Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Cambridge IGCSE Sociology Coursebook - Public
Cambridge IGCSE Sociology Coursebook - Public
Cambridge IGCSE®
Sociology
Coursebook
University Printing House, Cambridge cb2 8bs, United Kingdom
The questions, answers and commentary in this title are written by the author and have
not been produced by Cambridge International Examinations.
Contents
Contents
Introduction iv
Unit 1 Theory and Methods 6
Unit 2 Culture, Identity and Socialisation 46
Unit 3 Social Inequality 84
Unit 4 The Family 122
Unit 5 Education 158
Unit 6 Crime, Deviance and Social Control 190
Unit 7 The Media 222
Unit 8 Examination Skills 263
Bibliography 277
iii
Index 283
Acknowledgements 288
Cambridge IGCSE Sociology
Introduction
This book has been specifically written for the new Cambridge International
Examinations IGCSE® Sociology syllabus which will first be examined in 2015.
Its global and international scope also makes it ideal for introducing Sociology to
young people studying similar courses.
The book is written in language carefully designed to be clear and accessible to
14 to 16 year olds. Sociology involves the use of many specialist terms and these are
explained where they occur first in the book.
The Cambridge International Examinations IGCSE syllabus is examined by two
examination papers. The first three chapters of the book, on Theory and Methods,
Culture, Identity and Socialisation and Social Inequality are fundamental to
the study of sociology. All students should study these three chapters, which are
examined by the first paper. Together, these three chapters provide students with
the basic sociological skills and knowledge needed for studying topic areas. The
four topic areas on the syllabus are covered in the next four chapters of the book
and are examined by the second paper. In the examination, students are only
required to answer questions on two of these.
The final chapter focuses on the skills needed to prepare for and to sit the
examinations.
iv The book shares with the syllabus the aim of making this exciting subject
accessible to young people around the world. It brings together the knowledge
gained from classic studies in the development of the subject and more recent
research findings. It uses examples and case studies from around the world. It
reflects contemporary developments such as globalisation and the growth of
new media. Students are encouraged to reflect on their learning and to apply
their sociological understanding to their own nation and social situation.
Unit 5: Education
To help students through the book, we have used a number of features:
CASE STUDY
Summerhill School
This school in Britain was started by A.S. Neill, who believed that normal schools failed to turn out people who
were free and happy, and tried to make Summerhill a school that was different and would achieve this. It is run
democratically and each member of staff and each pupil has one vote in school meetings. Pupils attend the subjects
and lessons they want to, at the level they want to study at. It is a boarding and day school offering both primary
■ Case studies with questions.
and secondary education. Summerhill has been very controversial and in 2000 it had to go to court to fight
criticisms made by inspectors from OFSTED. Visit this web site for more information: www.summerhillschool.
co.uk.
TASK
1 In what way is Summerhill different from normal schools?
■ Other questions to check knowledge and develop understanding at
2 Why is Summerhill controversial?
TEST YOURSELF
1 What kinds of schools exist in your country? Which of the kinds of schools
■ Suggestions for discussion and debate, to help students develop
169
discussed above are not found in your country?
2 Outline two arguments in favour of, and two arguments against, the
comprehensive school system. confidence verbally in using sociological language, apply ideas to
ACTIVITY: discussion
‘Pupils of different abilities and backgrounds should attend different types of
schools.’ Do you agree?
issues relevant to them and appreciate the opinion and arguments of
ACTIVITY: research
Interview an older member of your family about their education. Find out
others.
how schools and education have changed, ask what subjects were taught, what
lessons were like, what resources were used, how teachers interacted with pupils
and whether boys and girls were treated the same. Report back to your class
comparing your own experience and your family member’s.
■ Suggestions for research, allowing students to develop their
What factors help to explain differences in
KEY TERM
Educational inequality
educational achievement? understanding through carrying out their own research.
(based on class, gender and Patterns in educational achievement and experience
ethnicity): when different groups
This section discusses the patterns of educational achievement in relation to
are treated differently or have
different levels of educational
gender, ethnicity and social class. These are patterns of educational inequality.
Different groups are treated differently and have different levels of educational
Table 2.3: Comparison of legal ages for various activities in different countries
1 In which of the selected countries in Table 2.3 a) is the voting age the highest;
b) is the minimum age for driving the lowest?
2 ‘Adulthood is socially constructed in the same way as childhood’. Use the
information from Table 2.3 to explain what this statement means.
3 If you live in a country other than those selected here, find out the equivalent
information for your country.
KEY TERM Adolescence is seen as a difficult period because it involves status anxiety. Modern
industrial societies emphasise achieved, not ascribed statuses and young people
Adolescence: the period of
growing up between childhood feel pressure to achieve status. One response is to rely on your peer group, who
and adulthood. are after all the people who are going through the same problems and anxieties
as you. Young people therefore tend to share norms and values, even to form a
Unit 1: Theory and Methods ■ Examination style questions at the end of each chapter.
Revision checklist Exam practice questions
Source A: Eleven young women aged between 23 and 29
Make sure that you know all the key terms
listed in this unit and that you understand who had become pregnant when they were teenagers were
the following: interviewed. They had all grown up in socially disadvantaged
families in a town called Kelby (not its real name). The purpose of
● Structuralist approaches focus on social the research was to examine how poverty and social exclusion
structures and institutions and how these
early in their lives had affected them later as mothers. The women
influence how people behave. Interpretivist
approaches focus more on how individuals
in the sample had found it difficult to find paid work and they
make sense of society. relied on their relatives to help them with childcare.
(Webster et al., 2004, Poor Transitions: Social Exclusion and
● Functionalism is a consensus theory.
Young Adults).
● Marxism and feminism are conflict theories.
● Positivists and interpretivists have different a Why did the researchers decide not to use the real
approaches to carrying out research. name of the town? [2]
● Each stage of the research process involves b Identify two types of interviews that sociologists use. [2]
choices and decisions involving a range of
practical, ethical and theoretical issues.
c Using information from the source, give two reasons
why sociologists might question generalisations
● Sociologists use different types of research
made from this research. [4]
methods, including surveys, interviews and
participant observation and experiments. d Describe two strengths of using group interviews for
● Other types of research include case sociological research. [4]
studies, longitudinal studies and
e Describe two strengths and two limitations of using 45
triangulation.
questionnaires for sociological research. [8]
● Sociological methods and their findings
can be evaluated in terms of their validity, f Explain why interpretivists prefer using methods that
●
reliability and representativeness.
Research can produce quantitative or
produce mainly qualitative data.
g To what extent do ethical issues influence the way
[10]
v
qualitative data. sociological research is carried out? [15]
● Sociologists also use both primary data and
a range of secondary data including official
Total available marks 45
and unofficial statistics, documents such
as diaries and letters, media and published
sources.
6
Unit 1:
Theory and Methods
Objectives
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
■ understand the main theoretical approaches to the study
of sociology
■ describe the main stages in sociological research
■ describe the main methods used in sociological research and
be able to evaluate them referring to practical, ethical and
theoretical issues
■ understand the main types of information and data that
sociologists use, including quantitative and qualitative
data and primary and secondary data.
Unit 1: Theory and Methods
Introduction
Sociology tries to understand and explain the To study the complex behaviour of people in social
relationship between people and the societies they live groups sociologists use different kinds of tools. The
in. A society is the group to which you belong; it can be a main tools are of two types: theories about society
small unit like the family or a large one like your country, and methods used to explore those theories. This unit
and anything in between. People can be grouped by the looks at the main theories and methods used. Notice
things they have in common: for instance, their level of that the theories are based on very different ideas
education or their religious attitudes, whether they are about what the relationship between people and the
recent migrants to a country or whether they are male societies they live in could be and the methods they
or female. The subject matter of sociology consists of use are also very different from each other. To study
the actions and beliefs of people in social groups, the sociology you need to have a good understanding
relationships between social groups and the ways in of these differences as well as understanding the
which people’s actions can change society, as well as content of each main theory discussed here. This
the ways that social change in the whole society affects book will try to help by pointing out the important
different social groups. features of each.
KEY TERMS
Structuralism: an approach
How do different sociologists interpret society?
focusing on the large-scale social Structuralist and interpretivist approaches:
structures in which people play
defined roles.
the individual, identity and society
7
Macro/micro approaches: Structuralism
macro approaches focus on the
large scale of whole societies, There are two main approaches to sociology: structuralist and interpretivist.
micro approaches on small-scale Structuralist approaches focus on large-scale (macro) social structures and
social interaction. institutions rather than individuals. Structuralists see societies as a set of structures
in which individuals play definite roles. In this approach it is the social roles and
the actions that people carry out in fulfilling these roles that are important, not the
individuals themselves. Sociologists use these theories to discover social structures
that may be hidden from individuals.
A well-known example of a structuralist approach is the work of Emile
Durkheim on suicide published over 100 years ago. He chose to study suicide
because we usually think of it as an individual act motivated by private troubles but
he wanted to show it is linked to the way societies are organised. Durkheim noticed
that suicide rates – the proportion of the population who committed suicide
each year – in a country did not change much. However, there were significant
differences in suicide rates between countries. Durkheim tried to show that social
forces (or the social causes of actions) lay behind individual actions like suicide.
These social forces led to the different suicide rates. A social force, for example, is
the connection between individuals and support networks such as families and
religious organisations. Strong connections lead to lower suicide rates and weak
connections lead to higher rates. Suicide rates thus show us something about the
nature of a society, not about individuals.
Durkheim was working within the framework of the positivist method
that is used in natural science. Like other structuralists, he looked for
Emile Durkheim
Cambridge IGCSE Sociology
We have some choice about aspects of our identities and may also decide for
ourselves how important different aspects of our identities are to us. In the case
of national identity, some people may be very patriotic but others may not see
their nationality as important, or may identify more strongly with a religious or
ethnic identity. So interpretivists believe our identities are not imposed by society,
as structuralists would argue, but come from the interaction between our own
thoughts and actions and those of others. Our identities bind us to certain social
groups and to certain ways of behaving.
