steel S460MC
determined by the spectrometer Q4 TASMAN (Bruker, Germany) is shown in Table 1. Measured chemical
by the spectrometer Q4 TASMAN (Bruker, Germany) is shown in Table 1. Measured chemical
composition is in accordance with the standard EN 10149-2 indicating chemical composition of the
composition is in accordance with the standard EN 10149-2 indicating chemical composition of the
thermomechanically processed structural steels.
thermomechanically processed structural steels.
Table 1. Chemical composition of the tested material—steel S460MC.
Table 1. Chemical composition of the tested material—steel S460MC.
Chemical Element C Mn Si P S Nb W Ni V Cr Ti
Chemical Element C Mn Si P S Nb W Ni V Cr Ti
Composition [wt %] 0.07 1.32 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.08 0.01 0.01
Composition [wt %] 0.07 1.32 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.08 0.01 0.01

Figure 1. Metallographic
Metallographic structure of the base material—steel S460MC.

meangrain
Subsequently, the mean grainsize
sizeofof7.3
7.3µmµmwaswasdetermined
determined from
from thethe EBSD
EBSD analysis.
analysis. ThisThis is
is the
the average
average valuevalue obtained
obtained fromfrom
threethree measurements
measurements of areas
of areas 0.6 ×mm
0.6 mm 0.6 × 0.6 Table
mm. mm. Table 2 shows
2 shows the
the basic
basic mechanical
mechanical properties
properties measured
measured by the
by the static
static tensile
tensile testtest
andand
in in this
this caseare
case areresults
resultstaken
taken as
as the
average of five measurements.

Table 2. Basic mechanical properties of tested material—steel S460MC.

Mechanical Yield Strength Ultimate Tensile Strength Uniform Ductility Total

Total Ductility
Properties Yield Strength Ultimate
Re [MPa] Tensile Strength Uniform
Rm [MPa] Ag [%] Ductility A [%]
Mechanical Properties 30 Ductility
Re [MPa] Rm [MPa] Ag [%]
EN 10149-2 Min. 460 520–670 X Min. A
1730 [%]
Measured values
EN 10149-2 ± 17460
544Min. 629 ± 21
520–670 13.15 ± 0.42 X 29.03 ±Min.
0.91 17
Measured values 544 ± 17 629 ± 21 13.15 ± 0.42 29.03 ± 0.91
To assess the fatigue properties of the tested material, there was determined the S-N curve of the
To assess the
base material. Allfatigue
fatigueproperties ofbase
tests of the the tested material,
material there was determined
were performed the S-N curvetesting
on the servo-hydraulic of the
base material. All fatigue tests of the base material were performed on the servo-hydraulic
machine INOVA FU-O-1600-V2 (having maximum achievable force load as 100 kN, INOVA GmbH, testing
machine INOVA Germany)
Bad Schwalbach, FU-O-1600-V2
in the(having maximum
controlled achievable
force mode. For all force load as 100
experiments, kN,
there INOVA
were GmbH,
used samples
Bad Schwalbach, Germany) in the controlled force mode. For all experiments,
having a circular cross-section in accordance with standard EN 3987—see Figure 2. there were used
samples having a circular cross-section in accordance with standard EN 3987—see Figure 2.
Testing samples were subjected to the selected stress amplitudes under a fully reversed harmonic
cycle (purely alternating stress) with the stress ratio R = −1 (algebraic ratio of the minimum stress to
the maximum stress) and frequency 40 Hz. Testing frequency was chosen on the basis of previously
performed tests with the same type and geometry of testing sample. As a criterion, there was taken
a sufficiently high frequency at which the sample surface had not been heated up to yet. To properly
adjust such frequency, the sample surface was scanned by the infrared pyrometer Mikro-epsilon
CTLM-3H2CF2-C8H (Micro-Epsilon Messtechnik, Germany), having the temperature range from
−60 up to 200 ◦ C. This surface (with a shape and dimensions corresponding to Figure 2) was heated up at
frequency of 55 Hz. Own testing was performed at stress amplitudes 450 and 350 MPa. The magnitude
of the stress amplitudes was constant for every used stress level. As a criterion for terminating the
test, there was taken initialization of the fatigue crack or achieving so-called fatigue (endurance) limit
(a) (b)
Figure 2. (a) Dimensions and (b) 3D illustration of testing sample according to standard EN 3987.
(unit: mm).
 Total
Yield Strength Ultimate Tensile Strength Uniform Ductility
Mechanical Properties Ductility
Re [MPa] Rm [MPa] Ag [%]
A30 [%]
EN 10149-2 Min. 460 520–670 X Min. 17
Measured values 544 ± 17 629 ± 21 13.15 ± 0.42 29.03 ± 0.91
Metals 2020, 10, 1288 4 of 14
To assess the fatigue properties of the tested material, there was determined the S-N curve of the
Metals material.
base 2020, 10, x FOR
All PEER REVIEW
fatigue tests of the base material were performed on the servo-hydraulic testing 4 of 14
at 10 7 cycles, where the material can endure an infinite number of cycles without failure. A total of
machine INOVA FU-O-1600-V2 (having maximum achievable force load as 100 kN, INOVA GmbH,
21 Bad Testing
samples were
Schwalbach, samples
tested were subjected
under
Germany) the following
in the to the
controlled selected
stress stressFor
amplitudes
force mode. amplitudes
(levels): 450,under a fully
400, 375,
all experiments, there350, reversed
343,used
were 337.5,
harmonic
325samples
and 312.5 cycle
MPa.
having (purely alternating
Based upon
a circular stress)
these results,
cross-section with the stress
there was
in accordance ratio R =
subsequently
with −1
standard EN (algebraic
determinedratio of the minimum
the fatigue
3987—see Figure 2. limit of
stress
base material σc(BM) = 340
to theasmaximum stress)
MPa.andThe frequency
final S-N 40curve
Hz. Testing frequency
of the base wasischosen
material shownon in the basis3. of
Figure
previously performed tests with the same type and geometry of testing sample. As a criterion, there
was taken a sufficiently high frequency at which the sample surface had not been heated up to yet.
To properly adjust such frequency, the sample surface was scanned by the infrared pyrometer Mikro-
epsilon CTLM-3H2CF2-C8H (Micro-Epsilon Messtechnik, Germany), having the temperature range
from −60 up to 200 °C. This surface (with a shape and dimensions corresponding to Figure 2) was
heated up at frequency of 55 Hz. Own testing was performed at stress amplitudes 450 and 350 MPa.
The magnitude of the stress amplitudes was constant for every used stress level. As a criterion for
terminating the test, there was taken initialization of the fatigue crack or achieving so-called fatigue
(endurance) limit at 107 cycles, where the material can endure an infinite number of cycles without
failure. A total of 21 samples were tested under the following stress amplitudes (levels): 450, 400, 375,
350, 343, 337.5, 325 and 312.5(a) MPa. Based upon these results, there was subsequently (b) determined the
fatigue limit
Figure of base material as σ c(BM) = 340 MPa. The final S-N curve of the base material is shown in
Figure 2. 2.(a)(a)Dimensions
Dimensionsandand (b)
(b) 3D3D illustration
illustration of
of testing
testingsample
sampleaccording
accordingtoto
standard
standard ENEN3987.
3987.
Figure 3. mm).
(unit:
(unit: mm).

