Emp 401 Educational Administration PDF
Emp 401 Educational Administration PDF
Martin Ogola
Nicholas Malau
Catherine Wanjau
Lilian Boit
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EAP 401: EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
Course Introduction
The school is an organization in which people live and work. Like other organizations, it has
specific goals, tasks, clear division of labour, a structure for coordinating activity, legal
authority invested in certain members and a set of management procedures. Organization
theory or management theory therefore, enables us to understand certain aspects of schools.
There is a lot of knowledge in management which has relevance for schools. Schools require
managers who are trained and competent in administrative technique. As a prospective school
manager you must be must be able to easily and appropriately transfer the skills and
knowledge you acquire from one situation to another.
Educational administration involves many people. As a school administrator you will need to
work with education officers, the board of governors and even parents. You must be able to
provide leadership, motivate personnel, communicate effectively, understand the structure of
the education ministry and oversee the overall management of the school organization Even
as a classroom teacher, you will soon realize that all teachers have management
responsibilities. For example, you will be charged with the responsibility of managing
children in the classroom. You will also frequently, take part in managerial activities of the
school such as decisions making.
This course aims to achieve the following objectives;
√ To acquaint the learner with the theory and practice of Educational Administration in
Kenyan schools /institutions.
√ To enable the students to develop the ability to apply various theories to fundamental
issues, concerns and problems in the practice of educational management(in general) and
school administration(in particular).
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Table of Contents
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Lesson 1
ADMINISTRATION, EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND
THEORY: UNDERSTANDING THE CONCEPTS
1.0 Introduction
In lesson one of this course, we shall try to understand the meaning of administration in
general and education administration in particular as a preamble to the discussion on
educational administration theories. We shall also study the concept of theory so as to
understand the importance of theory in educational administration. This will give us a basis
upon which to understand the nature of schools as organizations. Organization theory or
management theory enables us to understand certain aspects of schools
1.1 Objectives
• Explain the concept of theory
• Define the term administration
• Describe the field of educational administration
• Show the importance of theory in educational administration
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1.2 Meaning of Administration
Administration is one of the oldest of all human endeavors. Consider the ancient Egyptian
civilization. More than 2000 years ago, the Egyptians organized vast and complex enterprises
that required planning, detailed coordination and skilled leadership. The construction of the
famous pyramids, which are still a wonder to behold many centuries later, required skillful
administration. Visualize the enormous amount of resources brought together for the purpose
of constructing the pyramids; without proper administration the task would never have been
completed.
Around this same time, the Chinese had highly systematic, large-scale systems that used many
of the management concepts used today. In the late 16th Century an elite corps of scholars,
who were chosen through competitive examination, rationally administered the Chinese Civil
Service.
The Catholic Church, at one time hundreds of years ago, had a far flung network of thousands
of clergy who were centrally administered.
The Sumerian priests, who lived during the Sumerian civilization around 3,000 BC, were in
charge of the formal tax system. In order to better control the society's resources, the priests
developed one of the first reporting and auditing procedures.
Therefore, even before administration became established as a discipline in the 20th century, it
had already been practiced as an art for hundreds of years. Administration as an art is much
older than administration as a science. The earliest forms of administration accompanied
man's first attempts at organized cooperation, but the rudiments of modern organizational
management seem to have evolved from early military structures.
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Before we discuss educational administration, let us first define administration in the more
general sense. Administration is the organizing and carrying out of a programme of activities
and functions to achieve desired and specified objectives. Owens(1998) defines
administration simply as the art of getting things done through others in an organization.
Administration involves getting things done to accomplish defined objectives. The science of
administration is therefore the system of knowledge whereby man may understand
relationships, predict results and influence outcomes, in any situation where men are
organized at work together for a common purpose. The administrative process is
accomplished through the behaviour of administrators in interaction with others.
NOTE
Having defined administration in general, we can now apply it to our area of concern-
education. The question we are seeking to answer therefore, is, how administration applies to
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the education setting. Educational administration is an eclectic field. It sources its ideas from
a wide range of disciplines and fields.
Whatever the setting, administration deals with or is concerned with mobilizing the efforts of
people towards the achievement of a common goal. However, the wholesale incorporation of
administrative practice from one field to another could be misleading. To illustrate this point,
in the manufacturing sector, the main concern is the production of goods and this is driven
purely by the profit motive. Education on the other hand, promotes the enrichment of living.
To accomplish the objectives in these two environments will definitely call for different
strategies.
Education administration has as its central purpose, the enhancement of teaching and
learning. All the activities of administrators, be they involving the public, the ministry of
education or the staff at school, should ultimately contribute to this end.
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As an educational administrator you must bear in mind that, fundamentally, the purpose of
educational administration is to create such conditions that will promote the goal of education.
An efficient and sound system of educational administration is required to manage the
students, thousands of teaching and other staff, as well as the huge sums of money spent on
education. School administration must facilitate education; it exists for the pupil and its
efficiency must be measured by the extent to which it contributes to teaching and learning.
The school is the basic unit in the educational administration hierarchy.
A theory is a rational explanation of how something is put together, of how it works, and why
it works that way. (Rational - means that which can be subjected to reason, that which is
sensible, argued out rather than guesswork).Theory is a set of assumptions or generalizations
supported by related philosophical and scientific principles. Theory explains what is, rather
than what ought to be. Theory provides an internally coherent way of looking at phenomena
in a described field, so that generalizations of the theory can be applied in specific areas. The
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terms of the application are consistent, inherent in the theory and special to the specific
instance.
- Theory is what provides the rationale for what one does. Skeptics may dismiss theory as
only an ideal state or ideal notion (that ignores practicalities). Theory is however,
crucial in shaping our every day perception and understanding of common place events.
- Theory provides a basis for thinking systematically about complex problems, such as
understanding the nature of educational organizations.
- Theory is useful because it enables us to describe what is going on, explain it and
predict future events under given circumstances (and therefore think about ways to
exercise control over events).
Thus, with regard to educational administration, theory is important in the following ways;
i) In a school, theory constitutes the basis upon which the headteacher can make references
on issues relating to school management.
ii) Theory provides a mode of analysis of practical events.
iii) Theory guides practical decision-making.
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Activity
h
• Select any traditional African community in Kenya or elsewhere.
Make an outline of administrative practices that were employed in
the organization of the community.
• From your experience as a school teacher, or as a student, show how
head teachers work with and through others to achieve the
objectives of the school.
• How do you see the relationship between school administration and
administration in other organizations? Do school administrators
have anything to learn from other types of administration such as
business administration?
• Reflect back to your days as a secondary school student. Outline
how the different administrators such as the provincial director of
education, the district education officer and head teacher contributed
to the enhancement of teaching and learning.
• Make a list of the key personnel involved in educational
administration at the national, provincial, district ,zonal and school
levels in Kenya
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Summary
In this lesson, we have learnt that administration is an ancient practice. The discipline
of administration however, is relatively new. We have also learnt the importance of
theory in education administration, and stressed that the primary purpose of education
administration is to enhance teaching and learning. We are now ready to study the
educational administration theories. These shall be the focus in our next lesson
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Further reading
Kochhar, S. K. (1993) Secondary School Administration. New Delhi: Sterling
Olembo, J.O. & Cameron, J. (1986) Practical Primary School Administration for
Students, Teachers and Heads. London: Edward Arnold (publishers) ltd.
Owens G.R. (1998) Organizational Behavior in Education. Boston: Allyn and Bacon
Ltd.
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Lesson 2
EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION THEORIES
2.0 Introduction
We have defined the terms administration and theory. In this lesson, we are going to describe
the major theories about organization that developed mostly in the early twentieth century.
These form the foundation of management thought. We have already noted that whereas the
practice of administration has been with mankind since the ancient times, the ‘science of
administration’ is relatively young. We shall now attempt to trace the development of
administrative theory. These theories apply as much to fields other than education.
2.1 Objectives
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2.2 CLASSICAL THEORY (Classical School Of Thought)
The Industrial Revolution gave rise to the need for a more sophisticated approach to
administration. Due to the development of new manufacturing technologies, great quantities
of raw materials and large numbers of workers were concentrated in the emerging factories.
It became increasingly difficult to coordinate all these resources into a smoothly running
process; hence people began to pay more attention to the problems of management.
We shall first study the work of Fredrick Taylor who is associated with Scientific
Management. Scientific Management, in general, arose in early 1900s out of a need to
improve manufacturing productivity through more efficient use of physical and human
resources. Factories were experiencing problems in formulating proper work procedures,
establishing job boundaries, and coordinating the flow of materials. Of the engineers who
developed interest in the process of work, Fredrick Taylor (1856 - 1915) became the most
prominent and is referred to as the Father of scientific management. He developed the
scientific approach to management.
Taylor’s ideas were born of his many years' experience at Midvale Steel, Simonds Rolling
Machine and Bethlehem Steel Company. Having dropped out of school, he worked first as a
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labourer, then clerk, then machinist and rose through the ranks to become an engineer after
studying engineering privately.
That workers were motivated by the prospect of high material reward: if wages were
closely tied to the volume of work, they would be motivated towards high output,
provided working methods were designed to maximize production
From his technical experience in industry, Taylor noticed that workers were both in charge of
planning and performing their jobs; this he observed, led to waste and inefficiency. He knew
that much higher productivity was possible without unreasonable effort by workers. He
believed that application of scientific methods could yield higher productivity without
expenditure of too much human effort/energy. To demonstrate his point, he invented the high-
speed steel cutting machines. His basic approach to studying work was to observe the separate
functions and motions each worker performed in his job, and from this analysis, re-design the
job in a more efficient manner -"the best way”. His principal concern was to increase
production efficiency so as to lower costs and raise profits. Higher productivity would in
turn lead to increased pay for workers. Taylor also observed that, many workers simply
worked and produced less rather than more, owing to the fear that they might overwork
themselves out of a job.
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iii) Division of labour (job specialization) should be applied to the maximum, because,
through repetition at work, speed and skill would be developed, leading to high
productivity. Duplication of effort should be avoided and workers saved from time-
wasting tasks such as fetching materials, transporting products, and arranging tools. Each
worker should know his job well and become a specialist in it (including management).
For management, he referred to this as functional foremanship - the concept holds that
each employee should be supervised by several foremen, each with distinct
responsibilities, such as, one for machine speeds, another for repair, another discipline.
iv) Time-study Principle: All productive effort should be measured by accurate time study
and a standard time established for all work done. It should therefore be possible to know
how much time is required to properly accomplish a given task
v) Piece-rate Principle: Pay (wages) should be proportional to output so as to stimulate
effort and encourage cooperation i.e. wage incentives should be an integral part of each
job. The rates should be based on standards determined by time-study. Time study refers
to analyzing a job task to determine the amount of time required to complete it. Lastly, a
worker should be given the highest grade of work of which they are capable.
vi) Separation of planning from performance principle: Management should take over
from workers, the responsibility of planning work as well as for making the performance
physically possible. Also, everything in the organization should be done by plan, (daily
plans to yearly plans). Planning and scheduling should serve to put people and materials
at right place, right time, and ready to work or in proper condition for use. There should
be a clear division of responsibility between management and workers.
vii) Management should ensure the proper selection, training and development of
workers, using scientific and systematic methods. Workers should be trained for
specific jobs.
viii) Scientific methods-of-work principle (elimination of rule-of-thumb approaches) in
deciding how each worker should do a job. Management should use the scientific
method rather than intuition and experience to determine work activities, ensure each
motion and movement is the most efficient possible. For example, Taylor's analysis of
the process of loading iron onto a flat car resulted in a 400% increase in tonnage loaded
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per worker. Taylor observed worker's movements along with the time needed to complete
a particular movement, and then redesigned the job giving it highly efficient motions and
specific times for each step. This led to the contemporary time and motion studies.
ix) Establish the discipline whereby management sets the objectives and the workers
cooperate in achieving them. He advocated for the achievement of the cooperation of
human beings, rather than chaotic individualism.
x) Working should always be for maximum output, rather than restricted output.
The above principles, which were developed by Taylor as a result of his studies on work,
were published in "The Principles of Scientific Management," (1911).His principles
formally differentiate roles and responsibilities of workers and managers. They also mandate
a top-down hierarchical relationship between the two groups.
Though his principles aimed at lowering unit cost in factory production, he (and his
followers) claimed they could apply universally. His principles were criticized for treating
men like machines and for ignoring the psychological and personal aspects of mobilizing
human effort. Still, he demonstrated that many jobs could be done more efficiently and he
introduced scientific study into management. His principles had enormous impact during his
time and led to time-and-motion studies, rigid discipline at work, and strict application of pay
incentive systems .His work has had a lasting contribution toward making jobs and their
management more efficient and productive and led others to continue the formulation of
management thought.
Activity
h
• In your own words, explain the phrase ‘treating men like machines’. Use an example
from the school situation to show how a head teacher may ‘treat men like machines’
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2.2.2 Administrative Management Theory
By Henri Fayol (1841 - 1925)
Scientific management, with its emphasis on efficient production was quite limited in scope.
Even though efficiency of production was important, of great importance too were issues
related to management of the total organization. The management of organizations had
become more complex than could be handled by scientific management principles alone.
From this situation, emerged Administrative Theory. Of the several contributors to this
theory, Henri Fayol stands out.
While Taylor's ideas were picking momentum and their application became popular, a French
mining engineer, Henri Fayol, (1841 - 1925), was working out some powerful ideas. He
wrote extensively on management topics. Unlike Taylor who had a technician's background,
Fayol had the background of a top-management executive (was born in a well to do French
family). These different backgrounds are reflected in their perceptions.
i) Unlike Taylor who concentrated on the worker and studied him as an extension of factory
machinery, Fayol focused on the manager.
ii) Fayol clearly separated the process of administration from other operations such as
production i.e. he made the distinction between operations and managerial activities.
iii) Fayol emphasized the common elements of the process of administration. Fayol is
considered to be the father of Modern Management Theory.
Fayol's book, ‘General and Industrial Administration’ (1916), had a major impact on the
emerging field of management. In it, he described the necessity and possibility of teaching
principles and elements (functions) of management. The now famous elements are Planning,
Organizing, Commanding, Coordinating and Control.
Fayol believed that a trained administrative group was essential to improving operations of
the organization, which was becoming increasingly complex. He asserted that administrative
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ability can and should be acquired first at school, then at work. Like Taylor, he believed the
process of production could be analyzed and studied scientifically .He also focused on
increased efficiency, at the expense of the individual, just like Taylor.
