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THE MUTAPA EMPIRE & THE PORTUGUESE

State any six economic activities of the Mutapa state.
Agriculture Pastoralism internal trade
gathering Craftwork iron smelting
fishing Pottery Basketry
blacksmithing raiding weaving
Hunting external trade wood-carving
Division of labour tool-making raiding
Stone-working (masonry)
Describe the social and economic organisation of the Mutapa state.
Social
- Believed in High God B1
- Respected spirit mediums B1
- Consulted ancestors
B1
- Brewed beer (B1), slaughtered livestock on ceremonies (B1)Marriage was
important (B1) max 3 marks
- Paid Lobola B1
- Polygamy was accepted (B1)Many wives a sign of wealth (B1) max 2
marks
- Division of labour based on sex B1
- Cattle were a status symbol
B1
- National and family spirits B1
- Kings were religious leaders B1
- Believed in reincarnation B1
- Belief that spirits lived in thick forests and deep pools B1
- Believe in life after death B1
- Witchcraft B1
- Avenging spirits/Ngozi B1
- Kuronzera B1
- Inheritance on patrilineal grounds B1
- Patrilineal societies B1
- Work parties/nhimbe B1
- Settlement patterns – lived on hill tops B1
- Pole-and dagga houses B1
- Rain-making ceremonies B1
Economic
- they grew crops B2
- they kept livestock B2
- the Mutapa people were involved in both local and external trade B2
- they paid tribute to the king

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B2
- they were involved in mining B2
- they were involved in hunting and gathering B2
- they were also involved in craftwork B2
- the Mutapa people were also involved in pottery making and basketry
B2
- they were involved in stone and wood working B2
- they made tools made of iron B2
- the Mutapa people were also involved in raiding
B2

How far did political factors contribute to the decline of the Mutapa state?
Contribution of Political factors
- Succession disputes after the death of Matope C1
- Portuguese interference C1
- Ambitious sub Chiefs e.g. Changa and Togwa C1
- Prazo system led to loss of land C1
- Chikunda raids for man power C1
Other factors
- Trade fell into Portuguese hands C2
- Spread of Christianity led to divisions C2
- Prazo system led to loss of land C2
- Chikunda raids for manpower weakened the state C2
- Droughts/famine C2
- Over-population C2
- Exhaustion of minerals C2
- Exhaustion of soil fertility C2
- Overpopulation C2
- Maravi invasions C2

State three aims of the Portuguese in the Mutapa state and three characteristics of
the prazo system (6marks)
AIMS OF THE PORTUGUESE CHARACTERISTICS/FEATURES OF
PRAZO
spread Christianity growing new crops
check Islam prazos married African women
Trade grabbing land
control gold mines forced labour
Agriculture Slavery
locate the kingdom of John Prester war lordism – Chikunda armies
spread education/literacy Prostitution
control land Mining
control the Mutapa state slave trade

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establish trading stations/feiras birth of mullatos

avenge Silveira’s death co-habitation
Outline the political and economic activities of the Portuguese in the Mutapa state
POLITICAL
- the Portuguese moved in after the death of Father Goncalo da Silveira
B1
- granted land (1)and seized some land for prazos (1)
B1B1
- involved in local politics(1), disputes (1)and assisted Gatsi Rusere(1)
B1B1
- refused to pay tax (1)By 1629 Mutapa had lost power (1)
B1B1
- supported puppet rulers e.g. Mamvura B1
- their private armies – Achikunda- terrorised people B1
- the Mutapa state became ungovernable B1
- they signed treaties with local rulers B1
- demanded tribute from the Mutapa B1
- created the Achikunda army B1
- they established prisons B1
- initially they paid tribute B1
- refused to pay tribute to the Mutapa B1
ECONOMIC
- used African labour on prazos B2
- traded (1)in gold, ivory and silver for cloth, jewellery,beads and guns
B2
- unequal trade – vashambadzi B2
- Portuguese benefitted from the trade B2
- introduced the credit system B2
- Africans made to pay tax B2
- traded in slaves B2
- hunted to get ivory B2
- controlled gold and silver mines B2
- trade feiras were established B2
- introduction of new crops B2
- introduction of new farming methods B2
- introduction of new mining methods B2
How far did Africans benefit from Portuguese economic activities in this area?
ECONOMIC BENEFITS
ü new crops C1
ü items of trade given to chiefs as tribute C1
ü foreign trade with Portuguese helped strengthen the state C1
ü brought a new religious dimension C1
ü new farming methods C1

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ü new mining methods

C1
NON-BENEFITS
v unfair trade C2
v loss of land C2
v civil wars disrupted economy C2
v Africans enslaved C2
v loss of political independence C2
v loss of lives C2
v abuse of women C2
v dilution of culture C2
v loss of resources e.g. gold, ivory, silver C2
NON-ECONOMIC BENEFITS
§ brought Christianity C2
§ brought education C2
§ brought a new language C2
§ new weapons
C2
§ protection from external enemies by the use of guns C2

STATE ANY SIX PROVINCES OF THE MUTAPA STATE AT THE PEAK OF ITS POWER
Guruuswa Barwe Mbire Madanda
Chidima Manyika Uteve Sedanda
DESCRIBE THE RISE AND EXPANSION OF THE MUTAPA STATE UP TO 1480
RISE
- Nyatsimba Mutota was an ambitious but unsuccessful claimant to the throne
[1420-1450]
- In 1420 Mutota set out to Dande Region in search of salt, gold, ivory, pastures
and fertile soil
- Mutota conquered the Tonga, Tavara and Kore-Kore of the Dande Region
- Mutota formed an alliance with the Tavara high priest, Dzivaguru and this
helped to strengthen his power
- Was given the name ‘Mwene Mutapa’ which means “Owner of the Conquered
Lands”, which became a dynastic title
- Mutapa became a dynastic title
- Mutota established the capital at Chitako Changonya near Mt Fura [Mt
Darwin] in Dande
- Mutota died in 1450 before completing his expansionist policy
EXPANSION
- Nyanhewe Matope, Mutota’s son continued the expansionist policy.
- Conquered and absorbed Barwe, Manyika, Uteve and Madanda
- Still desired[wanted] to control trade routes, tribute, gold and ivory resources
of the northern region

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- Mutapa State was at its zenith/peak during Matope’s reign