Figure3.3.S-N
Figure S-Ncurve
curve(semi-log
(semi-log scale) the base
scale) of the basematerial—steel
material—steelS460MC.
S460MC.

3. Welding ofof
3. Welding Testing Samples
Testing Samples
ForForourourownownexperimental
experimentaltesting,testing, double-sided fillet welds
double-sided fillet weldswere
werefirstly
firstlydesigned
designedand and then
then
assembled from semi-finished products having the following dimensions: 300
assembled from semi-finished products having the following dimensions: 300 mm × 190 mm × 10 mm mm × 190 mm × 10 mm
in the case
in the of of
case flange
flangeand
and300 mm××110
300mm 110mm mm×× 10 mm for for the
the web.
web.TheTheweb
webwaswasmilled
milled inin
thethe contact
contact
areas with
areas thethe
with flange
flangesosothat
thatthe
thecontact
contactbetween
between them was was even
evenalong
alongits
itsentire
entirelength.
length. After
After that,
that,
there
there waswas used
used semi-automaticMAG
semi-automatic MAGwelding
welding method
method in in the
thePAPAposition,
position,while
whilethe theangle
angle between
between
torch
torch andand flangewas
flange was30 ◦ . As
30°. As a filler
filler material,
material,there
therewas
was used
used anan
OKOK Autrod
Autrod 12.51 withwith
12.51 a diameter of
a diameter
of 1.2 mm and
1.2 mm and shielding
shielding gas gas M21
M21 according
accordingto toISO
ISO14175
14175withwithaaflow
flowrate
rate1515L·min
L·min . The
−1
−1
. The welding
welding
parameters were adjusted on the basis of the previous experiments so that the
parameters were adjusted on the basis of the previous experiments so that the heat input values for heat input values forthe
the individual welds reached the following magnitudes: 8, 9, 10, 12 and 14
individual welds reached the following magnitudes: 8, 9, 10, 12 and 14 kJ·cm . Heat input into the kJ·cm
−1 −1. Heat input into

theinweld
weld in the
the arc arc welding
welding method method
is given is as
given as the product
the product of voltage
of voltage and current,
and current, divided divided
by the by the
welding
welding speed. In the case of welding, unit kJ·cm −1 is most often used for the heat input value. For
speed. In the case of welding, unit kJ·cm−1 is most often used for the heat input value. For welding
welding was also used the power supply Migatronic BDH 550 Puls Sync in the synergic mode with
was also used the power supply Migatronic BDH 550 Puls Sync in the synergic mode with a distance
a distance between contact die and welding point as 14 mm. In Table 3, the major adjusted welding
between contact die and welding point as 14 mm. In Table 3, the major adjusted welding parameters are
parameters are shown, which were always the same for both weld beads on the relevant weld. For
shown, which were always the same for both weld beads on the relevant weld. For better readability,
Metals 2020, 10, 1288 5 of 14

notation of the individual samples was derived according to the heat input values (Q = 8, 9, 10, 12,
and 14 kJ·cm−1 )—thus as Weld Q8, Q9, Q10, Q12 and Q14.

Metals 2020, 10, x FOR

Table 3.PEER REVIEW
Process parameters adjusted on the power supply and linear automat. 5 of 14

better readability, notation of the individual

Current Welding samples
Speed was derived
Expected accordingCalculated
Voltage to the heatHeat
input values
Input
Weld Designation
I [A]
(Q = 8, 9, 10, 12, and 14 kJ·cm −1)—thusvas Weld −1
s [m·min ] Q9, Q10, U
Q8, [V]and Q14.
Q12 Q [J·cm−1 ]
Weld Q8 260 0.505 26.0 8.03
Weld Q9Table 3. Process
320parameters adjusted
0.600 on the power 28.1
supply and linear automat.8.99
Weld Q10 260 0.400 25.7 10.02
Weld Current Welding0.300Speed Expected23.9
Voltage Calculated Heat11.95Input
WeldQ12
Designation 250
Weld Q14 I
265 [A] v s [m·min
0.295
−1] U [V]
26.0 Q [J·cm −1]
14.01
Weld Q8 260 0.505 26.0 8.03
Weld Q9 320 0.600 28.1 8.99
Welding parameters
Weld Q10 were 260 monitored 0.400
by the system WeldMonitor
25.7 (DIGITAL
10.02 ELECTRIC, Brno,
Czech Republic)Weld Q12
at scanning 250
frequency 0.300 Table 4 shows
20 kHz. 23.9 11.95 values of voltage,
the measured effective
Weld Q14 265 0.295 26.0 14.01
current, and welding speed for all weld beads.
Welding parameters were monitored by the system WeldMonitor (DIGITAL ELECTRIC, Brno,
Table 4. Actual process parameters measured by the system WeldMonitor.
Czech Republic) at scanning frequency 20 kHz. Table 4 shows the measured effective values of
voltage, current, and welding speed for all weld
Effective beads.
Effective
Weld Number Real Welding Speed Heat Input
Current Voltage −1 ]
Designation Tableof4.Bead
Actual process parameters measured by the vsystem
s [m·min
WeldMonitor. Q [J·cm−1 ]
I [A] U [V]
1 264.1 Effective
25.5Effective 0.500 8.08
Weld Q8 Real Welding Speed Heat Input
Weld Designation 2Number of Bead
264.4 Current25.5 Voltage 0.496 8.16
vs [m·min−1] Q [J·cm−1]
I [A] U [V]
1 324.1 27.7 0.590 9.13
Weld Q9 1 264.1 25.5 0.500 8.08
Weld Q8 2 321.3 27.8 0.599 8.95
2 264.4 25.5 0.496 8.16
1 1 267.3 324.1 25.5 27.7 0.401
0.590 10.22
9.13
Weld Weld
Q10 Q9
2 2 265.1 321.3 25.6 27.8 0.406
0.599 10.03
8.95
1 1 252.5 267.3 23.1 25.5 0.401
0.296 10.22
11.82
WeldWeld
Q12 Q10 2 265.1 23.2 25.6 0.406 10.03
2 250.5 0.296 11.78
1 252.5 23.1 0.296 11.82
Weld Q12 1 267.4
Weld Q14 2 250.5 25.5 23.2 0.291
0.296 14.06
11.78
2 1 267.7 267.4 25.6 25.5 0.293
0.291 14.03
14.06
Weld Q14
2 267.7 25.6 0.293 14.03

Welds could dilate freely in the jig, which caused deformation of both web and flange. Because the
Welds could dilate freely in the jig, which caused deformation of both web and flange. Because
welded samples were loaded only in the flange direction, the angular deformation after the 1st and 2nd
the welded samples were loaded only in the flange direction, the angular deformation after the 1st
weld and
bead2nd
was measured
weld in measured
bead was accordance in with schematic
accordance with Figure 4. Totally,
schematic Figure 4.deformation was measured
Totally, deformation was at
11 points in the direction of weld length, á 30 mm (distance between individual points). Table 5 shows
measured at 11 points in the direction of weld length, á 30 mm (distance between individual points).
the average values of angular deformation after welding the 1st and 2nd weld bead.
Table 5 shows the average values of angular deformation after welding the 1st and 2nd weld bead.