Fayol established himself as the first organizational theorist with definition of administration
in terms of five functions (elements); that management could be split into 5 broad areas;
i) Planning (forecasting) –he defined it as looking into the future and deciding what shall
be done depending on occurrence of certain events.
ii) Organizing: he described this as the process of dividing work into units and allocating
these to people and departments i.e. establishing the structure of authority, responsibility
and tasks.
iii) Commanding: this is the issuing of instructions to ensure targets are met.
iv) Coordination: refers to the unification of effort and it ensures all activities bind the
organization together to achieve a common goal.
v) Controlling: This element entails setting targets, monitoring activity to ensure targets are
met and taking remedial action to deal with divergence of actual from target
performance. Simply put, it's the evaluation of activities against stated goals and plans.
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human relations, one emphasized production efficiency and the other eight were directed
toward administration of the organization.
iv. Initiative
There should be participation in the solution of problems. Ideas and energies of
workers should be tapped in the solution of problems.
v. Esprit de Corps
That in union, there is strength Management must “avoid divide and conquer”
techniques and instead unify all the divergent groups and individuals. There should be
loyalty that unites members of a group, expressed in team work spirit.
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Principle emphasizing production efficiency
i) Division of work
Proper division of work leads to increased skills, reduction in learning time, and increased
efficiency resulting from not having to change from one task to another.
ii) Discipline
This is the respect shown by all members of the organization towards policies and
rules governing their conduct. Fayol proposed that good discipline could be achieved
by presenting agreement rules e.t.c. to workers as clearly and fairly possible. Penalties
and disciplining should be fair and be executed by competent supervisors.
v) Centralization
Actions that tend to reduce the authority/responsibility of subordinates by placing
more authority in the hands of a superior are considered as leading to greater degree of
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centralization of authority to makes decisions. Those that increase responsibility and
authority at lower levels result in a greater degree of decentralization of authority in
decisions making. There is no absolute level of centralization recommended.
The desired level depends on the situation (the nature of the firm, the type of problem
an the capabilities of the subordinates
vi) Remuneration Principle Rests on the assumption that wages paid should be based on
the concepts of equity and be satisfactory to workers and the company. In payment of
bonuses and profit sharing the mode of payment should be suited for particular
situation.
viii) Order
Means that in addition to the neat arrangement of physical materials, there should be a
device showing the place of every person in the organization and the relationship of
each to the other. An example of such information may be shown through the
organization chart.
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2.2.3 Bureaucracy
Human Relations
-Subordination of individual interests - Stability of tenure of personnel
-Equity. - Initiative
- Esprit de’ corps
Production Efficiency
Division of work
Administration
-Authority - Centralization
-Discipline - Scalar chain
-Unity of command - Remuneration
-Unit of direction - Order
During Taylor and Fayol's time, the western society was becoming increasingly
organizational. Giant industrial organizations emerged in the 1900s, engendering a similar
growth in other organizational aspects of life. The simple pre-industrial era social and
political structures began to look inadequate in the industrialized society. A lot of social,
political and economic friction resulted as evidenced in the increasing sense of conflict
between individuals and organizations. There was a lot of labour unrest, revolution and a rise
in communism. In this setting, Max Weber, a German sociologist produced some useful,
durable and brilliant work on administrative system; the bureaucracy. It has seemed
indispensable since then.
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efficient since bureaucrats are highly trained, technical specialists in a limited portion of
administrative task.
The bureaucratic model proposed by Weber is an ideal type; an abstract form against which
actual manifestations can be compared. It is rarely found in its pure form but organizations
approximate to this model to some degree.
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hierarchy of competent personnel who ensure impersonal (without favour or emotional bias)
application of rules.
The ideal type of bureaucracy is seen as foolproof, since, if everyone went by the book,
nothing would go wrong. In bureaucracy, there exists anonymity; rights, duties, power,
authorities are not attached to individuals but to the office. When an individual vacates
official position, they cease to wield the authority and power of that office
The characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy still appeal to many people to date. The idea that
effectiveness can be achieved by emphasis on efficiency, stability and control has been
attractive for many managers. The bureaucratic model, no doubt holds a lot of relevance to
any modern organization. However, there are issues inherent in the model that have been
noted by critics. Let us now address a few of these issues;
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The danger of bureaucratic model is that over-reliance on formal controls and impersonality
suppresses initiative and decision making in middle and lower ranks.
Excessive red tape: Rules provide a limited strategy for achieving coordination. In some
cases, other strategies may be required. Bureaucracy advocates for addition of more rules to
cover all contingencies and this results in too much red-tape. Once established in a
bureaucracy, it is difficult to eliminate ineffectual rules and procedures, leading to confusion,
and frustration.
Inflexibility: Bureaucratic insistence on "one best way" can be rigid even in the face of
rapidly changing internal and external environment.
Hoyle (1986) observes that we should make a distinction between bureaucracy as structure
and bureaucracy as style. Some elements of bureaucracy such as hierarchy are inherent in
organizational structure and thus inevitable in schools. But other elements vary according to
administrative style. The number and detail of rules laid down by the head teacher, for
example, will determine the extent to which the school is perceived to be bureaucratic.
Bureaucratic model became the most widely adopted and successful form of structuring
organization. In spite of criticisms and drawbacks, it remains the more common ideal of
organization, to the extent that some people view it as the defining concept of organization.
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Note
( The bureaucratic model is an abstract ideal. Ideal as used here does not imply
perfect, but rather a model which organizations apply to various degrees. In practice, it
hardly exists in its pure form
Activity
h
Try to visualize a school in which none of the described elements of the bureaucratic
model apply in its organization? Outline the problems that would result from such an
unlikely scenario
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Revision Questions
V
• What was the major difference in focus between Taylor’s and Fayol’s
theories?
• How did Taylor’s and Fayol’s backgrounds influence their theoretical
perspectives?
• To what extent would you say each of the classical theories presented so far
applies to secondary school administration in Kenya?
• Reflect on the administration of schools in Kenya. To what extent do schools
manifest themselves as bureaucracies?
• In what sense does the bureaucratic model provide a rational, impartial,
predictable and fair system of administration?
As the study of the problems of organization and administration became established, the
principles of classical theory received more attention as well as challenge from scholars and
practitioners .There soon emerged some opposition to classical thought. Human Relations
constituted the second major approach to administration. Of the contributors to this approach,
Elton Mayo and Mary Parker Follet remains the most notable.
Human Relations movement replaced focus on structure of the organization with an emphasis
on employee motivation and job satisfaction. It recognizes the human factor in institutions.
Human Relation movement was motivated by the increasing dissatisfaction with scientific
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management approach for treating employees as mechanistic element in the productive
process. It made great effort therefore to focus on establishing the relationship between work
environment and productivity. The classical approach was built on the premise that with
efficiently designed jobs, the right incentives and proper use of managerial functions,
productivity would increase. This formal, impersonal approach inevitably met with resistance
from workers, hence the development towards a human relations approach, whose main
contention was that man is A SOCIAL ANIMAL with an affinity for group affiliation.
Note
priority in administration.
Mary Follet was born in 1868 in Australia and was a political and social philosopher who
developed a keen interest in the analysis of business and public administration. She was a
philanthropist who dedicated her life to bringing about a better-ordered society that promotes
a satisfying life for the individual. Though initially her ideas were rooted in classical thought,
they matured in such a way that she spanned the gap between scientific management and
human relations. To Follet, the fundamental problem of any enterprise is the building and
maintenance of dynamic yet harmonious human relations.
Follet viewed the management first, as social process, and secondly, as inextricably enmeshed
in the particular situation. This means that the administrative process is so closely linked and
dependent on the situation that it is hard to separate the two. The administrators’ behaviour
and performance is influenced by the environment in which she /he operates
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She opposed the top-down flow authority in hierarchy and proposed that not just one person
should give orders; rather, all should seek to take orders from the situation itself. Management
is an ever-changing, dynamic process in response to emerging situations. This contrasts
classical view of prescribed static universal principles of action.
Her work emphasized the administrative system as both a social and economic entity. She
developed principles of human association and group organization in industrial situations
Follet regarded group coordination and integration as the important task of administration and
sought to identify the factors that lead to integration of groups. She analyzed the nature of
consent and argued that; democratic groups are based on consent, and the degree of consent of
a group towards a leader constantly changes over time. She suggested that management
should consult with the labour force and actively seek its cooperation.
Since situations, rather than people should determine what’s to be done, the primary task of
management is to interpret situations correctly to be able to make objective decisions. Parker
Follet’s work contributed to the opposition against engineering approach to people at work
and her work began the shift from emphasis on work process an organizational aspect of
administration and introduced the elements of individuals’ development and values. Follet
was the first great proponent (supporter and advocate) of human relations in administration,
but it remained for Elton Mayo and colleagues to give empirical data to support this view.
Elton was an Australian professor of industrial research, who worked with a team of Harvard
Researchers. Though he was initially a follower of F.W Taylor, through the findings of his
work, he opposed the validity of the scientific management approach.
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In one of Mayo’s early researches in a textile mill, “The first Inquiry”, the factory was
experiencing high employee turn-over, in spite of the fact that the mill had introduced
financial incentives. It had been assumed that, workers, being ‘economic animals’ were easy
to motivate through financial rewards. Yet, workers here still suffered low morale, fatigue
and depression. Mayo’s research introduced rest periods and more employee participation in
decision making, and efficiency/ productivity was improved.
The Western Electric Co. (Chicago) conducted research (1924 – 1927) to determine effect of
lighting and other conditions upon workers and their productivity at the Hawthorne plant.
Surprisingly, production increased whatever the alteration of physical factors and this,
confused the researchers. Mayo and his Harvard associates were called into the Hawthorne
plant, and conducted the now famous and significant Hawthorne studies between 1927 –1932.
True to scientific management tradition of problem solving through elaborate research, they
studied two groups (the test group and control group). The test group was subjected to
variation of physical conditions such as illumination and noise while the control group
maintained the normal conditions. Again, in both groups, productivity was boosted. Mayo,
thus discovered that, another factor was responsible for the change. The workers in the two
groups knew they were being observed and this enhanced their self-esteem, a phenomenon
now described as the Hawthorne Effect.
They felt special (group pride) and this encouraged cooperative behavior among the group. It
thus emerged that social relationship exerted strong influence on production. Also, since the
groups were given a sympathetic leader who was a member of the group, better performance
was reinforced. The workers reacted not to illumination, but to the experiment itself and their
involvement in it. The Hawthorne effect implies that they worked in the way they thought the
experimenters wanted them to, since they were the centre of attention.
The experiments demonstrated that economic and mechanistic approaches to human relations
at work were inadequate; that, what goes on inside a worker is more significant for production
that what goes on outside.
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What proved more influential to behavior than physical conditions were;
a. Interpersonal relationship within groups
b. Relations between groups and their supervisor
c. The fact that wages were not the dominant motivator for workers.
The workers defended norms and standards established with other people within and beyond
the working group.
The Hawthorne studies impacted significantly on management thought, and led to classical
school teachings and practices being questioned for their dehumanizing nature. Emphasis
thus began to shift from the economic man, to the ‘social man’ for whom social context of
work ranked high. At work, the worker rather than the job became the focal point for
managerial activities.
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ii. Non-economic rewards such as security and happiness ,can motivate workers more
than wages
iii. Specialization/division of labour is not necessarily efficient. Variety, especially where
initiative and discretion are encouraged, can stimulate interest to the point of increased
productivity.
iv. Individuals perceive themselves as members of groups. Norms of behaviour emanate
from standards set by groups which workers belong, not standards set by managers.
v. Work performance depends not just on the individual, but on the network of social
relationship within organization.
vi. Managers should be sensitive to people and strive to develop human relations or social
skills for working with employees.
The Human Relations Movement is credited with changing organization style to place less-
emphasis on rigid interpretation of efficiency (as suggested by Taylor) and suggests instead,
greater attention on obtaining cooperation of employees and helping them to identify more
closely with the organization. It replaces focus on structure of organization with and
emphasis on employee motivation and job-satisfaction.
Activity
briefly, how you can improve your administrative conduct in the light of the phrase”
what goes on inside a worker is more important than what goes on outside’
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If educational managers understand and recognize the existence of social systems in the
educational environment, they will be better placed to integrate these groups into the overall
operations of the school e.g. groupings could be formalized into clubs such as debate,
journalism, and teacher’s welfare. The groups can then be used to enhance teaching, learning
and cooperation.
Human relations theory enables educational administrators to recognize the human factor in
institution. Employees/students have personal needs and talents. Recognition of individual
potential not only motivates them, but also awakens them to use available resources to
enhance their skills as individuals or groups. To detect individual talents, the administrator
should cultivate an environment which assures teachers, students and workers that their ideas
and contributions are important for overall organizational efficiency.
Finally educational managers should show concern about conditions of work and learning
environment. When deliberate efforts are made to improve conditions of work, members
will, in turn be motivated.
Revision Questions
V
• What was the significance of the Hawthorne Effect in Elton Mayo’s study?
• What was the key factor that led to the development of human relations movement?
• Explain the statement ‘people are social beings ,not economic beings’
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2.4 BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE MOVEMENT
2.4.1 Introduction
The work of Mayo and others pioneered the movement towards better understanding of
people at work. Later researchers, who were better trained in the social sciences such as
psychology, sociology and anthropology, began investigating human resources in
management with more sophisticated research techniques. This led to the field of
organizational behaviour. Of those who contributed immensely to this school of thought, we
shall study the work of Chester Barnard who played a pioneering role. Others such as
Abraham Maslow, Fredrick Herzberg and MacGregor have also had a lasting impact on
behavioural science movement. Behavioural science theory developed from human relations
studies .It saw the Human Relations Movement as representing an incomplete view of human
behaviour in work situations.
Behavioural science movement views worker’s motivation in terms of such factors as; work
itself, the nature of incentive system, interpersonal relations, management style, workers
needs and values and work environment. The movement therefore attempted to provide an
integrated approach to management through relating it to disciplines such as anthropology,
sociology and psychology. The Behaviouralists argued that behaviour of people in
organization cannot be explained by human interactions alone, but also, by other factors such
as organizational structure, job design, technology and management style.
Chester Barnard appears to have been the first to relate administration to the behavioural
sciences. According to Barnard, people form organisations in order to achieve goals they
could not achieve working alone. His major point was that, an organization can only operate
efficiently and survive when both the organisation’s goals and those of the individuals
working in it are kept in balance. He gave the three basic elements of organization as;
a) System of cooperation
b) common purpose
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c) emphasis on efficiency and effectiveness
Barnard also studied the areas of motivation, decision-making, communication and objectives.
For example, he proposed that worker cooperation and motivation were related to the balance
between inducement and contributions. Inducements are the sum totals of rewards (financial
and non-financial) employees receive in exchange for their efforts (contributions). He also
introduced what later became the acceptance theory of authority; that employees will
determine whether an order is legitimate and whether or not to accept or reject it. This means
that if an order agrees with how they view the goals of the organization, and their own
interests, they will accept it.
Barnard points out that in each formal organization, there are informal organizations. Informal
organization involves the interactions of people without a specific joint purpose. It is not
guided by the official organizational patterns of relationship. Such interactions however, do
change the experience, knowledge, attitudes and emotions of people. He also asserted that
individual satisfaction greatly affects organizational achievement.