- In the east it was bounded by the Indian Ocean, in the west by the Kalahari
Desert, in the north by the Zambezi River and in the south by the Limpopo
River. Mutota and Matope created a vast empire and had to appoint vassal
chiefs to control provinces.
DID THE PEOPLE OF THE MUTAPA STATE BENEFIT FROM THE EXPANSION OF THE
STATE DURING THE PERIOD? EXPLAIN YOUR ANSWER.
Benefits from the Mutapa State
ü Peace and protection was offered a by strong army
ü Were conducive to trade and farming
ü Access to foreign goods through trade
ü Access to more resources – gold, game animals, ivory, fertile soil
ü Dzivaguru religion unified people
ü The Mutapa kings became rich through tribute from the vast empire
Non-benefits
v Rebellions by vassal chiefs – caused deaths and destructions
v Succession disputes by ambitious members of the royal family
v Control of vast empire was difficult and hindered by poor communication
v Ordinary people and vassal chiefs had to pay tribute
v Ordinary people fought in the King’s armies and perished/died
NAME ANY THREE PORTUGUESE PRAZEROS AND ANY THREE TRADING POSTS IN
THE ZAMBEZI VALLEY
PRAZEROS
Vincente Jose Ribeiro Ribeiro Rodrigo Lobo
Manuel Antonio de Sousa (Kuvheya) Diogo Simoes Madeira
Sisnando Dias Bayao Lobo
TRADING POSTS
Luanze Dambarare Massapa
Tete Zumbo Matekenya
Sena Bukuto Sofala
Masekesa Manyika
DESCRIBE THE PRAZO SYSTEM IN THE ZAMBEZI VALLEY
- Originally land (prazos) were given to Portuguese men (some of Indian
origin) as rewards for military service
- Gained control of Lower Zambezi through treaties, force or deceit
- ‘owned’ gold mines near Zambezi River and land along south bank from Tete
down the river
- Portuguese divided land into prazo (estates)
- Prazos given to settler owners called prazeros/senhora
- Portuguese grew dagga, tobacco, rice, cassava, maize etc
- Slavery began on prazos and mines
- Trusted slaves recruited into personal armies of prazeros (Achikunda)
- Armies used to raid chiefs to capture lands with minerals

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- Traded with and raided African neighbours

- Male slaves used as soldiers and female slaves as cultivators and
concubines
- Prazeros became African chiefs demanding tribute from people on their
lands
- Original European/Asian prazeros supplanted by Mullatos/Euro African
children as prazo chiefs
- Most EuroAfrican prazeros were women called ‘black donnas’
- Portuguese used old feudal laws to govern prazeros
TO WHAT EXTENT DID THE PRAZO SYSTEM CONTRIBUTE TO THE GROWTH OF
SLAVERY IN THE ZAMBEZI VALLEY?
ü Growth of plantations such as Zambezi prazos (rice, dagga, tobacco etc.)
which demanded increasing numbers of slave labourers
ü Mining activities of gold in prazos required slave labour
ü Need for slave armies (Achikunda)
ü Portuguese chauvinism
v The institution of domestic slavery also existed in pre-colonial Southern
African states
v War captives became domestic slaves
v Criminals and witches also treated as domestic slaves
v Ivory trade required slave labour to ferry ivory to trade posts and the coast
NAME ANY SIX RULERS OF THE MUTAPA STATE FROM THE 15TH CENTURY TO THE
17TH CENTURIES
Nyatsimba Mutota Nyanhewe Matope
Nyambo Kapararidze Nyahuma Mukomberanwa
Mamvura Mhande Nyakambira/Nyakunembira
Negomo Mapunzaguta Gatsi Rusere
DESCRIBE THE POLITICAL STRUCTURE OF THE MUTAPA STATE
- Mutapa State very large by 1450
- Bounded by – Zambezi River in the north
- Limpopo River in the South
- Indian Ocean in the East
- Kalahari Desert in the west
- Hence there was need for an efficient system of government
- The king was the (i) head of state (ii) commander-in-chief (iii) chief justice (iv)
distributed the land (v) religious leader (vi) controller of trade
- Had advisory council e.g. drummer, court-chamberlain, chief cook
- King had final decision
- Believed he was sanctioned by spirits
- Wives played an important role
- Sub chiefs collected tribute

- The Mutapa himself was the centre of government - based at his

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headquarters - Muzinda (court)

- State officials included –
¨ The court chancellor (Governor of the Provinces/Nengomasha)
¨ The court chamberlain (treasurer)
¨ Chief confidant
¨ The army commander
¨ The head drummer
¨ The chief cook
¨ The Queen Mother, the King’s sister and the king’s nine principal
wives, nobles and pages sent by vassals all played an important
political role
¨ There were chief priests of the Mwari cult
- In the important provinces such as Guruuswa, Mbire, Dande, Barwe, Manyika
and Uteve the Mutapa King put his trusted relatives or friends to rule as
vassal chiefs
- Chiefs were chosen/installed in consultation with the spirit mediums or
mhondoros
- Each vassal chief collected tribute on behalf of the Mutapa in the form of
ivory, gold, grain, cattle etc.
- The vassal chief sent his own son with tribute to the Mutapa as a sign of
loyalty
- Vassal chiefs were also required to light their own fire from Mutapa’s fire
annually as further sign of loyalty
- Rebellious vassals were attacked by the King’s army which also helped to
hold empire/state together
- Mutapa maintained a strong army for defence
- The army was used as a repressive state apparatus to deal with anyone who
did not respect the king or who rebelled against the king. This helped the king
to remain in power
HOW FAR DID SUCCESSION DISPUTES CONTRIBUTE TO THE DECLINE OF THE
MUTAPA STATE
The kingdom was too large; communication with all parts of the state was difficult
Poor leadership of certain rules – who lacked the charisma and military prowess to
keep the state unified
Succession disputes – e.g. Portuguese against Gatsi Rusere, Mamvura Mhande
Interferences from foreigners such as Swahili traders for better contracts from
rulers
Later interferences from Portuguese traders in the 16th/17th centuries who had
influence on rulers like Mamvura Mhande, Gatsi Rusere
Foreigners fanned succession disputes – taking sides in disputes
Brought Islam /Christianity religion which destroyed traditional religion – a unifying
element
LIST THE THREE NAMES OF PORTUGUESE PEOPLE WHO VISITED THE MUTAPA

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KINGDOM AND THREE TRADE COMMODITIES THAT THE PORTUGUESE BROUGHT

INTO THE MUTAPA KINGDOM IN THE 16TH CENTURY
Portuguese Names
Antonio Fernandez Goncalo da Silveira
Francisco Barreto Vasco Homen
Dona Katarina Antonio Caiado
Diogo Madeira Gasper Bocarro
Pereira
Portuguese Commodities
Guns Cloth Jewellery Knives
Maize seed Alcohol Fruit trees Alcohol/Spirits
Rice
DESCRIBE THE ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES OF THE PORTUGUESE IN THE MUTAPA
KINGDOM DURING THE 16TH AND 17TH CENTURIES
Trade – brought guns, cloth, beads, jewellery, knives, ceramics in exchange for gold,
ivory, cattle, goats, sheep, grain etc.
Used paid African labour in mining and labour
Portuguese introduced the prazo system; new crops were introduced such as
maize/fruits
Forced Africans to pay tribute to them and introduced forced labour
Initially the Portuguese paid tribute curva to them to the Mutapa
Mining gold, hunting for ivory
Slavery
TO WHAT EXTENT DID AFRICANS BENEFIT FROM THEIR ECONOMIC RELATIONSHIP
WITH THE PORTUGUESE?
Benefits
Introduction of new crops New mining methods
New weapons New farming methods
New goods e g cloth, clothes
Demerits
Political interference Slavery
Africans were exploited during trade Forced labour
Depletion of African resources Abuse of African women
Loss of land
LIST ANY SIX TRADE ITEMS BROUGHT BY THE PORTUGUESE INTO THE MUTAPA
STATEDURING THE 16TH AND 17TH CENTURIES
Guns cloth glass beads knives
Maize seed alcohol cowrie shells sugar
Chinaware fruits e.g. guavas/mango
DESCRIBE THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL ACTIVITIES OF THE PORTUGUESE IN THE
MUTAPA STATE DURING THIS PERIOD
Economic activities
Established feiras and trading posts Practised forced labour