Figure
Figure 4. Measurementof
4. Measurement ofthe
the angular
angular deformation
deformation after welding.
after welding.

Table 5. Magnitudes of the angular deformation for relevant welds.

Bead/Weld Weld Q8 Weld Q9 Weld Q10 Weld Q12 Weld Q14

Bead 1 (P1) 1.23 ± 0.17 1.43 ± 0.13 1.39 ± 0.11 1.41 ± 0.14 1.37 ± 0.14
Bead 2 (P2) 2.71 ± 0.15 3.21 ± 0.24 3.16 ± 0.18 3.18 ± 0.17 3.34 ± 0.26
Metals 2020, 10, 1288 6 of 14

Table 5. Magnitudes of the angular deformation for relevant welds.

Bead/Weld Weld Q8 Weld Q9 Weld Q10 Weld Q12 Weld Q14

Bead 1 (P1 ) 1.23 ± 0.17 1.43 ± 0.13 1.39 ± 0.11 1.41 ± 0.14 1.37 ± 0.14
Bead 2 (P2 ) 2.71 ± 0.15 3.21 ± 0.24 3.16 ± 0.18 3.18 ± 0.17 3.34 ± 0.26

4. Preparation of 10,
Metals 2020, Fatigue Testing
x FOR PEER REVIEW Samples and Geometrical Evaluation of Welds 6 of 14

Metals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 14

For all welded joints,
4. Preparation the initial
of Fatigue Testing35 mm and
Samples and final 35 mmEvaluation
Geometrical of weld of length
Weldswere removed so that the
samples supposed
4. Preparation to determine
For all weldedof Fatigue fatigue
Testing
joints, the 35life
mmwere
initialSamples andfinal
and taken
Geometrical
35 mm from thelength
ofEvaluation
weld steady temperature
ofwere
Welds removed so that field.
the From this
area, testing samples
samples
For supposed
for fatigue
all weldedtojoints,
determine lifefatigue
the initial
tests
35 mm
were
life were
and
cut out
taken
final
with
35 from
mm of theasteady
weld
width ofwere
18 removed
temperature
length
mm, as so
field. it that
is schematically
From this
the
shown in area,
Figure
samplestesting
5a.samples
Because
supposed to for fatiguewas
there
determine life tests
effort
fatigue were
life tocut
were loadoutthe
taken with
from athe
width
samples ofin18
steady mm,flange
the as it isfield.
temperature schematically
direction
From this for our own
shown in Figure 5a. Because therelifewas effort to cut
loadoutthe samples in the flange
mm,direction for our own
cyclic loading experiments,
area, testing samples thefatigue
for web was removed
tests were at a with
sufficient
a width distance
of 18 from
as it isthe weld. To avoid the
schematically
cyclic
shown loading experiments,
incutting
Figure 5a. Because the webwas
there waseffort
removedto loadat athe
sufficient
samples distance
in the from the
flange weld. To
direction foravoid
our the
own
notch effect after
notch effect after the testing
cutting the material,
testing edges
material, of each
edges of sample
each sample were were machined
machined by
by surface
surface grinding
cyclic loading experiments, the web was removed at a sufficient distance from the weld. To avoid the
under intense
grinding cooling
under to avoid
intense negative
cooling to avoid thermal
negative influence.
thermal An
influence.
notch effect after cutting the testing material, edges of each sample were machined by surface
example
An of
example the
of actual
the actual completely
completely
prepared testing
grindingsample prepared
under intense testing
is subsequently
coolingsample is subsequently
shown
to avoid in Figure
negative shown
thermal in Figureanalysis
5b. influence.
Modal 5b. example
An Modalusinganalysis using Autodesk
of software
the actual
software Autodesk Fusion 360 (version 2.0.9006, Autodesk, Mill Valley, USA) was performed for the
Fusion 360completely
(version prepared
2.0.9006,testing
Autodesk, sampleMill is subsequently
Valley, CA,shown USA)inwas Figure 5b. Modal for
performed analysis using
the designed shape
designed shape andFusion
software Autodesk clamping 360 method. It was found
(version 2.0.9006, that natural
Autodesk, frequency
Mill Valley, USA)ofwas theperformed
sample was for17.4
the
and clamping
kHz, method.
which It was
was significantly found that natural frequency of the sample was 17.4 kHz, which was
designed shape and clampinghigher thanItthe
method. wasfinally
foundapplied loading
that natural frequency
frequency of (20
theHz).
sample was 17.4
significantly higher than the finally applied loading frequency (20 Hz).
kHz, which was significantly higher than the finally applied loading frequency (20 Hz).

(a) (b)

Figure 5.Figure
Cyclic5. testing: (a) cutting
Cyclic testing:
(a) (a) cutting
ofoftesting
testing samples;
samples; (b)(b) (b)
completely prepared
completely testing sample.
prepared testing sample.
Figure 5. Cyclic testing: (a) cutting of testing samples; (b) completely prepared testing sample.
Moreover, a geometrical evaluation of both weld beads was performed as it is schematically
Moreover, a geometrical evaluation of both weld beads was performed as it is schematically
shown in Figurea6 geometrical
Moreover, for all welds.evaluation
There wasofmeasured thebeads
both weld actualwas
throat thickness
performed asofit the fillet weld a,
is schematically
shown in weld
Figure 6 for all welds. There was measured the actual throat thickness of the fillet weld
shown in Figure 6 for all welds. There was measured the actual throat thickness of the fillet weldby
width w, and the maximal penetration depth x. Possible weld asymmetry is expressed a,
a, weld width w,
dimensions and
Z the
1 and Zmaximal penetration
2. In addition to that, theredepth
was x.
also Possible
measured theweld asymmetry
width
weld width w, and the maximal penetration depth x. Possible weld asymmetry is expressed by of the is expressed by
heat-affected
zone
dimensions Z1(HAZ)
and ZZin21 .and
dimensions the flange
In addition direction that
to that,
Z2. In addition to is there
marked
there
that, was
wasas HAZf,
also
also and in the
measured
measured the web
thewidthdirection
width of of
thethe marked as
heat-affected
heat-affected zone
HAZw. The last measured quantity was the radius between the base material and weld on the flange
(HAZ) in zone
the flange
(HAZ) in direction
the flangethat is marked
direction as HAZf,
that is marked and and
as HAZf, in the web
in the webdirection marked
direction marked as as HAZw.
side marked
HAZw. as R.measured quantity was the radius between the base material and weld on the flange
Thequantity
last
The last measured was the radius between the base material and weld on the flange side
side marked as R.
marked as R.