Several other scholars made significant contribution towards behavioural science movement,
the most notable being Douglas Macgregor, with his theory X and Y, Fredrick Herzberg and
Abraham Maslow. The work of these theorists is presented in detailed form in the lesson on
motivation theories.
Activity
h
Consider the relationships among members of staff in a school. Describe the type of
informal organizations that may be formed in the school organization. How do these
differ from the formal organization?
35
Revision Questions
V
xIn what way did the behaviouralists view the Human Relations Theory as deficient?
xMake a list of the inducements given to and contributions made by staff in schools in
the context of Chester Barnards’ analysis of cooperation and motivation
xDo you find the behavioural theory relevant to the challenges of secondary school
administration in Kenya? Provide a brief outline of your view.
Summary
±
In this lesson, we have traced the development of what we have for the purpose of this
course called educational administration theory. The number of personalities we have
presented are by no means exhaustive; rather, these are considered to be representative
of the development of the theories. Our lesson began with classical theory which
placed emphasis on form and structure of the organization and work .Taylor was
mostly concerned with the organization of the work process for efficiency. Fayol was
primarily concerned with increasing efficiency among the executives (top
management).He was a pioneer in clearly identifying management in a coherent form.
Weber’s bureaucratic model was designed to provide a fairer, impartial and rational
approach to management. Secondly, we studied the human relations theory which
advocates work humanization. The theory criticizes classical theory for ignoring the
human aspect of work. The last school of thought studied was the behavioural
movement which attempts to provide a more comprehensive view of organization.
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Further Reading
Hoyle Eric (1986). The Politics of School Management. London: Hodder and
Stoughton
Koontz, H.; O’Donnnel, C. and Weihrich, H. (1981). Management. Tokyo: McGraw-
Hill co.
Owen, G. Roberts. (1998). Organizational Behaviour in Education. Boston: Allyn
and Bacon Ltd
Szilagyi, A.D. (1984) Management and Performance. Dallas: Scott, Foresman and
Co.
37
Lesson 3
ADMINISTRATIVE PROCESSES
3.1 Introduction
In our last lesson, we studied the educational administration theories. The next question you
might be asking is; what are the functions of the administrator? This question was addressed
by Fayol in early 20th century. As early as 1916, Fayol dealt with what he called the elements
of management – Planning, Organizing, Commanding, Coordinating and Controlling. The
administrative process is a conceptualization intended as a useful guide to the administrator
that suggests how the educational administrator would behave if they want their activity to
result to the best attainment of objectives.
3.2 Objectives
• At the end of this lesson, you should be able to list the elements of the administrative
process.
• Define each element of the administrative process.
• Demonstrate the application of the elements of the administrative process to school
administration in Kenya.
To Fayol’s list that constituted the administrative processes, he attached special meaning to
each element. Since then, numerous other variations of the list have been suggested. The
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better known of these variations is that of Gullick and Urwick (1935). Gullick’s taxonomy,
better known or memorized in educational administration as POSDCoRB, was for long seen
to be the ultimate in administrative thought. POSDCoRB is an abbreviation coined from the
first letter of each word in the list.
P-Planning
O-Organizing
S-Staffing
D-Directing
C-Coordinating
R-Reporting
B-Budgeting
Fayol’s treatment of the administrative functions shown above had a major impact on
subsequent formulations of the administrative process (such as Gullick’s).When discussing
the process of administration; it is convenient to describe each function of the process
separately. This however, does not mean that administrative processes are a series of discrete
functions; they may be performed simultaneously. Gullick’s POSDCoRB stands for activities
necessary to the proper functioning of the administrative process and he acknowledged it as
an adaptation of Fayol’s functional analysis.
3.3.1 Planning
According to Gullick, it is the working out in broad outline the things that need to be done and
the methods for doing them to accomplish organization’s objectives. It is one of the most
important administrative functions because it sets the pattern for other activities to follow. It
encompasses four elements,
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i. Evaluating environmental forces and organizational resources- this enables us to know
where we stand know the problems we need to solve, understand dangers of the
situation and the expected results.
ii. Establishing goals (both for enterprise and individuals )
iii. Developing strategies and plans
iv. Formulating decision-making processes
Planning is generally accorded primacy since logically it is the first function that is
performed. The results of planning are plans that serve as guide for the actions of
members of staff. Some plans are developed to serve a given project, for example,
building a new plant, or school hall .Some become relatively permanent in nature and are
called standing plans, for example, schemes of work, policies, procedure and methods.
In its simplest form, planning is an activity that can be executed by any member of the
organisation. A teacher may plan their individual dairy for his or her work schedule.
Planning involves setting missions and objectives and the actions for achieving them. It
involves decision-making and choosing future courses of action from alternatives.
Planning bridges the gap between where we are and where we want to be in future. It thus
involves introduction of new things and workable implementation strategy. Although the
future cannot always be accurately predicted, unless there is planning, actions will be
aimless and left to chance. Plans enable people to know their purposes and objectives,
their tasks and the guidelines to follow.
3.2.2 Organising
People working together have roles to play .Role implies that people have definite purpose
or objectives. Staff in organization will work effectively if they know the part they are to
play in any team operation and how their roles relate to one another. To design and
maintain these systems of role is the basic managerial function of organizing.
Organizing involves:
i. Identifying and classifying the activities
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ii. Grouping the activities (departmentation)
iii. Assigning each group to a manager (supervisor)
Organizing therefore, involves establishing an internal structure of roles for people to fill
in an organization. It ensures that all tasks are assigned
3.3.3 Staffing
This refers to hiring and training members of staff and maintaining favourable working
conditions. It is the whole personnel function of bringing and training staff after which,
ensuring that the conditions of work in which they operate are favourable.
Staffing may also be defined as the filling and keeping filled the positions in the
organization structure. It involves identifying work force requirements, inventorying the
people available, recruiting, selecting, placing, promoting, planning their career,
compensating and training (staff development). In Kenya, Teachers’ Service Commision
is responsible for much of this role.
Note
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3.3.4 Directing
3.3.5 Coordinating
In any organization efforts are made in different ways. Employees working for similar interest
may interpret them differently. It becomes important to reconcile differences in approach,
effort or interest and to harmonize individual goals to contribute to organizational goals.
Coordinating therefore is interrelating the parts of the total enterprise into a
harmonious whole and avoiding conflict and duplications, which interfere with the
entire enterprise.
Teachers at the different levels of the school coordinate to ensure smooth transition from one
class to the next. This could be for the purpose of content sequencing .Also, teachers teaching
different streams need to coordinate to ensure their activities are in sync. Teachers in different
departments may need to coordinate to avoid duplication.
Coordination is necessary for integrating specialized and diverse functions into one whole. It
assists individual staff members to work together in a team relationship. An often used way of
coordination is having one person responsible for knowing what all others in the group are
doing, so that he/she relates activities of each person to that of others. The person charged
with coordination must:
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i. Know the relations among people
ii. Understand allocation of tasks
iii. Know the division of labour necessary to achievement
3.3.6 Reporting
This entails keeping all members of staff informed of what goes on so that they may be able
to perform their part or role in a harmonious and coordinated way. This involves keeping the
subordinates and their superiors informed through records, research, inspection and memo.
The head teacher is responsible to educational authorities and society for whatever is done at
the institution. It is important therefore that records are kept and reports sent to concerned
parties.
3.3.7 Budgeting
Budgeting refers to fiscal planning, accounting control and maintaining the financial stability
of the enterprise. Budgeting involves preparing formal statements of future expenditure,
revenues and expected profits to control the use of the organization’s financial resources.
Budgeting is a detailed administrative practice used to ensure goals, plans and policies are
met. They set a standard for output (production). By specifying resources to be used,
budgeting helps successful implementation of strategies. Budgeting leads to efficient use of
resources, preserves resources, and establishes a mechanism for analysis. It is concerned with
all that goes on in the enterprise in the form of fiscal planning, accounting and control.
Note.
( There are other formulations of the administrative process. All these are variations
of Fayol’s classification of the elements of management. POSDCoRB is one of the
taxonomies that are more commonly referred to.
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Activity
h
• Make a list of the staffing activities that are conducted by the Teachers’ Service
Commission in Kenya. What is the head teacher’s role as school administrator in the
staffing function?
• Briefly describe some of the problems that would be experienced in a school in the
absence of proper coordination.
Revision questions
V Why is the planning function considered to be important for all the other functions of the
administrative process?
• ‘The administrative processes are not a series of discrete functions’. Explain why this is so.
• Why is budgeting more than just a mere statement of what the organization intends to spend?
• Make a list o all the people that you would be required to report to regularly as a headteacher of
a secondary school in Kenya?
• In what way is coordinating the establishment of order, function and design?
• List five examples of the planning process in the school.
• What is the key role of directing?
• Give an example of a situation where the school administrator may perform three different
functions from the administrative process simultaneously
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Further Reading
Koontz,H., O’Donnel, C., Weihrich, H. Management. Tokyo: McGraw-Hill Co.
Szilagyi, A.D. (1984) Management and Performance. Dallas: Scott, Foresman and
Co.
Olembo, J.O. & Cameron, J. (1986) Practical Primary School Administration for
Students, Teachers and Heads. London: Edward Arnold publishers (ltd).
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LESSON 4:
Motivation consists of needs which set up drives. The drives in turn help in acquiring goals.
Note:
Drives/motives are action oriented and help goal accomplishment. They are personal and
internal
Incentives are found at the end of the motivation cycle. They alleviate a need and thereby
Note:
a) Motive is a Drive or expression of a person's needs - hence are personal and internal.
b) Incentives are external and are made part of the work environment by management in
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4.2 FRUSTRATION
a) Aggression: -
This is where goal attainment has been blocked and an individual result to hostile
behaviour. This may be directed against the object/person who he/she feels is the course
of frustration.
b) Rationalization:
c) Regression:
e.g. a person who cannot start his car can proceed to kicking it.
d) Fixation:
A person exhibits the same behaviour pattern over and over again although experience has
e.g. a person who has been punished severely over a certain behaviour may lead to
fixation.
e) Resignation:
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Occurs after prolonged frustration when an individual loses hope for accomplishing his
Activity:
Comes from the Latin word "movers" implying "to move" Thus:
1. Definitions:
Motivation refers to "all those phenomena which are involved in the stimulation of action
towards particular objectives where previously there was little or no movement towards
those goals"
2. Atkinson:
Defines motivation as "the arousal of tendency to act to produce one or more effects".
3. Maslow:
Motivation is constant, never ending, fluctuating and complex and that it is an almost
FUNCTIONS OF MOTIVATION
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-The motivated behavioiur moves in a specific direction. The behaviour of the organism
3. Behaviour is selective:
-Tender motivated condition, the behaviour of the organism does not move haphazard
way. It is directed toward a selective goal which the individual sets for himself/herself.
Example:
A student who is motivated to secure high grades in the examination, concentrates on his
- Maslow believed that man can work out a better world for mankind as well as for
himself.
- He examined the traditional approach of pain avoidance and pleasure seeking and
- He argues that needs are arranged in a hierarchy; and that as one general type of need
is satisfied, another higher order need will emerge and become operative.
i) Deficit needs:-
Include needs such as hunger and thirst. Once these needs are satisfied, an individual
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ii) Growth needs:-
Self Actualization
Self Esteem
Safety Needs
i) Physiological Needs:
When these needs are deprived for a long period, all other needs fail to appear, and
sometimes deprive them of their own privileges like pocket money, freedom to
etc.
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ii) Safety Needs:
When psychological needs are successfully fulfilled, then safety needs become
dominant. This category of needs is mainly concerned with maintaining order and
security.
e.g. boarding of money, purchase of buildings, land and other investments make ones
future secure.
• These are needs of making intimate relationship with other members of the
• These needs are dependent on the fulfilment and satisfaction of previous categories
of needs.
Note:
b) Relating to respect from others: reputation, status, social success and fame.
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• feeling of achievement, competent,
• need to feel superior to others e.g. by purchasing of items as good and costly
clothes.
Note:
v) Self Actualization:
• This need means "to fulfill one's individual nature in all aspects, being what one
can be"
• People can be motivated towards self-actualization only when their lower order
• Self actualizing person wants to be and must be free from restraints from society.
• For self-actualization, one should enjoy his job. He should feel satisfied in his
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• They accept themselves and others
• Sense of humour
In Schools:
3. Give challenging work to give opportunities for personal growth and advancement.
Activity:
Discuss how a headteacher can satisfy the various levels of needs to his/her staff.
2. HERTZBERG'S THEORY
53
This is a theory of external motivation because the manager or leader controls the factos
A study was done to determine factors in the job which were present when the employees felt
exceptionally happy or unhappy with their jobs. From the interviews with employees, a two
i) The factors that were present when job satisfaction was produced were separate and
ii) The opposite of job satisfaction is no job satisfaction not job dissatisfaction
• Reports of feeling happy were not brought about by the absence of factors that cause
i) achievement
ii) recognition
iv) responsibility
v) advancement
Note:
54
1. When these factors fall below an acceptable level, they contribute very little to job
2. Feelings of unhappiness were not brought about by the absence of the satisfier factors, but
does it.
iii) Salary
v) Working conditions
• When hygiene factors fall below what employee considers an acceptable level, he became
neutral state.
• Hygiene factors help man avoid unpleasantness whereas the motivator factors make
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3. McGREGOR'S THEORY:
• In this theory, McGregory tries to look at the interaction between the individual and the
organization.
Y.
McGregor's Theory X
1. The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if he can.
2. Because of the human characteristics of dislike of work, most people must be coerced,
controlled, directed, threatened with punishment to get them to put forth adequate effort
3. The average human being prefer to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, has
• These assumptions listed above hold that most people dislike work and responsibility and
prefer to be directed; and that people are motivated not by the desire to do a good job, but
McGregor's Theory Y:
Assumptions:-
1. The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as play or rest.
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2. External control and the threat of punishment are not the only means of bringing above
achievement.
4. The average human being learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept but to seek
responsibility.
5. The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity and creativity
population.
6. Under the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentialities of the average
Note:
• With theory Y, heavy emphasis on internal motivational implies that all employees will be
motivated by self esteem and self-actualization needs while on the job - thus calling for
self-control.
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Each manager must remember that each employee is unique and should be understand a
treated as such. External motivation should be flexible enough to accommodate each unique
2. Job enlargement:
-So that workers jobs are made more challenging and interesting
3. Participate Management:
4. Management by objectives
- Here subordinates set goals jointly with their superiors and then are measured on the
THEORY X:
Advantages:
1. No delays in decision-making.
Disadvantages:
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2. There exists in the organization rigid rules
3. Assumes workers are immature, irresponsible and need external controls and close
supervision.