Interpretivists use research methods that try to discover what meanings people
give to their actions and how they interpret the world around them. Interpretivist
researchers try to understand how people see the world. For example, in
researching crime an interpretivist would want to know what the people involved
had to say about what they did, not just what happened.
TEST YOURSELF
1 Summarise the main differences between structuralism and interpretivism.
2 The picture on page 9 shows puppets and strings. Think of another way of
showing the different approaches in a visual way, using as few words as
possible.
Unit 1: Theory and Methods
Society Society
STRUCTURALISM INTERPRETIVISM
ideas, and there are likely to be shared practices and rituals that bring everyone
together and make them feel a sense of belonging so they identify strongly with
their society and its values.
Social conflict occurs when major disagreements arise about important issues
such as wealth, status and power. In a society based on conflict there will be
significant and important differences between groups, which may become open
conflicts, and there will be no overall set of shared values held by all groups.
A society based on conflict will be unstable, though there may be long periods
where one group in power is able to suppress others that challenge it.
Because interpretivist approaches are more interested in individuals and small-
scale (micro) social interaction than in the overall nature of a society, the debate
about conflict and consensus does not apply to them. However, this means that they
are sometimes criticised for not taking into account the wider issues such as power,
which may influence the situations they study.
Functionalism
The main sociological perspective based on a consensus view of society is
functionalism. Functionalists emphasise social functions and ask, ‘What function
does this aspect of society carry out that keeps this society stable and allows it to
continue?’ They might say, for example:
■ The function of schools is to give young people the skills they need for work, which
helps the economy of a society.
■ The function of families is to socialise children into the norms and values of the
10 society so that the next generation will have these values.
■ The function of prisons is to remove temporarily from society people who do not
keep the laws and who therefore upset the smooth running of society.
Functionalists perceive human society as being like the human body. This is called
the organic or biological analogy because it compares society to a living organism.
The different parts of the human body – the brain, heart, liver, skin and so on – all
have jobs to do to keep you healthy. In the same way, each part of society is seen
as having functions that all help the society as a whole to be healthy and survive.
If something goes wrong in one part of your body it may affect other parts and it
may be a warning sign that you need to do something. So, in a human society, an
increase in crime might become a problem that needs to be tackled, perhaps by
getting schools to be better at teaching people to obey the law.
Functionalism was the most important perspective in sociology for many years,
especially in the early and mid-20th century. It was the way that most sociologists
thought societies worked. It is often referred to as structural functionalism. The
main sociologist associated with it is the American Talcott Parsons (1902–1979).
Marxism
Marxism is a perspective that argues that modern industrial societies are based
on a fundamental conflict between different social classes. Marxists argue that
there is a permanent and continuous conflict of interest between social classes that
takes the form of strikes and other protests by the working class, and can lead to
revolution. Marxists refer to the two main classes as the bourgeoisie (the owners
of wealth and property) and the proletariat (the working class). The bourgeoisie
has power and wealth and exploits and oppresses the proletariat, who are ‘wage
slaves’. This means that the proletariat have no choice but to work if they are to
Unit 1: Theory and Methods
survive but that they are never paid the full value of their work – this is taken by
the ruling class as profits.
Where functionalists look at parts of society and see how they keep society stable
and harmonious, Marxists look at the same phenomena and see how they allow the
bourgeoisie to keep their wealth and power. Marxists might say, for example:
■ Schools ensure that some people fail and that they think this is their own fault so
that they then accept a low position in society.
■ The mass media distract people’s attention from what is really going on and make
people interested only in celebrities, sport and trivial issues.
So Marxists agree with functionalists that parts of society have functions although
they disagree completely about their interpretation.
Marxism is much more than a sociological perspective; it is also important
in politics, history and economics. Marxism inspired the political movements of
socialism and communism, which involve attempts to create new societies based on
equality rather than class divisions. Marxists are in favour of radical social changes
that will end exploitation and make everyone equal. Critics of Marxism argue that
this is probably impossible and that the attempts to create equal societies have led
to even greater oppression.
Marxism is named after Karl Marx (1818–1883). Marxist ideas have developed
considerably since his time, as later Marxists have tried to adapt his ideas to explain
what has happened since, particularly why the revolutions in modern industrial
societies that Marx expected did not happen. Modern Marxist writers are often
Karl Marx called neo-Marxists. 11
Feminism
A second sociological perspective that emphasises conflict is feminism. Like
Marxists, feminists see a fundamental division between two groups in society,
but for feminists this division is between the two sexes rather than two classes.
Feminists argue that it is men who control society and who have wealth and power
in all aspects of society – in relationships, families, the world of work, education,
and so on. The control of society by men is called patriarchy. Feminist sociologists
research on gender differences; for example, they are interested in why, although
girls tend to do better in school than boys, it is still boys who, when they are men,
will be in higher paid jobs.
Like Marxism, feminism is much more than a sociological perspective; it is
important in other subjects and it is a broad social and political movement with a
long history. Feminists have campaigned for equality between men and women for
many years. They have achieved advances in many societies but argue that there
is not yet full equality. Feminism has sometimes been seen as being anti-men but
TOP TIP many feminists argue that equality will bring benefits for men as well.
Throughout this book you Feminism covers such a very wide range of ideas that there are several strands
will study the ways that these within feminism. They include:
different approaches have been
applied to different topics in ■ liberal feminists, who believe that major advances have been made and that
sociology (families, education, equality can be reached through further changes such as new laws; their view does
crime and so on). For questions
not emphasise conflict
on theory and methods, you can
bring in relevant examples from ■ radical feminists, who believe that despite these advances, societies remain
any of the topic areas. fundamentally patriarchal and men still have power; though this may now be less
obvious, radical changes are still needed
Cambridge IGCSE Sociology
■ Marxist (or socialist) feminists, who bring together the insights of both Marxism and
feminism, focusing on how class and gender work together to produce fundamental
divisions in society.
TEST YOURSELF
1 Marxism and feminism are both broad political movements as well as sociological
perspectives. Why might those who adopt these perspectives want to change
society as well as study it?
2 How might Marxists and functionalists interpret differently the functions of (a) the
government and (b) the police force?
ACTIVITY: discussion
Which of the consensus and conflict approaches discussed here do you think is the
most relevant today? Be prepared to justify your choice.
Positivism
Positivism is an approach that concentrates on producing quantitative data,
usually in the form of statistics. It is based on the belief that, as far as possible,
KEY TERMS sociology should use the same research methods as the natural sciences such as
physics, chemistry and biology.
Positivism: an approach to
sociology based on studying
This approach in sociology goes back to 19th and early 20th century sociologists
society in a scientific manner. such as Auguste Comte and Emile Durkheim. They witnessed the growing ability
Quantitative data: of the natural sciences to understand and predict the workings of the natural world.
information and facts that take a They believed that there were laws of social behaviour that could be discovered
numerical form. by using similar methods and so they advocated the use of scientific methods in
Bias: prejudice that distorts the sociology.
truth when research is influenced Scientists try to be objective. They try to be neutral and to discover the truth
by the values of the researcher rather than being guided by their values and by what they would like to be true. If a
or by decisions taken about the
researcher can be objective the results will be unbiased and should be an accurate
research, such as the sampling
method used. account of what really happened. Critics have pointed out that this is probably
Objectivity: absence of bias;
impossible; for example, scientists’ research is influenced by their values from the
the researchers do not allow their very beginning, when they choose to research something they think is important.
values or feelings to influence the Positivists reply that even scientists cannot attain objectivity yet sociologists should
research. always aim to be objective.
Positivists favour experiments, as these are typical methods used in the natural
sciences. However, it is often difficult to carry out experiments in sociology.
Positivists tend to use instead social surveys and questionnaires, which also
produce quantitative data.
Unit 1: Theory and Methods
Interpretivism
Interpretivists take a different view from positivists. They argue that there is a
difference between the subject matter of sociology and natural science. Humans
are active, conscious beings; they make choices. What makes a social event social is
that those involved in it give it broadly the same meaning.
It follows that if we want to understand people’s actions we have first to understand
these actions in the way that the participants do. Social reality does not exist separately
from human actions. It is embedded in social actions. Sociologists need to understand
how people make sense of the social reality around them before they can understand 13
their actions. Interpretivists say that if the subject of sociology is so different from
that of the natural sciences, sociologists need to use different methods. Positivist
methods are not appropriate. Positivists may be able to describe the social world, but
interpretivists think it is more important to understand why people behave as they do.
Where positivists prefer experiments and surveys, interpretivists prefer to use
unstructured interviews and participant observation, which are more helpful in
uncovering why people behave as they do. For example, a positivist may be able to
say how many people commit what types of crime, while an interpretivist will want
to find out why they commit crimes.
An interview
Cambridge IGCSE Sociology
TEST YOURSELF
1 What do you think positivists mean by the ‘laws of social behaviour’?
2 Why do interpretivists prefer different research methods to those preferred by
positivists?
Doing research can be costly, so obtaining funding for the research is important. The
costs include not only travel and materials such as paper but the time spent on the
research. Most research is carried out by sociologists employed by universities and
other educational or research bodies, though the money may come from government,
businesses and companies or from charitable organisations. To be able to start the
research the sociologist may have to convince the funding bodies that it is a worthwhile
project by writing them a proposal, including estimates of what the study will cost.
hypothesis, a more interpretivist approach may have a looser and broader aim, such
as to find out what a group of people thinks about something.
Now the sociologist has to decide the research method and plan its
implementation. A range of different methods is available and the sociologist has
to choose among them, influenced by practical, ethical and theoretical issues.
The method chosen must be able to produce material that will provide evidence
supporting or disproving the hypothesis or achieving the aim.