Figure 6. Schematic illustration of the geometrically evaluated quantities of weld.

Figure 6.Figure 6. Schematic

Schematic illustration
illustration ofofthe
the geometrically
geometrically evaluated quantities
evaluated of weld. of weld.
quantities
Metals 2020, 10, 1288 7 of 14

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14
In Table 6 are summarized the geometrical quantities for all weld beads and heat input values.
Subsequently,
In Tablein6the
arefollowing figures
summarized (Figures 7–11)
the geometrical are graphically
quantities shown
for all weld theand
beads metallographic samples
heat input values.
of all welds, including
Subsequently, in thegeometrical evaluation
following figures in accordance
(Figures with Figureshown
7–11) are graphically 6. the metallographic
samples of all welds, including geometrical evaluation in accordance with Figure 6.
Table 6. Geometrical evaluation of the monitored weld beads.
Table
Table 6.
6. Geometrical
Geometrical evaluation
evaluation of
of the
the monitored
monitored weld
weld beads.
beads.
Measured Parameter [mm]
Weld Designation Number of Bead Measured Parameter [mm]
a x Measured
w Z1 Parameter
Z2 [mm] HAZw
HAZf R
Weld
Weld Designation
Designation Number
Number of
of Bead
Bead
aa xx w
w Z
Z 11 Z
Z 22 HAZf
HAZf HAZw
HAZw R
R1.27
1 3.80 5.04 7.60 5.50 5.25 1.36 1.22
Weld Q8
Weld
Weld Q8
Q8 21
1 3.80
3.80
3.86 5.04
5.04
5.40 7.60
7.60
7.77 5.50
5.50
5.74 5.25
5.25
5.23 1.36
1.36
1.34 1.22
1.22
1.34 1.27
1.27
1.28
22 3.86
3.86 5.40
5.40 7.77
7.77 5.74
5.74 5.23
5.23 1.34
1.34 1.34
1.34 1.28
1.28
1 4.07 7.20 8.13 5.59 5.91 1.48 1.37 1.25
Weld Q9
Weld
Weld Q9
Q9 21
1 4.07
4.07
4.02 7.20
7.20
7.38 8.13
8.05 5.59
8.13 5.85 5.91
5.59 5.52 1.48
5.91 1.48
1.43 1.37
1.37
1.03 1.25
1.25
1.21
22 4.02
4.02 7.38
7.38 8.05
8.05 5.85
5.85 5.52
5.52 1.43
1.43 1.03
1.03 1.21
1.21
1 4.11 5.41 8.24 6.10 5.54 1.54 1.44 1.45
Weld Q10 1 4.11 5.41 8.24 6.10 5.54 1.54 1.44 1.45
Weld
Weld Q10
Q10 21 4.11
4.27 5.41
5.87 8.24
8.56 6.10
6.31 5.545.80 1.54
1.41 1.44
1.34 1.45
1.49
22 4.27
4.27 5.87
5.87 8.56
8.56 6.31
6.31 5.80
5.80 1.41
1.41 1.34
1.34 1.49
1.49
1 4.73 5.81 9.48 6.95 6.46 1.87 1.61 0.98
Weld Q12 1 4.73 5.81 9.48 6.95 6.46 1.87 1.61 0.98
Weld
Weld Q12
Q12 21 4.73
4.51 5.81
5.28 9.48
9.13 6.95
7.01 6.465.86 1.87
1.65 1.61
1.56 0.98
1.02
22 4.51
4.51 5.28
5.28 9.13
9.13 7.01
7.01 5.86
5.86 1.65
1.65 1.56
1.56 1.02
1.02
1 5.12 6.88 10.21 7.28 7.17 1.81 1.84 0.94
Weld Q14 1 5.12 6.88 10.21 7.28 7.17 1.81 1.84 0.94
Weld
Weld Q14
Q14 21 5.12
5.17 6.88
6.82 10.21
10.34 7.28
7.49 7.177.15 1.81
1.94 1.84
1.78 0.94
1.07
22 5.17
5.17 6.82
6.82 10.34
10.34 7.49
7.49 7.15
7.15 1.94
1.94 1.78
1.78 1.07
1.07

Figure
Figure
Figure 7.
7. Metallographic sample
sampleofof
Metallographicsample
7. Metallographic Weld
ofWeld Q8
WeldQ8 (Q
(Q=== 888 kJ·cm
Q8(Q kJ·cm−1
−1)—1st
−1
)—1stbead
)—1st bead(right)
bead (right) and
and
(right) 2nd
2nd
and bead
bead
2nd (left).
(left).
bead (left).

Figure
Figure 8.
8. Metallographic sample
sampleofof
Metallographicsample Weld
ofWeld Q9
WeldQ9 (Q
(Q=== 999 kJ·cm
Q9(Q kJ·cm −1)—1st
kJ·cm−1 )—1st bead (right) and 2nd bead (left).
)—1stbead
bead(right) and 2nd bead (left).
−1
Figure 8. Metallographic (right) and 2nd bead (left).
Metals 2020, 10, 1288 8 of 14
Metals
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10, xxx FOR
FOR PEER
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14
Metals 2020, 10, FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 14

Figure
Figure
Figure 9.
9. Metallographic
9. Metallographic
Metallographic sample
sampleofof
sample Weld
ofWeld Q10
WeldQ10 (Q
(Q==== 10
Q10(Q 10 kJ·cm
kJ·cm−1
kJ·cm −1)—1st
−1
−1 )—1st
)—1st bead (right)
bead
bead and
(right)
(right) 2nd
andand bead
2nd2nd (left).
bead
bead (left).
(left).
Figure 9. Metallographic sample of Weld Q10 (Q 10 kJ·cm )—1st bead (right) and 2nd bead (left).

