St.

Alexius College
Integrated School Department
General Santos Drive, Koronadal, South Cotabato, Philippines

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter provides an overview of previous research on knowledge sharing and

intranets. It introduces the framework for the case study that comprises the main focus of

the research described in the research paper.

Relationship between Parents and Child

In families where there is a high level of conflict and animosity between parents,

children are at a greater risk of developing emotional, social and behavioral problems, as

well as difficulties with concentration and educational achievement.

According to Paul Simon(2016), “the mother and child reunion, is only a motion

away.” The mother and child reunion is a very close bond. The parent-child relationship

is qualitatively different than all of our other relationships between parenting styles and

children’s emotions and behaviors that may contribute to early mental health issues in

children. Parent-child relationships develop over time, influenced by child characteristics,

parent characteristics, and the contexts in which families operate. These factors mix

together in unique ways to create incredible diversity in the qualities of those

relationships.

According to Coburn (2015), attunement is an important factor in parent-child

relationships. This involves the dynamic and complex patterns of sensitive mutual

understandings and interactions between children and their parents. Attunement is

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St. Alexius College
Integrated School Department
General Santos Drive, Koronadal, South Cotabato, Philippines

characterized by correspondences in biological, affective, cognitive, and behavioral

domains. As Dr. Bornstein notes, “when interactions with caregivers fall out of

attunement by becoming mistimed or mismatched, children and parents both experience

distress”.

According to Stevenson & Crnic (2015); Crnic et al (2009), Mothers and fathers

share some childrearing attributes and effects, but also differ in important ways that

create unique relationship qualities. Both mothers and fathers of children with borderline

intellectual functioning have more negative controlling parenting (child aged 5-6) than

did parents of typically developing children. In turn, those children with borderline

intellectual functioning showed more difficult behavior. It is interesting that negative

paternal behavior is predicted by earlier child behavior while negative maternal behavior

predicts child difficulties.

  According to Bates (2012), Parental warmth and controlling, in a positive way are

the two most important parental attributes that help to create positive effects. In research

terms, this is parental effect and sensitivity. Positive emotional reactivity and self-

regulation are important parental factors in developing healthy children’s temperament. 

According to Ellingsen, et al. (2014), there are great benefits of effective

parenting to child development under normal circumstances and even greater benefits in

the face of risk. There are certain risk factors that are unique to parent-child relationships.

The relationship processes involved may depend on where the risk resides … in the child
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St. Alexius College
Integrated School Department
General Santos Drive, Koronadal, South Cotabato, Philippines

(e.g. developmental disability, prematurity, and behavior problems), the parent (e.g.

psychopathology), or the family context (e.g. economic hardship, minority status).

Maternal education acts as a protective buffer to improve resilient parenting for younger

children (aged 3-5) while maternal health is protective for 5year old. One of

the greatest protective factors is maternal optimism, which is effective for children ages 3

to 8.

According to McAdams et al. (2013), there are several researches designs capable

of assessing genetic overlap between parenting and child traits. Child twin studies are the

most commonly used, comprising twin children and their parent(s). Biometric analyses

can reveal the extent to which child genetic factors involved in child behavior correlates

with those involved in parental behavior. Where correlations are found, this indicates that

children's genes involved in their own behavior are also involved in evoking responses

from their parents, an example of evocative gene-environment correlation (rGE). The

presence of evocative rGE does not preclude the possibility that parent and child behavior

are influencing one another but highlights that their etiologies overlap. Child twin studies

have demonstrated that associations between parenting and offspring phenotypes are

frequently (at least in part) attributable to genetic overlap.

According to Kaplan (2011), Parenting is fulfilling, yet frustrating. It brings out

the best and the worst in a person. We do everything possible, from trying various

parenting hacks to attending positive parenting workshops, to raise our kids well. But in

the end, everything boils down to the kind of relationship a parent shares with the child –
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St. Alexius College
Integrated School Department
General Santos Drive, Koronadal, South Cotabato, Philippines

the better the relationship, the better the upbringing can be. A parent-child relationship

(PCR) is one that nurtures the physical, emotional, and social development of the child.