Pilot studies
Whatever method is chosen, it is important whenever possible to test it with a small
number of respondents or in a limited way to see if there are any problems in the
design or if the research plan can be improved. This is a pilot study. For example,
KEY TERMS
a pilot questionnaire might be given to a small number of people to see if they can
understand all the questions, and whether the answers available cover the responses
Pilot study: a small-scale test they want to give. Putting problems right at an early stage saves money, time and
of a piece of a research project effort later.
before the main research.
Survey population: all those to Sampling
whom the findings of the study The researcher has to choose an appropriate sample for the research by selecting some
will apply and from which a of all possible respondents. It is usually expensive and impractical to include all of
sample is chosen.
them in the research so a number of them are chosen. Samples make research more
Sampling frame: a list of
manageable by making it possible to do research with smaller numbers of participants.
members of the population from
which the sample is chosen. The people that the research is about are called the survey population. A list of
everyone in the population is called a sampling frame. Commonly used sampling
frames include the following. 15
■ The electoral roll (also called the electoral register): this is the list of everyone
registered to vote in elections, with their address. It therefore includes most
adults, though it will not include anyone who is not registered or not allowed to
vote.
■ Telephone directories: these are easily available in countries where many people
have land-line telephones and they give addresses as well as telephone numbers.
However, they usually list only one person in each household. They do not tell you
how many people live at an address and they do not include people who do not
have telephones or who have chosen not to be in the directory.
■ School registers: for research in a school there will be lists of children, with other
information such as their gender, but these lists will be available only to genuine
researchers and permission from those in authority, such as the head teacher, is
needed.
All these sampling frames have problems. Getting a good, useful sampling frame
can be difficult. But sometimes samples are not necessary. If you are in a small or
medium-sized school you might find it possible to ask questions of everyone in
your year group. Many countries have a census, which is a social survey carried
out by the government to get information about every single person in the country.
Censuses collect information from the whole population, not a sample.
Samples are usually chosen so that they are representative, that is, so that
the researcher can claim that the results apply to the whole population, not just
the sample. To be representative, the sample has to be a cross-section of the
population. For example, if there are equal numbers of males and females in the
Cambridge IGCSE Sociology
KEY TERMS population, there should be equal numbers of males and females in the sample. The
sample then has generalisability.
Generalisability: when the
findings about a sample can Types of sample
be said to apply to a larger Samples can be chosen in several different ways. Some of the most common are:
group of people sharing their
characteristics. 1 Random samples. This is when everyone in the sampling frame has an equal
Random sampling: when each chance of being chosen. This can be done by drawing names from a hat. It is the
person has an equal chance of method used in making draws for sports competitions and for lotteries (you would
being selected. be annoyed if you chose a number and found later that it was less likely to be
chosen than others). Random samples are not always representative; for example,
by chance, a sampling frame containing equal numbers of boys and girls might
produce a sample dominated by one sex.
16
Random samples
KEY TERM 2 Stratified samples. To overcome the problem that random samples are not always
representative, the sampling frame can be divided (for example, into boys and
Stratified sample: when the girls) and a random sample is then taken from each division of the sampling
sampling frame is divided, for frame. Stratifying samples can be done by sex, age, ethnic group or any other
example, by gender or age.
characteristic. In draws for sports competitions, seeding is a way of stratifying the
sampling frame and keeping the top players or clubs apart in the early stages of the
competition. If the sampling frame is first stratified, then a random sample taken,
this is a stratified random sample.
3 Systematic samples. This is when there is a regular pattern to the choice – for
example, every tenth name in the sampling frame is chosen. It is not random
because other names in the frame have no chance of being chosen.
4 Cluster samples. These are used when the population is spread out over a large
area, such as a whole country. Certain areas are chosen for the sampling frame (for
example, a city area and a rural area) and random samples taken in those areas to
avoid the expense and time involved in travelling around the whole country.
5 Opportunity samples. These are simply the people who are available at the time to
take part in the research. They are used, for example, when researchers stop people
on the street and ask them questions. This is not random, because people who are
not there at the time have no chance of being chosen, and because the researcher
Unit 1: Theory and Methods
will make decisions about who to ask (for example, by not asking people who look
too busy or as if they would not want to take part). Opportunity samples are very
often used by students who do not have the time to get a random sample.
KEY TERMS 6 Quota samples. This is when a researcher is sent out with instructions to find
people with certain characteristics, for example, 10 teenagers taking IGCSE
Quota sampling: deciding in Sociology. This is often used in market research. If you are stopped in the street by
advance how many people with someone asking questions they may well be finding out whether you are a suitable
what characteristics to involve in
person for their survey.
the research and then identifying
7 Snowball samples. This has become a well-known way of contacting people when
them.
normal sampling will not work. It involves finding one respondent and getting
Snowball sampling: when one
respondent puts the researcher in them to put you in touch with one or more others. It has been used, for example,
contact with others. in interviewing gangsters – for whom there is no sampling frame.
Sampling methods: the
Notice that the last three sampling methods described above do not involve a
different ways in which samples
can be created.
sampling frame.
After a pilot study and the choice of a sample, the research is carried out.
The data are collected and the information recorded. Having collected the
data, the sociologist has to analyse them and work out what they mean for the
research problem. This is often far from straightforward; most research raises
TOP TIP
further questions because it is not clear what the findings mean, and they can be
The Cambridge syllabus only
interpreted in different ways.
refers to four sampling methods:
random, snowballing, quota and The research findings then have to be reported so that they can be read and used
stratified. Three other methods by others researching the same or related areas. Findings are usually published in
are explained here to give you academic journals or in books. This is the end of the individual research, but all
an idea of the range of sampling research continues in the sense that it is part of the continuing process taking place 17
methods sociologists use. within the worldwide sociological community.
TEST YOURSELF
1 Why is it important for sociologists to choose their sampling method and sample
carefully?
2 Why are pilot studies important?
ACTIVITY: research
The professional association for sociology in the UK is the British Sociological
Association (BSA). You can find their code of conduct online at
http://www.britsoc.co.uk/media/27107/StatementofEthicalPractice.pdf.
You will notice that these are guidelines rather than rules. This is partly because
The British Sociological Association there are disagreements over what is and is not ethically acceptable, but also
because there are some situations where breaking the guidelines might be justified.
The guidelines exist to help researchers make the right decisions, not to tell them
what to do in a particular situation.
18 Some of the main ethical guidelines that almost all researchers keep to are:
The researcher must also ensure that as far as possible and whenever appropriate
the research is:
■ anonymous – the participant’s name (or anything else which might identify an
individual) does not appear on the survey form; this is not always done if it might be
necessary to contact someone again for further information
■ confidential – it is not possible to trace an individual’s answers from the published
findings.
1 Harm. It is wrong to harm participants in a study but it is not easy to decide what
harm means or to know in advance that harm will be caused. Harm does not have
to be physical. It might include making participants feel angry or upset. This could
happen if they are asked about something that disturbs them. Participants can be
protected by confidentiality.
2 Informed consent. The respondent must agree to take part, having fully
understood what is involved. Informed consent includes explaining the purpose
of the research, when and where the fi ndings will be available and what they
might be used for. People have the right to refuse to take part in research or
to refuse to answer particular questions, and the researcher should not try to
persuade them if they do not want to. It is sometimes not necessary or possible
Unit 1: Theory and Methods
TEST YOURSELF 19
1 Write an introduction to a questionnaire in which you ask the respondents for their
informed consent. Start by asking them to complete the questionnaire but tell
them that they do not have to do so, and go on to explain about other aspects of
informed consent and about anonymity and confidentiality.
2 You decide to observe a class in a primary school to see whether the teacher treats
boys and girls differently. What ethical issues would you have to consider, and how
would you ensure you keep to the ethical guidelines?
In this section we look at the strengths and limitations of each method and assess
their usefulness in sociological research and examine the types of evidence each
produces.
Cambridge IGCSE Sociology
KEY TERMS ■ Closed or pre-coded questions. The researcher provides a set of answers
from which the respondent can choose one (or sometimes more), so the
Open, closed and pre-coded researcher limits the responses that can be given. Each answer is coded by
questions: closed or pre-coded
being given a number or value that is then used for analysing the responses.
questions are those where the
researcher has set out which The advantage of this is that it makes it easy to analyse the results and
responses can be recorded. In produce statistical tables. The disadvantage is that some respondents may
open questions the respondent want to give answers that are not available in the options provided. This
can reply freely in their own words disadvantage can be reduced by introducing an ‘other (please specify)’ option
to give their responses. among the answers.
Respondent: someone
■ Scaled questions (a particular form of closed-ended question). A common
who provides information to
researchers, usually used for
set of possible responses is: agree strongly/agree/neither agree nor disagree/
surveys and interviews rather than disagree/strongly disagree. There is a debate about whether it is better to have
other methods. an odd or even number of possible responses. If you have an odd number of
Qualitative data: information responses – if there are, say, five options – most respondents will probably
and facts (like attitudes or kinds choose the middle one (in the example above, this would be ‘neither agree nor
of actions) that are not able to be disagree’) because this avoids making a decision. If there are even numbers – if
presented in numerical form. you eliminate the middle option – you push your respondents into making a
Self-completion decision. This helps to produce data that seem to prove something, but runs
20
questionnaires:
the risk of making people agree (or disagree) when they really do not have a
questionnaires that are
completed by the respondent on preference.
their own, with the researcher not ■ Open questions. The aim of a survey is always to produce mainly quantitative data.
present. However, in order to probe more deeply into why people believe or do particular
Postal questionnaires: self- things it is possible to use open-ended questions where the respondents can write
completion questionnaires that their own response. This produces some limited qualitative data but it does make
are sent out and returned by post. it more difficult to analyse the data. It is normal in a questionnaire to code answers
Response rate: the proportion to open-ended questions so they can be analysed.
of responses obtained out of a
sample.