5. There exists poor interpersonal relations between administration and other workers.
7. There is low work output due to threat, external controls and negative attitudes.
THEORY Y:
Advantages:
3. Administrator assumes creativity is widely distributed in people and not just to a few
selected.
4. No rigid rules and regulations. Employees are left to self-direct and self-control.
6. There exists good interpersonal relations between administrator and other workers.
7. Administrator assumes workers are not passive to original needs but an unsupportive
Disadvantages:
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Activity:
b) If you were a worker, would you prefer to be motivated from within or by the
organization?
c) If you were a headteacher, would you prefer that your employees be self-motivated, or
Lesson 5
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THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP
5.1 Introduction
The study of leadership is an interesting but complex endeavor as there is many variables
surrounding it. It is also broad, as many theories have been proposed in an attempt to
understand this phenomenon. This lesson discusses only some of the aspects and theories
associated with leadership, as it is impossible to study all the theories that have been proposed
by various writers in this module.
5.2. Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
• define the term leadership
• identify various types of leadership
• define the term authority and power and identify the various types of authority and
power
• identify the various approaches of leadership
• describe the leadership styles (namely, autocratic/authoritarian, democratic/participative
and leissez feire leadership styles.)
• Identify the strengths/advantages and weaknesses/disadvantages of using the autocratic,
democratic and leissez feire styles of leadership.
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There are various definitions of the term leadership proposed by numerous writers of
educational and general administration. Hoy & Miskel (1987:270-271) have stated some of
these definitions as follows:
Note
62
h Study all the definitions of leadership stated above as well as others proposed by other
writers in other books and references and isolate all the attributes and variables that you think
are important in conceptualising the meaning of leadership. Then state your own definition of
leadership and show why your definition is preferable to any other two definitions stated
above.
Activity
( It is notable from all the various definitions stated above that there are many variables and
dimensions to be considered in any attempt to conceptualise the meaning of the term leadership.
However, we can simply define leadership as:
“the ability to persuade others or the art or process of influencing people in a group towards the
realization of organizational goals” .
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Components of leadership
Three major components have been identified by Knezevich (1975) and Katz and Khan in
Hoy and Miskel (1987). Knezevich (1975: 81), for instance notes that leadership is:
This implies that it must be taken into account that leadership is exercised by the people
occupying formal positions as well as others who wield a lot of influence and power, yet they
do not occupy formal leadership positions. Leadership also implies the existence of followers
for without followers, there would not be any leadership.
Katz and Khan in Hoy and Miskel (1987:271) on the other hand in an attempt to describe the
nature and meaning of leadership have also identified three major components of the concept.
These are namely: (1) an attribute of an office or position; (2) a characteristic of a person; and
(3) a category of actual behavior.
Formal leadership
Symbolic leadership
Functional leadership
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The leader in a formal organisation is the person who occupies a formal leadership position.
Knezevich (1975:83) observes that:
Head teachers, Deputy head teachers and Heads of Departments in primary and secondary
schools therefore occupy formal leadership positions.
‘leaders are born not made,’ that is, some have it, some don’t. The leader
stimulates and unifies the activities of others along certain paths because of the
way he looks and his personality. This is charismatic approach to leadership
and bears a strong kinship to trait psychology.
Knezevich further contends that the ‘romantic concept of the leader endowed with almost
magical attributes can be traced to a longing for security’. (p.82). This has led to the leader
being idealized,
With almost ‘unlimited powers’ and none of the faults and shortcomings found
in ordinary humans. He becomes the “father image” or the “security symbol.”
Hence, such a leader is seen as being stronger, more intelligent, more cultured, more
impressive than the average person.
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Leadership can also be viewed in terms of the functions one is performing or is expected to
perform in the group. In other words, the criteria for leadership is based on:
What the leader does to help the group define its goals, achieve its objectives,
or maintain its strength as a body. Unless a person can fulfil one or more of
these group functions, he is not a functional leader no matter how charming his
personality or how impressive the title of his position.
5.5.1. Authority
Authority is necessary in every organisation as it ensures that tasks are carried out and that as
a result the organisational objectives are achieved which otherwise be impossible.
Definition of Authority
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iii. “The right conferred on an individual to make decisions and ensure that these
decisions are followed.”
It is important to note that authority unlike power does not involve the use of force.
Types of Authority
Having defined what is authority, we now need to establish the various types of authority that
have been identified by various authors. These are:
• Formal authority
• Charismatic authority
• Traditional authority
• Legal authority
• Functional authority
• Acceptance theory of authority
a) Formal authority
Formal authority emanates from one’s legal position in the organisation. The person in this
formal leadership position has authority to issue commands and directives to other employees
in accordance to the rules and regulations. It is also expected that when one joins an
organisation, then he or she is expected to obey his superior within certain acceptable limits.
(see Hoy and Miskel, 1987). Formal authority usually flows from those in leadership
positions to those in lower positions. The head teacher of a school has, has for instance,
formal authority by virtue of occupying the position of a head teacher. Other teachers,
support staff and pupils are expected to obey his directives under certain acceptable limits. It
is, however important to note that teachers, support staff and pupils are not expected to agree
to head teachers demands if these demands are unacceptable e.g. having sexual relations or
cleaning the head teacher’s home or compound during night hours.
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b) Charismatic authority
This type of authority emanates from the leaders personal qualities and characteristics e.g
physical attributes such as strength or beauty, knowledge, ability, skill, status, age, sex, etc.
Hoy and Miskel (1987:109) note that:
One of the teachers in the school may be able to wield a lot of power over the other teachers
or the students due to being extremely knowledgeable on any subject, intelligent and eloquent.
Others may simply agree and want to be identified with him because they perceive him as
having ‘a mystique’ or ‘an magical aura’ that they themselves do not possess.
c) Traditional authority
The traditionally sanctioned position of authority is obeyed and the person currently
occupying the position inherits the authority. Hence this authority emanates from traditions,
beliefs, culture. As Hoy and Miskel (1987:110) observe:
Traditional authority is anchored in an established belief in the sanctity of the
status of those exercising authority in the past. Obedience is owed to the
traditionally sanctioned position of authority, and the person who occupies the
position inherits the authority established by custom.
In traditional African societies, medicine men, those performing circumcision rites and
midwives were, for instance, obeyed without any questioning.
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The source of this authority is the law and can only be changed by formally correct
procedures. Obedience is to the laws that specify to whom and to the extent of compliance.
In a school situation, there are laws that dictate how the school should function e.g. in the
absence of the head teacher. The deputy head teacher, for instance, assumes the role of the
head teacher and is answerable to higher educational authorities for events occurring in the
school during the absence of the head teacher.
e) Functional authority
Functional authority is one which is limited to the function one is playing at a given time or
situation. This authority emanates from one’s competence or technical skills. During an
emergency, such as when a road accident occurs, any doctor in the crowd will have authority
over others due to his expertise on medical matters. The teacher who takes pupils for a school
tour has overall authority during the trip. He can make all decisions such as involving the
police in case of an emergency (e.g. if a pupil goes missing) yet in normal school time, he has
no authority to call the police. Instead, the head teacher (or the deputy during the head’s
absence) is the only one who has such authority. A technician also has authority over others
due to his technical knowledge and skills. Others follow his directives as he has more
knowledge and competence than they have e.g. he is the only one who can repair faulty
school machines such as, computers, televisions etc. and make them to start working again.
Authority emanates from the subordinates that is, if they accept the authority then it exists but
if they do not accept it then the superior has no authority. Subordinates will accept order or
decision if it is within their zones of acceptance but will reject order or decision if it is not
within ‘zones of acceptance’. The challenge to the leader or administrator is to gain the
acceptance of his / her subordinates.
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5.5.2. Power
Power is closely related to authority. Without power there is no organization and no order.
Mostly, power is used when authority has been abused.
Definition
Power can be defined as the capacity or ability to make things happen in order to get results.
Power can also be said to be the ability to employ sanctions or force or to give rewards in an
effort to have something or make others do something.
The authority which one posses by virtue of holding a given position in the organisation
means that he has the legitimate right to expect obedience from those under his authority.
Hence, such a person has legal power that emanates from his or her leadership position in the
organization. The leader has a legitimate right to ask others to perform certain duties or
activities e.g. a head teacher has the right and power to ask a teacher to teach another class
other than his or her usual one. He or she can ask for an explanation from a teacher or a pupil
who has been absenting himself from school. This power therefore depends on one’s official
position not relationship with subordinates.
The knowledge, skills, expertise, that a person possess gives him ‘expert power’ over others
who require it or want to benefit from it e.g. the secretary may have ‘expert power’ over her
boss if the boss does not have computer knowledge and skills and has to rely on her to
retrieve information for him from there computer. A head teacher may therefore have
legitimate power over his subordinates but due to lack of knowledge and expertise he may
become powerless to act in certain circumstances. A leader should therefore have both
70
legitimate and expert power to be able to influence his subordinate towards the achievement
of the organisational goals.
This is the type of power that results on one because one can issue rewards, materials,
resources, salaries, fridge benefits etc. One is therefore able to induce others to comply with
what one wants
This power is possessed by the person having personal qualities and reputation which others
want to identify with e.g. physical attraction, eloquence, powerful position in organization,
intelligence etc. Those attracted to such a person with charismatic personality also have a
desire to become more like him or her.
This power is primarily based on use of forceful means to make others obey. The holder of
this power has ability to conflict punishment or negative consequences or another person. He
may do so through physical means e.g. corporal punishment. Physical strength, verbal facility
or ability to grant or withhold emotional support are examples of coercive power. In a school
situation, detentions, suspensions, expulsion corporal punishment are some of the methods
that can make students comply with orders, rules, directives, policies etc. On the other hand,
threats of being demoted, transferred, being sacked are some of the forceful means that can be
used on staff to make them comply with the head teachers or Board of Governors demands
e.g. agreeing to teach on Saturdays or holidays. Withholding, controlling of material resources
e.g. vehicle, residing in an institutional house, using school computers etc are also forms of
coercive power.
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Note
(
One is therefore said to have power over others when he or she has the capacity to
reward or withhold resources, compensation, promotion, etc from others. Head
teachers and others who hold leadership positions should therefore ensure that they
have both legitimate as well as expert and referent power so that they can have a greater
influence over their subordinates. They should therefore keep abreast of new
knowledge and developments in the field of education. They should be willing to learn.
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Great Man Theory
The Great man theory posits that some people are born to be leaders. This in essence, means
that, if certain inborn traits were identifiable in leaders, then we would believe as Aristotle did
that “from the hour of birth, some are marked out for subjection, others for rule”. This theory
therefore implies that some were born to be leaders and others were born to be followers.
Traits
Several traits have been proposed by writers as being identifiable in leaders and not non-
leaders. Robbins (2003), for instance, quotes Kirk Patrick and Locke (1991) as having
identified six traits. These are:
Stogdill in Hoy & Miskel also summarises some of the personal factors (noted by various
writers) associated with the Trait approach theory of leadership. These are:
It is important to note that the earlier trait studies were trying to isolate unique traits that could
differentiate leaders from non-leaders. The earlier studies discouraged many for lack of
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successful researchers. Never the less, the studies have continued as industrial psychologists
were still interested in improving the selection of managers. However, the emphasis now was
a search for the traits on that led to leader effectiveness rather than focusing or comparing the
traits of leaders and non leaders (Yuki in Hoy & Miskel 1987: 272). Hence the trait studies
now tend to focus on ‘the relationship between traits and leadership effectiveness of
administrators. (Hoy & Miskel 1987: 273). The traits that were identified by these later
studies were more consistent.
Stogdill isolated more traits in the second type of studies that direct on traits leading to leader
effectiveness and he concluded that these were:
• There are no universal traits that predict about leadership in all situations.
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• The predicted traits are in ‘weak’ situations rather than ‘strong’ situations i.e in strong
situations leaders have little opportunity to express/ display interest dispositional
tendencies.
• The course and effect are not separated by evidence provided e.g. ‘does self-confidence
create leadership, or does success as leader build self-confidence? P. 315).
• Traits tend to predict the appearance of leadership rather than ‘ distinguish between
effective and ineffective leaders i.e. an individual may exhibit traits associated with
leadership by others but yet he may unsuccessful as leader e.g. fail to achieve set goals.
The failure to get consistent results in studies relating to leadership led to researchers to focus
on situational variables. In other words, the leaders’ traits were therefore no longer considered
to be the only determining factors of leadership for situational variables also proved to be
critical in determining the leader that was chosen. Some of the situational variables or
determinants of leadership that have been postulated include:
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Situational approach and theories hence postulate that the leaders’ effectiveness depends on
the situation at hand for under condition a, style x would be appropriate, whereas style y
would be more suitable for condition b, and style z for condition c. (Pg 319-322). Hence
according to the situational approach or theories ‘leaders were made by the situation’, and
were ‘not born to lead and others to follow’.
According to Fiedler contingency model ‘effective group performance depends on the proper
match between the leader’s style and the degree to which the situation gives control to the
leader. (Pg.320).
According to Fiedler the situation in which the leader operates is the first key variable in the
model and can be characterised by 3 factors namely:
The second variable in the model is the leader. He suggests 2 basic leader orientation namely:
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House’s Path-Goal Theory
Path-Goal theory is another contingency theory (or approach to leadership). It was developed
by House and refined in the 1970’s. The model integrates concepts of leader behavior and
situational favorableness (with a unique definition of effectiveness).
The theory is called Path-Goal because it explains how leaders influence their subordinates’
perception of work goals, personal goals and paths to goal attainment. Leaders are effective
when they enhance acceptance, satisfaction and motivation levels of their subordinates.
L L
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Autocratic leadership style Democratic leadership style
Source: Lewis B. Sappington and C.G Brawne in William Lazer and Engene J. Kelly eds in Herbert G. Hikes
D.C. Ray Gullet ‘Organization’ Theory and Behaviour McGraw-Hill, Inc. Auckland, 1981 p. 303
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1. are generally strong-willed, domineering, and to some extent, aggressive.
2. must have their own way, which for them, seems the only way.
3. look upon subordinates more as functionaries than as persons, and the best
subordinates, in their estimation, follow directions without questions
4. ordinarily are not ready to listen to views and suggestions of others (although may
pretend to), if they are different opinions.
5. do not encourage equal relationships (i.e. adult to adult) with underlings. As a rule
they do not allow themselves to get close to employees. They do not like to see
employees get close to one another, for such cliques, as authoritarian leaders perceive
them, might endanger their authority.
6. have business-like and task-oriented attitudes. The job comes first.
7. generally blame poor results on the inability of others to carry out instructions
correctly.
(ii) The leader tends to be dictatorial, that is, he issues orders and instructions to the
employees and expects them to obey without any questioning. Violation of orders is
heavily punished.
(iii) The leader sets policy, structures, interprets, modifies tasks as he wishes.