It’s a unique bond that every child and parent experience, enjoy and nurture.

Family Aspects and Social Aspects

According to Trawick-Smith (2014), social behavior will determine whether

children are accepted or rejected by peers, whether they make friends, and how fully they

participate in play activities. Social behavior is a set of actions performed by individuals

of the same species when they interact with each other. Both humans and animals engage

in social behavior; social interaction can be both verbal and nonverbal. Generally,

children who display kindness and caring will make more friends and will be liked; those

who are antisocial in their interactions will not. Antisocial behavior is defined as

'behavior by a person which causes, or is likely to cause, harassment, alarm or distress to

persons not of the same household as the person.

Children and adolescents with poor peer relationships, on the other hand, face a

wide array of challenges, including cognitive impairments, emotion regulation difficulties

(i.e., psychological maladjustment).

According to Santrock (2016), beyond variation in the number of siblings, the

families that children experience differ in many important ways, the number of children

growing up in the single-parent families is staggering. Families are facing “scandalous”

waiting times for the conclusion of inquiries into the death of loved ones, it has been
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St. Alexius College
Integrated School Department
General Santos Drive, Koronadal, South Cotabato, Philippines

claimed. Among two-parent families, there are these in which both parent work, those in

which divorced parents have married, or those with gay or lesbian parents.

Parental Conflict

Conflict between parents, not just the event of parental separation or divorce, is a

key factor explaining why some children fare better than others when parental

relationship breakdown (Pryor and Roger, 2011; Coleman and Glenn, 2009).

Research over the last decade has provided deeper insight into not only the

outcomes for children of exposure to destructive conflict but also how children are

affected and why some children appear more vulnerable or resilient than others. In other

words, there is more of an understanding of ‘why, when, and how’ parental conflict

affects some but not all children (Cumming and Davies, 2010).

Until recently it could be argued that shared genes may explain this

‘intergenerational transmission’ of troubled ways of relating. However, innovatively

designed studies using samples of children and parents who are not genetically related

provide evidence that this is not the case. Rather, family environmental factors such as

inter-parental conflict and harsh parenting practices affect children’s psychological

development irrespective of whether parents and children are genetically related or not

(Harold et al., 2011).

Sulking or the ‘silent treatment’ (Ablow and Measelle, 2009); getting caught up in

highly intense or heated argument (Cummings and Davies, 2010)

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St. Alexius College
Integrated School Department
General Santos Drive, Koronadal, South Cotabato, Philippines

There is emerging evidence that children can learn behaviors that are helpful in

their relationship with others from observing parents handling conflict well, however

further research is required to confirm and expand our understanding of this (McCoy et

al., 2009).

In the longer term, romantic partners (Cui and Fincham, 2010).

Difficulties put pressure on the couple relationship, resulting in conflict, which in

turn undermines parenting and the parent-child relationship, leading to negative outcomes

for the children (Harold and Leve, 2013).

Conflict between parents affects children in two key ways. How children

understand, experience and respond to conflict between parents is also important, each

with implications for the parent-child relationship and, in turn, children’s development

(Cummings and Davies, 2010).

This may be explained by a number of factors, including failure to fully capture

the impact on younger children and the interplay age and developmental stage and how

that affects children’s responses to conflict. This may also mean that older children have

become more sensitive to conflict because they have been exposed to it for a longer

period of time compared to younger children. Children’s temperaments can also serve to

increase or reduce their vulnerability to inter-parental conflict. Children with a difficult

temperament are more vulnerable to the impact of conflict between parents (Whiteside-

Mansell, 2009).
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St. Alexius College
Integrated School Department
General Santos Drive, Koronadal, South Cotabato, Philippines

Biological factors, including specific genetic susceptibilities and early brain

development, may explain why some children are greater short- and long-term risk for

negative outcomes as a result of living with high levels of inter-parental conflict and

discord as well as the perpetuation of conflict-based behaviors across generations

(Intergenerational transmission; Harold et al., in press).