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Creation of prazos Hunting elephants for ivory

Grew crops e g maize and practised crop rotation Keeping livestock
Collected tribute from the Mutapa and his people Mining especially gold
Traded with locals through the vaShambadzi agents Practised fishing
Practised slavery and slave trade They used the Credit system
Social activities
Spread of Christianity
Offered medical services
Abuse of African women resulting in the birth of Mulatos (Portuguese coloureds)
Practised slavery
Operated prisons where Africans were ill-treated
Disruption of African culture, Portuguese performed African rituals e.g. rain-making
ceremonies
Opened small schools for children of royal families
Married African women e.g. Antonio Fernandes
TO WHAT EXTENT DID THE PEOPLE OF THE MUTAPA STATE BENEFIT FROM THE
PORTUGUESE ACTIVITIES DURING THIS PERIOD?
Positive effects
- Children from royal families got education and health care
- Introduced new farming and mining methods
- New crops were also introduced e.g. maize, rice
- Received guns through trade and this strengthened the Mutapa king
- Africans benefited in the form of new goods such as clothes, jewellery,
ceramics etc. from trade
- Some Africans became Christians
- Chiefs and middlemen benefited from the slave trade
- There was creation of employment
- The tribute paid to the Mutapa king made the Mutapa king wealthy/rich and
this strengthened his position
Negative effects
- African culture was distorted through Christianity; the religious leaders e.g.
masvikiro lost their power and influence
- Africans lost their land to the prazeros
- Portuguese influenced civil wars
- Portuguese refused to pay curva
- Africans were engaged in forced labour
- Portuguese undermined African authorities and obtained land by force
- Abuse of African women
- The Portuguese sold guns to Africans and this made some vassal chiefs
rebel against the Mutapa King
- Depletion of African resources
GIVE SIX AIMS OF THE PORTUGUESE IN THE MUTAPA STATE
The Portuguese aimed to –

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a. check the spread of Islam

b. Establish trading feiras
c. Replace the Swahili as trading partners of the Shona
d. Spread Christianity
e. Colonise the Mutapa State
f. Mine gold
g. Make contact with legendary Christian ruler Preston John
DESCRIBE THE POLITICAL AND SOCIAL ACTIVITIES OF THE PORTUGUESE IN THE
MUTAPA STATE UP TO THE 17TH CENTURY
Political
- Increase of Portuguese involvement in Mutapa state’s affairs following death
of Father Gonsalo da Silveira in 1561
- Punitive expedition sent 1569-1572 under Francisco Barreto
- Settled in Mutapa State after being granted prazos
- Intervened in succession disputes in Mutapa State
- 1628 fought and defeated Mutapa Kapararidze
- Installed puppet rulers like Mamvura on the throne - and this provoked
opposition from the Rozvi
- Refused to pay tribute as Mutapa lost political power
- Had increased power through training private armies with guns, e.g. warlords
like Gouveia with big Chikunda army
Social
- Introduction of Christianity – Silveira baptized Mutapa Negomo Mapunzaguta
and some followers – but this did not last long
- Portuguese practised slavery to obtain labour for their prazos
- Practised forced labour
- Inter-marriages between Portuguese men and African women produced
people called Mulatos (in Shona vanaSinyoro)
- Abuse of African women by Portuguese men
WERE THE PORTUGUESE TO BLAME FOR THE DECLINE OF THE MUTAPA STATE?
EXPLAIN YOUR ANSWER.
ü Portuguese were largely to blame for the decline of the Mutapa Empire
ü Interfered in local politics supporting rival claimants to the throne
ü This caused disputes and civil wars e.g. Gatsi Rusere, Kapararidze
ü Created puppet rulers like Mamvura
ü Eventually Portuguese became independent of Mutapa
ü Refused to pay tribute – forced the Mutapa to pay tribute to them
ü Raided African villages for slaves
ü Undermined African self-respect
ü Availability of guns brought by the Portuguese greatly weakened Mutapa
State
v However the Mutapa State’s decline was also engendered/worsened by its
vast size which made communication difficult

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v Succession disputes inherent in the ruling family

v Succession to the throne by weak leaders
v Natural disasters e.g. series of droughts leading to poor harvests, attacks
from neighbours such as the Sotho-Tswana
v Swahili influence was also detrimental to unity in the empire
LIST ANY SIX CROPS THAT WERE GROWN IN THE PRAZOS IN THE ZAMBEZI
VALLEY FROM THE 16TH CENTURY
Sorghum Millet Maize
Beans Squash Melons
Pepper Sugar-cane Cassava
Rice Rapoko Coffee
Pumpkins Tobacco Dagga
DESCRIBE THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRAZO SYSTEM IN THE ZAMBEZI VALLEY
IN THE 16th AND THE 17th CENTURIES
- Prazo holders called prazeros/senhors
- Some Portuguese got land from weak Mwenemutapas as reward helping
them in succession disputes and civil wars
- Mwenemutapa Negomo gave Portuguese captains land on Zambezi Valley
before his death in 1589
- Gatsi Rusere gave land to a Tete settler Diego Madeira in 1607. Madeira
became a powerful settler with 4000 Achikundas
- Mavhura was a Portuguese puppet and was forced to give his whole kingdom
to Portuguese crown in 1629 as a prize for Portuguese help
- Ruler of Uteve gave large areas to Dias Bayao – the area stretched from
Pungwe to Zambezi
- Portuguese Government confirmed prazo system by giving official land titles
to individual prazeros. Portuguese wanted prazeros to be centres of
Portuguese civilisation and commercial agriculture.
- Traditional pattern of shifting agriculture was practised.
- There was limited use of land and low output.
- They cultivated sorghum, millet, maize etc.
- Coffee grew wild in forests and was used to pay tribute by the African
population.
- Gold, copper and iron mined and exported by prazeros.
- Portuguese failed to establish a thriving plantation economy.
- There was the Africanisation of the European institutions
Positive impact
ü Introduction of new crops e.g. maize
ü New materials e.g. cloth, beads
ü Manyika copied Portuguese words like mapurazi
ü Some Africans became Christians
Negative effects
v Christianity brought divisions among the Shona

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v Prazeros used Achikundas to raid African Kingdoms for slaves

v Prazeros participated in civil wars and succession disputes in the Mutapa
and caused instability.
v Loss of land
v Loss of political power
v Destruction of African culture
IDENTIFY THREE USES OF CATTLE AND THREE USES OF CROPS IN THE MUTAPA
STATE
CATTLE CROPS
As a symbol of wealth Provided food
For payment of lobola Brewing beer for ritual/traditional
purposes
Tribute payment Tribute payment
As a form of investment Provided a secure/long-lasting source of
food
Could be traded Could be traded
Payment of fines Payment of fines
Slaughtered for ritual purposes e.g. Symbol of wealth e.g. those who were
goats, cattle; could be given family good farmers (hurudza) were regarded
names as important people.
Payment of fines Payment of fines
Provided food[ meat, milk, blood] and Could be used as a form of pre-payment
hides of lobola