(iv) The leader does not consult his followers on important matters e.g. policies, rules,
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(vi) Rules are very harsh.
(viii) The flow of communication tends to flow from the top to bottom.
(ix) There is little consideration for employees needs and interests e.g. when issuing
responsibility.
Disadvantages
• Creates low jobs morale. Workers feel frustrated and demoralized as the leader has little
regard for their interests and needs
• Workers are expected to give unquestionable support to leader and whether they agree
with him or not. Failure to support the leader results in punishment.
• Leaders tend to over control and direct employees even when it is not necessary. This
may lead to feelings of dissatisfaction and they may even rebel against the leader.
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• The leader also set policies regulations, structure etc. He also sets and modifies tasks
without consulting others in the organization for school. This may result in harsh rules,
policies and working conditions.
• Decisions may be poor as leader may not consult others even though he may lack
information, expertise, knowledge on the matter (e.g. buying of computer hardware)
• This may result in a high turn over (transfers) of staff and as a result it may be difficult to
achieve organizational objectiveness. In a school situation students may fail to learn well
due to frequent transfers and turnover of staff leading to failure in national examinations.
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7. They allow group members a good deal of freedom in their work, once they have
shown their ability to do it.
8. Thy keep looking for better ways to do things, and are open to change when convinced
that such changes seem called for and would lead to greater effectiveness.
9. They believe in the effectiveness of group work. They also believe that groups of
concerned individuals working together have greater potential than when those same
members work as individuals.
(D’Souza, 1989:49-50).
(ii) The peoples’ basic needs, rights and freedoms are guaranteed and respected by the
of organisational goals.
(iii) The democratic leader recognises the fact his followers are capable of making good
decisions and suggestions based on the followers training and experiences. Hence he
will support decisions that they have helped to make and that consequently this will
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(iv) Ideas are exchanged between a democratic leader and his workers and also between
organised and more effectively run than an autocratic one for ideas are contributed by
(v) In democratic style of leadership, power and authority are decentralised unlike with
autocratic leadership style. In other words, power and authority is derived from both
(vi) Followers are consulted on important matters concerning decisions, policies, rules, and
structure, definition of tasks and all other important matters. They are also generally
(vii) There is a good interpersonal relation between leader and workers. The morale is high
and there is job satisfaction. Workers do not also over depend on the leader.
(viii) Decisions on organisational matters are reached after necessary consultations and
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• There is delegation of authority.
Disadvantages / Limitations
• Employees with weak self-motivation tendencies may relax
• Decisions may be delayed due to too many consultations.
• Production may be low if there are too many considerations e.g. if teachers requests to
teach his preferred subject and not one which the school authorities would prefer
• Students may fail examination if weak teachers are not controlled and directed to some
extent e.g. if teachers are not closely supervised by ensuring schemes of work and lesson
plans are well written
• However there may be low productivity or poor decisions may be made of when
everyone’s wishes is taken into account
This leadership is also referred to as free rein, meaning ‘free’ style of leadership. In this type
of style, the leader does not provide external motivation as is the case with autocratic or
democratic leadership styles but instead workers are left to ‘motivate themselves based on
their needs, wants, and desires. They are given a goal and left mostly up to their own to
achieve it, using their ingenuity.’ (see Hicks & Gullet, 1975:303).
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• the leader has very little authority and power over the workers and he tends to be very
tolerant
• there are very few rules or regulations and there is no code of conduct for employees.
• the leader assumes the role of group member rather than that of a leader, that is, the
employees see him/her as being on the same organizational level and consequently he has
very little influence on them.
• the leader does not provide external motivation but instead workers are left to motivate
themselves according to their ability, needs, interests, desires etc.
• employees tend to work independently of the leader and there are also very few
committed workers. At best, the leader only assigns tasks and then leaves employees to
accomplish work on their own.
• accomplishment of goals work depends on individual effort expertise and knowledge.
Disadvantages
• lack of a strong leader can result in lack of direction and control and can easily result in
chaos
• workers can easily become frustrated, insecure, demoralised etc. due to lack of guidance
from the leader
• organisational goals may never be achieved
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Summary
This lesson has discussed the concepts of authority, power as well as leadership. In as far as
leadership is concerned, meaning of the term leadership has been examined. The three
approaches to leadership, that is, trait, situational and contingency approaches or theories,
which attempt to explain the determinants or variables that are considered in identifying who
becomes the leader in organisational setups have been described. The leadership styles, that
is, autocratic, democratic and lesseiz feirre have also been discussed in an attempt to
understand more about leadership behavior and its consequences.
Revision Questions
V
• Define the terms authority and power
• Differentiate between any two types of authority
• What is acceptance theory of authority?
• Differentiate between any two types of power.
• Do you agree (or disagree) with the trait approach theories explanation that traits determine a
leader? Give reasons for your answer.
• In your opinion, which of the three approaches of leadership, best explains the determinants of
effective leadership?
Bibliography
86
Hicks H.G. & Gullett C.R. (1981) Organisations: Theory and Behavior. McGraw-Hill, Inc.
Aukland.
Hoy W & Miskel (1987) Educational Administration: Theory, Research, and Practice.
McGraw-Hill, Inc. New York.
Bennett R. (2nd edition) (1994). Organizational Behaviout. Longman Group, UK Limited, UK.
Koontz H & Weihrich H. Essentials of Management (5th edition) (1990) Tata McGraw-Hill
New Delhi.
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Lesson 6
COMMUNICATION
6.0. Introduction
The importance of communication in each and every organisation cannot be emphasised. No
organisation can achieve its objectives without it and in fact an organisation whose
communication in ineffective is bound to collapse sooner or later. Any serious study of
educational would indeed be incomplete if due consideration is not given to communication.
This lesson therefore examines some of the important aspects of communication.
6.1. Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to
• Define the term ‘communication
• Describe the process of communication
• Describe the various ways in which communication flows in an organisation
• Identify the various types (ways) of communication as well as their advantages and
disadvantages
• Identify the barriers to effective communication
6.2. Definition
It is important that we first define what is communication so that we may understand this
important concept better.
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Communication is the transfer of information and knowledge from one person to another,
This is accomplished in the communication process in which the source encodes a thought
into a message which is transmitted through a channel to a receiver who decodes the
message. (Hicks and Gullett 1981).
Communication is the means by which people are linked together in an organization to
achieve a common purpose. (Chester Bernard in Koontz & Weihrich, 1990).
Communication means a mutual exchange of information and understanding by any
effective means. --- Unless the flow goes both ways, no real communication takes place.
(D’Souza, 1989).
Note
( For our purposes, the definition of Hoy & Miskel (19??:358) will suffice.
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The communication process according to David K Berlo’s communication model in Hicks
and Gullett (1981) involves the following elements:
The model of the communication process and the elements involved in the process are
discussed in the section below.
Feedback
Noise
Source: David K. Berlo in Hicks H.G. & Gullett C.R. (1981:322) Organisations: Theory and Behavior.
McGraw-Hill, Inc. Aukland.
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Source
Encode
To be able to transmit mental perceptions or thoughts, the source encodes ideas, that is,
organises the ideas into a code or set of symbols such as words, pictures etc. Language is the
most popular code that is used to express mental perceptions.
Message
The ideas/ purpose is expressed as message. The message is therefore a physical product such
as spoken words, printed words in e.g. a letter, a graphic drawing, a facial expression, a body
movement, a gesture etc.
Channel
The channel is the medium used to relay or transmit the message from the source to the
receiver. The most commonly used channels involve use of sight and sound. Letters,
television, radio, telegram, memo, telephone, fax machine, newspapers, face to face
conversations etc.
Decoder-Receiver
The receiver decodes the message from the source. That is, he /she decodes the message and
attaches a certain meaning (which is an exact or an approximation of message the source
wished to convey). The message is more successfully transmitted when the source and the
receiver have common things or experiences than otherwise.
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Feed back
Feed back is the response that enables the source to determine or evaluate whether or not the
message was received and understood as he/she had intended. Feedback also enables a two-
way communication process to take place.
If he/she finds that message was received incorrectly, he is able to correct it by using the same
means or another different one. In a classroom situation, the teachers use examination
performance to get a feedback on individual or group performance.
Noise
Noise is also an element of the communication process. Noise is anything that distracts or
interferes or reduces the accuracy or fidelity of the message. Noise can occur in any point or
element of the communication process. The source may perceive an event incorrectly e.g.
cause of an accident, the encoding process can be erroneous and thus end up conveying the
wrong information, e.g. when the wrong date is written, when the channel such as the
telephone is noisy because it is faulty. When the receiver decodes the message incorrectly or
distorts its meaning, then he interferes with the fidelity of the message and this is termed as
noise.
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A school is a community. The professional collaboration,
the teamwork on which success if founded, is built on
trust and common purposes. These crucial professional
relationships are formed as much through the informal exchanges
of experience, advice and encouragement as through formal interchanges and
communication. (p.161)
School administrators should therefore not ignore nor take informal communication to be
unimportant.
• Downwards
• Upwards
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• Horizontal
Downwards Communication
This information is passed down through memos, directions, policies, and programs of action
(Hoy & Miskel 1987). In school situations, for example, information can be passed down
from officials from the Ministry of Education headquarters, TSC officials or provincial or
district education officers through the chain of command to school personnel e.g.
communication regarding promotion/ demotion from T.S.C is passed to teachers through the
head teachers. Hence communication moves “downwards” from T.S.C or Ministry of
education (headquarters) to head teachers and then to the teachers concerned. In the school,
the head teacher can also communicate ‘downwards’ to either teaching staff or other support
staff members in lower positions/ ranks through the deputy head teacher and then to the head
of department and then to the staff member concerned.
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Upwards Communication
This type of communication flows from members of staff in the lower position/ranks to those
in the senior management positions e.g. communication of an impending strike may be passed
from pupils through teachers, through deputy head to the head teacher and finally to the Board
of Governors. Many schools tend to emphasis ‘downward’ communication while ‘upward’
communication is not stressed at all.
Note
(
Upward communication is a means by which surbordinates are made
accountable to superiors. Such communication is often viewed as an
instrument of administrative control; subordinates have a tendency to
emphasize positive information, withhold negative data, and
communicate what they think the “boss wants to hear.” Both
accuracy and frequency of upward communication are impacted by
the combined characteristics of surbordinates, superordinates, the
messages themselves, and the organization. The informal channel
can assist administrators to assess the accuracy of formal upward
communication. Hoy & Miskel (1987:372)
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Horizontal (Sideways) Communication.
Horizontal occurs between members of equal ranks or positions e.g. between different heads
of department. This type of communication is essential e.g. heads of department can give
guidelines, expectations of the department from teachers e.g. deadlines on marking of exams
to their respective members of staff. This means that the guidelines, expectations are not
different but similar in formal communication.
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Sometimes, this type of communication emanates from lack of open formal channels of
communication in the organisation. Emerson and Goddard (1993) note that informal
communication is a matter of culture and that:
Grapevine Communication
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gatherings such as open days, games/sports time, parties or even during school tours. As
Bennett (1994) notes:
This form of communication can be very helpful or very destructive to the organisation. It
can be of great use in that it can inform school leaders of the things that are informally taking
place in the school e.g. an impeding strike by the students. This type of information is helpful
to school authorities in that they can take necessary measures to prevent the strike. However,
grapevine communication can be destructive, full of distortions, inaccurate, incomplete etc.
Rumors, gossip, scandals about the head teacher or one of the teachers can, for instance, that
the head teacher or one of the teachers has an illicit relationship with a student can be very
ruinous. The head teacher or teacher concerned may become so demoralised such that he
does not perform his work well. Such a head teacher or teacher could even face harsh
disciplinary measures from T.S.C. such as being demoted, being transferred to a school in a
harsh environment due to such unfounded or untrue rumors.
• Written communication
• Oral communication
• Non verbal communication
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• Electronic Communication (Multi-media)
Advantages
• Written communication is tangible and verifiable.
• Record of the communication are available
• Message can be stored indefinitely.
• The message can be used as a reference.
• Is suitable for complex and lengthy communication
• Writer is more logical, clear and careful in written communication etc. verbal.
• (Robbins 2003)
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Disadvantages
• Written communication is time consuming.
• Feedback is not immediate
• May be misinterpreted (for unlike in oral communication it is impossible to immediately
clarify message or information)
Advantages
• Information reaches the audience immediately.
• Information, ideas, message are passed a very fast and feedback is given immediately.
• In case of meetings with the superior subordinates, pupils’, teachers or support staff are
able to understand or gauge the importance of the information being portrayed.
Disadvantages
• Unfamiliar words/language insulting can lead to a misunderstanding.
• Meeting can be costly in terms of money and time e.g. if parents have to travel from far to
attend a meeting in school.
• Words / insults cannot be undone after they have been spoken.
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Physical signs
This includes, traffic lights or traffic signs showing that the road is slippery, posters on
political messages (or slogans) or advertisements of products. Physical signs in the school,
may, for example, say, “Do not step on grass, ‘Danger’ or ‘Silence’ depending on the message
that needs to be conveyed. These are made to instruct, warn or caution one.
Body language/movement
It is possible to communicate through body movements. A dance for example can convey the
dancer’s intended meaning. Body language includes, facial expressions, posture, eye
movements, signs such as waving, handshake etc. Facial expression such as, look of horror,
sadness, anger, happiness can easily be read or recognized from the face of the person
Actions
As the saying goes ‘actions speak louder than words’. An act of kindness shows concern even
though the one doing the action may not say anything. Likewise the receiver easily
understands an act of cruelty and this clearly portrays the message that ‘one ought to be
cautious with the one doing the action as he or she is not a friend’. Hence both actions i.e.
that of kindness and that of cruelty relay hidden messages even though the words may not
have been spoken.
Silence
Silence is a subtle (but powerful) form of communication e.g. the presence of the head teacher
may make a noisy class to keep quiet even if the head teacher does not verbally tell class
anything. His silence can, for example, indicate the seriousness of their behavior. However,
silence can be misunderstood and this can lead to dire consequences.
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6.6.4. Electronic Communication
Electronic communication is a powerful means of communication, which has revolusionalised
every sector of the society all over the world. Schools cannot afford to ignore this medium of
communication, as it is a fast and efficient means of communication between members of the
school that is, pupils, teachers’ and support staff. It is also a powerful way of communicating
with other people and agents outside the school, such as parents, members of the Board of
Governors, book suppliers, other schools and ministry of education officials, business people,
administrative personnel, politicians etc.
However, it is important to note that communication (as a management task) means more than
simple typing and sending letters or memos or e-mail etc. It involves a more complex process
where perhaps a head uses the information processed and retrieved through e-mail or letters to
make management decisions. Information about a member of staff can be retrieved (e.g.
disciplinary letters) to see whether patterns of misconduct (e.g. causes or any behavior
preceding absenteeism) over the years can be made. This may be done with the aim of
determining the reasons for behavior as well as for determining the course of action to be
taken.