Figure 10. Metallographic sample of Weld Q12 (Q = 12 kJ·cm−1

Figure 10. Metallographic sampleofof
ofWeld
WeldQ12
Q12(Q
(Q=== 12 −1)—1st bead (right) and 2nd bead (left).
12 kJ·cm
kJ·cm )—1st bead (right) and 2nd2nd
bead (left).
Figure
Figure 10. 10. Metallographic
Metallographic sample
sample Weld Q12 (Q kJ·cm−1−1
)—1st
)—1stbead (right)
bead and
(right) 2nd
and bead (left).
bead (left).

Figure
Figure 11.
11. Metallographic
Metallographic sample
sample of
of Weld
Weld Q14
Q14 (Q
(Q == 14
14 kJ·cm
−1)—1st bead (right) and 2nd bead (left).
kJ·cm−1
−1)—1st bead (right) and 2nd bead (left).
Figure
Figure 11. 11. Metallographic
Metallographic sampleofofWeld
sample WeldQ14
Q14(Q
(Q== 14
14 kJ·cm )—1st
kJ·cm−1 )—1stbead (right)
bead and
(right) 2nd2nd
and bead (left).
bead (left).
5.
5. Fatigue
Fatigue Life
Life Determination for
Determinationfor Tested
forTested Fillet
TestedFillet Welds
Fillet Welds
Welds
5. Fatigue
5. Fatigue Life
Life Determination
Determination for Tested Fillet Welds
As
As in
in the
the case
case of
of the
the base material,
material,aaaaservo-hydraulic
basematerial, servo-hydraulic
servo-hydraulic testing
testing machine
machine INOVA
INOVA FU-O-1600-V2
FU-O-1600-V2
As As in
in the the
casecase
of of
thethe base
base material, servo-hydraulic testing
testingmachine
machine INOVA
INOVA FU-O-1600-V2
FU-O-1600-V2
(INOVA GmbH,
(INOVA GmbH,
GmbH, Bad Bad Schwalbach,
Bad Schwalbach, Germany)
Schwalbach, Germany)
Germany) in in the
in the controlled
the controlled force
controlled force mode
force mode was
mode was used
was used to
to determine
used to determine the
the
(INOVA
(INOVA GmbH, Bad Schwalbach, Germany) in the controlled force mode was determine
used the
to determine
fatigue
fatigue life
life of
of welded
welded joints.
joints. Based
Based upon
upon the
the results
results of
of the
the initial
initial fatigue
fatigue tests
tests (for
(for base
base material),
material), the
the
the fatigue
fatiguelife
lifeofofwelded
welded joints. Based
joints. upon
Based uponthe the
results of the
results ofinitial fatigue
the initial tests (for
fatigue base
tests (formaterial), the
base material),
the samples were loaded under the following stress amplitudes: 300, 240, 170, 152.5, 135, 117.5, 100,
Metals 2020, 10, 1288 9 of 14

82.5, Metals
74 and 6510,
2020, MPa.
x FORFurthermore,
PEER REVIEW in this case, all samples were subjected to a fully reversed 9harmonic of 14

cycle (purely alternating stress) with stress ratio R = −1. Compared to the fatigue testing of the base
samples were loaded under the following stress amplitudes: 300, 240, 170, 152.5, 135, 117.5, 100, 82.5,
material, the loading frequency was lower by 20 Hz due to the larger cross-section area of testing
74 and 65 MPa. Furthermore, in this case, all samples were subjected to a fully reversed harmonic
samples—thus
cycle (purely also higher force
alternating stress)amplitudes.
with stress ratio ThisRcauses an increase
= −1. Compared of fatigue
to the the strain rateofinthe
testing thebase
sample,
which material, the loading frequency was lower by 20 Hz due to the larger cross-section area of testing base
led to a heating of the sample surface under a frequency of 40 Hz. As in the case of the
material, there were
samples—thus alsofirstly
higher carried out primary
force amplitudes. tests
This of samples
causes an increase with double-sided
of the strain rate in fillet welds and
the sample,
having corresponding
which led to a heating dimensions and asurface
of the sample preparation
under amethod
frequency thatofwas subsequently
40 Hz. As in the case used forbase
of the our own
material, there were firstly carried out primary tests of samples with
experiment. The grinded surface of the sample was again scanned by an infrared pyrometer on the double-sided fillet welds and
having
interface corresponding
between the weld dimensions
bead and andbase
a preparation
material.method that was subsequently
Such primary testing wasused for our own
performed at stress
amplitudes 300 and 175 MPa. The same test termination criteria were also used in this kindonofthe
experiment. The grinded surface of the sample was again scanned by an infrared pyrometer fatigue
interface between the weld bead and base material. Such primary testing 7 was performed at stress
test—fatigue crack initialization or achieving the fatigue limit at 10 cycles, where testing material
amplitudes 300 and 175 MPa. The same test termination criteria were also used in this kind of fatigue
does not show a distinct fatigue limit σC .
test—fatigue crack initialization or achieving the fatigue limit at 107 cycles, where testing material
Identification
does not show of the crack
a distinct initiation
fatigue limit σwasC.
realized on the basis of setting the testing machine INOVA
FU-O-1600V2 control program.
Identification of the crack The criterion
initiation of realized
was the so-called
on theunstable
basis of increase
setting the of deformation
testing machine during
the test was chosen to terminate our own testing procedure. This
INOVA FU-O-1600V2 control program. The criterion of the so-called unstable increase of criterion is based on the continuous
monitoring of theduring
deformation sample thedeformation
test was chosen (to beto specific,
terminateits ourdeviation)
own testing necessary
procedure. to achieve the required
This criterion is
based
loading on the
force. Such continuous
monitored monitoring of the sample
strain magnitude deformation
is averaged from (to
thebe lastspecific,
500 test itscycles
deviation)
and thus
allowsnecessary to achieveof
the elimination thethe
required loading force.
strengthening Such monitored
or recovery effect ofstrain magnitude
the sample is averaged
without from
termination of
the last 500 test cycles and thus allows the elimination of the strengthening
the test. The testing procedure was terminated when deformation revealed an abnormal increase or recovery effect of the
sample without termination of the test. The testing procedure was terminated when deformation
of more than 20% compared to the average of the last 500 cycles. After termination of every test,
revealed an abnormal increase of more than 20% compared to the average of the last 500 cycles. After
there was loaded a course force vs. displacement by return, from which it was possible to identify the
termination of every test, there was loaded a course force vs. displacement by return, from which it
moment of cracktoinitialization.
was possible identify the momentIn all cases
of crackpresented in this
initialization. paper,
In all cases crack
presented in the jointpaper,
in this was crack
identified
after in
test termination.
the joint was identified after test termination.
All welds
All welds were were loaded
loadedininthe theflange
flange direction,
direction, asasititisisschematically
schematically shownshown in Figure
in Figure 12. 12.
Subsequently,
Subsequently, Table 7 then
Table gives
7 then anan
gives overview
overviewaboutabout fatigue testresults
fatigue test resultsforforallall tested
tested welds.
welds.