DESCRIBE HOW TRADE WAS CONDUCTED BETWEEN THE MUTAPA AND

FOREIGNERS
WITH THE SWAHILI
- In the form of barter trade
- Initially it was a ‘silent trade’ i.e. no face-to-face negotiations on the price.
- If one African trader wanted to barter his ivory for beads he took it to the
market place and went into hiding.
- The Arab trader came after the disappearance of the African and placed what
he thought was the equivalent quantity of beads by the side of the tusk
(ivory).
- The Arab then retreated into hiding.
- The African would re-appear to examine it and if satisfied he took away the
beads.
- The Arab trader would also take the task and leave.
- They also used the credit system
WITH THE PORTUGUESE
- Basically it was in the form of barter trade.
- The use of vashambadzi. The vashambadzi acted as middlemen. These
Africans did most of the trading business for the Portuguese. These

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middlemen carried the merchandise (trade goods) into the interior. They also
used caravans to ferry/carry merchant goods.
- The credit system: was used by the Portuguese to keep the Mutapa in a state
of economic dependence. Whenever Africans could not produce gold or ivory
the Portuguese simply gave them goods on credit. This system became a
major means of exploiting Africans. Those who failed to supply in time risked
having their cattle or property taken or themselves taken into slavery.
- During later periods some vashambadzi became dishonesty and lied that
some goods had been stolen. This led the Portuguese to introduce the
collateral/security system: The signing for the goods in possession by the
vashambadzi e.g. at Masekesa
- Vashambadzi had to travel inland with the goods
- The use of feiras/trading centres/bazaars: The vashambadzi met their
Portuguese employers at given at Sena or Tete then travelled into the interior.
Their arrival was announced in advance. They then traded their goods at
bazaars and continued to the next bazaar. Then they returned to their
employers. Tete and Sena were the major bases for the Portuguese traders.
- The payment of the curva tax
- The role of the Captain of the Gates e.g. (i) no one was allowed to arrive at the
Mutapa’s palace without the permission of the Captain of the Gates (ii) all the
foreigners coming along the Zambezi had to pass through him (iii) had
jurisdiction (power/authority) over the Portuguese (iv) he advised the Mutapa
on matters concerning the Portuguese (v) collected the curva on behalf of the
Mutapa.

IDENTIFY SIX FACTORS THAT LED TO THE RISE OF THE MUTAPA STATE
PUSH FACTORS PULL FACTORS
Soil exhaustion at Great Zimbabwe Fertile soils in the Dande region
leading to poor harvests
Exhaustion of salt in the Great Zimbabwe Availability of salt in the Dande Region
region
Series of droughts in and around Great Gold deposits were found in the Mazowe
Zimbabwe valley
Decline of trade at Great Zimbabwe as Game especially elephants for ivory
trade shifted to the Zambezi Valley found in abundance in the Dande,
Chidima area
Succession disputes in the ruling class Weaknesses of the locals e.g. the Tonga,
at Great Zimbabwe Tavara and Kore-kore
Imperial ambitions of leaders like Alliance with the Dzivaguru priests
Nyatsimba Mutota

HOW FAR WERE ECONOMIC FACTORS IMPORTANT IN THE RISE OF THE MUTAPA

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STATE
Ø Exhaustion of soil
Ø Exhaustion of gold, game
Ø Decline of gold trade
Ø Series of poor harvests
Ø Abundance of resources in the Dande area
All economic pull and push factors
v Overpopulation at Great Zimbabwe
v Succession disputes in the ruling family
v Imperial ambitions of leaders like Nyatsimba
v Warfare with the Sotho-Tswana
v Outbreak of diseases at Great Zimbabwe
v Civil wars at Great Zimbabwe
v Successive droughts at Great Zimbabwe

OUTLINE THE SUCCESSES OF THE MUTAPA EMPIRE

∙ A strong political system was developed. The king headed the legal system,
the army and religious system. He had overall responsibility to distribute land.
Spirit mediums were an important component of religion as they were
regarded as the direct link with Mwari. Important mediums were Dzivaguru,
Nehanda and Chaminuka. Chiefs and sub-chiefs assisted the king. At the
king’s court there were a number of officials who advised the king: the
chancellor, the army commander, head drummer, head doorkeeper, court
chamberlain, head cook, queen mother, king’s sister, nine principal wives of
the king and the chief spirit medium.
∙ The state developed an economic system whose backbone was agriculture.
They grew a variety of crops such as millet, sorghum, rapoko and calabashes.
They also kept domestic animals mainly cattle and goats. The state
controlled the Zambezi trade route, exporting mainly gold and ivory. The
foreign traders were the Swahili, Arabs and Portuguese. People paid tribute to
the king. Mining and hunting were important in the state to provide trading
items and food. The state developed its own technology such as in
construction, blacksmithing, weaving and pottery.
∙ The state resisted religious influence of foreigners such as Christianity and
Islam.
∙ The Mutapa state was able to resist Portuguese penetration into the interior.
For example between 1663 and 1704 Mukombwe as king of the Mutapa
initiated restoration of power of the king by disciplining and removing the
Portuguese. He sought help of Chikanga to remove the Portuguese from the
east. The Portuguese were confined to the Zambezi valley and other areas
of what is now Mozambique.
DESCRIBE THE POLITICAL FEATURES OF THE MUTAPA STATE
- Centralised in the hands of the Mutapa king: the king distributed the land,

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acted as the chief judge, acted as the commander-in-chief.

- Ruled with the aid of the officials
- The king had the final decision
- Duties of the king
- POLITICAL HIERACHY
King > Chief Queen (vahosi)>Provincial Chief > District Chief
- Vassal chiefs had to pay tribute
- The king’s wives played an important role in the political affairs of the state
OUTLINE THE CHALLENGES/PROBLEMS THAT FACED THE MUTAPA EMPIRE
∙ The state occasionally experienced serious droughts, which weakened the
economy and the political power of the king. For example the drought of
between 1823 and 1830 that devastated the Zambezi Valley.
∙ The coming of the Portuguese and their interference in the internal affairs of
the Mutapa State caused a lot of problems for the state. For example in 1560
a Portuguese missionary, father Goncalo da Silveira visited the state in order
to introduce Christianity. Negomo Mupunzagutu was the king. The priest was
allowed to preach. After some time he managed to baptize the king and
about 300 of his relatives and officials. The Arab traders were not happy
about this development. They secretly told the king that da Silveira was a
sorcerer who intended to eventually take over the Mutapa State. This
influenced the king to order his people to kill the priest. The Portuguese
government organized military expeditions to revenge the priest’s murder.
The first expedition had about 2000 soldiers led by Francisco Barreto in
1569. The Mutapa defeated the Portuguese whose fighting ability was
impeded by lack of knowledge of the area, heavy armour they wore, fever and
tropical heat. Another expedition was led by Fernandez Homem. This
expedition succeeded to take over Chikanga in the east but most of the
Mutapa state remained intact.
∙ Succession disputes and civil wars became major problems for the state
because some claimants to the throne sought foreign assistance in order to
become kings. For example in 1607 Gatsi Rusere asked for Portuguese help
in order to crash Maravi groups that had attacked his state. For the
assistance rendered, the Mutapa allowed the Portuguese traders free access
into the empire. Some Portuguese traders refused to pay tax (curva). Rusere
had problems in controlling the state during his reign that lasted until 1624.
Kapararidze, Rusere’s successor, made an effort to reassert the king’s
authority by disciplining the Portuguese. This was taken advantage of by
Mavhura, an ambitious claimant to the throne. He asked for Portuguese
assistance in order to remove Kapararidze. This led to a civil war in which
Kapararidze was defeated and Mavhura became the new king. The new king
was forced to sign peace treaties with the Portuguese. One of the terms of
the treaties was that the Portuguese were no longer accountable to the laws
of the Mutapa State. Thus from 1629, the Portuguese did as they pleased in