Ways of administering surveys
1 Self-completion questionnaire, also known as a self-administered
questionnaire. Respondents answer the questions without any additional
guidance from the researcher, who is not present. The most common type
of self-completion questionnaire is by post, but in a school, for example, you
might distribute questionnaires by asking teachers to give them to their classes.
Postal questionnaires can reach large numbers of people so you can have a
large sample, depending on your sampling method, which should make your
results more representative and allow you to generalise. However, the response
rate for postal questionnaires is often very low and this calls into question the
representativeness of the findings. It might be the case that those who return the
questionnaire are in some way different from those who do not; for example, they
may have a particular interest in what the questionnaire is about. Because the
researcher is not present, sometimes questionnaires are returned on which some
questions have not been answered or the respondent has given inappropriate
answers or clearly did not understand the question.
Unit 1: Theory and Methods
KEY TERMS 2 Structured interviews (also called standardised interviews). It may at first seem
strange to include interviews here, but this kind of interview is really just an alternative
Structured interview: way of administering a questionnaire. In a structured interview the researcher reads
an interview in which the out the questions, including the answers allowed in closed questions, and records
questions are standardised (the
the respondents’ answers for them. This can be done as a telephone questionnaire
same questions asked in the same
order) and the replies codified to
or face-to-face. If the interviews are face-to-face, the location where they are held
produce quantitative data. (administered) is very important. Ideally, the time and place for the interview should
Telephone questionnaires: have been agreed in advance and the interviewee should be made to feel at ease. For a
21
when the researcher reads the structured interview the questions need to be standardised (that is, the same questions
questions to a respondent over are asked in the same order). Structured interviews normally have a higher response
the telephone and records their rate than postal questionnaires because the researcher can explain the purpose of the
answers. research and reassure the participants about any issues they may have. The researcher
may also be able to give the interviewer prompts. However, structured interviews take
up much more of the researcher’s time than postal questionnaires do and are therefore
more expensive. The researcher may employ assistants to carry out the interviews, in
which case clear and detailed instructions need to be given to them.
TOP TIP Some guidelines for good questionnaire design
The best way to learn about
research methods is to try ■ A questionnaire should be as short as possible, with a clear layout that is easy to follow.
them out. The sections ■ Instructions for completing it should be easily understood and it should be easy to
here on guidelines for good follow and complete.
questionnaires and interviews
■ There should only be as many questions as necessary to obtain all the information
and on the types of question to
ask should be helpful if you try required.
out these methods yourself. ■ You should start with short questions that need simple answers and that are likely
to interest participants.
■ There should be just enough alternative answers to allow participants to express
their views and to provide the information required.
■ Questions should not be leading questions that suggest to the participant that a
particular answer is expected or is right.
■ Questions should avoid words that might not be understood by everyone, including
sociological terms.
■ Questions should only be asked about things that participants are likely to know
about and be able to give meaningful answers to.
Cambridge IGCSE Sociology
■ It is best to leave personal information (such as asking for the participants’ name
and age) to the end.
22
A question from the UK census
■ They are cheaper than structured interviews because they can be distributed by
post.
■ Large numbers of questionnaires can be posted to participants who may be
geographically distant.
■ The researcher is not present so cannot influence the answers given.
■ They are convenient for participants who can complete the questionnaire when
they choose.
Limitations:
■ If the participant does not understand a question the interviewer can explain it.
■ The interviewer can ask additional questions, probing deeper, or avoid questions
that are not relevant to the participant.
Unit 1: Theory and Methods
Limitations:
■ The interviewers may themselves influence the answers given either through
their own social characteristics (such as their age, sex, ethnic group and so on) or
through interaction with the participant.
■ They take more time and are therefore more expensive than self-completion
questionnaires.
■ Participants may give socially desirable answers; that is, the answers that they
think are the right ones, which give the interviewer the impression of them that
they want.
■ If several interviewers are used they may approach their work in different
ways.
KEY TERMS Social surveys are usually high in reliability; that is, they can be repeated and
similar responses will be obtained. However, they are not always valid – the
Reliability: when the research fi ndings are not necessarily true. Th is was shown by research in the 1980s to fi nd
can be repeated and similar
out how many unsuitable fi lms children had watched. These fi lms were horror
responses will be obtained.
fi lms known as ‘video nasties’ and at the time there was concern in the media
Validity: when the findings
accurately reflect the reality that it
that young children who saw these fi lms were being influenced by them. Surveys
is intended to capture. found that many children did say they had seen some of these fi lms but to check 23
the validity of the research a number of fi lms that did not exist had been included
in the survey. Children claimed to have seen these and so their answers must
have been invalid. The children were claiming to have seen these fi lms as a way of
showing off to their peers, trying to seem more experienced and grown up than
they really were.
CASE STUDY
TASK
1 Using the website, put together a page of information about the census that answers these questions
(and any information that you think is important): what is the census? How many households took part? When was the
first census? What sorts of the questions does the census ask? Who has to fill in the census? What is the information
from the census used for? How is the information kept confidential?
2 What strengths and limitations of the survey method does the census show?
Cambridge IGCSE Sociology
24
In unstructured interviews the interviewer has only a brief set of prompts. The
aim is to get the interviewee to talk freely and the interviewer will try not to
say very much except for encouraging the interviewee or probing a bit deeper
at times.
In semi-structured interviews the interviewer has an interview guide, that is, a
list of questions or fairly specific topics to be covered. The order of questions may
vary and questions not in the guide may be asked, but all the questions in the guide
will be used with a fairly similar wording.
While it is useful to identify different types of interview, in reality many
interviews contain both types of approach.
Unstructured and semi-structured interviews are extreme types of interview
research but most interviews are close to one type or another. Both types are
flexible and clearly different from structured interviews, where there is no
flexibility.
Some guidelines for good interviews
Interviewing is a skill. Good interviewers have to be flexible and good listeners,
knowing when to intervene and when not to. They may be able to strike up a
Unit 1: Theory and Methods
rapport with the interviewee, which will lead to rich, detailed and valid responses.
They are likely to try to do the following things.
■ Make the interviewee feel comfortable with the research situation, reassuring them
about the purpose of the interview and that their anonymity and confidentiality will
be preserved.
■ Create a certain amount of order, so the questions flow reasonably well (but the
order can be altered in the interview).
■ Make sure the language used is understandable and relevant.
■ Avoid leading questions or questions that make assumptions.
■ Keep a fact sheet record, including the interviewee’s name, age and gender to
contextualise people’s answers.
■ Make sure the interview takes place in a quiet and private setting so that the
interviewee feels at ease and able to talk freely and so that what they say can be
heard (including on a recording).
■ Use a good quality recording machine and microphone. It is always good to
record and transcribe interviews whenever possible (remembering respondents
have the right to refuse to speak into the microphone) because it helps correct
the natural limitations of the interviewer’s memory and it allows them to
examine thoroughly what people say. The data can then be looked at again and
used by others. However, recording and transcribing is time consuming – the
usual estimate is that transcribing takes about five or six times as long as the
interview itself.
25
Some types of questions used in interviews
■ Introductory questions such as, ‘Can you tell me about . . .? Have you
ever . . .?’
■ Follow-up questions to get the interviewee to elaborate, such as, ‘What do you
mean by . . . ? You mentioned . . . ?’
■ Probing questions, such as, ‘Could you say a bit more about . . . ?’
■ Specifying questions asking for detail or elaboration, such as, ‘What did you do
then?’
■ Indirect questions. For example, ‘Why do many people feel that . . . ?’ is probably a
roundabout way of asking ‘Do you feel that . . . ?’
■ Silence, so that interviewees can reflect on and amplify an answer.
■ Interpreting questions such as, ‘Do you mean that . . . ?’
Focus groups bring out a wide variety of views. Group members bring out the
issues they think are important and their views may well be challenged by others
in the group. The researchers need to decide how much they will be involved.
26
Allowing a group to discuss freely is good because they can decide what is
important but this runs the risk of much irrelevant discussion, so the researcher
may intervene to keep discussions on track. The researcher may need to decide
how to deal with silences and with reluctant speakers as well as with those who
speak too much. Recording and transcribing focus group interviews are even more
difficult than with individual interviews. It can be difficult to decide who said what
and people often talk over each other.
■ Interviews, conducted well, provide detailed and valid data on the point of view of
respondents, who are able to say what they really think.
■ The flexibility of the interview allows the interviewer to probe more deeply or to
follow new directions.
■ Interviewers can often assess the honesty and validity of the answers as they are
given.
■ They can bring out information for further investigation.
Limitations:
■ Interviews are time consuming, both to carry out and then to transcribe and
analyse.
■ It can be difficult to make generalisations when standardised questions are not
used.
■ They are less reliable than structured interviews because they are difficult to
replicate.
Unit 1: Theory and Methods
TASK
27
1 Why is this type of interview good for researching sensitive topics?
2 Gatrell used individual interviews, partly because the women lived all over the UK. If focus group interviews
had been held with groups of the same women, consider how the research and findings might have been
different.
Experiments
Experiments are in many ways a neglected method in sociology but they are a valid way
of studying social behaviour. They are the closest we can get in sociology to the methods
KEY TERMS
of the natural sciences. They are usually a positivist method, producing quantitative
data, and are often used to find cause and effect relationships or correlations.