A children’s physiological makeup can also play an important role in

differentiating between children who are at greater risk of poor outcomes, for example,

some children’s nervous systems help them to regulate their feelings and responses to

conflict more effectively than other children (El Sheikh and Erath, 2011).

Interventions to support couples. A range of approaches to supporting parents

have been developed and assessed over recent years, though few have focused directly on

couple conflict alone. One approach is to support couples in developing their parenting

skills in order to prevent or minimize the ‘spillover’ of conflict into parenting. However,

programmes which deal with parenting alone are insufficient. Rather, parent education

programmes are more effective with parents in conflict if they include a couple

relationship component compared to those which deal only with parenting issues (Cowan

et al., 2011).

Such approaches may support couples already experiencing conflict. However,

programmes may also be targeted at new expectant parents. Decreased relationship

satisfaction (Mitnick et al., 2009). Interventions to support couples in transition to

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St. Alexius College
Integrated School Department
General Santos Drive, Koronadal, South Cotabato, Philippines

parenthood appear to have a positive impact on couple communication where they

include behavioral skills training (Pinquart and Teubert, 2010). Programmes that

specifically target couple conflict can help reduce destructive and increase constructive

conflict behaviors when they combine an information component and skills training

(Faircloth et al., 2011). Programmes designed to prevent couple relationship difficulties

emerging, such as marriage preparation courses, report some improvements in

relationship outcomes. However, the effect appears to diminish over time and couples

may need help in adopting relationship skills in everyday interactions, especially for

partners in deprive circumstances or experiencing more complex difficulties (Fawcett et

al., 2010).

Working with couples or even individuals at an early stage is likely to lead to

greater success in changing destructive conflict behavior and promoting effective

communication and conflict resolution (Dolan et al., 2010). Although the extent to which

programmes focus on conflict and the stage of intervention vary across programmes, a

common finding is that couple-based programmes, which includes a conflict component,

can improve aspects of the couple relationship (Faircloth et al. 2011).

The most effective programmes in improving couple communication and

relationship satisfaction, whether targeted at couples early in their relationship or later,

include a behavioural skills training element alongside information (Pinquart and

Tembert, 2010). However, few programmes assess whether there is also an impact on

children. Implications for practice Programmes need to be tailored to the different

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St. Alexius College
Integrated School Department
General Santos Drive, Koronadal, South Cotabato, Philippines

circumstances and requirements of different groups. Some couples and individuals may

benefit from programmes delivered in a group setting where they can share and learn

from others and normalize their experiences (Cowan et al., 2010). However, other

couples may prefer the greater flexibility, anonymity, and accessibility that self-directed,

on-line programmes can offer. Although recent evidence indicates that a web-based self-

directed version of relationship education can be as effective as traditional face-to-face

relationship education (Duncan et al., 2009).

Practitioners and those in regular contact with parents are in a prime position to

identify families either at risk of or struggling with conflict. In so practitioners can help to

raise awareness about the impact of conflict between parents on children. They are also

well placed to signpost parents to helpful sources of support or even deliver more

structured interventions themselves, Practitioners may also play a crucial role in

providing follow-up support to parents who have participated in a formal intervention

proramme, particularly where the programme was self-directed or web-based. Whatever

the nature of the support provided by practitioners, they are likely to benefit from training

in identifying signs of relationship distress, information on conflict and its impact on the

family, and in signposting parents to other forms of support. A few couples seek support

to help them deal with conflict (Coleman, 2011).