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the state: they took over land, mines and forced people to work for them.
They cohabited with African women and set up armies for their own
protection. The state was in a state of chaos. Mavhura’s reign lasted until
1652. His successor continued with Mavhura’s policies of accommodating
the Portuguese up to 1663. The state was then just a puppet state.
∙ The effects of the Mfecane were also felt by the Mutapa State. The Ngoni led
by Zwangendaba, Maseko-Ngoni and Xaba’s Ngoni weakened the state
during their migration by attacking the people. The Ndebele raiders were a
constant threat to the state that was now confined to the north.
∙ The last quarter of the 19th century witnessed the scramble for southern
Africa as European powers competed to colonise Africa. The Portuguese
prazo holders in the Zambezi Valley were encouraged to take over as much
land as possible of the Mutapa state by the Portuguese government. Thus
the weak state of the Mutapa lost land in the Zambezi Valley.
∙ The final blow to the state was the British occupation of Zimbabwe in 1890.
IDENTIFY SIX OFFICIALS IN THE MUTAPA STATE
Governor of the Provinces Captain-General of the Army
Treasurer Chief Musician
Chief Confidant Priests
Diviners
NAME SIX PORTUGUESE WHO VISITED THE MUTAPA KINGDOM
Father Goncalo da Silveira Antonio Fernandez
Francisco Barreto Vasco Homen
Diego Simeos Madeira Antonio Caiado
Dias Bayao Vasco Fernandez
State Any Six Reasons For The Portuguese Penetration Into The Zambezi Valley
- To take control of the gold mines
- To avenge the death of Goncalo do Silveira
- To spread Christianity
- To colonise the interior
- To take land for the prazos
- To barter trade with the Mutapa
DESCRIBE THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL EFFECTS OF THE PORTUGUESE ACTIVITIES
IN THE MUTAPA STATE IN THE 17th CENUTRY
ECONOMIC
- Influenced the expulsion of Muslim and Arab traders
- Traded with the local people of the Mutapa state – trade brought in new
goods e.g. guns, coloured fabrics, jewellery, ceramics, in exchange for gold,
copper, silver, ivory, cattle, goats etc.
- Trade disrupted/disturbed the normal African economic activities by making
people concentrate on mining, hunting elephants (for ivory): activities which
used to be seasonal and secondary.
- Africans were exploited as trade goods received were not equal in value to

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the labour effort and value of the goods.

- African resources e.g. minerals, ivory were progressively depleted.
- Chiefs (Mutapa kings) demanded more goods from vassals in order to satisfy
growing demand for foreign goods as well as Portuguese demand for African
goods.
- A new economically wealthy class of middlemen called vashambadzi
emerged.
- Kings and chiefs became richer
- The prazo system introduced – loss of land
- New crops and farming methods.
SOCIAL
- Introduction of Christianity and slavery undermined African traditional
customs and values
- Inter-marriage between Portuguese men and African women produced
mullatoes
- Tribal identities were gradually undermined.
- Africans adopted Portuguese customs and practices: names, dress,
language, food
- Social and moral fabric of the Mutapa state was undermined by lawless
Chikundas who enslaved the Shona and ill-treated them.
COULD THE PORTUGUESE BE BLAMED FOR THE FALL OF THE MUTAPA STATE?
ü Portuguese economic activities led to the exhaustion of natural resources:
gold, land, ivory and disrupted economic activities of the Mutapa state.
ü Portuguese interfered with local politics and supported rival claimants to the
throne. This caused civil wars: Gatsi Rusere vs. Kapararidze
ü Portuguese created puppet chiefs like Mavhura and this quickened the
decline of the Mutapa state.
ü Use of slave labour undermined African self-respect, traditional customs,
values and economy.
v Weak Mwenemutapas who were not capable of holding on to power e.g.
Nyahuma, Gatsi Rusere, Mavhura Mhande: their weaknesses were
manipulated by the Portuguese for their own ends/benefits
v The Mutapa state was often rocked by succession disputes and civil wars in
which the Portuguese were not involved.
v Outbreak of severe droughts caused collapse of the economy.
v The state had become too big for the Mutapa to maintain effective
communication lines and to administer closely.
v The Shona migrated to the south escaping Portuguese enslavement.
v Natural resources of the state dwindled/depleted/declined due to
over-exploitation.
TO WHAT EXTENT DID THE MUTAPA KING BENEFIT FROM EXTERNAL TRADE?
BENEFITS
ü The Mutapa King collected tariffs/tax/curva in kind (goods) thus he became

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rich.
ü The Mutapas then gave these goods e.g. beads, cloth to their subjects and
thus kept their subjects loyal
ü Trade also enabled the Mutapas to buy more cattle and grain and thus
increase their wealth and security.
ü The cloth and the beads gotten through trade was used by the Mutapa to
cloth the many wives, children and officials at the Mutapa’s palace.
ü Some of these items were rewarded to provincial rulers to maintain their
loyalty.
NON BENEFITS
v Some subjects who gained from the trade with foreigners no longer gave
loyalty to the Mutapa king
v When the Portuguese diverted their attention to the Rozvi state this
weakened the political power of the Mutapa over other provincial rulers
v Later the Portuguese took much of the political and economic of the state
v The goods imported were of less value as compared to goods exported
DESCRIBE THE ECONOMIC WAY OF THE MUTAPA STATE
The Mutapa economy based on three major branches of production:
(i) crop production
(ii) livestock production
(iii) external trade
- Crop production: There were two levels of crop production i.e. private fields
and royal fields (zunde ramambo). Royal fields were worked by men who
were sent from provincial centres as a form of tribute. Royal wives had their
own private fields but these were worked by young men and women as a
form of tribute. During famines the king distributed food to the people from
the reserves. Food from the royal fields was also used to feed the many
visitors. During the rainy season crop production took precedence over all
other activities.
- Livestock production: Two levels of ownership i.e. royal herds and private
herds. The king used the cattle to feed visitors, for national traditional/ritual
activities and for the kuronzera system. The king also used cattle to reward
his loyal servants or provincial/vassal chiefs.
- External trade
- Regional trade
- Local trade
- Mining: gold was important
- Tribute payment
- craftwork
- Division of labour based on sex
- Division of labour based on skills (specialisation)
- Hunting and gathering
STATE THREE WAYS WHICH WERE USED BY THE SHONA TO IDENTIFY