Figure Shape
12.12.
Figure Shapeadjustment
adjustment and loadingmode
and loading modeofof fatigue
fatigue tests.
tests.

Table 7. Cycles to failure Nf in dependence on stress amplitudes σA for the monitored welds.
Table 7. Cycles to failure Nf in dependence on stress amplitudes σA for the monitored welds.

Stress
Stress Amplitude
Amplitude CyclestotoFailure
Cycles FailureNN f [1]
f [1]

σA [MPa]
σA [MPa] Weld
Weld Q8Q8 Weld
WeldQ9 Q9 Weld
Weld Q10 Weld Weld Q12 Weld
WeldQ14Q14
300 300 10,436
10,436 10,398
10,398 10,513
10,513 10,279
10,279 10,187
10,187
240 240 31,093
31,093 30,268
30,268 31,825
31,825 29,245
29,245 28,451
28,451
170 170 74,840
74,840 67,417
67,417 86,153
86,153 55,668
55,668 59,627
59,627
152.5152.5 111,389
111,389 103,284
103,284 135,381 95,676
95,676 102,477
102,477
135 135 167,536
167,536 132,982
132,982 201,117 190,961
190,961 163,448
163,448
117.5117.5 242,359
242,359 236,172
236,172 346,740 173,615
173,615 173,397
173,397
100 100 1,057,662
1,057,662 515,809
515,809 546,096 359,291
359,291 253,974
253,974
82.5 82.5 1,147,041
1,147,041 813,423
813,423 793,318
793,318 701,936
701,936 660,143
660,143
74 74 6,356,012
6,356,012 3,983,642 3,011,738
3,983,642 3,011,738 2,451,977
2,451,977 2,282,815
2,282,815
65 65 >10 7
>107 >10 7
>107 >10
>107
7 >10
>107
7
>10>10
7
7
Metals 2020, 10, 1288
x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 14

In all cases, the location of the fatigue failure of the testing sample was determined, and the crack
In all cases,
was initiated the interface
at the location of the fatigue
between failure and
the flange of the
thetesting
weld sample
bead, aswas it isdetermined,
obvious fromand the crack
Figure 13a
was
for Weld Q12 (stress amplitude σA = 300 MPa) and in Figure 13b for Weld Q12 (stress amplitude σ13a
initiated at the interface between the flange and the weld bead, as it is obvious from Figure A=
for Weld Q12 (stress amplitude σ A = 300 MPa) and in Figure 13b for Weld Q12
74 MPa). In all fatigue failures, the crack grew perpendicularly to the loading force direction. In (stress amplitude
σA = 74 MPa).
addition to that,Ina fatigue
all fatigue failures,
limit σC = 65 the
MPacrackwas grew perpendicularly
determined for all filletto the loading
welds, force direction.
which represents only
In addition to that, a fatigue limit σ C = 65 MPa was determined for
20% of the fatigue (endurance) limit σC measured for the unaffected base material. all fillet welds, which represents
only 20% of the fatigue (endurance) limit σC measured for the unaffected base material.

(a) (b)
Figure 13.Location
Figure13. Locationof
ofcrack
crackinitialization
initializationfor
forWeld
WeldQ12: (a)σσAA == 300 MPa; (b) σA
Q12:(a) =74
A = 74MPa.
MPa.

Results
Results summarized
summarized in in Table
Table 77 were
were subsequently
subsequently plotted
plotted in
in the
the S-N
S-N curves
curves (log-log
(log-log scale)
scale) to
to
determine fatigue characteristics via their approximation according to the so-called
determine fatigue characteristics via their approximation according to the so-called Basquin’s Basquin’s equation
(Equation (1)):
equation (Equation (1)):
σA = σf ·(2Nf )b (1)
σA = σf·(2Nf)b (1)
In Equation (1), σf (MPa) is the fatigue strength coefficient and b (1) is the fatigue strength exponent.
In Equation
By these (1), σf quantities
approximation (MPa) is the
can fatigue strength the
be characterized coefficient and bof(1)the
whole course is fatigue
the fatigue strength
life (via stress
exponent. By these approximation quantities can be characterized the whole course
amplitude σA as the independent variable) vs. cycles to failure Nf (independent variable). However, of the fatigue life
(via
in thisstress
caseamplitude
are insteadσof A as the independent variable) vs. cycles to failure Nf (independent variable).
cycles to failure Nf are used so-called reversals to failure—thus 2Nf .
However, in this case are instead ofmathematically
Generally, Basquin’s equation cycles to failure Nf arethe
means used so-calledfunction.
power-law reversalsBecause
to failure—thus
of better
2N f.
clearness (specially to cover large values of reversals to failure), in graphs this equation is shown
Generally,
in log-log scales,Basquin’s
thus as theequation
linear mathematically
function. In Table means
8 are the power-law function.
summarized results ofBecause of better
fatigue strength
clearness (specially to cover large values of reversals to failure),
coefficient σf and fatigue strength exponent b for monitored heat input values. in graphs this equation is shown in
log-log scales, thus as the linear function. In Table 8 are summarized results of fatigue strength
coefficient
Table 8.σfValues
and fatigue strength
of fatigue exponent
strength coefficientbσfor monitored
f and heat input
fatigue strength values.
exponent b (computed according
to Basquin’s equation) for the monitored fillet welds.
Table 8. Values of fatigue strength coefficient σf and fatigue strength exponent b (computed according
toWeld
Basquin’s Average
equation) for Heat InputfilletFatigue
the monitored welds. Strength Coefficient Fatigue Strength Exponent
Designation −1
Q [kJ·cm ] σf [MPa] b [1]
Weld
Weld Q8 Average Heat Input
8.12 Fatigue Strength
2715 Coefficient
± 293 Fatigue −0.230
Strength Exponent
± 0.020
Weld Q9
Designation Q [kJ·cm−1]9.04 3534 ± 359
σf [MPa] −0.255 ± 0.021
b [1]
WeldWeld
Q8 Q10 8.12 10.13 27154427 ± 304
± 293 −0.270±±0.020
−0.230 0.015
Weld Q12 11.80 4438 ± 419 −0.276 ± 0.021
WeldWeld
Q9 Q14 9.04 14.05 35344704
± 359
± 481
−0.255 ± 0.021
−0.281 ± 0.023
Weld Q10 10.13 4427 ± 304 −0.270 ± 0.015
Weld Q12 11.80 4438 ± 419 −0.276 ± 0.021
6. Discussion
Weld Q14 14.05 4704 ± 481 −0.281 ± 0.023
The welding heat input strongly affects the basic mechanical properties (e.g., such as yield strength,
6. Discussion
ultimate tensile strength, and ductility) of fine-grained steels [4,6,20,21]. Higher heat input values
causeThe
a longer
weldingexposition to high
heat input temperatures,
strongly which
affects the basicmeans more intense
mechanical changes
properties (e.g., that
suchcan
as occur
yield
in HAZ of welds. In addition to that, these changes influence not only the mechanical properties,
strength, ultimate tensile strength, and ductility) of fine-grained steels [4,6,20,21]. Higher heat input
but alsocause
values have aa longer
very significant
expositioneffect on the
to high notch toughness
temperatures, whichvalue
means[4,6,22].
more intense changes that can
Metals Metals 2020,
2020, 10, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW
1288 11 of 14
11 of 14

