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Group Dynamics and Behaviour
Group Dynamics and Behaviour
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DOI: 10.13189/ujer.2019.070128
Copyright©2019 by authors, all rights reserved. Authors agree that this article remains permanently open access under
the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 International License
the behavior of the group[2]. Contemporarily, according to want to stay in the group must adapt to the rules, otherwise
the needs and developments, new items are participating in they would be removed from the group. Norms are the
these forces. Nevertheless, recent studies also investigate components of a group that hold the members together,
interaction of these forces with themselves and each other. supervise them, and make a strong and lasting group.
Formation of the norms is performed by a leader or any
2.1. Development of Groups Related Studies member. However, continuity of the norms is provided by
the group and it is difficult to change them. After the
First studies about groups began in the 1850’s. These adaptation, norms are seen as means of social pressure. In
studies mostly focused on the concept of “group spirit” case of deviation from the norms, members are made to
that maintained its importance until 1930’s. However, feel this in a variety of ways [6].
since “group spirit” was being considered as a feature of According to researches, an individual behaves in a
metaphysic, it did not seem like a proper subject of group differently than being alone. Considering the norms
scientific research. Floyd Allport (1924) rejected the and hierarchy in groups, members who observe the rules
concept of “group spirit” and expressed group as an in the group are usually called as middle level ones. These
alteration and acceleration of individual’s behavior individuals mostly follow the rules even when they are
because of the presence of others. Likewise, previous alone in order to secure their places in the group [7].
studies of Triplett (1897), Moede (1920) were also There are also members in the group who are in the
supporting Allport’s approach and revealed that the lower levels. Those observe the rules only within the
behavior of an individual differs when he is alone than group. Such a behavior is materialized not by adopting but
within the group [3]. by submission. This kind of members believe that their
With the establishment of group formation norms group is better than other groups in the environment and
experimented by Sherif (1936), “group” has been show the behavior of keeping the rules only not to be
accepted as a concrete fact. After that, since the late removed from the group. On the other hand, those in the
1930’s, the guiding effect of Kurt Lewin about group upper levels of group remained tied to the rules in the
studies has started. After the 1960’s, it can be seen that beginning. These members liked and adopted for a period
the studies have scattered and covered a wide range of of time, and gain high esteem within the group. After
groups, and application has gained much more importance becoming leader they may violate the group rules to some
[4]. Studies on groups have been made in the fields of extent [8].
industrial and organizational psychology, education, In recent years, the effect of group norms and their
mental health, military and so on. Studies made in the relations with other group activities and values such as
laboratory were applied in all these areas. justice, ethics, knowledge transfering, performance,
After the 1990’s, with the globalization, digitalization, innovation etc. have often been investigated in the
changing political systems, goal or result-oriented literature [9,10,11].
approaches in many western countries, new items such as Kivlighan Jr. and Cole [12] examined the relationship
cross cultural differences and impacts, migration, social between absenteeism and commitment in terms of group
status and identity, demographic diversities, leadership, norms. As expected, this study exhibited that employees
job performance, motivation, dynamics in sport teams, who are more committed to the group are more influenced
organizational citizenship behavior (OCB), ethics, by the group’s absences norms than are employees less
healthcare have been investigated in the studies on the committed to the group. Generally, it can be said that
groups and group dynamics. Moreover, groups consisting commitment and compliance with group norms have a
of virtual (online) environment is noteworthy in recent positive relationship. But for the norms of other
years, especially in international organizations. counterproductive behaviors such as turnover, substance
Considering the business meetings via tele-conferences, use, ineffective performance, accidents etc. the results
carrying out the job only with Emails, it is not clear who might be different.
is within the group or who is out. There are some work Tauber and Sassenberg [13] viewed a football team
groups in international companies consist of a dozen over a season in order to examine the impact of
people who do not see each other for many years. Some identification to group norms. In their study, they found
researchers have already started to examine these entities that strongly identified group members are more likely to
and their effects on group dynamics [5]. deviate from group norms in some situations. According
to this study, members who show stronger identification
2.2. Group Norms and Group’s Normative Effect are more concerned with success and favor of the group.
Attitudes of those strongly identified members deviate
Group norms can be defined as rules that specify what from the group norms when they perceive that group
kind of behavior is appropriate or unwanted within the norms may be harmful for the group. Those members
group. These rules provide guidance for the behavior of raise their individual goals by ignoring the group goals
group members and are adopted by them. Members who and show better performance with their ambitions. This
Universal Journal of Educational Research 7(1): 223-229, 2019 225
mostly increases group’s performance too. On the other contrary to the group norms, there begins pressure to
hand, weakly identified players adhered to potentially change this attitude. Moreover, if the group norms are
harmful group norms by adjusting their individual goals to composed from the debate of members, complying with
unambitious group goals. This may reduce the these norms would be more powerful [7]. Many
performance of the group and strongly identified members researches (studies of Kelly, Woodruff, Thibaut and
tend to leave the team consequently. This study has shown Lewin) in the classical social psychology literature have
that a group also needs dissidents, who deviate from the already supported those judgements [3].