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GOLD-BEARING AREAS
- by studying soil and vegetation
- by examining the soil brought up from under the ground by white ants
- by looking at rock outcrops that might relate to what is beneath the soil
- by looking in rivers or places where water runs in the rainy season
- by sampling a soil sample using a dish using centrifugal system
IDENTIFY PROBLEMS FACED BY THE MUTAPA MINERS
- haulage or carrying the ore-bearing stone from underground
- ventilation
- underground water
- identifying the gold or iron bearing rock
- the process of mining was labour intensive
- the process of mining was dangerous at times the underground mine
collapsed
DESCRIBE THE MILITARY ORGANISATION OF THE MUTAPA STATE
- The Mutapa state had no standing army
- If an emergency arose the Mutapa would gather his Dare reHondo (council of
war) to make plans and choose who could be conscripted into the army: for
attacking or defending
- The Council of War was chaired (headed) by the Mutapa himself.
- Messengers would rush off, make war drum signals and fighters would
gather.
- The army was headed by the Mutapa himself assisted by the Captain-General
of the armies (Mukomohasha).
- 3 000-5 000 soldiers could be gathered within 24 hours.
- The troops were divided into battalions of 200-500 men.
- Each battalion was led by a field commander
- Before heading to the war-front n’angas (spiritual healers) would treat
soldiers to make them brave
- The armies were not formally trained and could not go on long campaigns
- They fought: (i) rebellious vassal chiefs e.g. during the 15th century Mutapa
Mukombero had to fight the rebellious Changamire Togwa I who refused to
undergo a trial to test his innocence. Togwa was accused of plotting against
the Mutapa (ii) the Portuguese e.g. in Mutapa Nyakunembire
made military alliance with the Rozvi mambo to fight and drive out the
Portuguese
- They used the cow-horn formation known as ‘muromo’
- They used no ambushes and liked to fight in the open.
- At times the enemy could be attacked at dawn but never at night.
- The army acted as the repressive state apparatus.
IDENTIFY ANY SIX OFFICIALS IN THE MUTAPA STATE WHO WERE MEMBERS OF
THE KING’S COUNCIL (DARE)
the king provincial leaders

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military commanders king’s nine provincial wives

high priests chief door keeper
the chancellor high priests
head cook king’s son-in-law
IDENTIFY ANY SIX ITEMS THAT WERE RAIDED BY THE MUTAPA ARMY
cattle grain
minerals land
young men young women

STATE ANY SIX DUTIES OF THE CAPTAIN OF THE GATES

- to ensure that the Portuguese obeyed the Mutapa king
- to make sure that the Portuguese paid tribute to the Mutapa king
- he supervised the paying of the taxes on Portuguese goods
- he advised the Mutapa king on matters concerning the Portuguese
- he advised the Portuguese government on activities of the Mutapa state
- he controlled trade between the Portuguese and the Mutapa
- he linked the Portuguese to the Mutapa
- he served as an interpreter
- he represented the Portuguese government in the Mutapa state
- he settled disputes between the Portuguese and the Africans
- he handed gifts from the Mutapa government to the Portuguese
- he handled gifts from the Portuguese to the Mutapa

STATE ANY SIX ITEMS THAT WERE USED TO PAY TRIBUTE TO THE MUTAPA
Gold Ivory Hoes Spears
Grain Animal skins Livestock Labour
Baskets Beads Bangles Cloth
Bangles Jewellery Cowry shells Iron tools

IDENTIFY ANY SIX INTERNAL FACTORS THAT LED TO THE DECLINE OF THE
MUTAPASTATE
POLITICAL ECONOMIC SOCIAL
weak leaders like Gatsi Soils were no longer fertile Increase in population
Rusere
Civil wars Lack of grazing land Outbreak of diseases
The state was too big for Minerals had been Hunger and starvation
one king exhausted (depleted)
Succession disputes Over-hunting of wild The introduction of
animals leading to the Christianity weakened the
shortage of wildlife state
Presence of puppet chiefs Loss of control of trade Introduction of foreign
like Mavhura Mhande culture
Vassal chiefs were External trade was in

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rebelling against the king favour of foreigners

(Portuguese)
Lack of standing army The trade in guns led
some chiefs to be
rebellious
IDENTIFY ANY THREE EXTERNAL FACTORS THAT LED TO THE DECLINE OF THE
MUTAPA STATE
1. The Portuguese interfered in the internal politics of the Mutapa state
2. The Portuguese fuelled civil wars
3. The Mutapa state was invaded by the Maravi traders who divided the Mutapa
people
4. The Mutapa state was weakened by the rise of the Rozvi state
5. The importation of guns weakened the state
6. The prazo system weakened the Mutapa state
7. Influence of the Swahili/vamwenye traders who divided the Mutapa
Identify any six problems faced by the Portuguese armies during their invasion of
the Mutapa State in the 1570s
- diseases
- hunger
- resistance from local people
- loss of lives
- wounded soldiers
- heavy armour
- failure to find gold
- attacks from hostile wild animals
- lack of knowledge of the area
- unfamiliar terrain
- problems with directions
- harsh climate/tropical heat
- flooded rivers
- hostility from Moor traders
- transport
- language barrier
What were the terms of agreements signed between the Portuguese and Mutapa
rulers?
- all mines given to the Portuguese
- vast tracts of land given to the Portuguese
- Gatsi’s children to be brought up as Christians
- missionaries given freedom to do what they wanted
- missionaries to teach and build churches anywhere in the Mutapa
- Portuguese representatives exempted from observing court rules
- Portuguese traders allowed to move freely
- Mutapa rulers not to give mining areas to other white men/foreigners

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- Portuguese to rule areas in the Mutapa state

- Captain of the Gates to be a Portuguese
- Mutapa got protection
- Mutapa got military assistance
- Got weapons
- Portuguese to pay curva to Mutapa
- payment of tribute to the Portuguese by Mutapa
Were the agreements beneficial to the people of Mutapa state? Explain your
answer.
Ø new items acquired through trade
Ø some people learnt to read and write
Ø new religion introduced
Ø introduction of new crops
Ø introduction of new weapons
Ø protection offered to the Mutapa
v land taken away
v lost mineral rights
v loss of traditional authority
v trade dominated by the Portuguese
v loss of traditional religion and culture
v slave trade and slavery
v forced labour
v abuse of African women
v credit system exploited Africans

CLASS NOTES: THE PORTUGUESE IN THE ZAMBEZI AND SOUTH OF THE VALLEY
ARRIVAL ON THE MOZAMBIQUE COAST
- The Portuguese tried to replace the Swahili traders who were controlling
trade at the Indian Ocean coast. The Portuguese took Sofala in 1505 and
Mozambique Island in 1507. Military fortresses were built at Sofala and
Mozambique Island. The commanders who were left here were instructed to
locate the origins of gold and ivory reaching Kilwa via Sofala. Sofala,
Mozambique Island and other coastal towns which had been mere stopping
and re-filling stations for Portuguese ships were becoming the doorways to
the African interior. The main aim was to acquire African gold and ivory and
use them to buy Indian and Far Eastern goods, especially spices.