occur in HAZ of welds. In addition to that, these changes influence not only the mechanical
properties,
In additionbut toalso
thehave a verythat
changes significant
occur effect
in the on HAZ,
the notch toughness
other aspectsvalue
also[4,6,22].
have an effect on the
reduction of fatigue life in the case of cyclic loading. Especially importanthave
In addition to the changes that occur in the HAZ, other aspects also is theaneffect
effectofonthe
theweld
reduction of fatigue life in the case of cyclic loading. Especially important is the effect of the weld
bead geometry, because it defines the notch effect at cyclic loading as well as, e.g., the magnitude of
bead geometry, because it defines the notch effect at cyclic loading as well as, e.g., the magnitude of
angular deformations after welding, causing occurrence of the combined stress (tension, compression,
angular deformations after welding, causing occurrence of the combined stress (tension,
and bending).
compression, Toand
define the influence
bending). To define theof the individual
influence aspects mentioned
of the individual aboveabove
aspects mentioned is very difficult
is very
underdifficult
dynamic loading,
under dynamic especially
loading,inespecially
the case in of the
filletcase
welds. To keep
of fillet welds.the Toboundary conditions as
keep the boundary
accurate as possible, all samples used for fatigue tests had exactly the same dimensions,
conditions as accurate as possible, all samples used for fatigue tests had exactly the same dimensions, grinded
edgesgrinded
with theedgessamewithsurface
the roughness,
same surface and completely
roughness, andidentical loading
completely conditions
identical loading(clamping
conditionsforce,
(clamping
frequency, sampleforce, frequency,
centering sample
in jaws, andcentering
so on). in jaws, and so
Regarding theon). Regarding
actual knowledgethe actual knowledge
in the in
field of welding
the fieldthermomechanically
fine-grained of welding fine-grained thermomechanically
processed processed
structural steels, therestructural
would be steels, there awould
expected be of
reduction
expected
the welded a reduction
joint of the
fatigue life welded
with joint fatigue
increasing life with
heat input increasing
value. heat input value.
This assumption Thisconfirmed
is also assumption in this
is also confirmed in this research by the slope of linear fitting, as shown in Figure 14, expressed via
research by the slope of linear fitting, as shown in Figure 14, expressed via values σf and b computed
values σf and b computed from Basquin’s equation (linear fitting of measured data from Table 7). The
from Basquin’s equation (linear fitting of measured data from Table 7). The lowest slope (b = −0.230)
lowest slope (b = −0.230) was computed for tested welded joints with the heat input of Q = 8 kJ·cm−1.
was computed
Generally for tested
stated, the welded
higher thejoints
heatwith
inputthe heat the
value, input = 8slope
of Qthe
higher kJ·cmof−1the
. Generally stated, These
obtained trends. the higher
the heat input value, the higher the slope of the obtained trends. These results
results are usually used by designers when designing the maximal allowable loads of different steel are usually used by
designers
welded when designing the maximal allowable loads of different steel welded structures.
structures.

Figure 14. S-N

Figure curves
14. S-N (log-log
curves scale)—graphical
(log-log scale)—graphical comparison
comparison ofofthe
themeasured
measured trends
trends (linear
(linear fitting
fitting
according
according to Basquin’s
to Basquin’s equation)
equation) forfor filletwelds
fillet weldswith
with different
different heat
heatinput
inputvalues.
values.

However,
However, fromfrom Figure
Figure 14 is14also
is also evident
evident thatthat different
different slopes
slopes ofof fittedlinear
fitted lineartrends
trendsnonolonger
longer fully
confirm the assumption about reduction in the fatigue life with increasing heat input valuein
fully confirm the assumption about reduction in the fatigue life with increasing heat input value in the
wholethe whole range of applied stress amplitudes. In the area of limited life, and especially in its initial
range of applied stress amplitudes. In the area of limited life, and especially in its initial phase
phase at higher stress amplitudes σA (up to 225 MPa), better results were achieved with higher heat
at higher stress amplitudes σA (up to 225 MPa), better results were achieved with higher heat input
input values—thus for Q10, Q12, and Q14. This would correspond to weldments with an expected
values—thus for Q10, Q12, and Q14. This would correspond to weldments with an expected number
number of cycles not exceeding 45,000 cycles. On the other hand, from this value slopes of applied
of cycles not exceeding
linear trends behave 45,000 cycles.
according On theoretical
to the the other hand, from this
assumptions. value slopes
A partial of applied
exception linear trends
can be observed
behave according
only toofthe
in the case thetheoretical assumptions.
trend determined for WeldA partial
Q10, where exception canthe
are achieved be lower
observed only
values in the case
of fatigue
of thelife—lower
trend determined
than 162 MPafor compared
Weld Q10, to where
Weld Q8 are achieved
and lower even thethan
lower values
83 MPa of fatigue
compared life—lower
to Weld Q9.
ThisMPa
than 162 partial anomaly is
compared toprobably
Weld Q8caused by theeven
and lower giventhan
weld83 geometry, as shownto
MPa compared in Weld
Table Q9.
6, where
Thisthepartial
highest value of radius R was measured for Weld Q10 at the interface between
anomaly is probably caused by the given weld geometry, as shown in Table 6, where the highest value the weld and flange.
Thus,Rthere
of radius was is partially reduced
measured for Weld theQ10
notchat effect as a stress
the interface concentrator
between underand
the weld cyclic loading.
flange. Thus, there is
However, taking into account the error measurement of the fatigue strength coefficient and
partially reduced the notch effect as a stress concentrator under cyclic loading.
especially the fatigue strength exponent, as shown in Table 8, which vary from 6% to 9% for the
However, taking into account the error measurement of the fatigue strength coefficient and
individual heat input values, it can be stated that heat input value does not influence the change of
especially the fatigue strength exponent, as shown in Table 8, which vary from 6% to 9% for the
individual heat input values, it can be stated that heat input value does not influence the change
of fatigue limit in the low cycle fatigue area. On the other hand, influence of the heat input can be
observed in the high cycle fatigue area, where the difference of fatigue limit σc(W) for curves with the
heat input value Q = 8 kJ·cm−1 and Q = 14 kJ·cm−1 is about 30%, even when the maximal overlap
Metals 2020, 10, 1288 12 of 14