Interviewer effect: ways Natural sciences such as physics and chemistry are traditionally associated with
in which an interviewer may experimentation. Scientists, usually working in a laboratory, control the variables
influence participants’ responses,
they are interested in, quantify the data and test their hypotheses, thus isolating
by their characteristics or
appearance or by verbal cues causal links and minimising subjectivity. The experiments involve manipulating
such as facial expressions and one independent variable and creating change in a dependent variable. Provided
tone of voice. that all other factors can be held constant (controlled), changes in the dependent
Subjectivity: lack of objectivity; variable can then be said to be caused by the change to the independent variable.
the researcher’s view influences The aim of the experimenter is to test a hypothesis. The results of the experiment
the approach taken. determine whether the hypothesis is accepted or rejected. Scientists claim that
Laboratory experiments: experiments have a high degree of reliability and experiments are always reported
experiments taking place in a in a way that makes it possible for other scientists to replicate the research and
laboratory, that is, an artificial
check the findings. Scientists also claim experiments have a high degree of
setting created for the research
where external variables are validity – they tell us something true about what is being studied.
excluded as far as possible. There are very few laboratory experiments in sociology. Laboratory
experiments are deeply flawed from a sociologist’s point of view. People live
Cambridge IGCSE Sociology
KEY TERMS in societies, not in laboratories, so studying how they behave in laboratories
when they know they are being observed is not very helpful (people’s behaviour
Hawthorne or Observer
changes when they know they are being observed – this is known as the
Effect: the unintended effects
of the researcher’s presence on
Hawthorne or Observer Effect).
the behaviour or responses of Because of this, sociologists use field experiments (‘the field’ being naturally
participants. occurring settings) more often than laboratory experiments. These experiments are
Field experiments: often used by non-positivists and the results can be qualitative.
experiments that take place in the
natural setting of the real world Field experiments
rather than in a laboratory. ■ These can present ethical problems: is it right to deceive people about the existence
of the experiment or to manipulate their behaviour?
■ They can involve risk: people may become angry about strange and new
situations.
■ The researcher can lose a large degree of control over what happens once the
experiment is under way.
■ They are a very effective way of getting inside group behaviour.
CASE STUDY
TASK
1 Add to the list of problems given above. Think particularly of ethical problems.
2 Why would it not be possible to carry out an experiment to see if the children were violent towards real
people?
Unit 1: Theory and Methods
CASE STUDY
TASK
1 What was the main purpose of the experiment?
2 What was the main finding of the experiment?
3 What ethical problems arose from this experiment?
4 Why do you think this research has never been repeated?
Case studies
KEY TERM Case studies involve detailed research on one or more examples of people or things. 29
Case studies can involve any method or combination of methods, quantitative or
Case study: a detailed in-depth qualitative. Many research projects involve a case study.
study of one group or event.
It is usually not possible to generalise from case studies or to use them to prove or
disprove a hypothesis. There are some exceptions, however, where these are possible.
One very famous case study in sociology was the affluent worker study in 1968
by John Goldthorpe and David Lockwood. They investigated whether car factory
workers in the UK, because they were paid well compared to other factory workers,
were starting to behave more like middle-class people than working-class people.
Although only one factory (the ‘case’ in this case study) was researched, it was the
where workers were paid most. Therefore, if embourgeoisement was not happening
there the researchers could be sure it was not happening at other factories. This is an
example of an extreme case being used to draw wider conclusions.
Strengths:
■ Case studies allow different aspects of the case being studied to be explored using
appropriate methods.
■ Case studies can provide a deep and detailed account of the case.
■ If the case is carefully chosen it may be possible to draw wider conclusions.
■ Case studies can produce findings that can be tested by other research elsewhere.
Limitations:
■ The findings may only apply to the case so generalisations cannot be made.
■ The findings cannot be replicated.
■ The deep involvement of the researchers may lead to them being influenced by
their own feelings.
Cambridge IGCSE Sociology
Longitudinal studies
KEY TERM Longitudinal studies are carried out periodically over a period of time, rather than
as a one-off piece of research. Longitudinal research is often used by government-
Longitudinal survey: a survey funded research organisations to ask basic questions about changing lifestyle,
taking place at intervals over a
health, illnesses, education and employment. Most longitudinal research employs
long period.
surveys. Examples of these in the UK include the:
Panel studies
In some longitudinal research the same sample is used each time. The group
of people or households being studied is called the panel or the panel
sample. Panel members are interviewed on a regular basis with a period
of months or years between each interview. The key requirement of panel
studies is that as far as possible the respondents are the same people throughout
the study.
CASE STUDY
TASK
1 In what ways are the data gathered in longitudinal research more useful than that gathered in a one-off
survey?
2 How might being involved in the NCDS affect members of the sample?
Limitations:
7 Up
Although it is not, strictly speaking, a piece of sociological research, the British television series 7 Up is a good
example of a panel survey. It began as a one-off documentary made in 1964, in which 20 7 year olds from very different
backgrounds are shown talking to each other, going to the zoo and playing in a park. Every 7 years the same group is
visited and interviewed about the progress of their lives. 7 Up has given us some dramatic life histories and given us an 31
insight into career and family choices and ageing in modern Britain. This type of programme has since been made in
other countries and with new groups of children born later.
TASK
1 How does this case study illustrate the strengths of panel studies?
2 How might a) the Hawthorne Effect and b) sample attrition affect 7 Up?
ACTIVITY: research
The Centre for Longitudinal Studies in London also runs the 1970 British Cohort
Study and the Millennium Cohort Study. Find out more about all three projects
by visiting the website at http://www.cls.ioe.ac.uk.
ACTIVITY: research
Find out if an equivalent of 7 Up has been shown on television in your country.
If you can, watch it and think about how much useful information it provides for
sociologists about how people live.
to see the world as they do and how they make sense of it. It involves joining a group of
people and living as they do. The stages of participant observation can be summed up
in terms of getting in, staying in and getting out of the group concerned.
1 Getting in. Joining a group raises many questions about the researcher’s role.
KEY TERMS Researchers adopt an overt role where they declare their true identity to the group
and tell them that they are being studied. Alternatively, the researcher may adopt
Overt participant a covert role (by concealing their identity) or produce a cover story (partially
observation: when the group declaring their role as a researcher, but concealing elements of it). To participate
being studied is aware that
successfully, particularly if adopting a covert role, the researcher needs to share
research is taking place and of
who the researcher is.
some of the personal characteristics of the group, such as their age, gender or
ethnicity. After deciding what role to play, the next problem is getting access to
Covert participant
observation: covert means the group. The presence of a stranger needs explanation. This may involve gaining
‘hidden’; in such research the friendships with key individuals, known as gatekeepers.
group being studied is unaware of 2 Staying in. The observer has to develop a role that will gain the trust and
the research and is deceived into cooperation of those observed, so that they can continue to participate in and
thinking the researcher is a real observe the group. At first this will involve learning, listening and getting a sense
member of the group. of what is going on. Problems encountered in staying in include the need to take
notes, which may disrupt the natural behaviour of the group, and also deciding
how far to be involved without either losing the trust of the group or the objectivity
of a researcher. To maintain the group’s trust, researchers may be expected to
participate in acts that they do not agree with.
3 Getting out. Getting out of the group involves issues such as leaving it after the
research observation without damaging relationships, becoming detached enough
to write an impartial and accurate account and making sure members of the group
32
cannot be identified.
■ They are usually high in validity, because the normal behaviour of the group is
observed in its natural setting over a period.
■ A deep understanding can be obtained, seeing things from the point of view of
those involved.
Limitations:
■ The presence of the participant observer may affect the behaviour of the group, but
the researcher will not know in what ways it is doing so.
■ Reliability is low because the research is very difficult to repeat or check.
■ It is unlikely that generalisations can be made about other groups.
■ There are problems throughout the research in gaining access to the group, winning
acceptance, recording information, leaving the group and analysing the data.
■ The researcher needs to have the social characteristics (such as age, gender,
ethnicity) that will allow them to join the group and be accepted.
■ Covert research involves the researcher devoting a lot of their time and energy to
maintaining their cover, rather than gaining information.
■ Researchers may lose their objectivity if they come to identify strongly with the 33
group and see things from its point of view.
CASE STUDY
TASK
1 In what ways does this research show some of the problems and advantages of participant observation?
2 This research was largely overt. People knew Venkatesh did not belong in the area, though they did not all know he
was doing research. What issues could the covert researcher encounter in an area like this?
Cambridge IGCSE Sociology
Non-participant observation
KEY TERM Some sociological research is carried out by observation alone (without the
researcher participating), which is known as non-participant observation. The
Non-participant observation: main reason for this is to reduce or eliminate the risk that people will be affected
when the researcher observes a
by the presence of a researcher or a new member of their social group. It may also
group but does not participate in
what it is doing. be used when groups might be unwilling to cooperate in the research, though this
raises ethical issues. It is often used to produce quantitative data, with the observer,
for example, counting the number of times something happens.
Non-participant observation also allows sociologists to observe people in their
normal social situations and avoid the Hawthorne Effect. This can be achieved fully
only when the observation is carried out without the knowledge of the observed, for
example from a distance, by blending into the background, through one-way glass
or using video cameras. If the observer is visibly present, even though they are not
participating, there is still the possibility that their presence will influence what is
happening.
A problem with this method is that it does not allow the researcher to
investigate the meanings people attach to the behaviour that is being observed.
The data produced may well simply reflect the assumptions and interpretations of
the researcher, raising issues over the reliability and validity of the data.
Content analysis
KEY TERM Content analysis is a research method used specifically to study the content
of documents and the mass media, such as books, newspapers and magazines,
Content analysis: a method of television and films and websites. A researcher using content analysis defines a set
34 studying communication and the
of categories and then classifies the material being studied by how frequently it
media, which involves classifying
the content and counting appears in the different categories. This can involve counting the number of times
frequencies. particular words are used or the amount of space or time given to a particular item
or type of story.
For example, the Glasgow Media Group uses content analysis findings as
evidence to support its claims about bias in the media, showing that striking
trade unionists were given less time to explain their case than management
representatives. Content analysis has also been used to show that disabled people
are underrepresented in almost every genre of television programmes.
Strengths and limitations of content analysis
Strengths:
■ It provides information about content of the media in statistical form and this can
be used both to test sociological theories and to change the content of the mass
media. For example, television stations might decide to improve provision for
people with a disability as a result of content analysis findings.
■ It is reliable.