The use of electronic mail allows people to communicate with each other from anywhere in
the world. Through e-mail, one can send vital information, which is received immediately, by
the one who is meant to receive it. The other party can respond response to the matter within
seconds.
Using electronic mail, it becomes possible for a group of individuals to carry
on an intensive discussion or share ideas even though they may be in different
places at different times. (Kearsley 1990:37).
It is possible to attach files (or any information) to the e-mail being sent. It is essential for
schools to enable their staff members to have access to e-mail services in a convenient and
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regular way. As Beecharry & Schneider (1996) have observed ‘--- it would be inappropriate
to distribute intercampus mail over a LAN but not have staff access to that mail in either one’s
private office or a centralized departmental office.’ (Beecharry & Schneider in Journal of
Information Technology for Development (IDRC) Canada March 1996, volume 7, p11).
Mobile Phones
Mobile phones are also known as cell phones, cellular telephones or simply as mobile
handsets. Mobile phones work by transmitting radio waves to cellular towers. Each cellular
tower cover (and receive mobile phone signals) distances ranging between 1.5 km to 56 km.
Mobile phones have become very popular in recent years. In the UK alone about 24 million
people use them. (eBuyGuru.com, Internet, 29th, July, 2003). Mobile phones are also gaining
wide usage in almost all parts of Kenya. Whilst schools may not afford to use mobile phones
officially, many members of the school find them a convenient way of communicating official
messages as well as private ones.
• Mobile phones can be used in almost all the regions of Kenya (except a few where these
services are still not available). This includes rural areas where there are no fixed
telephone lines.
• The network has an answering service that stores messages for the user when the mobile
phone is switched off or out of range.
• Mobile phones enable one to get assistance incase of emergencies
• One can send typed messages very cheaply through the text messaging service (SMS)
available with mobile phones
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Internet
The Internet provides people throughout the world with access to information at a faster rate
than was possible before. The Internet is presently growing at more than 1 billion pages every
six months. Through the Internet, schools have access to information than was possible
before on different topics of educational interest. Schools can also develop a web-site where
they can process and store information which they think is of interest to other people. The
information that may be placed on a school’s web site include information that might be of
Internet to future students, parents or the school’s community. Schools can also carryout
projects of educational interests over the Internet jointly with other schools.
Teleconferencing
In a general sense,
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and audio in combination with still video may be used instead. This method of
communicating may be useful for showing charts or illustrations during a
technical discussion.
Advantages
• Mobile phones are expensive to purchase and use. Ones needs either access to electrical
(or battery) power to charge the phone. Hence, they are beyond the reach of the average
citizen.
• Frequent network problems and congestion due to too many users.
• They are attractive to thieves, as there is a ready market where they can be sold.
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• Accidents have occurred as a result of people using mobile phones while driving. This
divided attention is likely to make one not to be observant of other motorists. It is
important for motorists to stop the car while using the mobile phone.
• The actual location of the one calling help through a mobile phone is difficult to trace
unless he is able to state the actual location.
• Sometimes mobile calls come when one is in a public place and one is required to talk
private things in public.
• There are health worries associated with use of mobile phones which allegedly can cause
cancer through the emission of microwaves radiation while using the mobile phone close
to the head.
• Using the Internet is expensive in terms of money spent on telephone and electricity. The
school also has to pay the Internet service provider.
• Electricity blackouts or interruptions also limit use of computers in general and the
Internet in particular.
• Students have access to web site containing information that schools and parents do not
want the pupils’ to gain access to, for example, pornography, prostitution, drugs and so
on.
• Confidential information may be viewed by other people and may be used destructive
purposes.
• Virus may also wipe out important computerised data and records.
Teleconferencing
Disadvantages
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6.7.2. Barriers to General Communication
The barriers to effective communication are many and those discussed below are just
examples of these barriers.
Unclarified Assumptions
There are sometimes unclarified assumptions underlying the message that hinder effective the
message from being effectively communicated. The head teacher may assume, for instance
that accommodation will be provided to those attending an in-service course because it has
been provided in the past. Yet, it may turn out that the accommodation is not to be provided
this time. This may result in some members of staff failing to attend the seminar for they may
not have planned and kept aside money for accommodation.
Semantic Distortion
The source or receiver may affect the communication process. Semantic distortion (whether
intentional or unintentional) may hinder effective communication. Verbiage can hinder or
make it difficult to pick out significant points and different meanings can be drawn to the
same message. Some words may also give the wrong unintended meaning e.g. the head
teacher may announce that teachers who fail to complete the syllabus of the subjects they are
teaching will be taken to have failed in their work. Teachers, may from then onwards, aim to
complete the syllabus without taking into account whether the pupils understand or not. In
other words, they will teach hurriedly to complete the syllabus instead of teaching at a pace,
which each and every pupil can understand.
The writer of the message may fail to communicate effectively by use of ‘poorly chosen
words, omissions, lack of coherence, poor organisation of ideas, awkward sentence structure,
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platitudes, unnecessary jargon, and a failure to clarify the implications of the message’.
(Koontz & Weihrich, 1990:376). It is therefore imperative for the writer to ensure that his or
her message is written in a clear language, which the recipient of the message will easily
understand. One can do this by choosing the right style, vocabulary, layout, length etc in-
order to make his or her message comprehensible.
The message may be communicated less accurately (or even fail to be communicated) when
only one person is used. As noted by Koontz & Weihrich 1990:
In a series of transmissions from one person to the next, the message becomes
less and less accurate. Poor retention of information is another serious
problem. Thus the necessity of repeating the message and using several
channels is rather obvious. Consequently, companies often use more than one
channel to communicate the same message. (p. 376)
In a school situation, the head teacher or even the teachers should not use the children to
orally pass messages to parents but it is important that they write important messages to the
parents.
Unsuitable messages
The message may not be suitable for the intended audience e.g. very young children in the
lower classes (in a school situation) may not understand information relating to sexual matters
whereas older children in upper classes can easily understand it. Hence this type of message
is unsuitable for young children.
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Recipients Poor Listening Skills and Assumptions
The recipient of the message may hinder communication by failing to listen to the message
properly. He or she, may for instance, read a letter half way and assume that he or she knows
the rest of the content of the message. As a result, he or she may fail to read an important part
of the message and this may distort the message, sometimes with disastrous results.
Information overload
The person in the position of authority may receive so much information that much of it ends
up being disregarded. The other employees may also be given with too much information by
their superiors that they are unable to take in all the requirements.
Staff members in the lower positions in the organisation may not have an opportunity to
communicate with their superiors especially when the chain of command is long. The middle
managers may also choose not to pass to senior managers the messages given by junior staff.
The reference group (ethnic or religious group, neighbors, etc.) that one belongs to influences
the way he or she interprets the received communication. One may fail to take the advise of
another person from another religious group simply because this religious group is looked
down upon by his own religious group.
Stereotyping
Attributing a person with certain characteristics simply because he belongs to a certain group,
class, ethnic group (e.g. rich or poor, white or black person) is stereotyping. Presupposing
that members of an ethnic group have a bad temper or they are mean etc means that anybody
belonging to this ethnic group will be taken to have a bad temper or to be mean. Stereotyping
can therefore interfere with communication in that one will judge someone on the basis of his
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or her culture, group etc. In other words, one will assume that the receiver of the message
will behave in a certain way or he or she behaved in a certain way because he or she belongs
to a certain ethnic group.
Halo Effect
This is the assumption that because one possesses a certain characteristic then he possesses
certain other characteristics. So while with stereotyping a person is taken as having all the
characteristics assumed for his group, with halo effect, one’s total set of characteristics is
judged on the basis of the trait that has been observed in him. (see Bennett, 1994). Further,
Hicks & Gullett (1981:330) point out that ‘The halo effect is the result of two-valued
thinking. In this situation, we see things only as dichotomies – good and bad, right and
wrong, white and black, and so forth.’ As a result, we tend to agree with a person we admire
and disagree with a person that we dislike.
Physical limitations
The environment where the communication is taking place can also act as a barrier to
effective communication. It is difficult, for instance, to communication in a noisy
environment such as, a market or a bus station.
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A number of features are essential in order for communication to be effective. Emerson &
Goddard (1993) have noted the following features as being vital in good communication.
• Clarity of purpose
• Clarity of message
• Clarity of outcome
• Appropriate in form
All the people involved in the communication process should be awake of its purpose so as
not to cause confusion and ill feelings. It is, important, for example, for the receipt of the
communication or message top know whether it is advice or instruction. Then and only then
will they know what is the best cause of action to take.
Emerson & Goddard further not that the message should be explicit and easily understood.
Hence
• The recipient must complete the information or ideas being put across
• Information should be in a logical and concise form.
• Structure should be coherent and incidly ideas expressed intelligibly
• Ambiguity should be avoided
If the intension of the communication in a given outcome, the action to be taken should be
clear, that is unambiguous. “ The participants should be clear as to the purpose of the action,
what is to be done, how it is to be done, who will do it and by when.
( Emerson & Goddard, 1993 :163)
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(iv) Appropriate in form
Communication can either be written or oral. One should choose which form of
communication is most appropriate. In other words, some messages are best relayed orally
such as, the death of a relative. This is to done in order to prepare the recipient of the message
as well as to ensure that the support that might be needed e.g. the presence of a close and
trusted friend or relative is available.
Summary
Communication is indeed a vital element in any organisation. School administrators must
learn how to communicate effectively as the success of the school to some extent depends on
good communication. This implies that they should ensure that communication flows in
various directions and that various types of communication are used. They should also gain an
understanding of the factors that enhance effective communication as well as those that hinder
it with a view of either eliminating or at least minimising the impendiments.
Activity
112
h
• List the various ways that a head teacher of either secondary or primary school can
improve communication in his or her school.
• What are some of the problems that might occur in a school due to lack of effective
communication?
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Questions
V
• What is communication?
• Illustrate using a diagram the process of communication and describe each of the elements
involved in the process.
• Explain the various directions that communication can flow in an organisation. Show
why is it important for school administrators to ensure that communication flows from all
directions and not from ‘in top positions downwards to those below in subordinates
positions’
• Four major types of communication that can be identified. Describe each of them in
detail showing their various uses.
• What are some of the factors that may hinder effective communication in schools? How
can these barriers be removed?
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Bibliography
Hicks H.G. & Gullett C.R. (1981) Organisations: Theory and Behavior. McGraw-Hill, Inc.
Aukland.
Hoy W & Miskel (1987) Educational Administration: Theory, Research, and Practice.
McGraw-Hill, Inc. New York.
Bennett R. (2nd edition) (1994). Organizational Behaviout. Longman Group, UK Limited, UK.
Koontz H & Weihrich H. Essentials of Management (5th edition) (1990) Tata McGraw-Hill
New Delhi.
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Lesson Seven
Objectives:
• To discuss the meaning of education policy
• To review important education policies since 1963
• To scrutinize and understand the basic legal framework of our education system.
• To understand the significance of Education Act
• To discuss the current structure and organization of the Ministry of Education Science
and Technology.
• To discuss the functions of the Statutory Bodies as for example the TSC the KIE and the
KNEC.
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• Students shall understand the basic legal framework guiding and protecting the interests of
an institution.
• The students shall understand the Kenya Education Act.
• The students shall be able to understand the organizational structure of the Ministry of
Education.
• The students shall be able to understand the various statutory bodies, their functions and
benefits to the education system.
investigate the nature of service delivery of education in Kenya. In this section legal
framework, the organizational structures and infrastructure that guides the education sector.
And finally, developed are the policies to provide and guide it in the management of
education in Kenya.
♦ Policy is a vehicle through which the government expresses and maintains control.
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♦ Policy guides in the administration and formation of rules and regulations of practice.
♦ Policies, written, published and disseminated inform the public and reduce uncertainty.
♦ A statement of those objectives that guide the actions of a substantial portion of the total
with a given situation or to achieve a given result at some future point in time (Knezevich
19…321).
government. Consequently, the education provision in this country has not been static and
has been addressed by the government through concerted efforts of policy formulation.
The following instruments have been the government’s way of responding to the myriad of
The KANU manifesto was the ruling party’s commitment and hence the government’s
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This instrument is a good example of how politics influence education governance, and
hence policies that guide its service provision. It is not therefore possible to divorce
This laid the foundation of the pattern of education in independent Kenya by-
Recognizes the role of education as the principal means of producing domestic skilled
(Gachathi Report).
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v. The Presidential Working Party on the Establishment of a Second University
Recommended
skills.
technology.
vi. The Presidential Working Party on Education and Manpower Training for the Next
This intended to reduce government budgetary allocation to education. Other costs shifted to
parents and the community in areas of school uniforms, facilities, meals and transport. It is
instructive to note that this policy was actually a response to a World Bank Report just
Kamunge Report also advised on the streamline of provision & management of TVET under
one authority. It further recommended the strengthening & improving Teachers Advisory
Centres (TACs)
vii. Commitment to Education for All (EFA) as discussed by the UNESCO World
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viii. National Task Force on Gender and Education (1995).
2010. It was further to provide direction in the financing and governance of education and
training. Other emerging issues to address were high drop out rates, regional disparities, and
gender disparities
Report 1998.
The appointment of the Commission of Inquiry into the Education System of Kenya
produced the TIQET report, which recommended strongly a review of the 8.4.4 education
initiative.
This is an Act of Parliament that provides for the regulations and progressive development of
education in the country. Some of the legal issues addressed are: -
- Registration of schools
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- Discipline of pupils and teachers
This established a board, which would coordinate adult education activities in the country.
This established a single employee and unified terms of service for teachers in public schools.
This act established university of Nairobi as the first national university providing for its
(iv) The National Council for Science and Technology Act (1978)
Established a body to coordinate research in Science and Technology and to advice the
(viii) The Universities Act (1985) established the Commission for Higher Education.
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Other laws that a school manager needs to know are regulation and legal notices governing
♦ Student discipline
examinations.
♦ Laws of contract
♦ International laws and conventions pertaining to education such as Education For All
The head teacher must make necessary arrangements to acquaint themselves with laws and
statutes that govern their practices. Such knowledge will give confidence, stability and offer
proper guidelines to their clients. It is worth noting too, that the Kenya Staff Institute provides
in-service courses from time to time for heads of school as need arises
NOTE:
( The National conference on Education held in Nairobi discussed at length the Legal
Framework of Education. What became quite obvious are the many laws and legal notices
that education provision falls under. It became evident too that there needs to be a unified
approach to education under one legal body. Such a system would govern education provision
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at all sectors and all providers without prejudice. It concluded that because of the multiplicity
and multi level responsible agents provided, various services to education, enforcing practices
uniformly and equally has been fairly difficult.
ACTIVITY:
h Catalogue the policy documents that are used in guiding school management in your
school.