- The Portuguese then learnt that most of the gold reaching the coast came
from Mwene Mutapa’s land. As early as 1506 the Portuguese at Sofala were

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being visited by official embassies/ambassadors from the interior, including

one from Mutapa. In 1513 Antonio Fernandez was sent to locate the Mutapa
area and report on its gold and other resources like ivory. Fernandez reached
Barwe, Manyika, Dande, Tavara country, Mbire (Mount Darwin), Guruuswa
(Butua), Tete, Harare and Chegutu. Fernandez reported that
- Seen or heard about regular markets in the interior attended by the Swahili
traders
- Mutapa’s royal palace was built of stones (masvingo)
- There were traders from Zumbo on the Zambezi who brought copper ingots
from the Congo
- Up to the 1530s many spies, many of them degrades (renegades) like
Fernandez, were sent into the interior to gather more information. Most of
them however, did not return to the coast but settled at the king’s court where
their greed for gold, ivory, alcohol and women caused a lot of problems for
the kings and chiefs.
- The Portuguese established feiras (trading posts) at Sena and Tete in the
1530s. They aimed to push the Swahili traders out of the interior so that they
could monopolise the trade. At first the Portuguese did not interefere in local
politics. But the Portuguese became independent of their captains and
became involved in local African politics.
- The Portuguese changed their policy after the Jesuit Missionary – Father
Goncalo da Silveira – was killed in March 1561. Silveira had converted
Mutapa Negomo and 500 of his family and nobles to Christianity. Father
Silveira was killed because
- The conversions frightened the Shona traditional leaders and after two
months a rumour spread that Silveira had bewitched the king.
- The Swahili and some Shona leaders accused Silveira of being a spy
- The Portuguese began openly interfering with local politics. The Portuguese
demanded that Swahili traders be banished from the Mutapa country and
allow the Portuguese to establish trading posts at Massapa, Dambarare,
Bukuto and Luanze. Antonio Caicado established Massapa near Mutapa’s
headquarters near Mount Darwin. Antonio Caiado was appointed the Captain
of the Gates and given judicial powers.
FIRST ATTEMPT AT COLONISATION
- The Portuguese used Silveira’s death as an excuse to colonise the Mutapa
State. In 1568 Portuguese King Sebastian decided to:
- Avenge the death of Silveira
- Expel the Swahili traders from the Mutapa state
- Take control of the gold trade in the Mutapa state
- Build a Portuguese empire in the Zambezi valley and in Mozambique
- In 1569 he sent an army of 1 000 under Francisco Barreto to fulfil the above.

- Barreto’s expedition was a failure because:

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i. It arrived on the Zambezi in November 1571, at the beginning of

the rainy season: horses could not easily move in the muddy
conditions
ii. Many men died of fever and malaria and most horses were
killed by sleeping sickness
iii. The Portuguese soldiers did not know the area.
iv. Portuguese soldiers wore heavy metal armour which made it
difficult for them to move
v. There was very little food at Sena for the expedition
vi. Some of the soldiers died of fever
vii. Barreto himself died of fever
- Another attempt was made in 1574 under Vasco Fernandez Homem but he
lost 200 of his men in fighting with the local people.
- The Portuguese settlements on the Zambezi were destroyed by the Zimba in
1585 and 1592.
- Just before Negomo died in 1589, he ceded part of his land to the Portuguese
on the Zambezi. After Negomo’s death the Portuguese helped a puppet,
Gatsi Rusere, to the throne in 1596. The Portuguese made it their business to
help Rusere to put down any rebellion against his rule. This greatly
contributed to the rapid decline of the Mutapa Empire.
- The early 17th century was a very profitable time for the Portuguese in the
Zambezi valley. For example Sena had: a warehouse, a church and a large
population of 50 Portuguese, 750 Indians and Africans of mixed races; Tete
had 40 Portuguese, many Africans and 2 000 who had been presented by the
Mutapa as a special guard for the town. There were over 1 000 Portuguese in
East Africa: soldiers, traders, explorers and missionaries.
- Another expedition was sent in 1608 by the Portuguese king under General
Nuno Alvares Pereira to the silver mines of Chikova.
- Another private (not government) expedition was sent in 1616 under Gasper
Bocarro and it was successful.
THE DEFEAT OF MWENEMUTAPA
- Gatsi Rusere died in 1624 and was replaced by Kapararidze.
- Kapararidze was hostile to the Portuguese. He wanted to reduce Portuguese
influence in the internal affairs of his country. But the Portuguese had helped
him to come to power. There had been two candidates: Kapararidze and
Mavhura. The Portuguese had helped Kapararidze thinking he would be their
puppet. As soon as he gained power Kapararidze began to attack
Portuguese garrisons/forts and interfering with their trade. The Portuguese
sent private armies under Diogo da Meneses to fight Kapararidze, defeating
and executing/killing him.
- The Portuguese then started to support Mavhura. Mavhura had been brought
up and educated by the Dominican missionaries. In 1632 Mavhura granted a
number of concessions to the Portuguese.

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i. The Portuguese were allowed to move freely in the kingdom

ii. The Portuguese were allowed to trade freely in the kingdom
iii. Missionaries were given the freedom to build Churches
wherever they liked
iv. Missionaries were given the freedom to preach wherever they
liked
v. Portuguese settlers were granted large areas of land
vi. The Portuguese also gained more land by bribery, deceit and
threats
vii. The Portuguese were to rule their land just as African chiefs had
done: Portuguese landowners replaced African chiefs in these
areas
viii. The Captain of Massapa was given authority over everyone:
Black and White
ix. The curva system was abolished
x. The Mutapa now had to pay tribute to the Portuguese.
xi. The Portuguese were given exclusive control of gold mines
- The Portuguese no longer respected the Mutapa as before
- Mavhura lost the respect of his people and he was eventually killed in a civil
war in 1665 and his kingsom was split.
- The Portuguese settlers and traders enjoyed some economic profit for a time.
- Relations between the Portuguese and the Africans went bad. Both settlers
and missionaries wanted labour to work on the land which they had acquired
under Mavhura. They used slave labour and after 1645 slaves were also being
exported to Brazil. Many armed conflicts in the Zambezi were caused by the
slave trade in the area. The Shona-speaking inhabitants of the valley area
fled to the south into the area where the Changamire’s rule was being
established.
DEFEAT AND EXPULSION OF THE PORTUGUESE FROM THE ZIMBABWE PLATEAU
The relations between the Shona and the Portuguese worsened to the extent that
even Changamire’s country was being affected. The Portuguese were using their
chikunda (private armies) to destroy the authority of many chiefs on the Zimbabwe
high veld.
The Changamire rulers now planned to take over the now tottering Mutapa state and
in the 1680s they launched their attacks against the Portuguese in Maungwe. The
Portuguese were defeated but Changamire made no attempt to follow up his
success until 1693 when he and Mutapa joined their forces against the Portuguese.
Mutapa Nyakunembire had initiated this Changamire-Mutapa alliance. In 1693
Changamire’s forces attacked and defeated the feira of Dambarare – all the
Portuguese traders there were killed. The fall of Dambarare so struck fear into the
Portuguese that the other feiras, except Manyika, were hurriedly abandoned.
Massapa was burnt down. In 1695 Changamire struck the Manyika feira, destroying
gold mines, missions and settlements. Many Portuguese were taken prisoners,

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while some were killed.