group norms, since those uplift the group with their Dreu et al.[17] investigated creativity and innovation in
individual high performance. Additionally, the groups. As many earlier studies revealed, their study
non-compliance with the group norms may sometimes also showed that individuals with high epistemic
lead to better and more effective results. motivation are more creative than individuals with low
epistemic motivation are. When the members with high
2.3. Roles in the Group epistemic motivation increase within the group, the
performance of the group in terms of creativity would also
The Role refers to the attitude and beahavior of increase. Their study demonstrated that the increase of the
individuals in accordance with the expectations from each average level of epistemic motivation and creativity in the
other. In other words, “roles are patterns of behaviors in group, would also raise the mental (cognitive) motivation
any social unit”[6]. The attitudes and behaviors form the and creativity of the individuals.
role identity of individuals. Roles are shaped and Groups can sometimes help those members who have
developed according to the individual’s or group’s needs counter-productive behaviors or run against the
and preferences. In the organizational psychology, roles organizational goals, by reducing or completely
have been examined according to the general tasks and eliminating the counterproductive behaviors [8]. This can
behaviors within the group. Nowadays, the role is be seen as a positive impact of the group’s effect. On the
represented by identity by taking into account the impact of other hand, a hard-working member in a low-effort group
social life outside of the group as well. Likewise recent might feel himself as an offset due to possible pressure on
studies mostly focus on the concept of identity that also him and consequently, either decreases his work effort or
includes personal characteristics of individual and leaves the group.
influences his/her social status outside of the group.
2.6. The Effect of the Group on the Efficiency of the
2.4. Adherence to the Group Individual
One of the most important features that identifies the Researches have shown that a group may have a positive
structure of the group is members’ adherences to the or negative effect on the efficiency of its members.
group. Adherence can be described as the desire of the According to many social psychologists, the presence of
individual to be a member of the group. In a group in others increases the motivation and action level of the
which the adherence is high, the group members are individual. In that case dominant dispositions of the
pleased with each other and motivated to stay in the group. individual play an important role. This means that if the
Moreover, individuals in such groups adopt norms and individual has a dominant tendency to make mistakes, his
goals easily, and help each other to achieve the goals. On mistakes would increase; if the individual has a dominant
the other hand, in the groups consisting of members who tendency to make the right, his deal of doing the right jobs
are not connected to each other, the situation is increases [3]. Several studies have shown that the total
completely the opposite. To put it clear, adherence to the productivity of the group is greater than the sum of the
group is a positive fact. Groups with high adherence do productivity of its members. This is usually called as
not escape from work, work well together, are more “sinergy effect” [18]. Some recent studies about the effect
efficient and productive, and in such groups turnover is of group on the efficiency and productivity of its members
low and intra-group confidence and motivation of the will be mentioned in the sub-title of “The Importance of
members is high[14,15]. Moreover, decision making in Groups for Organizations”.
such groups is of good quality, stronger and more efficient It is also possible that individuals will make less effort
than in other groups. However, there might emerge some while they are in the group than equal to their normal
problems in relation with other groups [16]. individual effort. This is called as “social loafing”. In that
case, individual acts quite free in the group. Hence, this is
2.5. The Effect of the Group on Individual’s Attitude also known as “free riding”. For example, in a group of 10
members, given that each member’s contribution is 1,
Group has a role in the direction of empowering or group’s output is expected to be greater than 10. But in
changing the attitude of individual. If the individual social loafing occurrences, the output of the group might be
attitude is compatible with the group norms, this 9 or even less. Especially, as the number of group members
reinforces the attitude. If the individual’s attitude is increases, the proportion of contribution of some members
226 Group Dynamics and Behaviour
decreases [1]. Many researchers claim that social loafing approaches of shared leadership might be more important
usually occurs in the individualistic cultures where rather than one person’s leadership.
personal achievement and rewarding are important. On the Another topic investigated in recent years and has
other hand, one may argue that individuals would work significant impact on group dynamics is cross-cultural
harder if they know that they would be rewarded. influences[23]. Considering the steadily increased mobility
Therefore, it would be wrong to look at social loafing from of people, countries, cities, organizations and consequently
only one approach of the culture. Other factors such as job the groups will be more heterogeneous in the future. Thus,
ethic, organizational norms and values, social preferences cultural elements will be more examined in group
may also play an important role in the occurence of social dynamics. For that matter, the importance of the effect of
loafing. national culture will be decreasing and mixed-multicultural
Kalay and Oğrak[19] analyzed social loafing tendency groups will come to the fore rather than pure groups.