QUESTION:
V
How effective are the above in guiding the school head teacher?
How conversant is the school head teacher with the policy document?
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6.6 Structures and Organization of the Ministry of Education Science and Technology ( see
appendix I )
The Ministry of Education Science and Technology operates under a hierarchical structure.
The Minister of Education whose duties are provided for by the Education Act, Cap 211 of
♦ Including promoting education for all Kenyans as per the National Plan for
The ministry is organized through several hierarchical bureaus to address education needs in
the country. The following is the descriptions of the various departments in the ministry of
education.
The Permanent Secretary- the overall executive head of the ministry of education.
Duties include: -
♦ Formulating and implementing government policies on education.
♦ Liaises with statutory bodies like the TSC, KIE, JKF, KNEC, KLB, among others.
There are four main divisions responsible to the Permanent Secretary Ministry of
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o Finance
o Administration
o Directorate of Education
– Headed by Deputy Secretary and is concerned with the budget and disbursement of the
ministry.
-Headed by Deputy Secretary who plans for various development programmes in the
Ministry.
Functions:
The Director of Education heads this division and is the chief professional officer of the
ministries
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Formulating policy directional and management of professional functions relating to
education.
Because of the varied responsibilities in the Directorate of Education, there are several
responsibilities correspond to the levels of education; the Primary, Secondary, University, the
Inspectorate, and Field and Other Services. We shall now look at each of the responsibilities
individually.
There are several departments under the aegis of the Director of Education that are headed by
the Senior Deputy Directors. These departments are those in charge of the Primary,
Secondary, the University, the Inspectorate, the Field and other Services. Each of the Senior
Deputy Directors is charged with matters pertaining to the area they are charged with and
responsible to the Director of Education. We shall now proceed to look at some of the key
areas in detail.
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The Inspectorate
The Inspectorate is headed by the Chief Inspector of Schools (CIS), and is responsible to the
Director of Education.
The inspectorate plays the role of a supervisor as well as advisor through quality
As supervisor – assumes that procedures are followed, maintained and that the National Goals
As advisor – it plays the professional role of working closely with the classroom teachers for
It is therefore able to set standards monitor their achievement and share this knowledge
through feedback and monitoring. Such information can also be used by the Inspectorate to
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NOTE
(
The current and only ever-published handbook for Inspectors is heavy on Pre Primary and
Primary Schools. Although in some places it refers to secondary schools, there is no direct
mention to this sector in the index. The Inspectorate supposedly also covers quality assurance
and quality development of institutions, no mention of what institutions are referred to here.
However, it is a good start and there is room for improvement for the Handbook.
The Deputy Director of Education heads this section called Field and other Services. It is the
Links the headquarters to the field services in the provinces, districts and zones.
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Coordinator Headquarters Resource Center
The statutory bodies are created through Acts of Parliament and provide services to the
Ministry of Education.
The Teacher Service Commission was created through the Act of Parliament in 1967 and
revised in 1968 to provide a single employer and unified terms of service for teachers in
public schools. This single most driving force behind the creation of the TSC was the Kenya
National Union of Teachers that agitated for better term of service and remuneration of
teachers. The two bodies signed a memorandum of understanding for each to recognize the
others existence for purposes of promoting teacher welfare under a unified force.
In particular, the TSC was –
KNUT came into being after along struggle of teachers serving under various disparate terms
of service and job insecurity. The government, after several teacher strikes across the
country, finally yielded to the pressure for a union to represent teachers serving in public
schools.
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Other statutory bodies are the Kenya Institute of Education, Kenya National Examinations
Council, Kenya Education Staff Institute, Kenya Institute of Special Education, and The Jomo
Kenyatta Foundations, among others.
The Kenya Institute of education was formed as a result of a conference held jointly by the
East African Universities in 1964. The major role was played by KIE is the development of
curriculum in Kenya. Others functions are revising existing course content, coordination of
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Lesson 8
Objectives:
• To have an overview of secondary education development since 1963.
• To review the objectives of secondary schools
• To discuss the various types of secondary schools
• To scrutinize the roles of the BOG, PTA and the Head Teacher.
• The study the roles of the Head Teacher, Departmental Head, Student Leaders in school
administration.
Student Outcomes:
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• The students should be able to understand the various constraints in terms of limited
financial resources, infrastructure and the human resource factors.
• To review and understand basic and fundamental need of the staff, students and the
implementation process according to the current administrative practice.
• The students will understand the roles of the key people charged with the responsibility to
bring development and prosperity to the community.
• The students will understand the role of the head teacher as the most important factor in
the capacity building of the human resource.
The country has experienced rapid growth of secondary education since independence in both
number of schools and in enrollment. For instance, at independence, there were 151
1997 there were approximately 3028 public secondary schools with about 687,473 students
Today: -
I Maintained schools –
These were government boarding and day schools that were fully maintained by the
government.
The government through the TSC and the BOG paid for the teacher and support staff.
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This category of school had the best facilities, and often the best national examination
results.
II Assisted schools
This category consisted of schools initially started through Harambee efforts after
independence.
The communities because of the high demand for education developed and funded
secondary schools.
This category was developed and fully maintained by the community. The community
collected funds through fees; harambee and auctions, which in turn used to hire
teachers support staff, buy material and provisions and construct physical structures.
Because of poor facilities, and poor management, the examinations results were often
This category was established by entrepreneurs whose main objective to make a profit
out of the fees paid by the pupils. They were concentrated in the urban centres.
Today there are two types of schools; the public school, and the private school.
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The private secondary schools are those that are developed by individuals and private
organizations. They are equipped and staffed entirely by funds from individuals, school fees
There are two types of private schools the commercial and religious schools.
The public schools on the other hand are equipped, staffed and managed by the government
The BOG provides funds through levies to hire extra teachers and support staff. The PTA,
Cost sharing policy gave legal leeway to BOG and PTA to collect funds from parents to
mental, physical and emotive (moral, spiritual, and aesthetic) attributes and abilities,
problem solving, creating, technological applications of science etc.) and social skills
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3. To increase knowledge on economic production and its relationship with the social
4. To promote social equity through provision of education to all Kenyans, including those
from disadvantaged communities and households, girl child and the handicapped.
5. To strengthen the foundation laid down in primary school for formal education and
ACTIVITY:
school mission.
QUESTION:
V
Does the school have a school mission?
Do the departmental heads know the school mission and how it should guide them in their
management practices?
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8.3. The Role BOG/PTA in the Management of Secondary Education
Management of secondary school is an aspect of the Ministry of Education structural
endeavor to manage units within the system. It is assumed that there are several rungs in the
management of education. The Ministry headquarters is in the upper rung, the Provincial level
the middle, and the School management in the lower rung in the management of secondary
schools.
The Education Act CAP 211, Sec. 6(b) gives authority to the Minister for Education appoint
(b) establish boards of governors for two or more schools by means of the same order.
According to the Education Act Cap. 211 of the Kenyan Laws, the constitution and functions
(a) That the board shall exercise the duty of management of the school(s) subject to
the Act, the TSC Act, Cap 212, and any regulations under this Act.
(b) The membership of the board according to the Act shall not be less than five
-persons representing any regulatory body, which was the founder of the
school.
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The Master Plan on Education and Training (MPET) (1997-2010) on the other hand made the
following proposal, that the BOG membership comprise 15 representatives drawn from
6 – parents association
2 – sponsors
2 – Co-opted members
The proposed BOG constitution or membership would capture different stakeholders interest.
However, until the proposal is accepted and implemented, the real impact and depth of
representation will not be known. There are many emergent issues in education so that an
informed and educated mind must be adopted to give them adequate consideration and
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(iii) Recruitment and management of non-teaching staff.
(iv) Local development of the schools curriculum including out of class activities and
development of student’s social values and beliefs.
PTA – established in 1998 through Presidential Directive to create a forum for the
involvement of parents, teachers and community to participate in institutional development
and growth. They are responsible for raising funds for facilities such as classrooms, teacher’s
houses, and offices, providing as necessary learning resources. They are not however
adequately represented in the BOG body, the concerned body that spends they money made
by PTA. Some schools have fallen victim to misappropriation of funds and both parents and
even students have demonstrated this luck of faith through strikes.
The role of the sponsor, often faith based is very crucial in the management of the school. It
is imperative that person appointed to head the school is indeed of high integrity, a graduate
and represents the sponsor’s values adequately.
The sponsor ensures that the school manages high moral values, and life styles that serve as
role models for students. The country is reeling under rampant use of drugs and other
substances that are influencing student values and behaviour, HIV/AIDs is another rampant
epidemic of epic properties that is affecting the students, teachers and the families
subsequently the education programme is greatly undermined.
The role of the sponsor is vital in providing both the spiritually and moral values to guide the
school managers. The sponsor needs to ensure that the staff is TSC registered, to fully realize
the partnership between the government and the stakeholder in Education development.
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7.4 Role of the Head teacher
The head teacher is an employee of the Teachers Service Commission in charge of the day-to-
day activities of the school. In particular the chief responsibility is t creating an enabling
atmosphere for learning, teaching, and optimizing of all the resources. The processes that
evaluating. Each process must be followed diligently in accordance with the procedure
provided by the ministry of education. Since the school curriculum is set centrally, the head
Secondary school education is a unique level between that of dependent pre-teen and the
young adults. This predominantly adolescent group of between 15-18 years is also
head teacher that purposes to achieve the schools' aims and objectives and strives to develop
In respect to the age of the adolescent students in secondary school, the head teacher should
create an environment that is positive and takes cognizance of the social development of the
V Examine the current constitution and functions of the BOG in your secondary school
school administrator. While administration builds into practice and strategy the understanding
of the early adolescent development, it will create a school that is purposeful. The student’s
total person must be considered in terms of their social and psychological makeup and how
such would impact on the academic performance. The first consideration should not therefore
be academic performance, but the student and how connected they are to their environment.
As stipulated by the motivation theories of Maslow and Herzberg, it is prudent to balance the
conducive to learning. While considering the students, the teachers and the support staff must
not be left behind. Motivating and working at meeting the human resource at their point of
need should be one of the primary strategies of management. Without this resource the use of
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7.4.1 Functions of the head teacher
Specifically the head teacher carries the following responsibilities:
-Collective Bargaining
-School Laws
-Instructional Services
-Public Relations
-Discipline
-Health Programmes
values with regard to education. In other words, the kinds of structures, plans for buildings,
the money spent and the total ambiance created, all contribute to form the communities value
system. It is believed that a crowded compound, caged up dormitories that are poorly
ventilated and congested, dirty classrooms are among, coupled with poor or no staff rooms
just exacerbate the image of the school and its products. On the other hand the aesthetics or
care with the school is designed and facilities provided for all the school programmes is
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testimony of the values of the community. Such values translate in the conduct of the pupils
In this area, therefore, the administration must plan and manage. Planning is a critical aspect,
as it must comply with the needs of the school and fiscal capacity of the patrons. Often times
projects seem to be planned with out concern for how the funds will be acquired other than
parent levies. This sometimes leads to expensive projects that are not relevant to the
curriculum specifically, and sometimes they never get completed. The parents in this case
Those projects that meet the needs of the curriculum must however be adequately managed.
This means that repairs must be carried out as soon as they are required. Proper painting and
general aesthetics should be maintained. Fences, roofs, gutters, drainage walls, over grown
trees etc must be regularly maintained, repaired, removed or replaced so as not to cause
Other school facilities are vehicles, land and learning resource, for proper utilization, the
vehicles must be regularly inspected and adequately insured. The land title must be secured
and fenced to protect it from marauders. Books are another expensive resource that is
substantive to the business of the school. They need proper cataloguing, and storage. A
spacious and adequately furnished library would encourage students to respect and use the
books properly. Reading should be encouraged as an activity that is not only necessary to
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ii) Collective Bargaining
Because the head teachers will increasingly engage in matters regarding unionizable staff
such as KNUT, KUPPET, KHUDEIHIA, etc, collective bargaining becomes an essential skill
to acquire. This is a process of negotiating wages and other working conditions collectively
between employers and trade unions, it enables the conditions of employees to be agreed as a
adjusted continuously. It is prudent therefore for the head teacher to keep abreast within all
the laws and regulations governing them. Such knowledge would provide stability and
Such policies as those related to gender, Education for All, and Cost Sharing impact on
service delivery. Further ramifications are seen in the kind of facilities, human and fiscal
resources the school can acquire in order to meet the school needs.
In-service programmes run by KESI provide competencies in areas that the head teacher feels
deficient in. Such competencies in areas such as school laws etc are often provide by
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(iv) Instructional Leadership
Facets of instructional leadership are:
(a) Improvement of teachers and learning by providing in-service on a continued basis. This
exercise will provide a forum for teachers to share their successes, and their failures. This
is an opportunity too for teachers to get affirmation and gain more competencies. This
exercise will also help teachers feeling challenged on the job or those experiencing
burnout.
New teachers need to be oriented to their new schools and environment. Head teachers
can use school’s best teachers as mentors for the new teachers. A mentor would be
someone who would work with a novice teacher as a colleague and not as a junior who
does not know anything. It is not the time to show off, but a time for colleaquel support. A
mentor is objective in a professional way. A mentor is also some one comfortable with
himself or herself.
The success of this kind of programme can fully come from maintaining a professional
approach.
Supervisory strategies that integrate collaborative style of leadership will succeed and
bring people together. The best recipe is one that views supervisor as someone with super
vision. This means someone with expertise more superior than the teacher being
supervised. This superiority should not be confused with haughtiness and coerciveness
and provide. Rather it should be guided by the desire by the supervisor to be professional,
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principled, collaborative, enhancing, collegial and actualizing super vision should be
Such strategies as maintenance of school programmes as laid out in the timetable are
absolutely essential. The timetable is an instrument that reflects a carefully thought out
curriculum. When the timetable is strictly adhered by the teacher coming to class on time,
well prepared and staying through the duration of the lesson, students will surely learn.
This aspect entails a sufficient collection and varied textbooks. Professional reference
material and current journals will enhance teacher preparation. A good library would be
stocked with relevant books that both provide interest with variety and accommodative
vocabulary.
Progressive CATS, and examinations should reflect real time and learning by students.
Continuous assessment tests should be just that, to determine the student’s progress and
help develop that student. External examinations and tests should only be used sparingly
as this will not measure actual interaction between teaching and pupils.