THE PRAZOS
Prazos were large land grants made to individual Portuguese settlers or traders by
Mutapas and chiefs in the Zambezi valley area. They were of two types:
1 those given by African rulers in return for assistance in war
2 Crown prazos (prazos de Coroa): were loaned to the Portuguese settlers by the
Portuguese government
- The prazo-holders were known as prazeros or senhors (lords/vanasinyoro).
Prazo-holders were usually very powerful and independent. Most of the
prazos were found in the area between Sofala, Chikova and Quelimane. The
most prosperous were on the south bank of the Zambezi from Tete.
The beginning of the prazo system
- During the last decades of the 16th century the Mutapa’s power was going
through a period of decline. Some of the Portuguese were establishing
themselves in the Zambezi valley. Some of them got land concessions from
weak Mutapas under doubtful and suspicious circumstances. For example in
1589, just before his death, Mutapa Negomo ceded land to Portuguese
captains in the Zambezi. Gatsi Rusere offered land to the Portuguese in
return for military assistance against his enemies. In 1607 Rusere gave land
to a Tete trader, Diogo Simeos Madeira. Within a short period of time
Madeira became the most powerful settler in the region with a force of 4 000
mercenaries. Madeira also became the chief of Inhambazo. The Portuguese
also got more land from Gatsi’s successor, Mavhura, their puppet.
- Sisnado Dias Bayao also got large lands from the rulers of Quiteve as a
reward for military assistance. Rodrigo Lobo was also given land north of the
Sofala Fort by the ruler of Quiteve. Land grants were offered to: settlers,
traders, military adventurers and missionaries. They got land grants from
Africans by means of: peaceful means, force, deceit and threats. The system
of prazos began during the 16th century and was well established by the 17th
century. The Portuguese government formalised the system by granting
official recognition or land title deeds to individual prazeros. The Portuguese
government gave title deeds with the belief that the prazeros, who had
become too strong and independent, might under the Portuguese
government control by being recognised as agents of Portuguese civilisation
in the area.
- The prazo system led to the following:
- deprived Africans of their land.
- destroyed the structures of African societies.
- African chiefs lost powers and authority to the senhors/prazo-holders
- Some prazo-holders took over some of the functions of chiefs e.g. they
demanded the tribute which was to be given to African chiefs
- In times of war some senhors demanded that all headmen under them should
supply young fighting men.

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- Prazo holders could easily raise private armies

- Prazo holders also demanded the same ritualistic rights due to African chiefs:
they demanded to be consulted by the Africans before new seeds were
planted and before harvesting. Prazo-holders had advisors including African
religious leaders who helped them in ceremonies such as rain-making
ceremonies. They supervised the election of chiefs and headmen in their
areas.
The decline of the Prazo system
By the end of the 18th century the prazo system was on the decline.
In the prazos there was:
v No industry
v No commerce
v No education
v No religious work
By the 18th century most of the senhors were not real Portuguese but people of
mixed blood; a mixture of Portuguese, Goan and African.
The prazos became centres of:
1. Corruption
2. Degeneration
3. Slavery: by 1800 slaves were the biggest export to Brazil.
4. Chikundas (slave armies)
5. Abuse of African women
6. Torture: the prazos had their own prisons where many Africans were flogged,
tortured and even killed for minor offences.
List any three principal and three minor officials in the Mutapa State Administration
Principal officials
PRINCIPAL OFFICIALS MINOR OFFICIALS
Governor of the provinces Bodyguards
Steward/treasurer Musicians
Chief musician Pages/valets
Chief doorkeeper (Nyamasuo) Royal wives
Priesthood/diviners (n’anga) Dancers
The Mutapas were assisted by a large bureaucracy.
Account for the fall of the Mutapa Empire
- The disastrous treaty of 1629
- Changamire raids of 1693 and 1702
- Nguni raids of the 1830s
- There were serious droughts in the period 1823- 30 when the entire Zambezi
Valley seemed to be on the verge of starvation.
In the 1830s the Mutapas Kandeya and Dzeka faced the threat of the Ngoni. As
noted by Beach, Zwangendaba’s Ngoni settled in Satwa, just south of the Mazowe
River on the southern border of the Mutapa State. It is unlikely that they caused a lot
of havoc since they were fleeing from Maseko.

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The real cause of the fall of the Mutapa state was the revival of Portuguese power in
the 19th century. The Portuguese began to react to the threat of colonialism by other
European powers and encouraged by new prazo holders to claim as much land as
possible. The Vanyai of the Mutapa Empire had been able to repel forces of the
smaller prazos of the 18th century. However they could not deal with the newcomers,
whose Chikunda forces were backed by Portuguese authorities.
OUTLINE REASONS THAT LED TO THE COLLAPSE OF THE MUTAPA STATE
- The Mutapa Empire never controlled as much wealth as Great Zimbabwe.
- Some provinces broke away e.g. Barwe, Uteve, Manyika and Madanda.
- Christianity was introduced into the Mutapa state and this weakened the
power/influence of traditional religious leaders
- Successors to Nyatsimba Mutota and Nyanhewe Matope lacked the military
ability, charisma and leadership qualities of these two leaders of the Mutapa
people. These leaders include Gatsi Rusere, the young Nyahuma, Chioko and
Mavhura Mhande.
- Communication systems in the Mutapa were not efficient
- There were internal power struggles between members of the ruling class
over then control and distribution of the state’s major resources
- Succession disputes
- Maravi invasions
- Portuguese interference also greatly weakened the Mutapa state
- By the 18th century the state had become the vassal of the Rozvi state
- There were occurrences of droughts
- The process of colonisation marked the final nail in the coffin of the Mutapa
state

IDENTIFY THREE GROUPS OF PORTUGUESE WHO WERE OFFERED LAND GRANTS

AND THE THREE NAMES OF PORTUGUESE WHO WERE OFFRED LAND BY THE
MUTAPAS
GROUPS OF PORTUGUESE NAMES OF PORTUGUESE
Portuguese settlers Diogo Simeos Madeira
Traders & Missionaries Rodrigo Lobo
Military leaders Sisnado Dias Bayao

NAME THREE MUTAPAS WHO GAVE LAND TO THE PORTUGUESE AND THREE
AREAS WHERE PRAZOS WERE FOUND
MUTAPAS AREAS WHERE PRAZOS WERE FOUND
Negomo Sofala
Mavhura Mhande Chikova
Gatsi Rusere Quelimane

STATE ANY SIX DUTIES OF THE CAPTAIN OF THE GATES

1. Gave permission to foreigners to move from Masapa to the Mutapa court

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2.Gave permission to fereigners to move to other parts of the Mutapa state

3.Collected tariffs for entry into the Mutapa state
4.Collected curva tribute on behalf of the Mutapa
5.Promoted the economic interests of the Portuguese
6.He was the ‘Great Wife’ of the Mutapa king i.e. he updated the Mutapa king on
any events in the kingdom (he was the eye and ear of the Mutapa)
7. Controlled the activities of both the Africans and Portuguese at trading feiras
8. He had judicial powers (tried cases)
IDENTIFY ANY THREE ITEMS SOLD BY ARABS AND ANY THREE ITEMS SOLD BY
AFRIACANS TO ARABS AND ANY THREE ARAB TRADING STATIONS
ITEMS SOLD BY ARABS ITEMS SOLD BY TRADING STATIONS
AFRICANS
Cloth Gold Sofala; Mombasa
Beads Ivory Kilwa; Mozambique
Spices Skins Malindi

NAME ANY FIVE MUTAPAS WHO HAD SOME RELATIONS WITH THE MUTAPAS
- Chikuyo Chisamarengu
- Negomo Mapunzaguta
- Gatsi Rusere
- Kapararidze
- Mavhura Mhande
- Nyakunembire
NB relations in the positive or negative aspect.
Kapararidza & Nyakunembire did not have cordial relations with the Portuguese [their relations were not friendly]
Chikuyo, Negomo, Mavhura Mhande & Gatsi Rusere had ‘friendly’ relations with the Portuguese.

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