and behaviors of those engage in social loafing in the As mentioned in the first chapter, online aggregation is
groups. The authors stated that some group members, who now the trend in the business environment, in many public
engage in social loafing, treat their co-workers and services and even in education. Face to face
supervisors politely, and try to look like helping them. communication or relationships have always been one of
Such situations make it difficult to determine the less effort the most effective and valid factors in group dynamics.
of those individuals, but still have a negative impact on the Nevertheless, increasing technology, changing
group’s total performance. For that purpose, groups will be requirements, time constraints have led people to online
concentrating on the active monitoring in the future. communication. Therefore, a lot of new elements and
approaches will arise that may affect group dynamics
2.7. Other Factors in Group Dynamics especially in the groups coming from online together [5].
With the increasing importance of self-interest, ambition
Features, knowledge, skills, communication abilities and gaining, people have also changed their point of view
and behaviors of the members determine who will be the against the groups. That is to say people began to look from
leader in the group. According to the changes of group’s a more hedonistic point of view. This has led the
desired goals, contingency of being leader of the members researchers to examine the group dynamics in terms of
also varies. Leadership within the group occurs depending game theory. Chen and Li [24] studied individuals’
on the interactions of the group, group’s goals and behaviors in the groups by considering group identity and
characters of the members. According to general social preferences. This study was conducted in laboratory
leadership approaches, a person who has leadership and it has revealed that group members keep the social
qualities, regardless in which group, would be the leader welfare maximized when they are matched with another
[20]. In the literature, situational leadership approach is group member. They also show more charity when they
prominent and mostly highlighted in group dynamics. have a higher punishment. When there is lower payoff, the
According to this approach, the environment or group’s members that are matched with each other show less
atmosphere creates the leader within the group. In other jealousy. In contrast, members tend to keep the losses at a
words, the leader arises in accordance with needs and minimum level when they are not matched with another
features of the group. This approach is similar to the group member.
Fiedler’s Contingency Theory. In this leadership theory, Social identity and its effects have also been studied
leader strengthens relationships and adherence between within the group dynamics. However, those are mostly
group members, as well as enables the job done in a best discussed in intergroup dynamics.
way. Consequently, the leader raises his/her reputation and
efficiency in the group [1].
Studies have shown that leaders, who are more suited to 3. Intergroup Dynamics
the group norms, give their group members more
confidence. Additionally, leader’s fairness is accepted and We encounter a lot of intergroup interactions in every
understood by the group members more effectively. moment of life. Political relations between countries,
Leaders who do not meet the group’s norms have less mutual relations of fans of sport teams, communication
control and effectiveness over the group. In such cases, with other departments in the companies can be examples
some members are getting more close to each other. for the intergroup behaviors in our everyday lives.
Nevertheless, such cases mostly affect relationships of the While people have social relationships with the
members negatively [21]. individuals from many different social groups, they also
An interesting study made by Kivlighan and Miles [22] may engage in interpersonal behaviors with those
showed that members are more satisfied in the groups invidiuals. Eventhough advancing personal relationships,
where a second leader (co-leader) exists than the groups those people may engage in intergroup behaviors due to
with an individual leader. The commitment among being a supporter of different sport teams or political
members is also stronger in such groups. So in the future, parties.
Universal Journal of Educational Research 7(1): 223-229, 2019 227
There are different theories explaining group dynamics members in the same group also changes according to the
but only two most widely accepted theories – Intergroup degree of social ties, mostly directly proportional.
Conflict and Social Identity – will be discussed here. Referring to the study done in the laboratory by Chen
and Li[24] which was mentioned in the previous pages;
3.1. Intergroup Conflict when individuals from different groups are matched with
an in-group member (who is from a different work group
The most famous theory in intergroup conflicts was put but from a similar social group) are more likely to show
forward by Sherif. According to him, one of the main more charity when they have a higher payoff. Conversely,
causes of the conflict is the struggle to achieve limited those individuals show less jealousy when they have a
sources. In other words, the quality of the relations lower payoff. This study has also exhibited that
between two groups depends on whether the conflict of individuals tend to reward ingroup match for good
interests exists. In a context where resources are limited, behavior, compared to an outgroup match. On the other
competition leads to biases among the groups. As a first hand, they are less likely to punish an ingroup match for
result of the conflict between groups, the communication misbehavior. Furthermore, the individuals pay more
channels of the groups are impaired. After that conflicting attention on payoffs rather than rewards.
groups throw the opponent group in a negative pattern[8].