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A head teacher is a role model and so therefore their professional and academic integrity
should appeal to teachers, parents and pupils. Communication occurs at many, levels, such as
in dress, activities, language and behavior. Wrong messages can be inadvertently conveyed
easily. Head teachers therefore must demonstrate the kinds of values they profess to hold. As
the public, donors and government is spending a lot of money in schools, the head teacher
(g) Recruitment of staff and pupils through Teacher’s Service Commission (TSC) annual
returns. These returns are absolutely imperative as they have implications to the school
plan. The element of returns implies auditing of the past school years education
schools’ set goals were achieved. The degree to which the staff resources facilitated and
if there was a shortage or over supply of teachers. The teacher pupil ratio, another factor
pertinent to the exercise will be used by the TSC to determine the deployment of teachers
This is again an activity that requires the head teacher to work closely with the teaching staff
strategy taken by school administration with the help of the staff to create and meet the
147
expectations of the public. The public through the taxes paid which constitute a majority of
The school on the other hand through public relations creates an image of itself as well as
publicize its educational programmes. This also serves to sell their programmes for purposes
of soliciting more support financially from both public and private philanthropists. Another
very important role of public relations is the integration of the family and the community to
the school programmes. This will further enhance the schools image and build confidence
A public relation however is built on a proper plan that entails priorities of activities, the
target groups as well as timeliness of release of information to the media. This is a first line
of interaction between the school and the community/public at large. It must therefore be
skillfully and professionally managed. The head teacher is the head of the school’s Public
Relations team and must lead through action. The stature, mannerism and structures of
The head teacher is a member of a teaching body of a school and therefore needs to work as a
member of a team and not a lone ranger. PR is about human relations. Knowing about
human relations and what makes them relate to their environment is one of the guiding tenets
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Proper management of school is dependent on the formula that balances the internal with the
Once again financial management like other functions of the head teacher is based on
properly audited school programmes and resources of the previous year. Finances are a
critical interactive component in the school programmes. A healthy account does not make
effective school programmes but the conversion of the funds into resources such as staff,
School financial management will be covered in more detail in the last topic of this series.
in Kenya today. Going by the current reports in the media on the level and intensity of
violence in high schools, this topic is seen as imperative and a must for all school managers. It
resolutions of conflict in order to safe our schools and life from further deterioration. A
discipline.
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Discipline.
A skill that is a must for the head teacher and one more to incorporate into their many
functions is discipline. Here we refer to discipline of staff, pupils, managers, and technology,
all as a combined force and for the school purpose. Discipline, according to the Starehe Boys
“With such habits as self respect proper pride in his/her integrity that will observe
norms of good conduct when not under supervision” (School mastery, 1994)
Discipline in our schools especially in the secondary schools has been amplified recently
through frequent schools strikes and riots. This current image portrays an indisciplined
situation that raises a host of questions as to the nature of school management.
The definitions above draw attention to two types of discipline, one as a process that emanates
from within the individual and the other from the external environment. When we talk of
discipline in regards Kenyan Secondary Schools, it is more often observed as if the student is
entirely to blame. The students in turn often sight external forces, but within school, as cause
of the turbulence.
150
The second definition of discipline implies an external influence. In our secondary school
situations, the daily newspapers have often reported student grievances as being attributed to
heavy-handed head teacher practice, food problems and misuse of funds unfair treatment of
In cases where students have rioted in schools and caused mayhem indisciplined behaviour
manifestations may be observed and attributed to both external and internal properties. It is
therefore incumbent upon the head teachers to cultivate learning to encompass cognitive,
affective and the psychomotor domains. By doing so the total student is addressed. On the
other hand the structures that govern the teaching and learning should be designed to facilitate
and lead to a symbiotic relationships of all resources; that are the students, teachers,
151
NOTE
(
RECENT CASES OF SECONDARY SCHOOL RIOTS
• ‘School burned in orgy of violence. They attacked the school deputy head and burnt his
car and other property costing damage estimated at above 15 million shilling’
• State House Girls stage a walkout at 5 am protesting the high handedness and
discrimination of the poor students by the head teacher and her deputy
must be managed and developed for the good of the school. The head teacher is the chief
personnel officer in a school responsible for all aspects relating to staff. Specific functions of
152
The recruitment of staff – this will be determined by the returns given to the TSC as
this will reflect the status of staff in relation to school programmes. The strength and
weaknesses of the teaching staff in particular will be relayed in the staff returns. The
non-teaching staff will be conveyed in the report of returns to the BOG as employers
The training and development again as above a frequent audit and evaluation of all
school programmes reveal the areas of need. Staff development enhances professional
as well as personal competencies of the staff. This is a planned item within school
programmes.
The description of jobs, and the devising of methods of payment and promotion from
grade to grade. The teaching staff is often paid by the TSC in public schools.
Job description on the other hand is a basic element to all positions in the school. Such
would provide a basis for agreement between the staff and the school management. It
would also provide a basis for job evaluation that is understood by both parties. Upon
The provision of welfare facilities and the devising of pension schemes. Beyond the
basic salary fringe benefits are a motivational factor that makes a difference to
workers.
schemes where appropriate at one time or another the head teacher is involved in the
Dismissal of employees
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For employees out of fairness to the institution and the staff, detailed understanding of
All the above functions of the personnel officer who is the head teacher will give stability to a
school and the staff. The certainty and competence of staff to work within certain parameters
The head teacher has the full responsibility for orientation and admission of new students to a
school. This an area that has not been given much regard ad yet all new students are recent
arrivals from the primary school whose set up is different from high school. The new students
must adjust to the new situation because there are new programmes, new teachers, and new
facilities. Some students may have come from a rural setting to an urban setting, and others
from urban to the rural setting. There are also the national, provincial, districts, private or
public categories of schools. All the categories of schools present different and peculiar
situations that a new student must come to terms with. A proper orientation programme would
ground the students on the school philosophy, history and policies that will guide them
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Student Activities.
Secondary schools are for adolescent students so proper activities must be designed
specifically for them for self-discovery. These activities must be well thought out to promote
individual social and community growth. Students achieve self-discovery through peer-group
relations as they interact with one another. Adolescent stage is full of fear of failing and
looking like a full, therefore designing programmes that allow for failure and affirmation is
important. The student’s confirmation as a member of the school and a member of a class is
another reason for proper activities being developed to address these issues.
Tests
Testing programs are often carried out through continuous assessment tests and end of term
examinations. These two instruments should be carried out to measure real classroom
learning that was guided by the teacher concerned. And how well the materials have been
taught. Externally set instruments or tests may not reflect the actual learning in the specific
school. Such a test may include topics not yet covered. In such a case students may not do
well and therefore get discouraged. Care must be taken therefore to develop students through
Health programmes
Setting up a modest health unit in a school is important especially in remote boarding schools.
An arrangement may also be made with a close by public dispensary to manage the school
health programmes. In areas prone to malaria, such an arrangement would provide rapid
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response. Communicable diseases in a boarding school would be managed best too when a
government dispensary relates well with a school. A Rapid Response unit would ensure that
the school is guarded against epidemic. Nutrition should be regarded is a health issue that
deficiencies of certain elements and vitamins may cause delinquent behaviour (Lazarides
1997: p.232). As reports of riots and violent strikes abound in the print and electronic media,
one wonders how much could have been avoided through proper nutritional management.
Menu planning must be carefully done to also coincide with availability of certain foods that
are currently in season. Such plan would also help cut down on food expenses and bring
variety to the diet. Food purchasing and record keeping in the cafeteria are chief functions for
cateress.
Testing students for hearing and sight problems are a health issue that schools head teachers
should take seriously. Sometimes students may not be aware that they have partial disabilities
that affect their learning. Failure to attend to these needs may also be cause for student
indiscipline.
Other skills such as basic First Aid need to be amalgamated into daily routines to include fire
drills and cardiac pulmonary resuscitation (CPR), shock treatment, burns and others that
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Guidance and counseling
This is an area that the government has encouraged teachers to be skilled. Providing time for
teachers or hiring those trained in guidance and counseling is another head teacher’s
responsibility. Because the society’s values, beliefs and mores have changed cases for
guidance and counseling are on the rise. Social work is a corollary of the above concerns that
the modern life style has brought to our midst. HIV/AIDs, broken homes, divorce or
abandonment are real issues that the school heads are left to deal with everyday.
Interventions must therefore be developed that are developmental and not punitive.
Sometimes issue may be amplified and end up causing more problems while if dealt with in a
There are many remedial programmes in schools for poor performers, but few or none exist
for the exceptionally gifted or talented student. Care must be taken to identify and provide for
this category of child. This is the child who can drop out of school because there is nothing to
challenge them. This category of child may also get into trouble easily as they may challenge
the teacher through their inquisitive nature. The teacher on the other hand, may misconstrue
this to mean rudeness or overbearing and punish the student.
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ACTIVITY:
h
Prepare an orientation programme for new students to your high school paying special
attention to your social economic setup and geographical location.
QUESTION:
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(x) Educational Management Information System (EMIS)
This is an area that is neither understood nor used well in our schools. Schools generate a lot
of data regarding student bio-data, their performance, staff records, property and events at the
school. But few schools would access such information at a moments notice because there is
no proper record keeping system that would catalogue, serialize and store them safely. A
systems clerk should be employed or a teacher trained to carry out this important exercise. A
good history of the school could be an asset that rallies old students around the school for
purposes of development among other interest. Proper record keeping would also provide a
basis upon which good auditing can be carried out, that would then provide background for
improvement. Current teacher and student records however should be kept under lock and key
and ensured by the head teacher of their safety. Records of school ownership, log books,
insurance certificates and payment of bills should also be kept safely.
Activity
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Question
For instance, research on effective schools has concluded that many factors interacting
contribute greatly to the school success. Among the many factors identified is the “culture”
of the school. The teacher is one of the main orchestrators of the school “culture” by the kind
of conditions they create in the classroom and the school in general. These conditions must
create interest and curiosity for students to know and to learn. The teachers on the other hand,
through their dispositions that are either learnt or inherent in them support the students.
As a mentor
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- a person who can have interest in students learning, knowing and make
As an explainer,
- the teacher explains and creates an environment that is not boring but
- a teacher who does not settle for routine and takes time to learn how
Activity
161
Question
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Bibliography
Alder, Mortimore, J. (1982) The Paideia Proposal. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company.
Beare, Hedley, Brian J. Caldwell and Ross H. Millikan (1989) Creating An Excellent School.
London; Routledge.
Busher, Hugh and Rene Saran (1995) Managing Teachers as Professionals in School. London;
Kogan Page.
Cole, G. A. (1996) Management Practice: A Theory of Practice. London; London Publication.
Government of Kenya, The Education Act CAP 211 of the Kenyan Laws.
Griffin, Geoffrey (1994) School Mastery. Nairobi; Lectern Publications Ltd.
Hoy, Way K. and Cecil G. Miskel (1987) Educational Administration. New York; McGraw-Hill,
Inc.
Knezevich, J. Stephen (1962) Administration of Public Education. New York; Harper & Row,
Publishers.
Kyungu, Sammy P.M 1/3/200…. “Effective Management of Schools” – unpublished speech given
at Catholic Education secretariat annual Conference at Amani Centre, Thika Road
Lazarides, Linda (1997) The Nutritional Health Bible, London: Thorsons.
Ministry of Education (1987) Education in Kenya. Nairobi; Jomo Kenyatta Foundation.
Reform Agenda For Education Sector in Kenya (2003).
Republic of Kenya (200) Handbook for Inspection of Educational Institutions, Nairobi.
Teachers Service Commission (2002). Operational Manual on Teacher Management Nairobi; Jomo
Kenyatta Foundation.
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SCHOOL FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION
Once this money has been collected, it is important that is has to be used appropriately to
meet the school financial needs.
Budget
Defn: "This is a statement of income and expenditure for a school calendar year"
Note:
Budgeting is a process of preparing a statement of income and expenditure for a school
calendar year.
There are four (4) steps involved during the budgeting process.
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This involves the preparation of three plans namely:-
This is derived from the educational policies which are stipulated by the Ministry of
Education. This will then give the needs of the school. These needs are arranged per vote-
head.
Preparation of the budget documents is done 3 - 4 months before the ensuing year
The head teacher should involve all departmental heads and Accounts clerk/bursar during
the preparation phase.
There is need to balance the educational plans along with the expenditure plans and
Financing/Income plans.
The initial budget is a tentative budget until it is officially approved by the Ministry of
Education.
The budget document and an interpretative document are first presented to the Board of
Governors [BOG] and the Parents Association [PA] for discussion and approval. Once
approved, it is then taken to the Ministry of Education for final ratification.
Note: Interpretative document is one that explains the increase or decrease of the
amount assigned to a given vote-head compared to the previous year.
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A vote-head is an item of expenditure e.g. Repair, Maintenance, and Improvement
[R.M.I.], Local Travel and Transport [L.T. & T].
This is where the budget is put into effect. Administration of the budget involves:
Budget control - This is when the expenditure if as per the budget. This will ensure that all
programmes are taken care of.
Work Plans - enables the administrator/head teacher have a clear picture of who will procure
what and when, in accordance with the budget estimates.
Implementation of work plans - During the administration of the budget, there may be over-
estimates or under-estimates in the various vote-heads. During such instances, Virement
has to be done from the Permanent Secretary or B.O.G.
Note:
Virement -This is transfer of money from one vote head to another.
This is assessing the budget document to determine its effectiveness. Appraisal should be
done in terms of the purpose for which it was designed. Appraisal of the budget can be in
terms of:-
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Extent to which the organization meets its objectives
Provision of accurate and systematic estimate and balance of receipts a expenditure.
The budget as an important document for financial accounting.
Definition:
This is the process of recording, classifying and summarizing financial transactions of an
educational organization and interpreting the results of these transactions.
The following books of accounts are used to facilitate financial accounting in school:-
1. Receipt Book: This is a book where all payments received are entered. This receipt is
issued to the person paying. Examples of payments made: school fees, grants from the
Ministry/NGOs and other donors, rents, sales and debtors.
2. Cash Book: This is a book of accounts in which all financial transactions with respect to
payments and receipts are recorded. The cashbook consists of the debit side [left hand
side, for money received] and the credit side [right hand side, for the money paid].
3. The Ledger: This is an extract of all transaction which are recorded in the cash book
against each approved vote-head. Each page of the ledger referred to as a ledge account
shows financial transactions for a given vote-head. The ledger account is divided into
two sides: the debit and the credit side.
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4. The Journal: This is a book of accounts which contains records of financial events as
they occur on a daily basis. The journal entries are accompanied by a narration/or an
explanation of the transaction.
LESSON 3: AUDITING
Objectives/Purposes
To determine whether the financial statements made are accurate and in application of the
recommended accounting guidelines.
To determine whether the organization's financial procedures comply with the legal
provisions, policies and procedures are stipulated by the Ministry of Education
To identify any operational problems in the accounting procedures used by the
organization.
Categories of Auditing
There are two categories:-
(a) Special auditing - Where accounts of a given vote-head are scrutinized to assess how
funds on this vote-head were used.
(b) General auditing - This is where the form and content of the budget document is
scrutinized
Types of Auditing
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There are two types:-
Internal Auditing
This is done by the organization itself. This type of auditing enables the organization to
appraise the effectiveness of its financial management techniques.
External Auditing
Activity:
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