■ It does not involve people as respondents, so avoiding ethical issues.
Limitations:
■ It produces quantitative data, that is, statistics. These can be interesting but will not
tell us why a media text is the way it is or whether or how this affects audiences.
■ It can be difficult to decide what categories to use.
■ It can be difficult to allocate material to different categories.
Unit 1: Theory and Methods
CASE STUDY
TASK
1 What decisions would these researchers have had to make when recording their data?
2 How do you think they measured the tone of the news stories?
3 What other content in the mass media could be analysed in this way?
Triangulation
KEY TERM Triangulation is when a researcher decides to use a variety of research methods. 35
For example a study may be conducted based on both observation and structured
Triangulation: use of two interviews, or on both closed questionnaires and diaries.
or more methods in the same
research project. Strengths and limitations of triangulation
Strengths:
■ Triangulation can allow the researcher to support quantitative data with qualitative
examples, thereby providing a study with reliability and validity.
■ It can be used to check the validity of the research.
■ It can be used to check the reliability of the research using different sources.
■ It can be used for cross-referencing the researcher’s interpretations to other data
collected to check for accuracy.
■ It can provide balance between methods, where one may be weaker than another
in that particular area of research.
Limitations:
TEST YOURSELF
1 In what ways are structured interviews more like questionnaires than unstructured
interviews?
2 What are the advantages of longitudinal research over research carried out at one
time?
3 Compare the differences between participant and non-participant observation in
relation to practical, ethical and theoretical issues.
4 Draw a diagram showing the main research methods. Arrange them so that each
method is placed closest to the other methods that it is in some ways similar to,
and further away from those from which it is most different. You can use arrows
and up to six words for each method.
Validity
Validity refers to the extent to which the research findings accurately reflect
reality. The findings of participant observation and unstructured interviews are
usually said to be valid because these methods allow the researcher to develop a
detailed, in-depth understanding of the respondents and the research topic. In
these situations it is unlikely that the respondents could mislead the researcher or
provide false information. However, while these methods produce valid findings,
their reliability is not as strong. These methods are favoured by interpretivists, who
see validity as being more important than reliability.
TOP TIP
Reliability
Many students think that
reliability and validity, because Reliability refers to the extent to which the findings of the research can be
they are both important, are confirmed by repeating the study. Some research can be replicated. For example,
similar or even the same. They are science experiments can be carried out again in exactly the same way and in
very different and it is essential to the same conditions, and if the experiment is reliable the same results should be
understand the differences.
obtained. This is hard to achieve with sociological research, but research repeated
with a similarly representative sample should, with some allowance for individual
differences within a sample, produce broadly similar results. Surveys are more
reliable than participant observation and unstructured interviews but they tend to
be less valid. This is because respondents do not always give truthful information.
Representativeness
Most research involving samples will use a representative sample. This means that
the sample must be in effect a smaller version of the population being studied, with
the same proportions of people of different gender, age and so on, according to
Unit 1: Theory and Methods
what is relevant to the research. The researcher can then claim that the findings of
the research apply not only to the actual sample but to the whole population being
studied. This is generalisation. However, samples cannot be the same as the whole
population, so there will always be a difference between the results for a sample and
the results for the whole population. This is called sampling error. Sampling error
can be reduced by having a large random or stratified random sample.
Research bias
Bias may come from the researcher’s values, such as their political views. Positivists
argue that researchers should be neutral and objective so that the findings would
be the same regardless of who carries out the research and analyses the findings.
However, interpretivists argue that because sociology is about people it is not
possible to be completely unbiased. Even deciding what to research is likely to be
influenced by the researcher’s values. So researchers should be completely open
about their bias to their readers and let them make their own decisions about the
validity and reliability of the findings. This approach has been adopted by many
feminist researchers.
The ways in which researchers can influence the findings is called the
imposition problem; that is, the problem of the researcher imposing themselves
or their values on the research. This can happen through the social characteristics
of the researcher (gender, age and so on) influencing the answers given or the
behaviour observed, or through the ways in which researchers word questions or
analyse data. The findings of sociological research do not speak for themselves; they
have to be interpreted. To assess the research we need to be aware of any possible
37
bias in the interpretation.
TEST YOURSELF
1 Choose any of the case studies of research methods in this unit and assess how
valid, reliable and representative the findings are likely to have been.
2 In which research methods does it make most difference who the researcher is
(in terms of their gender, age and so on)? Are there any methods where this is not
important?
ACTIVITY: evaluation
Evaluate the relative importance of the different factors sociologists consider
when choosing a research method.
ACTIVITY: discussion
Is it possible for any research in sociology to be completely free of bias? Consider
the case studies in this unit and any other sociological research you know.
■ They are readily available, often free of charge and on the internet, and therefore
cheap and easy to use. Governments have spent more time and resources
collecting these statistics than a sociologist would be able to.
■ They are usually produced by research that is well planned and organised, using
large samples. They are likely to be valid, reliable and representative.
KEY TERM ■ They are often part of longitudinal research so they show changes over time,
Trend: A change over time in a for example, in crime, unemployment and divorce rates. This makes it possible
particular direction. to identify trends; that is, the general direction in which something develops or
changes over time.
■ They allow comparisons to be made, such as between men and women or between
different areas of a country.
Unit 1: Theory and Methods
■ They are widely used to help governments and other organisations plan ahead. They
provide information that is useful to policymakers as well as sociologists.
Limitations:
■ Interpretivists argue that statistics are socially constructed, rather than being objective
facts, and that therefore we should be very cautious about using them, especially
about taking them at face value. For example, statistics showing an increase in
motoring offences such as speeding may not really mean there has been an increase
in the offence. They may mean that the police have been cracking down on motorists
and so more offences are being recorded.
■ Statistics are often not as complete or accurate as they may appear to be or may
claim to be. For example, it is thought that the 2011 UK census, conducted with a
huge budget and when it was an offence not to complete a census form, missed out
about a million people.
■ Official statistics have been produced by others and are unlikely to contain exactly
what a sociologist would like to know. For example, sociologists might want
to know how many marriages break down but official statistics will only count
divorces and not separations.
■ Official statistics are funded by a government, which means that politics can affect
the statistics. Statistics may be biased in favour of the government, massaged (or
altered, subtly or not) to show things in the best light. When statistics would be
embarrassing for the government, they may not be published or they may never be
collected in the first place.
■ Comparisons over time can be made only if the same phenomenon has been 39
measured in the same way at every stage. For example, a rising crime rate could
be explained by a government passing new laws making more activities illegal.
KEY TERM Official statistics are therefore very useful for comparative studies, which involve
comparing different areas, groups or periods of time, looking for similarities and
Comparative study: in research, differences.
looking at two or more different
groups or events in terms of their
■ Marxists argue that statistics reflect the interests of the ruling class; they help to
similarities and differences. maintain and justify the way things are. For example, the way laws are made and
the statistics put together has the effect of drawing attention away from crime
committed by the ruling class.
Non-official statistics
ACTIVITY: research
As well as official statistics, other widely available statistics are of use to sociologists.
Visit the website of the Joseph These include research commissioned by organisations such as religious groups and
Rowntree Foundation. Make charities and the work of organisations such as policy institutes (often called ‘think
a list of the kinds of research tanks’ in the media) that carry out research. In the UK, for example, the Sutton Trust
project the foundation and the Joseph Rowntree Foundation carry out research on social issues.
carries out. Choose one Diagrams, charts, graphs and tables
project to investigate in detail
Statistics and quantitative data can be presented in a number of formats.
and make a summary of the
Researchers have to decide the most appropriate format for presenting data and
methods and findings.
for making their findings accessible to their readers. Sociological researchers use
various types of diagrams, charts, graphs and tables. Students of sociology need to
be able to interpret these tables accurately and extract information, and if you carry
out your own research you may also need to be able to construct diagrams, charts,
graphs and tables. The activity on the following page gives examples of some of the
most common ways of presenting statistical data. Answer the questions to see if you
can interpret the data.
Cambridge IGCSE Sociology
80 UK
Mauritius
70
Pakistan
Life expectancy
60
50
Sierra Leone
40
Life expectancy at birth,
total (years) from 2003 to 0
03
04
05
06
08
09
10
11
2011 for four selected
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
countries Year 2003–2011
1 Which country has the highest life expectancy throughout the period?
2 In which country did life expectancy increase most over the period 2003 to
2010?
40
Tables
1 Which countries in the table had the highest and lowest literacy rates in each
year?
2 Which country made the greatest improvement between 2000/1 and 2010?
Unit 1: Theory and Methods
Bar charts
25
20
Population in millions 15
10
0
Mexico City
New York
Lagos
Mumbai
Kolkata
Metro Manila
Karachi
São Paulo
Jakarta
Buenos Aires
Delhi
Dhaka
Shanghai
Osaka
Tokyo
Los Angeles
2000 2015
Growth of megacities
3 Identify the four cities that will have grown the least between 2000 and 2015.
Pie charts
Sub-Saharan
Asia and the Africa, 239
Pacific, 578
1 Which regions of the world have (a) the highest number of undernourished
people and (b) the lowest number?
2 What would you need to know to calculate which regions of the world had
the highest rates of undernourishment (that is, per number of people in the
population)?
Cambridge IGCSE Sociology
information about life at the time. In the Mass Observation these were primary
data, but they became secondary data when used by later researchers.
Strengths and limitations of qualitative secondary data such as letters
and diaries
Strengths:
Limitations:
Media content
The media (such as newspapers, magazines, television, film, recorded music and the
internet) provide a vast amount of material of interest to sociologists. The media
can be a source of information on a topic being researched. The sociologist may
use a relevant documentary television programme, for example, as part of their
literature review at the start of a research project together with printed material, to
find out what is already known about a topic. The researcher needs to be aware of
43
possible bias and selectivity in the content of the programme.