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St. Alexius College
Integrated School Department
General Santos Drive, Koronadal, South Cotabato, Philippines

Family Factors That Affects the Child in School

Behavioral Problems and Coping Strategies

Behavioral problems become a devastating dilemma among adolescents. Most of

them belong to a broken family or single-parent family. This family stress causes a lack

of parental support and guidance which results in adolescents’ emotional and behavioral

problems. These behaviors affect adolescents’ health, emotional, and social status. Most

of them exhibited poor self-esteem. Because of having low self-confidence, they are

having problems in socialization. Problem in making friends and keeping friends was a

common dilemma in terms of their social status. There are few adolescents cope

positively by engaging themselves in sports. On the other hand, some of them shared

their insights and gave their best pieces of advice to adolescents experiencing the same

situation. They uttered that adolescents must be optimistic. They have to express their

emotions in order for them to lessen their loneliness. Instead of dwelling to negative

people, they should engage themselves in sports or any organization that will help them

to discover their self-worth. Accepting reality and their situation will help them to free

from emotional distress. But the most important is to love their selves.

Family plays a crucial role in molding one’s personality, belief, and capability.

Everything about a man mostly relies on the state of the family he belonged. The way he

acts towards other people could be accounted to the people whom he often mingles with.

Living under the same roof might as well add to the reasons how dependent he is to his
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St. Alexius College
Integrated School Department
General Santos Drive, Koronadal, South Cotabato, Philippines

family. Even so, since every individual has this reliance on his family, any adversity

would definitely affect his whole- being. Such devastating matters regarding family

relationships like parent’s separation could give a severe impact on the people concerned,

the children (Eshica, 2010).

Nowadays, many are involved in a broken family. It is very usual for people to

think that teenagers doing such nasty acts are rooted in family disorientation. Even

countless studies show that child’s mislead life is blamed to separated parents. According

to Eschica (2010), children with separated parents do not perform well in school which is

a very terrifying incident because a school that is an institution for learning is failing to

deliver education. Thus, it merely becomes unproductive.

According to Soriano (2010), delinquency is part also of the behavioral problems

of teenagers. He stated that juvenile delinquency is a criminal or antisocial behavior of

children and youth. The causes of juvenile delinquency from most theories have focused

on children from disadvantaged families, ignoring the fact that children from affluent

homes also commit crimes. The latter may commit crimes because of the lack of

adequate parental control.

Also according to him, families have also experienced changes within the last 25

years. More families consist of one-parent households or two working parents;

consequently, children are likely to have less supervision at home than was common in
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St. Alexius College
Integrated School Department
General Santos Drive, Koronadal, South Cotabato, Philippines

the traditional family structure. This lack of parental supervision is thought to be an

influence on juvenile crime rates.

This support the previous statements, Social Development Theory by Weis,

Catalano, and Hawkins, states that teenagers are at risk for anti-social behavior. They

become aggressive and violent. Thus, at an early age, they are already involved in

criminal behavior. This is due to lack of parental attachment. Likewise, teenagers’ anti-

social behavior also depends on the quality of their attachments to parents and other

influential relations. If they remain unattached or develop attachments to deviant others,

their behavior may become deviant as well. The social development model suggests that

interaction with anti-social peers and adults promotes participation in delinquency and

substance abuse.

Coping Strategies
According to Smith, Martin M., Saklofske, Donald H., et.al (2016) certain coping

strategies alleviate stress and promote positive psychological outcomes, whereas others

exacerbate stress and promote negative psychological outcomes. However, the efficacy of

any given coping strategy may also depend on personal resiliency. This study examined

whether personal resiliency moderated the effects of task-oriented, avoidance-oriented,

and emotion-oriented coping strategies on measures of depression, anxiety, stress,

positive affect, negative affect, and satisfaction with life.

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St. Alexius College
Integrated School Department
General Santos Drive, Koronadal, South Cotabato, Philippines

Task-oriented coping is characterized by strategies in which individuals attempt to

reconceptualise or find solutions to the problem causing distress (e.g., action planning,

problem solving, positive reappraisal).

According to Ballesteros, D. & Whitlock, J.L. (2009) stress can be a result of both

positive and negative experiences, and it is a necessary part of our daily lives. From an

evolutionary standpoint stress was necessary for survival (i.e., imagine hunting large prey

on which one’s entire tribe is dependent) and some stress continues to be a helpful part of

our modern lives since it motivates us to accomplish tasks or make needed changes. We

all feel the pressure of our environment during times of transition.