confidence intervals are taken into account. Based on the above findings, it could be expected that
heat input value will also affect the magnitude of the fatigue limit σc(W) . Nevertheless, as it is shown
in Table 7, this magnitude of σc(W) for cycles to failure Nf > 107 was the same (65 MPa) for all tested
heat input values. Based upon the cycles to failure measured at stress amplitude σA = 74 MPa, it can
be assumed that for welded joints having lower heat input values, the fatigue limit would be reached
even at stress amplitudes higher than 65 MPa.
Comparing the obtained results with other similar works, it can be stated that different research
works in the field of HSLA steels’ fatigue life are carried out by many researchers, but not for fillet
welds. Šebestová et al. [10], determining the fatigue life of welds for S460MC and S700MC steels,
performed by the Laser-hybrid method, measured for base material steel 460MC a fatigue limit of
σc = 310 MPa and fatigue limits of butt welds (in dependence on the heat input value) of about 100 MPa.
The fatigue limit of base material was lower by 30 MPa than fatigue limit σc measured here. The reason
for that was most likely the square cross-section area of the testing samples, where fatigue cracks
can more easily initiate in the corners of the sample. The fatigue (endurance) limit of butt welds is
usually 2 to 3 times higher than that of fillet welds. Lahtinen et al. [12] tested fatigue properties of
butt welds made of S700MC steel and welded by the MAG method. The effect of the input heat was
there expressed by a different time value t8/5 . As in our case, it was confirmed that the effect of the
heat input value (expressed by the slope of fitting linear trends arising from the measured values) has
a much higher influence just at lower stress amplitudes corresponding to the cycles to failure of about
180,000 cycles.
Another important finding is also the mutual ratio between the yield strength of tested material Re ,
fatigue limit of the base material σc(BM) , and fatigue limit of the welded joint σc(W) . These ratios are for the
tested material S460MC as follows: σc(BM) /Re = 0.625; σc(W) /Re = 0.119; and σc(W) /σc(BM) = 0.193. For steel
S700MC they are: σc(BM) /Re = 0.583 [14]; σc(W) /Re = 0.102 [17]; and σc(W) /σc(BM) = 0.171. From these
ratios it is evident that applications of materials with higher yield strength does not automatically
mean achieving relatively higher values of welded joint fatigue life. Therefore, it is very important to
consider other aspects, such as the structural design of joints, welding parameters influencing weld
geometry (notch effect), as well as our own welding method causing angular deformation.

7. Conclusions
Fine-grained HSLA steels, and especially steels with yield strength lower than 550 MPa,
are nowadays founding a wide range of their applications—mainly in the automotive industry.
The major reason for that rests in constant deformation behavior of these materials during cold
forming. Stability of the properties is given by the chemical composition of these steels, monitored
mainly due to the carbon content and used micro-alloys. Both thermomechanically processed steels
with a higher yield strength and thermomechanically processed steels with a lower yield strength
require specific welding procedures, and in particular, with regard to reduction of the heat input
value. Major experimentally obtained knowledge about solved issues can be summarized in the
following points:
1. Circular and rectangular cross-sections areas of testing samples in accordance with standard EN
3987 can be used to determine the fatigue properties of the base material. However, it should be
taken into account that due to the shape of their cross-section areas, magnitudes of the fatigue
limit σC(BM) can varied by up to 10%.
2. Welded joints significantly reduce fatigue properties both in the area of limited fatigue life and
infinite life—fatigue limit σC(W) . In the case of steel S460MC and a double-sided fillet weld,
the fatigue limit was reduced by 80%. Interestingly, this reduction is even higher in the case
of welds from materials with higher yield strengths and values of the fatigue limit σC(W) are
approaching each other.
3. The biggest influence on such a significant reduction of σC is mainly given by the notch effect
of the fillet weld. Influence of the heat input value on the fatigue limit σc was not determined,
Metals 2020, 10, 1288 13 of 14

because in all cases was achieved σC(W) = 65 MPa. The reason may be too rough a step at applied
stress amplitudes (74 and 65 MPa).
4. However, the heat input value was reflected in the area of limited fatigue life. Nevertheless,
this effect is not uniform over all monitored stress amplitudes. At higher stress amplitudes, such an
effect is very small. If the measurement errors are taken into account, there can be stated that the
heat input influence does not take effect in the low cycle fatigue test. At low stress amplitudes
(σA = 82.5 and 74 MPa), the effect is already significant and differences between welds with the
heat input value Q = 8 kJ·cm−1 and Q = 14 kJ·cm−1 are 42% and 64% (again in light of cycles to
failure), respectively. In the case of comparing the values of approximation constants, as shown
in Table 8, from fitting trends, these differences are as follows—41% and 44%, respectively.
When the maximal overlap of the confidence intervals is taken into account, the difference will be
almost 30%.
5. During cyclic loading, the fatigue life is certainly also influenced by additional bending stress
caused by the angular deformation of the testing samples. However, it is very problematic to
quantify the effect of such additional bending stress and its assessment will be the subject of
further works. Nevertheless, based on the obtained results, it can be stated that the difference
in the additional bending moment during cyclic loading of Welds Q9, Q10, and Q12 (so with
higher heat input values) was lower than 1%. For Weld Q14 it was lower than 5%. Smaller angular
deformation was achieved only for Weld Q8—namely by 15%.

The achieved results can be interpreted as the following:

1. In the area of low cycle fatigue, the influence of the heat input is negligible. Therefore,
more attention should be paid to the arc welding process parameters, which define the weld
geometry and thus the notch effect as well.
2. On the other hand, the influence of the heat input value already took place in the area of high
cycle fatigue. That is why this fact should be taken into account when designing the dynamically
loaded structural components with a planned service life up to 2 × 106 cycles. We recommend
considering the fatigue limit σc(W) of the fillet welded joint when designing structures with the
planned number of cycles over 2 × 106 . In this case, the effect of heat input may not be taken
into account.
3. It is also a suitable and beneficial finding that the mutual ratio σc(W) /σc(BM) and σc(W) /Re is
decreasing with the increasing magnitude of yield strength. This fact should be also taken into
account during engineering computations and design. The standard approach is to choose
materials with higher strength to improve fatigue life. However, it is not very effective in light of
a decreasing ratio σc(W) /Re and can hardly compensate for increased material costs and worse
weldability. This is, of course, valid under the presumption that the notch effect is not reduced by
grinding of the weld.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.M. and P.S.; Methodology and Resources, J.M. and R.T.; Investigation,
J.M., J.S., P.S. and R.T.; Data curation, Writing—Review and Editing and Visualization, J.M. and J.S.;
Writing—original draft preparation, J.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by the Student Grant Competition of the Technical University of Liberec
under the project No. SGS-2020-5008.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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