■ Who produced the source? For historical sources we need to evaluate whose point
of view is promoted, and take into account groups whose points of view are not
available. Many sources will be written by people coming from the middle and
upper classes, and the point of view of those lower down the social scale and who
are more likely to be unable to write may be missing.
■ Why was the source produced; for example, was it intended to be read by others or
not?
■ Was the author in a position to know about what they are writing about
(for example, is it a first-hand account of an event?)
■ Does the source seem to be biased?
■ Does it seem to be typical of this kind of social actor and how can this be decided?
■ Are there other sources that corroborate or conflict with the source?
44
■ Is it clear how the author meant the document to be interpreted?
ACTIVITY: evaluation
Evaluate the usefulness of different types of secondary data in sociological
research.
TEST YOURSELF
1 Explain the difference between primary and secondary data.
2 List all the types of a) hard statistics and b) soft statistics you can think of. Use a
newspaper or news website to find some statistics and work out whether they are
hard or soft. Even football league tables are statistics.
3 How can qualitative secondary sources be evaluated for validity, reliability and
representativeness?
Unit 1: Theory and Methods
● Each stage of the research process involves b Identify two types of interviews that sociologists use. [2]
choices and decisions involving a range of
practical, ethical and theoretical issues.
c Using information from the source, give two reasons
why sociologists might question generalisations
● Sociologists use different types of research
made from this research. [4]
methods, including surveys, interviews and
participant observation and experiments. d Describe two strengths of using group interviews for
● Other types of research include case sociological research. [4]
studies, longitudinal studies and
e Describe two strengths and two limitations of using 45
triangulation.
questionnaires for sociological research. [8]
● Sociological methods and their findings
can be evaluated in terms of their validity, f Explain why interpretivists prefer using methods that
reliability and representativeness. produce mainly qualitative data. [10]
● Research can produce quantitative or g To what extent do ethical issues influence the way
qualitative data. sociological research is carried out? [15]
● Sociologists also use both primary data and
a range of secondary data including official
Total available marks 45
and unofficial statistics, documents such
as diaries and letters, media and published
sources.
46
Unit 2:
Culture, Identity and Socialisation
Objectives
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
■ understand the key terms culture, norms, values, roles, ■ assess the view that globalisation is creating a
beliefs and identity, appreciate that these are social global culture
constructions and understand how they influence ■ explain the ways in which childhood is socially
human behaviour constructed
■ understand the terms conformity and non-conformity ■ describe the processes of learning and socialisation,
and how agencies of social control work both primary and secondary
■ know examples of rewards and sanctions applied in ■ explain the different agencies of socialisation and their
different societies and organisations impact on individuals, including the consequences of
■ explain the nature of sub-cultures and how these impact inadequate socialisation
on consensus and conflict ■ assess the different views in the nature/nurture debate
■ describe and account for diversity and variations in ■ assess role, age, gender, ethnic group and class as
human behaviour and culture, including issues related influences on social identity.
to cultural relativism and multiculturalism
Unit 2: Culture, Identity and Socialisation
Introduction
What is it about human beings that makes us what we For sociologists, what makes us distinctively human
are? We all belong to a single species, Homo sapiens, is our relationships with other people, how we live
the only survivor of a number of species of ape that in groups and societies and how we reflect and act
we call human. We have a lot in common with other upon our lives. This unit explores the relationships
species of animals yet we feel we are different. We between individuals and societies, and how much we
have grown in numbers and become the dominant are shaped by the social influences around us. It looks
species on the planet, expanding into areas very at how our sense of our own identity is shaped by
different from the original habitat of our distant those around us, and at how, in learning to live with
ancestors on the plains and in the forests of Africa. others, we are learning to be human. In doing so this
We live in complex societies that are increasingly unit will sometimes look at other possible alternative
interconnected. Increasingly, we control (or fail to influences, looking beyond sociology and putting
control) our own destiny as a species and the destiny sociological ideas in a wider context.
of our planet and all its life forms.
All societies have ideas about the right and wrong ways of doing these things.
1 Symbols. These are anything that carries particular meaning recognised by people
who share the same culture. For example, a cross worn on a chain is a symbol of
Christian religious beliefs and a shirt with a particular colour and crest may show
that the person wearing it supports a particular football team. Some countries have
national symbols.
Cambridge IGCSE Sociology
2 Language. A system of symbols with sounds and words carrying meanings that
KEY TERMS
allows people to communicate with one another.
Values: standards shared by 3 Values. These are standards of what is considered good and right that act as guides
members of a culture and used to for what people should think and believe and how they should act. Many people
judge whether behaviour is right claim to have their own values but these will be shared with others.
or wrong. 4 Beliefs. These are statements that people hold to be true. They are more specific
Norms: the behaviour that than values.
societies expect of their members 5 Norms. These are the kinds of behaviour that a society expects of its members in
in particular situations. particular situations. Sometimes norms are divided into two types, mores and
Social interaction: any situation folkways. Mores are norms that are widely observed and carry more of a sense of
in which two or more people have what is right or wrong. Folkways are norms for routine, casual social interaction.
social contact with each other.
Norms that are widely accepted and continue over time are sometimes called
Customs: norms in a particular customs. In addition, some norms are given extra weight by being used as the basis
society that are widely accepted
for rules, regulations and laws. Norms are usually enforced by informal means, laws
and carry on over time.
by formal means.
Laws: rules that are given
force by being formalised by Values, beliefs and norms (including mores and folkways) are not always easy to
governments.
separate in reality. They all provide guidelines for how people should behave but they
Status: a position that someone differ in how specific or general they are. Values include things like personal space
has in a society; status can be
and privacy. In some modern industrial societies these are highly valued. From these
ascribed (fixed by others) or
achieved. values derive beliefs, such as that it is wrong to move into someone’s personal space.
Knowing what the values are makes it possible to work out what the norms will
be, even in a new situation. Norms derived from these values include how far away
you stand when talking to someone and where you sit, for example, on a bus or in a
48 train. Norms can usually be traced back to an underlying belief or value.
Values and norms vary between societies so they are social constructions. For
example, in some societies people stand closer to each other when talking than is
normal in modern industrial societies. There are also societies where it is normal
and right to sit next to a stranger on a bus, even if there are empty seats somewhere
else. The norms here are based on values about personal space.
One distinctive value in modern industrial societies is the desirability of being
wealthy and owning material goods. North American Indians also placed a high
value on possessions but this is not for personal enjoyment. At festivals known
as potlatch celebrations, wealthy Indians gave away lavish gifts to their guests. In
return, the gift giver received the approval of the recipients and was looked up to
and highly respected. Possessions were considered to have little value other than to
be given away, by which the owner could acquire status and respect. An individual
in a modern industrial society who gave away most of their possessions in this way
would be considered eccentric or even insane.
Norms and values also change over time in a society. Norbert Elias described in
TOP TIP his book The Civilising Process how in the Middle Ages there were fewer constraints
Values and norms are the most on individual behaviour than there are today. The state was weak and unable to
commonly used of these terms. control individual behaviour to any great extent and those with power could use
Think of values, beliefs and norms violence and force to get their own way. But as the state grew in power a ‘civilising
as lying along a continuum with process’ started. It had been common for strangers to share a bed in an inn, for
no clear distinction between people to eat with their fingers from common bowls and for people to go to the
them.
toilet in public. By the late medieval period books on etiquette were advising the
nobility that burping, breaking wind, spitting and picking one’s nose in public were
uncouth and bad manners. By the 19th century such behaviour was unacceptable
in all but the lowest classes. We still distinguish classes by their refi nement in
manners and personal behaviour.
Unit 2: Culture, Identity and Socialisation
In modern society there are more norms that cover more areas of life. Elias also
suggests that it became the norm to control emotion. People still have violent and
intense emotions but are now shocked by emotional display when they would not
have been centuries ago. Because norms and values are different in different societies
around the world and differ in different periods of history we can say that they are
socially constructed. They are made by societies not by individuals and they are not
natural in the way that scratching an itch is natural (dogs and cats scratch as well).
Because people in a society share values and norms, most of the time social life
is orderly and predictable. Not everyone shares all the values or conforms to all the
norms but societies have ways of expressing disapproval of those who break the
norms and of encouraging or forcing people to conform.
They can choose how to deal with this, for example, by passively accepting inferior
treatment or by rejecting the label and fighting back to emphasise their abilities.
Stuart Hall has argued that in the 21st century people are often more uncertain
KEY TERM about their identities than they were before. For example, ethnic identities are no
longer as clear as they once were and more people have mixed backgrounds and
Stereotype: the attributes that
people think (often wrongly) are familiar with different cultures. We also have more roles and sometimes there
characterise a group. is more uncertainty about what these roles involve. This can be experienced as
disorientating or as liberating, in that it breaks down old stereotypes.
ACTIVITY: research
Interview several older people and ask them how your society’s culture has
changed over their lifetimes. What changes in values and norms do they think
there have been?
TEST YOURSELF
1 What is the difference between a society and a culture?
2 How are our identities connected to the culture that we live in?
3 In what ways is social life like performing in a play?
KEY TERMS control in peer groups of young people is ostracism or social rejection; that is, an
individual is excluded from the group and made aware that they are not welcome.
Peer group: people of the same
Some types of informal social control are:
status (for example, they are the
same age). ■ shame
Ostracism: excluding someone ■ ridicule
from the community or group.