Some researchers examined the relation between
personal characteristics and intergroup dynamics. It has 4. The Importance of Groups for
been found that individual differences in terms of
cognitive activities also cause intergroup biases and
Organizations
wrong perception, and consequently intergroup Groups are part of the organizations and cannot be
conflict[25]. excluded because the best way to overcome problems is to
Regardless of how it reveals, intergroup conflicts lead work within groups. As many studies have shown, it is
to deviations in achieving the group goals and affects possible to increase the efficiency of production by
groups’s performance negatively, especially in the working in groups. Proficiency of problem solving and
beginning of occurrence of the conflicts. Despite the process improvement is greater in groups than separate
negative impacts, there are also positive impacts of individuals. The aim of working in groups is to increase
intergroup conflicts such as increasing the solidarity and the contribution of human resources further to the
unity in the groups themselves. Especially, organizations organization. If the right conditions and sinergy are
gain a lot of experiences through intergroup conflicts. created to achieve important and challenging tasks, a
Intergroup conflicts can be hindered by diagnosing and significant difference between group’s - and individual’s
abolishing the causes of the conflict, increasing the effort emerge accordingly; individuals work more
communication among groups and individuals in these effectively within groups. This is one of the key elements
groups, and especially eliminating the trend of win/loss. to provide a competitive advantage and being long-lasting
McPherson and Parks made a study which have had organization.
gratifying results. According to their findings, groups Some researchers claim that group formation is
have stronger tendency to eliminate the conflicts with extremely important in the development of attitudes and
other groups than individuals do, and at the same time, are behaviors of individuals. For example, helping is a
more likely faster than the individuals in eliminating the spontaneous behavior that may ocur in a group. The
conflicts[26]. This can be seen as another benefit of formation of a group is a critical element in facilitating
operating with and within the groups. such behaviors [27]. According to the study of Yee and
Dyne[28], helping behavior is higher in groups in which
the cohesion between members is strong, task confusion is
3.2. Social Identity
low and strong institutional norms exist.
Individuals define and evaluate themselves by taking In a similar study carried out by Kidwell and
into account the social groups which they belong to. In Valentine[29], it has been proved that groups have
other words, individuals identify and categorize positive characteristics such us developing the attitude of
themselves according to their social groups (as we and helping each other, providing cohesion between
they, or in-group and out-group) so that their social individuals and support for peer leadership, facilitating
identities arise. Other groups in the environment provide a interaction between individuals, so that they affect job
basis in the assessment of the position of individual. satisfaction and performance of employees in a positive
Namely, individuals compare their own groups to other way.
groups and mostly favor their own groups[7]. Kleingeld et al.[30] examined the effect of goal setting
on group performance and found that group goals have a
Many studies have shown that individuals who have
robust effect on group performance in the organizations.
similar social identities cooperate more comfortable and
Individual goals may also have a positive contribution on
easily. Moreover, efficiency of cooperation of the
group performance. Nevertheless, goals embraced by a lot
228 Group Dynamics and Behaviour
of individuals have a better effect on group performance. group dynamics might be studied more in sports.
In brief, benefits of the groups to organizations are as Unfortunately, it must be highlighted that a group consisted
follows [31,32,33]: of individuals is being considered like a machine and this
may cause the disregard of some human values.
− alleviating the workload
The main reason of the intergroup conflict is also the
− developing the creativity
competitive environment; the greater competition, the
− eliminating the weakness of supervisor
greater conflict or hostility. Conflict leads to prejudice
− creating communication channels for individuals
among the groups and this abandons the communication
− helping employees to feel better emotionally between the groups. In order to make positive intergroup
− providing an effective decision-making in case the perceptions and behaviors, co-operation should be
decision-making process operated accurately encouraged among the groups.
− allowing individuals to control each other which may As mentioned in the third chapter, groups contribute
be more effective than the control of supervisors positively to organizations such as creating collaboration
− ensuring job satisfaction and stability among employees, providing an effective communication,
− reducing problems especially in large-scale increasing job satisfaction and motivation, and gaining
organizations. competitive advantage. On the other hand, intergroup
conflict may cause negative effects such as decrease in
productivity and power of competition. To prevent or
5. Conclusions and Recommendations minimize the occurrence of adverse effects, organizations
should be aware of the functioning of the groups, group
In the organizations, beside the importance of
dynamics, characteristics of the individuals, and use
characteristics and management of the individuals,
correct methods and techniques.
formation of the groups by those individuals, and their
interactions within the groups are also crucial. Since this is
very well known, researches have being done on this topic
for decades. First studies sought to answer the question of
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