■ sarcasm
Formal social control: social
■ criticism.
control imposed by a person or
organisation (such as a teacher When informal social control does not work, then formal social control may be
or a police officer) who has the used. This needs to be done by someone who has authority in that situation, such
authority to implement rules or
as a teacher, employer or police officer. Agencies of formal social control include
laws.
the police and the criminal justice system. They can impose a wide range of formal
Agencies of socialisation:
institutions in which people
sanctions, such as fines and imprisonment.
are socialised. Agencies of social control are also agencies of socialisation. They pass on
Primary socialisation: the norms and values but they are also able to make people conform. The main agencies
first and most important period of social control are as follows.
of socialisation in which the
■ Families. It is through primary socialisation in the family that children absorb
individual learns the basic norms
of behaviour. norms and values. The strong bonds between parents and children and the
impressionability of young children make this the most important period of
Hidden curriculum: what pupils
learn in schools apart from the socialisation. Children learn to regulate their own behaviour so as not to offend
content of lessons, such as the others. They internalise values so that they feel guilt and remorse if they break
importance of following rules and norms that are based on them.
the consequences of not doing so. ■ Schools. In the school system children are controlled in many ways. They are told
Peer pressure: the influence what to do and when, most of the time. Unit 5 explores the idea of the hidden 51
that a peer group has to force or
curriculum, which suggests that at school learning to obey the rules and conform to
persuade its members to conform.
education is as significant for children as learning knowledge and skills.
Coercion: the use or threat of
force or violence. ■ Religion. For those with religious beliefs, religions offer guidelines and laws for how
to behave and offer both rewards and punishments for behaviour. The values of a
society are often based on the main religion.
■ The media. The media offer role models as well as constant messages about how to
behave and reminders about rewards and punishments through offering examples
of good and bad behaviour, both in factual news reporting and in fiction.
■ Workplaces. There are rules and regulations at places of work and other norms that
TOP TIP people may need to learn as they settle into a new job.
Some agencies of social control ■ Peer groups. These are powerful agencies of social control because people feel
can use both formal and informal the need to belong to groups. The threat of being rejected is often a powerful
methods to control deviance. one. When we feel we have been pushed into behaving in ways that our peers will
For example, schools have formal approve of, this is called peer pressure.
punishments such as detentions,
but also control behaviour in more If these agencies fail to control behaviour then societies have more powerful
informal ways, for example, a sanctions. The police and the criminal justice system can be used to enforce laws.
disapproving look or warning Police forces are set up with the explicit purpose of social control. They are able to
by a teacher.
use coercion (force) when they decide it is necessary. By arresting and charging
people the police bring people into the criminal justice system where judges and
juries, acting on behalf of society, have the power to impose sanctions. The range of
sanctions available is discussed in Unit 6 on crime and deviance. In some countries
if it seems that the police are unable to control behaviour the armed forces may be
used to do so.
Cambridge IGCSE Sociology
53
School punishments
societies usually have common laws that are not written down and are part of
the cultural tradition of the group. Public sanctions against offenders remind the
community of these laws. Sanctions are more about enabling the community to
regain the stability that has been upset by the offence than to punish wrongdoing at
the individual level.
Collective sanctions or rewards are also common in traditional societies.
This means that sanctions are applied not to an individual offender but to other
members of their group, such as their family. This meant that wrongdoing had
serious consequences for other people close to the offender and they were likely
to try to regulate the offender’s behaviour for their own benefit. Collective
punishments have also been used in the army (punishments for a whole army
unit for the wrongdoing of one soldier) and in schools (keeping a whole class in
detention when one or a few pupils have misbehaved).
Rewards include being given a position of responsibility in the community,
respect, status and gifts to show appreciation.
Sanctions include being shunned by the community, being expelled from the
community (sent away), having your possessions taken away, being punished
physically, including beatings, having your head shaved, being mutilated or
killed or having to pay blood money (the murderer is made to pay the family of
the victim).
KEY TERM
Rewards and sanctions in modern industrial societies
Social order: the ways in which Social order in modern industrial societies depends on a complicated system
societies and their institutions of formal sanctions. This is because these societies are diverse and complex so
54 remain stable over time. informal sanctions cannot be relied upon. Unlike in traditional societies, sanctions
often take the form of imprisonment. For this a police force or equivalent, courts
and prisons are needed. In the UK today there are four main types of sanction:
■ Discharge. This is when individuals are found guilty but are not punished. If the
discharge is conditional they may be punished later for this offence if they commit
further offences.
■ Fine. This is the most common sanction and is used for many minor offences.
The offender is punished financially according to the severity of the offence and
their ability to pay. Fines are often imposed for offences such as driving and traffic
offences and criminal damage.
■ Community service. This covers a wide range of sanctions where offenders
do not go to prison but are required to do certain things or their actions are
restricted in some way. They may have to do unpaid work or get training or
treatment, live in a particular place, be put under a curfew and be made to avoid
activities like attending football matches. They may have to report to a police
station or see a probation officer regularly. The purpose of these sanctions is to
try to prevent reoffending and to punish the offender.
■ Prison sentence. This is reserved for the most serious offences. Prison sentences
can be for any length of time or for life.
The UK has used many other sanctions in the past that are not considered suitable
today. These include:
■ Execution. The death penalty has been abolished. The last execution by hanging
was in 1964. Some modern industrial societies, notably the USA and Japan, still
have the death penalty.
Unit 2: Culture, Identity and Socialisation
■ beatniks
■ mods and rockers 55
■ skinheads
■ hippies
■ punks
■ Goths
■ emo.
Clothing, music, appearance and speech can act as symbols of these sub-cultures.
All these groups attracted considerable media attention and were widely considered
to be deviant. These youth sub-cultures were often identified as threats by the
main culture because their values and behaviour were seen as deviant. They were
therefore subject to sanctions. For example, a student might be excluded from
classes for dressing in the style of the sub-culture. In addition to this the police
might deal more severely with deviance by youth sub-culture members than with
others who did not fit police stereotypes.
The existence of sub-cultures suggests that not everyone in a society holds
the same values and norms. However, there will be dominant norms and values
to which the sub-cultures are a reaction. From a functionalist point of view,
sub-cultures offer a kind of safety valve. Growing up is a difficult period for
many and a youth sub-culture may help adolescents to manage this period.
Young people need to develop a sense of autonomy and independence from
their parents and so they turn to the support of their own age group. Within
the strong peer groups of young people the norms and values may be different
to some extent from those of the rest of society. Th is period, during which
individuals are less dependent on their parents than in childhood, is functional
both for the individual and society.
Some functionalists also use the idea of sub-culture to explain the higher rates
of crime among working-class boys. Joining a sub-culture is functional for some
individuals whose route to success seems to be blocked, for example because they
have not done well at school or cannot find a job. The sub-culture gives them a
group in which they can win status and respect. It gives such people an alternative
56
opportunity structure. The members of the sub-culture may start by having the
same values as everyone else but it is because they cannot achieve their goals by
socially acceptable means that they form sub-cultures. Most people belong to sub-
cultures for a limited period only. Employment, marriage and adult responsibilities
make people leave the sub-culture and adopt mainstream norms and values. While
too much crime and deviance is dysfunctional and can destabilise a society, sub-
cultures can therefore carry out valuable functions.
While functionalists tend to talk about a youth culture, Marxists and
interactionists refer to youth sub-cultures. This is because the Marxist and
interactionist theories of sub-cultures were formed in the 1960s when it was clear
that there was not one but many youth sub-cultures, all with very different styles
and often at odds with other sub-cultures. Marxist approaches therefore tried to
explain why different groups of young people adopted different sub-cultures.
Marxists saw the youth sub-cultures as rebellions by working-class youth
against capitalism. The young people were reacting against a system that seemed
to offer them little. They had been failed by the education system and had no jobs
(or dead-end jobs) and no prospects. These young people could not try to defend
KEY TERMS themselves against the system through trade unionism as their parents might have
done. Middle-class youth did not rebel in the same way because they could see that
Childhood: the period before they could be successful through getting academic qualifications and a career. This
adulthood, in which individuals
approach is different from the functionalist one because it is not concerned with
are not granted full adult rights.
the transition from childhood to adulthood generally, but with the place in which
Adulthood: when an individual
is accepted by their culture as a young people find themselves in the economic system and class structure. Marxists
full member. therefore see youth sub-cultures as one way in which deep conflicts within society
become visible.
Unit 2: Culture, Identity and Socialisation
CASE STUDY
TASK
1 Why would middle-class boys be less likely to form a sub-culture?
2 Why did the skinhead sub-culture adopt the signs and symbols (appearance, dress and so on) that it did?
KEY TERM Although youth sub-cultures attracted a lot of media and sociological attention it
should be remembered that most young people never belonged to any of these sub-
Masculinity: the expected cultures. Most young people conform most of the time to norms and values of the
behaviour associated with being 57
main culture. In addition, some of those who seem to be members of a sub-culture
male.
move between the sub-culture and the main culture so that they may dress and
behave as a sub-culture member at the weekend but at work they look like everyone
else and their work colleagues may not even know they are different outside work.
Some writers have suggested that the sub-cultures quickly became little more
than fashion, created by the mass media and marketing so that in any case the
sub-culture’s values have little depth; they are more style than substance. They
may have begun as real rebellions, as suggested by the Marxists, but they soon
became incorporated into the system. For example, early punks rejected fashion by
making their own clothing from ripped old clothes, safety pins and even bin liners
but before long mass-manufactured punk clothing could be bought in fashion shops.
Sociologists have also tried to explain why girls do not seem to form
sub-cultures in the way boys do. All the youth sub-cultures seem to have been very
male-dominated, with fewer committed girl members or girls who were only there
because their boyfriends were. However, this may be because girls’ behaviour was
seen as less deviant or threatening and so got less media attention or because the
male sociologists studying these sub-cultures did not see the girls’ sub-cultures as
relevant or interesting. Parents and others also tend to keep greater control over
girls than boys. Angela McRobbie suggested that there were female sub-cultures
but that girls got together in their homes, not on the streets as boys tended to.
She called this a bedroom sub-culture. Teenage girls met to listen to music and
experiment with make-up. The girls created a sub-cultural space away from adults
but also from boys. McRobbie saw this as rebelling against sexual subordination.
Girls were more in evidence in some of the later sub-cultures, such as Goths. This
can be explained by the changing gender roles in society.